337

CH ARMIES OF
E
UNDRED YEARS WAR

DAVID NICOLLE was bom In

1944, the son
th lIIu.1rator
Pat Nicolle. He worked In the
BBC Anlblc service betore
going 'back to school', gaining
n MA from th School
Orl ntal Studies nd a PhD
from Edinburgh Univer.llity.
He later taught world and
1lIIl,Imic art and architectural
hilltory at Yarmuk UnlveMllty,
Jordan, He has written a
number
books and ertlcle.
on medieval and llllamic
warfare, and hn been a
proll1lc contributor to the
Men-at-Arm aerles for many
yo Ml. He currently lives and
works In lelceateMlhlre.

0'

0'

0'

0'

ANGUS McBRIDE, one

the
world's moat respected
hlatoricalillustnitora, has
contributed to more then 70
Ollprey title. over the past
26 years. Born In 1931
Highland parents but
orphaned u a chfld, he
received a mUlllcal education
at Canterbury Cathedral Choir
School In 1940-46. He worked
In advertllling agencies 'rom
1947, and Is a selt-taught
artlst. After national service
In the Royal Fuslllera, 194951, In 1953 Angus emigrated
to South Africa. He retumed
to the UK In 1961, and has
worked freelance ever since.
With his wif and two children
he retumed to South Africa In
1978, since when he has lived
and worked In Cape Town.

0'

,.-. . puClIIIIleO .. 2OllO bV CIsprwy f'I.C:*I/Wlg.

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0.... Court. ~ w.y.~. Old"rd 0X2 lIlP

For Joey. ltIe smaJlesl oIlhe smalls - buI I doubt lor Ioog

,.. ngl'Q --...I. ~ !rom et'Pf tw ~ lor ItoI ~ of priwI. SltII:IY.

- . : ; I \ . c n l _ Of _ . _ ~ . . . . . ItoI ~ DeloogrlS-.:l

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p _ _ Act. !llllll. /'Ill I*l of

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FRENCH ARMIES OF
THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

1337-1453

was
Brass of William Wenemar, a
captain and magistrate of Gent,
first half of the 14th century. As
a senior militia officer of one of
the wealthiest cities In Europe
he would have the best available
military equipment; nevertheless,
this still has much In common
with that of the late 13th
century. (BIJlokemuseum, Gent)

during thi P ri d. h
SL rrom an incre ing-I

I
he lahli bmen in embl
fa perman nland prof'e"ion<ll
arm' 1 I Lhe end of th
lundr d Years War,

r n h

RECRUITMENT

Effigy of a lord of the ChlUeau de

Bramevaque, first half of the
14th century. He wears an
old-fashIoned style of armour
which persisted In the deep
south of France - see Plate A2.
(in situ Cloisters of the Abbey of
St Bertrand de Comminges;
author's photo)

Int41rior of the Porte 5t Michel at

Cahors, a typical example of
14th century urban fortification
In south-central France.
(Author's photograph)

Til arm \ hi h a ed an nglish inva i n of Fran

at th starl of the
lIndr dears
ar consisted of f udal onLin n
u'oops recnlit d
und I'
nlra t, and ror ign pro~ 'ion-l! all of" \Vh III \ er paid, h
f.'udal tru'lUr
r Fra
\ <' hanging hut Lhe kingdom till on:ist rl
faR,cldmin,fi
gr'a
uhi',
70unti
raldoz-n
i counti ' " and nUIllc:'rous other fj r.., \ ilh dif~ I'ing lill
ilhin Llli'
, 't'm wer hundred of rha,/f'llainie.
nsi 'Ling fa m ~or .3. tI witl iu;
Uri" lInding
mpa t t rrito ; and Lhousand
r less rsf'ignp'll'/-il's. a
result Fran e had up to 50,000 n ble familie -the nobles,f'or chev(deriellil ani a 'mall proporLion or Ul . e auld alTOI'd Lh' r Ic of rull
knighLho d. Lh maj riL r maining squir .
Thi. I robabl 1 ft Fran \iLh I tw n 2 350 and 4,000 fighLing III n
of knighLl rank. Man, 'quire' fought al ng id th s knigh\..S. but for
I IV pa, and it LOok man d cade Lor th m to a hie c a 'ornp'trabl
mililal I ,talll.. M 'am hil . the I r porLi n f knighLs from t1l wealth
upp r arisl ra ro-, 'md knighlh od o-racluall GlmC to be a' '0 ial d
\ ilh a h I' ditar CtSV 1, iming priviJag
u has ta 'xcmpLion,
he IIgh Fnnc'. till had a gen ralmilital ummon', th 1)(111 and Ih
arrih-p 1)(//1 whi h appli .d l) all mal ~ -u~j .. ' ag d fr 111 I l 60 ear"
lh . \ r virluall ' abandon 'd arl' in lh Hundr d Y, ar War, In l ad
th main fonn f feudal I' ruitmelll was th
("monee des obles dir Cl cl
at Lhos holding lir ,Iu an arrii!'reIJrm atn'P-. bataill.e\ hi 'h sm, 10 h:-. e
b n U' din m rg n i ',Knights all d up L1nd'r U1 'emu'Y/ade. Noble.
\ 'r' ,LIsa paid 'I dail \ ag ,imilar lO m n r WiL d LInd I'
nlracl.
h T ' inhntr w r
n ern 'ei llt servilw/l. debitu1II had virtuall
collap'ed b lhe lart fthe 141h c nlLlry nd all Lhal r m in d frural
I' cruitm I l wa
a r I'm of 10 al
rg anlr
n I . rl s rvi
rth I 5S, during a wid spr ad
lIap
flaw alld order Lhe
g) rnm I1l did issue all
ordnan
\. hi hallow d
p a ants l Lake up arm'
again't
brigand'
a
onsid rabl can' ssi n al
a lim when th o~ n
or
/mrl d finne, wa r gard d aa lhr at to Lh so ial rder,
Th militar I obligaLi n
of Lho
living in lown
r in .. -asingl
imporLanl.
ncl I
Ih ~
1 Lh
n Ut ' Fr nch t.owns
'ould Ii lei 'mall anni
of
infanu' and cavaJry 'ome
of Lh _ milici w r ba, d
Ip n h
il)"
ri h
h h vi. g i own aptain

Lra lili nal

Lh ir
w r
rrar

or
I'm

J'

The only surviving original statue

of a member of the Gent militia,
made around 1340, which once
decorated the famous Belfry.
These have now been replaced
by replicas. (Stonework Museum,
St Bavon's Church, Gent)

oth r
ligh

Men operating an esprlngal In a

Flemish manuscript made
between 1338 and 1344. This
siege engine, shown with a
wheeled 'rame carriage, was
powered by twisted skeins
horsehair, and shot massive
arrows - though not actually as
large as this picture suggests.
(Bodleian Library, Ms. B~d. 264,
'.201r, Oxford)

infant , aval and land lor cs from the rbcri-ln penin ula help d th
r n h during a Br LOn campaign of 1342 whiJ' fift n
aI", 1, l r
,had' f avanT S J I 22 men-'Ll-arm, and 1,120 in ["a III I' 111 JIb sea
ormand.

0'

f Fr n h
nni t wilh
parLi 'uhl'1

French king_ during the

Hundred Years War

Philip VI de Valois (1328-1350)

John II The Good (13501364)
Chat1es V The Wise (1364-1380)
Charles VI The Mad (1380-1422)
Charles VII The WellServed
(1422-1461)

Mu 'h 0 th heroi m of th knightly elite was, il fa t, 1'0 U

d n
llrflam n and qui li
a of arm' ralher than real battl . In 1369
ELl.tah Deschamps omplained lhm . oldit>rs de lroy flu' (ounlry Iln'o-ugh
pillage. all hOI/our i' TO/1e, lhe) lille 10 be ralled ens d 'armes bul lhe)' roam fhe
(0'111111)', tll'slro inK flW Ithing in lheir 7110,)', and till' l)oor pea/)I" are JOlTed 1o jler'
bf'joI"I'Ihem. If fh,' soldir'l" mr!nrl"'l' I Imvrillltref lfftgues in a day hi' Ihinks hi' 11m
dm/p 7111'11.' By the I, - of th Ilh
nt II' D champ \ a al
mplainin al Olll the knight. 'I ck r training, idlen ss, d .:ire ~ r go d

an I fin

\ in

kni hi d It n

10lh

S,

b fore lh

and lh fa l tInt bo' [l'n l IWclv' wcrc

had am d. Ll .h ral k on 11 balLl ~i -Id.

Hired companies

In general, those m n direcli in

kam r
r~l ti'at t ltilud l war , \ arfar . Man
of arm. ' wil h \~<lrious col1ea~ue.. Th s' 'ollld b ontra 'L" f' rvi
r f
1l111l11al Sllpp m, ciLl r r. I' 'I 'p> ifie I p iod or r; I' lif"
nd' m 'Lim
in luded agr '('menl In shar> bOlh in[or-Illation and profit.s from ran. ms.
venti BrOLherhOtld' mighl cst<i1 Ii 'h lIiall'" or hain' or )1 ligation,
.0111 Lirn . resulLing in milit<1
rom/)flgnie. . mulin '\ ill) a orporale name
ano badl-{c.
Such comp::lIli 'S or roulp..~ mightlh n b> recruiled b lRares de'l'elenue b
which th ' king or hi, Ii 'uten'UIl 'I' Lain d"~ aplain with a p ified onling-'nl in r 'llll'll (1)1' 'I 'p~ 'j(j sum f mon . BUl in a Lim limil \ as
r I' I llll'nliOIl d ill the 'C 'onlra l.~, th
nmpanies were generall I'
10
go elsewhere aJlcr as liltle a<; lwe months's rvi e. This mad il dim ull r; r
l

A 19th century facsimile of a

lost wall painting from the
Leugemeete In Gent. These
Illustrate units of the city's
militia, here armed with
crossbows, ordinary bows,
swords, and a pointed form of
mace or club called a

goedendsg. Note the unifonn

appearance of the clothing of
this company. (Photo Studio
Claerhout, Gent)

Archers with longbows In a

Flemish manuscript of 1338-44;
note the arrows carried In their
belts. The bowmen of England
were by no means the only ones
to use longbows, but In most
parts of westem Europe archery
was practised more for hunting
than warfare. (Romance of
Alexander, Bodleian Library, Ms,
Bod. 264, Oxford)

the rown to maintain cnlllrol, lo 'nsure lhm ommand 'rs k'i ltheir COI11pani s up LO str >llh'1h and ad -qual I eqllipp d, (I' 'v n lhal th > pa~ sed
on III pa! to lheir m'l1.
During- the s con I 1,.lIr or th [4Lh' nLlI
til cr )wn also enli 't d
smaller cornpaniC',. so 111 ,
hi h \ cr' lillie hell'r LInn hanos
(uLlaw', 11 cxampl nm' have be: n Lh> 'ontraCl \ ilh Lon'nl .ollpe;orge (' :Ul-ll roal. I ,a 1'1" .) 'Ill I hi. live 'quire., This ralh 'r hllphaz'\rd
: Sl III
'olllra lual I' rUilllll'1ll C nLinu d weI! illl lhe [51h C 'null ,
thou 11 llie crown \ a al'o It:mandin o ' I' 'laLive! sm'",1! and proper!'
equipped ~-udal' (ntillg' I'll'; rr 1ll:1 t d lO\ n '.
mOllgo lh lor i n Lroops, C'IIO "
1'0, sbowm n slil! r allireel
prominenLl' <Ind th ir ommancl r in Iud >d 111 n or 'on'id nbl
cXlprience. For "<11111 I', onnrt .rimaldi had' rved ill [lal bel"or>
signing til \ ith Lh ' Fr 'J h bet\ ccn J. 70 and 1395: d I. d' nS'IJ'l wa a
sqllire l"rom 'th' l'rrilOI' I' C'lIoa' and b "U11-' a ('on'lab!p of 19
mOllnl-d ro sbowm'n, 1'h
ro.b wmen them' I e. cam l"rom '\11
'v n \ ider ar a, and n l n I , Ita I . uch m n 'oulrl fi nel Lhem' Iv
I 'n in llnlikd plae': and th yw l' prohabl amongslLll- OOcros,bowmen lak n b' elmiral d Vi nn LU 'uLland in 13
th I' for 'igon troop, in "Iud 'el paniard and, more" llrpli ing a hancHi.t1

or \

or

or

'The Order of the Star at Table',

In a late 14th century French
manuscript, The Order of the
Star was founded at almost the
sama time as the English Order
of the Garter, but did not survive
long - most of Its members were
killed In the early battles of the
Hundred Years War. (Grandes
Chron/qu9s da France,
Blbllotheque Nationale, Ms. Fr.
2813,1.394, Paris)

r uslim' from <lVaIT',

Am ng"
th' lall'r \ as
fbnhim
a' a wh , in til '
lat 14Lh enLUl, 'pent 'i
ars . , a Ro aJ bla 'ksn iUl
in LI e < 'u
l"'h rb urg.
P rhaps he aniv d with th
avan-' arm which had
campaigned in BJiuan .

The consequences
of failure
I e Ii a l rs whi'h ran
'ulTer-d after the I aul
I'
gin ourL ha I a pr ~ lun I
impa't on it.
mililar
t m', In th
"I orl term

11ll? I 'c1 LO ev n more critici'm of a kni.,.hll

ltL~S whi h had fail d lh
countr : CommCnlal r. lik AI"li, Charti r
n dOll! l c1 lh
alu of
hivalr)' il Tlf. In hi. '/17'1' oj /3011/1'5 Honor" B n 'l . imilarl
omplain d
lhm the knig-ht.'1 r g< rei c1 war IT\ or ,] as a mans ,f winning walth.
:0111 arabic
r-i ici. In wer~ .( nlain d in Jan d B I il'. manual ,(
kni~1 h
cI lllt.:d tP.!frt/v(>77ral, wriu n in the mi 1-1 h 'lIlur-. Thi' wa'
bas 'n on hi. 0\ 11 xpcricllcc an 1\ '1. modern in iD mph 'i on miliLaI
professiol1ali'n abo e all othcr con ideralion..
nl ele.. k, ighlhood
rcwin'd its In ti'lu, though the men-al-amlS ma 110\ ha
in Iud cI
lllor sCJllire. lhan knig-hL'i.
,c cmlleader' or I~lh emu
companies - prurr/wurs or 'scor hcr, , a.'i
lh',\ r 11 woft-nknnwn,inrc1"r n'toth
IT tortll'irps.ag ~lll
tll'lorlllrl"'d oUnLry'ide - \ r. f r lali 1, hllmbl orig-in'. Ther- w r
also m'H sil11ilariti" b,tw n til . ecorrhpw'S\ h au' >d u h \ id spr I
suflc\"illg in mid-I. lh enLul. Fr<lnce 'md th . tTouhlesom
omp'lIlies of
the mid-14th
nllll. Th 1"(; sc'm t ha
l ' n thr
.ons or Icuple
involv 0: unempl cd s Ieli r - illuding- Englishmen - wh were a
mel ., . , to 'v 'ryone; brigand. ha, 0 ill LII . forests ~ ho tend d to rob all
and 'unch ; and group' of peasants \ ho 0 'casionall '.joined lhe brigan Is.
Th ir 'leti, 'Li '. were prompted h the s'~mc la 'k of milit..'1I)' empla m 'nl
an I a I r 'akdown in I w-allclord'r. he l1lain c1incrcnc , fr III lhe 14lh
c('null I \ ere lhattll emrdwurs nl' er h d Crusades launch d a1',rainstlh 'm,
'md mall or lh'ir 1 adrs w r
-Ro al amman I r. who w'r
Sllh. C1'I nlly rl'il1l'grat~ I into lhl' Fr n Il mililaf . stem,
F'udal re ruilmcnt mighl ha e disappeared for -(\ aIr but il
persist>d ror inranlry. In at King Chari sUr vi d ~ udal r' ruiUTl-'nl
in an, g-ui'l' to ereme a larg- and r liabl inlanlr fore und rRo al
conlrol, Innsf< !'mjng the 1<1 urban 1 vi . inl th new franc aTcher.', In
I '( and agaill in 1451 .harl i u d ordnan to lh
rr, I.lhat
50 hou' 'hold' hould provid an archer and a
er ., b wman, sel ned b Lh 10 al authoritie
rrom In 'll or g-oo I reputation, clrecti , militar
al?; r bu't ph i(ju
net skill, ilh w'al 11.
Motivation
uld b mix d, mo t U'()()P" still
Ii hling larg I ror pOl or the hope of boot', while
ran 'om r rnained a m.~or m tiv and a maj l'
"'<11' m ng'l th ir I al r. rn fa t a u'ad
d I p eI in whi 'h middl -m n b ught and s Id
p\ison rs along wilh the ri hts to thcil- ran oms.
am lim
!.hi \ a, don individually_ al alh l'
1m almo.l in bulk' for in tan e th FI rcntine
m 'r ham Jol n Vitt r
peciali 'cd ill su h
hrokrag .. and in 1 17 I ur has d alar' numb r
fEnglish apliv. from lh
hbish I ol'Rou n .
. pit Ih Engli h 0 lIpali 11 f half lh
ulInl , ~ Ir jan troop' 'ould till b round it
rellch annie, ev n amongst tl
f 11 w'rs or
J' nn' I' r harm' hied fr m'ull against
th 'nglish
11 t d a trang mixtur t1flig-htingm'll along- the \ a, in [udin
a omingclll
commanded b the cotsman Hugh de 1 enned
an I Italians und r Barlh lern' Bar 'tLa.
0

This late 14th century Image

reminds us of the huge
quantities of arms, armour and
munitions which were
manufactured for the competing
armies; documentary evidence
shows that this was often on an
almost modern production-line
scale. Note also the separatedleg hose worn rolled down to the
knee by the soldier on the right.
(ehron/ques de Sf Denis, British
Library, Ms. Roy. 20, C.VlI.
London)

Th I' J pi
d b a'p pulaI' I' 'i,tan
agdinsl n Li'h rule in
onn. nd i. still a malt. r or d bat. Yet there wa undoubtedl
wid pI' ad anla oni m t th -ngli h 0 upaLion I' n cted in a popular
son whi'h soun I d lik a huma lroU' 'all to ann: 'Among au, people ~I
lhe villa f:, who love lhe French "ing, lake good hew"[ [0 fighl the J!.'nglish. Let
erzrh talle his hop Ihe bellpr 10 uproot them. nd if they do nol wish [0 go, al "Ylst
make afacp allhem. Do not fear to 'tril((: Ihem, Ihosp big bellied od-Damn Jor
line of liS is worth fOlLr of Ihell1, 01' al (.,asl he is worth Ihret' of thern. '

ORGANISATION

Tristan slays a rival in part of The

Story of TrIstan and Iseult on a
series of mld- to late 14th
century southern French wall
paintings. Note the 'fan' crests both men and horses have the
old-fashioned mllltary equipment
which seems to have persisted In
Isolated regions of France such
as the Auvergne. At right centre,
the colour contrast shows clearly
the straps and padded leather
squab on the Inside surface of
the shield. (In sItu Templer
Chapel of the Castle, 5t Floret;
author's photo)

10

in th

I lh

I'd I' of the Lar, a'

ular

onLinu d to 'lllnm 11 bar n' and

him, whil the
en gr at
king'. C07l.l'eil Serret - to \ hi h
J sser nobl s w I' invited
when I' quir d, In purel
militar t I'm, th
rna t
s nior ofic r \ as th
onstabl of Fran e, who
ommanel d in th king'
ab' n
nel
Is
up 1'i I
and
U', but
had to
unt for all hi
a tion to the king' Irks.
Th
ar hal' main due
wac (0 mail1lain dis iplin
and
nsur~
suffi -j ~nt
miliLar suppli s
n
h major 'ampai'Tll ,
Th . ind ntur'eI milila
'ompani
oft n had th ir
wn nam
su h as til
'ornjwgnie de to Forl7mp.

(;OIll/JllglI;r ii" /\//I,rgo/,' and (;mnpflgnil' Blflnrl/f'.

ir
L
ici nlif II 'Ill mer ,I ' a.<; Eng-Ii h, Br L n
I' whal
ul
n hi cOll1ll1anc!l:rs II' rc som 'UI1lC:s 'allcd 'h adl
r
parlicuhrl, feared a: I eing llLside L.h 'n rmal stru I II'
Captain
\lrtl'ln mililia w rc appointcd b th
i or tm n; L\ 0 r
thr e \ ould norlll:1lly accoml al ' Ih militia n campaigl . Wh
militia caplain' lcndc:d tu b ' paid annuall mcml ers of lh ' nobili
auendcd IllllSIL'r \ I' paid by tI e mar heds ac r ling to h w man la
th'Y served. lilila, e'p ndiLUre coull 1 arl Ie 'UIl id 'nlbl " and al
til' start or lh ' Hun lt~ d Y ar' "'ar lh king' holel or p 'I' ( nal reLinue
alone co< l 30,000 iiI If'S loal'llois.
King' Jolin's I' ,form: larg -I r: it el, but th' rcmained the ba.<;is of
mol" . u .(' 'ssrt II crrol"1s b his su Ct:'. SI rs, In 137 a Ru a1 ordnan'
eSletblishcri s()n1C'thing akir In et
nlral milil"lr "laft, enabling th
Royal CUllSl'lbl' l) 'lppuinl Col Ii III nant an I the Royal far 11'11' to
appoinl fOllr Ii Ul nl2l l le I' i \
lllll.-ler d, The ani
lruops nOl liabl r>r such in p
h lI' h I I- I' Lh
Con,lable and the hst'r uf Lh
.rossbowm n - L.h laLLer being In
efl" CI command 'I' or all Fr n h in ran t r ,
Ikl callI tllcsL' S 'llior onit' 'r.' '<tcll aptain fa
tnp n ha I a R al
IcLter ofaullloril . an I would, III 'or 'U 'all, ommancllOO m 11. Caplain'
wcre ah) respl nsihlc for bringing lh 'ir m 'n t mw t r al d a
until g
ror lheir COil lu'1.
I I11ll 1'1' '(i h man, hi.. kit and hi' h I'
W r
rder would a man b paid and
illsl ectecl: ()Ill, if lhe't' were in
'I' tained'.
ea e was nl gr;tnl I [, r good r ,'\sun , bUl a man could
not Iw replac ,tt tlltle.'s dismi 's 'd b his aplain,. IIlnmon eI elir L1! illlO
lhe king's scrvi . >1' was
wounrlf'd or ,ick. Pa 11) III
was mad
lhrough L1
rlul/lllm's or suhdivisions or
a ('Iwi/Jaglii/' or 1"01/11', Ih >
Gil taill r'c 'i\'ill!{ 1110l1C
for his UWIl immediale
hOllSt'hold \ hil
lhe r Sl
wt'nl slraight to his mell.
:u'h an arm was, or
'ours.. \' ' r ' x p 'l1siv ';
HI ill 137!) and 1384 Col
violent re'lction againsl
the Ill' 'ssal' tax's meanl
that this IlL'W struclure
\ <IS abandoncr!
ror man
year.. In l'-\ I th
nlir
S 'Sl 'm
had ollaps 'el b
j-117-IH, by whi h tim
the Engli ~h were 0 crrunning grccll ,wath -s of'
Fr, nc(', Frt'lich Illililar
organisatioll at lht: lime
of'
in (un \Va. tl c r~licall)' lh ' samC' as il had
been during lh, milil'lIill

or

Archers and men-at-arms

attacking a castle In a mid- to
late 14th century French
manuscript. The archers are
relatively well armoured while
the men-at-arms have visored
bascinets. (Chroniques de St
Denis, British library, Ms. Roy.
20, C.VII, f.13v, London)

,II

11

'c 'ssrul c1' 'a I... or th' lal r 1 lh

IllUl',
J1l1i
'Oil I ani ''i IT Tuil d h' {('/frl', de 1'I'II'/I/1f'. 'upp n >d
I rll~ 's'ional eros. how-;lm1l'd inf:ml , and b I militia uni
LOwns, Lo 'al inhntrv also t n I I l 110 k LU LI
I UI' l
own I' ~i( 11, leam hile parall I 11 ilit;'}I' lilt lIlr" had
aULOllllnHlllS dllchies SII 'il as Bdll.an 'an I Burg 1Il0 ,

SU

d
r
b
'imil' rJ
rrom. I t cI
pI' l' 'I lh 'ir
d' 'Iop
111

Symbols and livery

11
King ,lulln's icl','
\Vil i h was IIOl r{'vi\' 'd
\\~I lhat
Sl' ular Illilital I

or

or

ord

'I.

~L';

a f'ocus or !ovall ,

His ,lIcn'ssor Charles \

ha IlilLl . il1ll'n:'il in 'hi'",Itr ,
while Charll''i VI dev>1 >p >d
(th rill thods of' cem 'nti nl'{
10 ,dty. l\kanwhik IIwre wa.
a slow 11l0\'('1ll 'nl to, ard,
SOIlW

limn or 'nalional'

miliulI: insignia. t th' start

the HUll Ired ("II'S War
in ...ignia \ ' r ' still slri'L1'
r'lIdal; hill only a ('<.'\
y '11" lat'r .Jean.
Umlt'
d':\rma~nac (riel' d 'dl
nohll's and th 'ir ()lIm en. t
wcar a while (TO:S on Ih'ir
loth '"
hi' while en ,s w"s
'\g,lil1 111 'Illion '(\ I'll 'J' in th '
14L11 'nlUI '. '\11 I \ <I' W rn
I y Fr 'neil Ro 'ali'l rur"s
against th Hurgllndian' in
(11+, It "IPl'an'd I.'V'II
111 >n. refJlI '1111' b, th
mi 1I!)lh e nlllr, wh 'n il Wcl.

or

onLra,lC I \ ith Ih
I' d
ern s I' Lil' En rli hand th

or

bla'k TO'S
lh' Br'l n.
In the I. 70s Ih' longestabl ish'd CIll bl 'Ill
Lhe
Frt'II'il R) al 1~\l11il. til'

or

cL'i r du d \
L1lr" 11m t'l: (th' ',m," ur
'Fran Illod L' III , in, lead
lh(' I reviou,
II ring >1'
man a ross a sh i .\ I or

Jlnll, '-f{r-{y.\. \

or

1)'1 n n 'r.
t\nolh

'J' V'I ' irnl >rlal11

cnsign was lhe fJl'f/lflIllIlU'. a
phin blood-red b<lnl1 'I'

12

wilich s'l'\'cd as Lh 'llmosl

ur Franc' it. elf,

.acr 'c\ nag

ABOVE LEFT Early 14th century

French sword (Daehnhardt Coli.)
ABOVE 14th century French
knife (Hermitage Museum, St
Petersburg)
LEFT Mid-15th century Italian
sword (Sullivan Coli.)

It as kell, LOg-elhel' with R 'al bann'rs, in R im athcc1ral, and wa

lIsed ani, in d 'G'nc of Ih king-dom, th ' Chllr 'h or the hri tit n r; iLh,
LII l~ sorL~ of idelllificmion in Iud d ,20 bla 'k p 'nnons h ;;II-ing
the word jus/in> in silver r gold, di lrib IL 0 h the Daupl in har! 1
his men during- a .i\~1 \ ar again I the Duke of Burgund I in 14J l. lh r
banners II.\..' II V th~ Dauphin's I" Jrces i. ludcd a na r baring a d II hin,
anOlhcr Iwal'illg" a I"ull>, anna II' d 1 Ii h >1 killing a ,erp nt, and a
third wilh <In annoure I sainl holding a naked sword,
, 'eI 110 'Ilnil" nn, ' c 'isled, Ollllh Ro II court mao in rasing us
(r Ii, lin 'Ii (' 'Inlhil g for sp ifi gr up 01" ser an~ r r I.aio 'r" F r
'x<lm I', lh . s 'I'!'{ealll," at arms >ft n w r I lu > ano bla k durin r th
reign 0(" Charll's ,I n I. 2 ,hal'l s I iIIln <lu ' '0 a n \
tem to creal
a SlJns' 01" cOlllradJship amongsl his I'll \ 'r', v r m mbJr of tho
COIII/JflJfllif dll Noy I'rOIll lit' king down 1 tI hUlIlbl'sl ervant, in luding
",omen, had 10 ell' 'S: in I arti 'ular oswn s, colours and d vi ',with
lh~ king- and his councillor' de 'iding" 'll \ hal point ill ';.I. -h
<lr these
livcl'ks \ ould chang ,
Most liver' devi' s r n 1 d th
importanL such ba Ige' in Iud 'd Ihe \ ing I
VI
bcr >r' I:~ H, and 111(' gnu'sip (broom
~hrlllous('tlCS hn ion \.()w(\rcls lhe
nd
~Ilal'le!; \ II.
he baclg's \ orll b, ( relit al r tain rs IV 're of b .
\ hel'C'ls Ihosl' \ om b' s('ni >r m '11 \ '1'1..' U '(Iall 0
r or
l-{old,
Be 'oncl
Oll rt.
ci I' 1 S
COSllll1W and hadges w 'IT
also llsed 10 shO\ all
gi';lIH.'e, For ~xamplc, in
Pari, in I: 75 Illan I pcople
adopt<, I hoo Is ha Iv('c! r 0
'llIe1 bill' as a mark of allegiallce 10 [licllll' Marc I,
poJi I i ,,,I It:arkr cll'lll<mcli IIg
widl'spn:a I re!"l rill, In 14 I I
all >ther Pari 'ian grOt'! ,I.h
Cabo hi 'nS' adopl 'c1 blue
hal.. and tWO I ,.n. hl'r
lh 'ir rivals LOok I IV 'aring
white hal', At oth I' lim

French soldiers killing Jaquerie

rebels. The latter are shown In
middle-class costume rather
than as poverty-stricken
peasants. The soldiers are also
well equipped, wearing a variety
of helmets Including one covered
In scales. (Chroniques de Sf
Denis, British Library, Ms. Roy,
20, C.VII, f.133, London)

J_

Lho, (' s mpaLhelic 1lI lhe

Blirgull litll1 laclion W IT

th ir ('On/dips raps I 1I1l d
to Lh' right. lh' pro!\rl1lagnac. 10 Ih<: left.
Pil ancial w akl s. wa
I h'

Fr

Illaj I
11

n"ISOI1

'I'm

\Vh>, lhe
auld

1101

~II her

SII fliciclIl /{)rces 10

resisl Lll' English (clilowing
lhe
til Ie 01'
gin oun,
'illlilarlv Lll' lr 'al. \ hi h
reconciled King ;h;trls

13

VII and Ih 'Duk BUI'g'und in I 3. m am Ih, I

th
I' wn
uld on
g,in gIll 'r lh Inillp
La
s. r build an f~ ti
ann, and Lam lh
lrouble orne l'cmrheurs.
J

Charles VII's reforms

Fin Il ,01 !') J nil ry 1 45, lh
I' alion of th-'
Ro al rompagnip d'ordonnanff's wa announc d,
Th I' - would 1 1 of lh s
a h of 100 lances'
ea h Ian e on i'l d of six m n (a ,m.ln-at-arnUi,
hi, w I' l-b arer pag , two arch 1', <lnd a vrlrle.lor
militar 'clV'al1l), Th '" n'w for e' weI' in aeLion
againsl Engli, h-h Id 'a 'n in I "wher th
Ro al ol1lil g n al 11 in lud'd 11,700 men-al-

ums and 0,000 franrs orrhen,

he infanlI, frani'. ari'heJ:S w re eSlablish d
al"ter the caval, mmll(lgnie. r/'nrrlnnnrt?1.re and Ul ir
'LruClur' " as simpl r.
n \ 're expe ted to liv
al horn" \\I r in. p I d I' 'gular! , and pra Li I
ar 'h 'r
. er 1 r ligi u r (\ I da. Th ' \
sUPI as 'd to have suitabl armour but if lh w I'
I () poor lhi
uld b ,lll plied b lh ir p''lri h,
n aeLiv-'
rvic' th
\\I re paid four fran s a
month alld w 'I"
, 'empt l'r m lh' laillp lax,
N v rlh Iss, lh I' \ ' r ' D'W I' I'han R.OOO 'U h
francs au.-Jzers during Lhe rei '"n of Inri"
II,
mig'hl b
p t d. 1 ann '" '1nd even
OS(lll1l s W 'IT similar!' me d rni' d.
Ithough Ih 'fr ar hers' had no
ulliform 'I' 'U h. Lh ar h rs fth R al Guard in 14 9 \' re dres >d in
blu " \ hil' tlncl red, or gr n, while and rcd, Thal ear 'had's \ I
'nl 'r'c1 R II n in triumph, a ol1lpanied b 1 Lile 600 111' n r his 0\ n
'!Jalu .' or cavalr unil each havinO' a' ar WiUl a p nn n of r d salin
Wilh a g' Id Ull,
o

'The Militia of Paris', In a late

14th century French manuscript..
The Infantry levy has been given
an almost uniform appearance
which was to some extent true much of their equipment was
provided by the city, purchased
In bulk from manufacturers.
IGrandes ehron/ques de France.
Blblioth quo Nationale, Ms. Fr.
2813, Paris)

ARMOUR & WEAPONS

I'm ur in Fr n
wa." I'" val-id Lhan in
nnan , Larg
amounts of mail raUl'r LInn plale w r
lh' 13 0 and
n ' -q I I LI 111 I'll r Lh ' Fr nth a all
hav' b' n highl uln r. I l ; ngli. h an \ .
knight'; had al undant. quipl11 nL h will f B rtran I d' MonLibus. a
ren h knighl in 1327, in Iud d Ii
armours a mnnrhp rtf' fer arm
pI' l t.i n. fiv warhor. sand fi ur I-iding hoI" ", in I aI', laL I' lhe
cCJlIipl11Cll1 "P L d ofa 111 ul1l'd .1 al in Hainault . Fr 'nch-sp aking
pruvit c jll'l all the Imperial 'id _. of til fronLi r, wa a mail haubf'rh I'
'IInll or ltaubergeo1l, mail rlUlus l'sfol' Lil I'gs. pIllS a mail CO!for bm-biemf'or
lh n k and mail gallnu
n im I' . inO' , l I
ril ing LI armil g
a knighl 'lIorLl b for'
II 'l-Junrlr'r1
aI', VIaI' would prol ahl' slill ha
appli d La 1I1'1n
I' 'n 'hm 'n, Th knighl began b pULling a shirt ov r hi br c he:' and
combing IIi - hair; lhen pUlling on lalher 'ho" and ho . Th fir l

or

14

pi .. of armour \ t:r Ihigh and kn 'pr H li n

fir n or hard n d
I ather. fi Illow cl b '1 padd I allelOllja k l, mail hauberk and mail w{f.
e 't calll a' oat-of-plates' a defenc mad of, eral hUH d plat
atlach d (0 'I pc n h -lik' l" I ri gann >01. ann g01lS'rps I' thr at
d fen "s' a :ur
l eli 'pla ring hi,
at f-anns; whal bon"
auml
\ I'd b 'It, word. a e and dagg r. I.a tl h' d nn d
h a ' h 1m or
lighler ba:cillel. hi I Is \ ere. huw 'vcr, now rar I carri rl il war.
Th arm. and armour of' rdinar part-Lim urban I ilitian en Oltld
1
r v<lri'd Illalil l, . m Lim '. b in
v rdJ g n raU n
(d, whil
impl il '111' like small bu kl'r 'hi lei fwillow or IliaI' w r prohabl'
mad locall I. Crossbo\ III n t 'nd d In w ar m I' armour than Ion b W111 n, Lheir main role b jng in ,ie e \ ariaI'. For exampl', he full
quipmclll issued to '1 rossbowman nam elJ r'ln u. n 1a Ih> I s d
Gal' c in R II '11 ill I ~40 . n'j 'l d uf a al- J~plat '. a ror el p rh'lp_ f
mail lO wcar I cI 1\ th' plat s. bras nt' jJlale or hi' arms and a gorgiftrP titl
IJlfllt' for h is neck,
Th ,los de 'al'
in Rou n mal ul'a ltll' >d (Is/win ral 'jeg
ngin
ann and armOllr 'IS w>1I as 'hip'. but th I .1 Tosshows C'm from
Toulouse in th south. B the, Lart of Lhe IlIndr'd Y 'ars War 1'oulou
also ll1anlll"a lllr'd silk-covcrt>d an I plain Cjuill d tollp. gambols'; plat
armollr for m>n 'HI 1 hoI'S s ha' in IS, h 1m brimmed h 1m - call 'd
rhapPflux dl' '/0/1 III u!Jn11, g,1I11111 IS and 'IS.'Orl d hi ld (pi in \ hiv or
read pailll d wilh lh' ann of Fran c), Am ng L less omm n item
\ ere tOlI'/PfllI.Y dagg rs, Ian s, drt'l'ds ja 'lin" Iwtht'S norroise. (knowll in
Englan I as [ allish a c.) '1'0, b \VS, gnmJ('s for spanning r "bO\ Spill.
huge Cjuallliti 'S 01" cro:sh \ haiL>; ddivcr'c1 in iron-b und It 'l', The
lit"l I'ar I' '~'n'n t' to Lh . pro fin
I' t 'Ling
I' armuur in Fran e is
fOllnrlin anothcr dOCllllH: III fr lin ROll n daLed 1340,
The pressures (f' \. al' ma have a
LlIlld for
olht.r Sl II'S
arl1l( lIr in lh
inv nL r' I' Ih, ..I)
in ludin the am,lS OWl' d jJlnlfiS rip Chll's ('of , n a'
'l I"), vass/m'ls dfl r;h/{~\. and
'allvas-co c r'd Korgih7's dp
JI'I' m nLi( n d in 13'17.
leam hil
Lhe
!lauverl,
generall In-I it, inlegral
mill n ''lnd oi whil "
sl cVe' and h '111 were OIl
rduc d ul1lil it b m
a 'mall'r hnubnf!:eon. Th
al.-o(~pl( te.
had al I' d,
t'volv 'd, proh bl f'rom an
carli >,. Ip,lIh T tllirip., and I
lhe III id-l..J Lh
l1l.1I I'
lh
old girdle-like t p' ma
all' ad hav' I Tn r gard d
as 01 1-(~lShiOl ed - although
'I Fn:n h IOC-lImcnl of I, ~7
did IllClI Lioll a 'oal-o/:phlCS
1'1 king ilS IIsual fabric
vering"<tncllwillg aU h'd
to a leaLher I acki I g.

or

or

The Horsemen of the Apocalypse

on a French tapestry made
between 1375 and 1390. All
except one figure - who Is shown
as a stylised Oriental - are given
normal French arms and armour
of the period. The foreground
rider clearly wears a mall
haubergeon over his cuirass or
brlgandlne, with plate limb
defences; note also his shield cf.Plate A3. (Castle Museum,
Angers)

15

The ba"le of Auray (1364), like

so many of the later clashes of
the 14th century, was largely
fought by heavily armoured
knights and squires. Here
Bertrand du Guesclin (centre
left) - who was captured at
Auray by Sir John Chandos - is
depicted wearing a tabard
bearing his coat-of-arms, but
both armies fight beneath the
banner of Brittany In what was,
in effect, a civil war. (Du Guesclln
Chronicles, Bibllotheque
Natlonale, Paris)

OPPOSITE 'Bertrand du Guesclln

appointed Constable of France',
In an early 15th century French
manuscript, King Charles V gives
a hand-and-a-half sword to
France's toughest and most
successful soldier In 1370,
making him commander of all
French forces under the king
himself. Du Guesclin (1323-80)
survived many ba"les against
English, French, Breton,

II

Navarrese and Castilian armies,

and was captured and ransomed
several times. It was he who
presided over the patient
campaign of containment and
siege warfare which so
weakened the English position In
France in the 1370s, and he also
laid some of the foundations for
French military reforms. The
artist depicts him here 'warts

16

1\ III . app 'ar-m

o Hun wa' til . aoopli n
tI
'arli 'r nm illg rob "
(r narcd I IJ S, pufli'd

and all' - his equ Ily unsparing

tomb effigy shows that his looks
did not match his prowess.
(British Library, Ms. Sloane
2433A, f.2.20v, London)

 h ul Iers and, ad I -r! h 5 ; whil eV'n bell'i, il 'hiding sw rd

-Its.
Caille 10 I t' wom 10\ 011 lh hips in a fa hion pr viou. I 5S iaL d \ iLh
(ellnle CO"llimc.
miliLar v r i n r the padderljnponja k l wa al
\ on over ,lnll011 r. he I arrow \' ai, I whi h I ara t rio d nn UI" S I 'h
'L the brigandine, ;aqul' and plate uira s reflecLed su h ivilian fashion
thL 'wa. p' ",ai.'L rCl11ainin~ a f, alllr
I' ann ur lhrough LIt II 15lh
'l'llIlI

ry,

Ihe c nd hall' or Ihl' l<llh 'cnllll I rh

armour IWl'<II11e larger 'Ill I fl'\' c.:r unLil, I I c.1 0 lh' great p riod
'whil ann( Ill" ha I b' n r a hd. Thi. Lerm indicaLCd LhaL il wa mad
entirel 'or iron plate', LI ough lh 'n d n L n "sari I I hav' be n w rl1
uncovered, The be L complet while harne s' had La b made LO lhe
measur men .. >1' nc panicular in ii\'i lual alld . ult! rar>1 be worn I
I

urin~

17

0'

'Charlemagne finds the body

Roland', In an early 15th century
Frenoh manuscript, Here the
heroic Roland Is shown as a
French knight with the most
up-to-date armour, Including the
new rounded visor and a bevor
plate attached to his bascinet.
(Chronlques de Sf Denis, louvre
Museum, Paris)

18

an 'on
Is, Th b 'st arm ur \ er probabl l import d rrom Ital and
Italian arm ur al inf1uen cd Lhal mad iI ran
Ii was nOI the \ cig-ht )1' rull pl:'\le armour' \ hich au I pr hi m n
'lI'h '\1\ an lOur w igh d ab lit h
m' as a
th ' batLI Ii Id. in
11I d'm inrantr mall" equipmenl and pack, Th . rcal pr blcm w r
hC'lt e. haustion and limited vi'ibilit \\Ih 'n th vi r \\Ia \\I rn II s~d, A
list or a 01111' 'te hama;s a firmer fwmme \ ritt 11 in I, R in lu I 'd a larg ,
lon~ ancl 'slim iCnl' role de (1'1' banTU' w ighing at I a t 25 pound, goud
fit/rill I-bra. 'md ganlelpis I' r Lh ann' and hand, th fuJI' l o. ling 16
livrr lounlOi,I', In addiLi n h sh uld hav g
I al I 'w 'II 'um 'i I t' !Jairt>,1
dl' !lOI'r/OlJ dpjalllb .. r, r hi,. I g. a h with mail pr le ti n atth b'lck, at
Y:: Iii IP,I 10 It I'll ois a pai r. 10ther do um or add a b . -in' al el visor wi I h
aml//(/;I'lv'lltail) inth I \ fa'hi n' u hla, in t$cotinK2lO~livr(J,
IOllrl/o; . Tlli made a L< tal c t 1':'5 livres lourl/o;',
ull 'Inn ur Ind chang d slighLl b lll' I 1 , \\Ih n :harl ' Duke or
rl ~an:. di. tribUl' lighl'r 'CJllipm 'nt La hi' m n-at-arm, and squire.:
basr;I/I'I.\ it /)rlTJ;i>rp \ hi h \\I'r pI' babl
t I a in IS' wilh il t g-ral
h '\lors, piece~ d allemagne \ hi h \ re probabl br a lplate', wi ses
on iSling of pi' ., or pht ror lh . I g , brassf.lI.f., grtrrlP 0'1'( and mail
g-auntl .~ for Lh arm' and h net-. Mu-h fLhis was ov r cL in black 'atin
fabri ,
[nfantr I armour wa' light r, Ie.. abundanl and ch ap r. W read L1lal
in I. 72 Lib rt B rrein 'I mi lell - la' militiaman fr III what i'
no\ B 'Ig-ium, ha I a mail Inul rk \ ith a collelin additi nal collar
and 'haul I r pml tion, a hascincL wilh a vi or and avel1lail. plat d
gaunLlcl!. I Ius arm and leg- d ren . mad of hard n d 1 ath r,
ound
Ih
ame tim' Lh
r,bowm n and pav(Jsi{'/:~ I'
Pro n
far l
h south,
I d to have a
ar1ll'll;he 0 r a ba 'ci n t
h 'Im t, and plales ( oator-pial. ) OrLen wi lh a
g;I)/J{)IIU~ (pad I'd jll/Jou)
or !mnsilJYe (mall mail
haub rk), Ian had plate
.!fLlI(/e,1 atla h i t
lh .
!)(lI'I jere,
plus a plate
bmcormii>('f' (r mail gorgiere
l
pI' t 1 th n k. Onl
a ~ w ha I ~(lnlplel.5. g!lanl .
1Ilrt.11 ime r bras al-es 1'0 r I h e i r
hand. and 1 'v r < nn "
Fr 11 hm b wllIan's
\ eapon' con 'istcd or a
ro b \\I, a I' laLi 1 light
ensis or '/J(/,I(J \ or I 'lnd a
couleau clagg - r. whil . som
al 0 carri d a bloqllerium
small sh i Irl
rIll kl 'I',
Tho' r a !)(tvpsier w're a
spear and dagg r plus the

!/(It/i,I'" shiel I or
vcr 1"\ having ,\
,'onl. 1 IU\'t'll 'al briWl1ld'
Jig-hi infalllr' again han a
ccrvell ier " basci 11 't or
rtltJdlw /1'/'1'/'11,1 (hri III men
\ ar hal or 'k 'nk' hat'), and
I he re\
who had I oel
(lrmOllr w( r' a )fu/I/P or a
rofa or ilia/ita or mail. Tilt.'
did lIot lIorlllall
have
sh iclds I ecaus' t h
\ 'I'
liglH infantl skirmishers,
The be't re 'oreled, and
I crhaps one (I' the most
illli orlal1l or Frl'l1 harm,
l11anuractllrin~ 'ntrcs \ as
th
~Ios
It: ;,lIecs aL
ROlI'n, II mad, miliLar
cClllipmenL in WI' large' qllanuti 'S alld k pt 'ven III r' in a re' 'I ~,11
l:no, If II' c, alllpl., th 'rc W '1" )v'r one thou. and ann UI" in the
.hambrc de 11 Rcine 'lIon', although th s wries rib'd a'
lei-fashioner! and or poor qllalit . Eight cars later a slib lamial or I 'l'
from the king rC'lllc,led /lTJ(l/lfbras, bas'htel,~ (th 1110t' I11mon I pc f
helmcl), fllll/rlil'/:~, IJmrl,/pls, bra. Ifp !I/alp, rha!Jpol/ . d.efn; ('otles, cuissols. PI'1/. ,
larg

m;mL!

'I,

g(/llll'/ol,I, gmYfe-bmss, KoI'Wm'lIPS, gOI'f!:ihes, harnois, Iwubergier.,

h/'(I1I11I1'J, lin'll/I'lolls hOllrmlih7's, jacques, !mt/oi', jJlates poulains and large',
each !Jflil'p,\ Ifp hfll'1I0;S \ eighin Y al I a t 2 P L1l1d', '\ 'h bassinet w ighing
l'(I/S OilS,

al ) 'a 't 4 pOllnds.

secolld order ill I ~R4 all cat cI no Ie s than 17,200 old fran for
thl' manuf;l lUI" or 200,000 ros.low bolts, I' I' r pairing all c istin
anl'lOIII'S, horsc ham 'ss and artill r. and ~ I' buying new qllipm nt.
Clear! \ '\r was as rdati cl "P 'nsivc a busin ,'th 11 a' it is n w.
SDme annollrcrs al d anns nler hanLS mad' arran m nLS with
( II 'agll 'S abroad, a in I. 7f) wh n Guitard d Junqi "I'
or 13m Icax, a~r 'eel \ ilh Lamb rl Bra'lu ,an I'm ur I'
10
)-OP(TlI(' ill sllppl in~ the L( rei of Foi',
stl (r
60 bas incLS an I rull',\ d,' In, Th ' 111O't c1 ,tail d viden
lht' r 'rnarkahl' ar 'hi\, '5 or Datini, a rn rcham rrom Pral in ltaJ who
\ a: a k>' li",,,,lr' in 'In am,s trad ' bas d at vign n in the lal r J lh
TlIllIr , This was 'I m;~j >1' dislribllU n ntr', n t nl ~ r n w I'm a11
arnlour bill fell' .'it' unci-hand and 'Ipturcd quipmcnt as w 1\ as rdW
mat Ti'lIs,
s (~lr <t!' sP' iii iL ms or armour \ re
larger plaLl' til pI' Ie I the h, I in a 'oat- r:plal ,- h lapp ar d b lh
middlcoflhCCl'l1lll1 . Withinar lali I 'horllim thi- h stplal fus d
with th' '11 dl llH;n plal's t( form a true br aslplate, whi -h in IIrn
rrclcluall repla '(' Ith . okl oat r-plaL" 13, lhe nel or th ' 14th 'cntu
il \ as alla 'heel lO hmillal 'd ftlulds J I' I ling'
om n nd groin rl n
with a 'imilar backplat 'mcl. kin, I'h whol
n. mbl being hin Ted
down on(' side all I I II 'kl 'd d II n Ih' mh 1', It had, in fa 'I, v 1 d into
a full 'wh i Lt' armour' clii raSs.

The Royal castle of Saumur as It

appeared around 1415. Though
the height and pointed character
of the architecture may have
been exaggerated, the picture Is
essentially accurate. It also
includes the large number of
chimneys necessary in a chAteau
which was now expected to be
warm and comfortable as well as
strong. (nes Riches Heures de
Duc de Berry, Musee Conde,
Paris)

19

uwr, Iig-l I r ~ I'm. [hod armou \ re '~I'o r 'pla ing lh old oalo[-pltH 'S,
h's included th hrig<lneline and th jaqIlf) or jf/tque'
(Engli'll 'j' ck'). Th '. mi-ri 'd I rigan lin' n rmall 'on i t d
man'
;'mal1 overlapping iron scales riv t d Lo a h oLher and to h insid
sturd ',\I va.~ .Ie' I _, d ul I t with an lit I'
V ring
f fin r
eI' I"ltiv' I Ih.
In e lat r 141h
nel lfiLh centur blig n lin
in oq Ol<\t I a larg r h 'L -lement, oft n in th form of two lr'hapcd
plat:; fast 'ned I WI II front. and from th mid-L"th
nLUI
I ward
,0111 al:o lIa I a substa. tial I t k pi
e,
The ja 'k \ a' a 'h ap I' 's fL ann II' whi h' m at fir t t ha
been a ,LrenglJlenec! pOll/pain I or quilted ja k t, 'stuff d' with ngs or
ma I fre m man la 'rs (r I th - up t
0 in m cases, 0 less LI an
I LOO jaqw" 1If' jlls/aim) (amra. W I'
I'd I' d fr m Pari' in L 5,
Alt hough jack' remained th ann ur a
mm n oldi r', tll'
ould
have a oillurcd out 'ria er \ itll de oraLiv llIft" of thread \ h r th
slitching illters ned, th rL Lh entur ja
w I' I' infor d with mail
I' in )rl oral<.' I inl'rnaJ
ai, of ir n or h rn; - m long- I v d
e ample had large-link hain' atla -h d down th
ul r arm a
pro
ti nagain,t uls.
O{vel pm ~nl.! in pr I lion ~ r l.h 'limbs t nclc It b I ,dramatic
though mol' sophisticated, Plat 'umour for th ,I'm b
me isibl
before that ror the I gs, probabl, b 'cau e the laU' I' \ as at {j I' t \ m
in'id Illoil ,.lIa/l.~.\f~. 'ull plat iroll I 'g ham '" start d lapp ar in
Fran 'l' afOllnd 1370 - I' ughl Ih :am' tim> '" I c,vh r ,
h I as in ~t \ ,1' lh' mot omm n h 1m t am ngt 1 th cntul
French men-at-arms. It 'aITH: in arious fOlms th most widespread
ha\'ing a (oni '11 )I' lalt 1'1 a I' und cI 1 hn-e vi.or with e
slit. and
nlll11 I' II: v ntihtion hoi,. Th m"il :lVentail wa oft>n all d a mmail,
\ hile Ihe !lminiOll was prob bl < I ath r linin. At additional s mi-rigid
)1" rigi I b'vor 'oulcl I e add d t
th avemail, but was :ub:equ nu'
ri,' I d IiI' 'eLI' I the' a, il 't l form a 'great bascin t, Anoth I' form
of light II '1IIlc:t apl'lr 'ntl 1"1 h d ran
fr m Ital I in around 1410,
This, as I h ' salt)/, whi'h ould also ha
sm 11 visor, M 'allwhil ' Ul . old
rllII!)('(1I1 rff' (Pror' rimmcd h('lm I I' maill >d popular am ng L
m r, t
Sl Idicrs,
Gi cnlll 'thr'al 1'1' m ngli'h longbowm 11, it i n t ul') ri-ing thaI.
Ihe 14111c'('nlllr's''l cOIl'id'rabl'd'v'lopm ntinhor'armuur. 'ad
r!lfl/lljmn.1 cover' I 0111 the frollt or th 'h 1','8 h'acl
m
an e 't nd d pol allh b' k,
w r )rm. whi h app ar
(ClHUl
were larg 'I', 0 ring not onl the ha k of th
I 1111 liS Pl'(~jl' lion 0 er tit 110 e 'md pi r d lip ov ring th
TIl' iIlCTt"\sillg nl' ssit I' r m n-at-ann'
[j h
11 fOol I d to 'Ollle
al)'Hld IlI11t'nt of Lh short "n d infant. I 'pe I' in hlV ur of til r, ar ome
1flth
'ntll1' I I 01 '.., ", with a hea\
haft panl. protected b iron
'XI Ilsiol1s from a I cad \ hi I unil d a blad ,a war..hamm I' and a 'pik .
h . al on 111 liS I)Il Cosl/lIl/f' 1ilil([h1' rtfS fi"f/11(ail' rn 144 J pI' vid
'xccp iUIlClll d,tail d ill orn ti n a ul th> quil m 'nt of a Ln.nre, th
I t i avail' ullit: 'Finl!: lhp said Ulm-al-flrms (l're commonL dec/ied, when lhC)1
W' 1/1 ww; h1 p/lliff' whiff IInr?'/f':" nUll ' 10 sa)' c/o 'e uims., 1mmbnu:p.. {(Lrgp
wm/l'-Imlrl',\, It'g !lru'l/pss, {{flImllfiLJ, snlpI wilh vi, or (lnd a small bevor which
CalIPH /}11~\1 IIlf' rhino L'ae!l is (J,l'll1pd wilh a lance and a long li{{hl sword, a s!lmp
tlf/{!,gl'r hfl/lghlg 011 [III' Lff! 'idl' of the, addLI', and a mare, l:.:ach man must also /)1'

r '\

20

A complete Itallan armour made

c.1460, In a style which suggests
that it was made for export,
either to France or to Germany.
(De Dlno Coli,)

A knight takes leave of his

In an earl~ 15th century
French or English manuscript. He
wears the full 'white armour'
fashionable at the lime of
Aglncourt, though his helmet is
not ~et of the full~ developed
'great bascinet' form. Note that
the chamfron on his horse's head
Includes ventilated Iron elements
covering its e~es and ears.
(British Library, Ms, Harl. 4431,
1.150, London)
famil~,

a(comprmiprl by a rtlufilliPr ['quire] eqllijlped 11 ith (t ahule, !I a'moi. dr> ja1lZbe~

Iwube1J!:Pnrl., jorfJue bri randine or (or. et arll/nl wilh dagJ(l'r, . word, and a V()U,W'
or rlnlli-Ianfp.. l 0 (t page or varlel wilh fhe sallie rlnIWllr (Inri one or two
weapons, The arc/lei wear leg arnwU1; sa lets, heav} jacques lined with linen or
bl'i/(tmdines bOlll i1l l/fInd and quiver al ide.'
h 125 lo 200 li7ll'l'S 10l/.rnois \ I i h Il
HJng n bJ'man r uir I
l full equip him 'elf repre. nl d
ill l
16 m nlh" \ ag " lor all
rdinal mail-ai-arms, 'lnd cJ ad, appliedLo Lhc be 'l p ssible g' ar. E 'n
ordina
'quipmcl l I' I in I P 'n 'iv '. al
were valu d al h rwe n
3 an I livm. toumais ajaqLI,
1" t or brigandin al 11 livres.
flili. l
r. u harm )ur and \ aponr COSl amlin I 0 livre' wi ile Lh 0, l for a
ol1lplclc lanrewas from 70 lo ~ 0 livres.
I the olh I'
XLI"
(' lh 'p
r qualit clagg r U' >d b I mosl ji'(t1"1(,I'
arrhn' . l Ie . lhan n livre toun/ois, a poor qualit / -w I'd JUSl v r ne
livlr'. h' 'alll 'anoll n u. t l r J
tat d lhal . there i' also another
IItlllllWr 0.rrolll armcd 'olely ill haubergeo'll.l' .I'al,,1 gaunllets and leg fl,/,1ll0W; who
((1'1' wonl 10 aU'I)1 ill the hand (( 'orl oj drm whirh !1m {/ Invad head anrf i. mflp.rI
n langul' dp bOl'uj l X-Lon I ] ..
ro bow' cOllunu d t I manufa 'LUr'd in larg quanuus. Lh .Ios
de Gale S makillg lhem in bal h
of 200 at a tim . Th volum
f t1ll1ll1l1nili n produced L lh
' I ' Ie (.al' ,wa
ell gr 'al'r:
11 'V nh Ie. S it anI
I' 'quir 'el I n b ~ h lrc's ami Ie, lhan 250 kil<'
of ir n l m' k ] 00.000 'pinnin
r ' bow bolv. The qu slion of when
:Hcel-stavcd ero sbow ',Ull> into g n ral U,C, ram r Lhan heing 111 'I' 'I
a 1 -hn I ri 'al ud il. i' d >bal abl' lhough snrn rna)' ha
he n
u d in warhrc ar undl. 70, 0 'pi ' or p >rhaps becall, ' (f growin
c mp tion from uns, lh>
1'0 bm had
Iv d inlO
all a'l ni hingl
p w rful
\. 'apon 'ombining
r~al
pm '1' wilh littl \ eighl,
no ... oil. ,md n n "e' ity
r. I' I ng uaining. BUl whi]
Lh'
1I
r l I mad
Lh
ro' bow narrower. I 'S
Illm , and wilh a draw
I ngth
f nl 1. lO 10
nLim Lr , il r~main d

slO' 10 load and in re.ringl

ompl x. ILS draw \V ighl
now d malld
m dnnia.\
aidsLO.panning-lh go l'SfOOL I v r, [11 cranequin
\ ilh a hand 'Iank d ral h l
bar, and
nLuall a windlass with ho k d
I'd' and
d ubi' rank-handl ,
Cannon w I' U ed in
0Tcalcr numb.. and allh ugh lh I' \V I' r. \ m~j I'
l chnol gical chang s Lh 1'"
ma have be II expcdl nl.!

21

with .111 II 'ingle-dis har~'

gUll' made 01" hardened
I aLher.
vcnhel '. gun.
were in rea~ingl a UI L
< nd
reliable,
apable
I"
being aim d at \ I sp -ific
or v~n 11\0\ 'ng target., 511 h :, s boat., II ing 10 run
.-ul plie' inlo a besieged
f( rt rc", or tile ma. LS f'
encm hip' al sea,
he making of' guns al
d ve-Ioped inL< a ,.,uhstal1lial
bll i ness i nv( "~ng man
dilTen:'111 craIb and l:-.'1Jilds.
nl lh ri hesl lll(1nuhlUr 'n; c ndd
n ntl~H all
LIl ,C ,kill d men in
me
pia ,and 'uc C5S in doing
o nn, have be'n one
r ason \ h
Ihe Burcau
broth rs mad' SII 1\ a ,'iignificanl onllibuLioll La French vi'lOrie. In Ih lasl n 'cade. 01" Ih
Hundred (at. \I\ar. In 1442, for
..un pi ,.J an Bur 'lU made for Ihe
Fren'l1 Ro .11 arlill I I train: six b 1111 ard:, I . V~uKlflirt!.\, 20 .I'f!11Jl"nlinf!.I' 0
I'lJIlIPllTJrillt',\' allrl ullnul1lbcr 'd liballrll!fJllil1.1', ':\I a c 5L of' 4 19, livms lou.rnols,
h 'se gun, rcquir d 20.0)0 pounns ( f gtll1l wrler c sling 2,200 Ii res
l Hlrnoi, , I ing Charles VII c1earl Ihoughl su h xp ndilLlr' \ orthwhile,
'inc> Lilt, Bur 'au br Ih rs' < rLill 'I Irain 'ondu'L d 60 Sll' . fut i ges in
14 ~p:;O alollt',

TACTICS
Early campaigns: responses to defeat
Th . Hunc!r- d ~'ars \l\ar largel .nnsistc I of si' 'S, dWlIftllrltPf!S (hrg
s alf' TOSS-COlllJl.ry spoiling an I I oting I~~id') 'lnc! naval raid', bUI\ as
al 0 pUllctuale I h m<!jOJ-r il'h '0 balLles- ind e1,lh
uri o. of.i
and wa'lil g raids wa' ol't'n 10 tmpL Ih 'I 111)' into >p n baLll at a
rlisachrdnlag- _ This \ as panicularl true of he IirSI pins c1l1l-in cr which
the Engli.~h longbow 'arn' 'I is pia
in milil
hi . LOry. In the.
ad
yt'ars the Frellch nr'l liS 'd inJ~lI1U
t 111, nanks of lh ir
c, \rllr)', as di I th' . n Ii. h, and th i J 'n'e uggc. . II al Fr n h
comm'tnclcrs simi I, did not und rstancl how lO us larg force of'
Tossbow-arm cd i 1l1~1I11l ,
f, v Tal ma's 'd
t iL \ as LI c railur
a\'al I wi i '11 \ as dl(' grC<1L . I h k lO m 'n a
dominalion I' pen I ..lltl
1I1t "lval
normall l advan d kll' LO
knee, in lWO or titre' ranks and prol)'lbl at a walk, since lrotting was
virlllalI, ilnl ossihlc lhr a 1"1111 arm ur d h rs mall. h
w uld It 'n
spur inl/ .\ cantt'r f( r til fin't1 alLa k, ailli 'i, aling- thallh ps)' h I gi al
impa t or sud an armoured hargt W ltld br ak 0PI osing ;1 fanlr
J.

22

The remarkable mid-15th century

carvings on the front of the
Stadhuls in leuven are
magnificent examples of late
Gothic flemish art made under
the direction of Mathieu de
layens. This particular carving
shows infantry attacking a
fortification defended by men
(left) using slings, perhaps to
hurl grenades, (Author's photo)

even b 1'01" ,he' am int) 1I tan. BIIllh -ngli h - '11 'It ling b hin I
\\ithin a thi k t or 'harp Il d tak '. n I ap'll I' of cr alin an
arrow Slorm of lens 0 thoLL~and orsh fts in the momcn ber re
nta ~t
- di 11 I br ak. <III llh resulr. w r r1i. tl' I', Hor
would not impal
Ih '111' I\' 'S OIL a line r'iwkes, an I alth ugh a ba rage r falling' arr ws
would nOI have kille I man rid I', il W uld I a
ir uurcd nUITIcn lts
hOI, ('s, allin T , panicking, baulkin 01- w lYing h I' would di nlptthe
10 '-pa k'd '''''11 rUllmi\ lormali n; at 'I' ~c ' lh 1"' i
id 11
lhal
h rs' . impl), la~' dlH n in ant lher narural 1"
Ii n wi f'n n an in al
i' lwrt lUI unabl' til, '. n e a harg- \\ st pp 1< r bnk n 'lu'~
to 'n 'Ill) ill/anti th' a lv-dllt'II{' rapidl' shift d 10 nimbI m n n I" Ot.
who' uld aILa kill' hur:c: b ,r)r' turning ( n hor men \ ho h,etd t; II n
to th ' g-roUIl l.
rren"1l
Illllland I
rea tec! [0 III se di '3.,<;lel.
rapi II', tho Igh Ihc alterIlativ' Ih" lriecl did nol
alwa 'S \ ork, . ren 11 III 11al-anl1.<; disl1H1111l1cd 10 Ii ht
just like their En Ii h foe,
,11e1 art I' loititr. th ir
om mand 'rs ort n or Ie I' d
th 'Ill to a .."-a.Ilc( Oil font
in whal w'r int 'n I'd t)
b' arrow-I 1'001' lonnauUl "
his mar iiI,'. have I cen
all 'l1Ipt' I at J og- '11l-'urein in I ~~. ,but ven
herc til' Fr 'II 'h m IHIann were ul1al Ie to lUrn
the nal1~' of til' ppo'ing
I::llgli h al' he . the battle
UIl])
Icillg" WOII when
Fr 'n'h infant 1" liriwwds
Htta ked fr)m III ' r a 1'.
n
lhe olher hand, lll' inili'Li
Fr I h Ii:; Sf 'I'S Ii I I a I \
a I11 0 I't' ',1111 iOlls ", pI'( a 'h
compar>d to the. overO\lfid ~nce
the earl: baul s,
Thi, MIS wn I' l1e'l d in
p< pulaI' song-s, on' fwhi h
was in Ih' form of <l hri
for III killg:'f) Phili/JIJp ...
( I'

The lord of 5t Floret kneels

before the Virgin, attended by
John the Baptist. In this detail
from a wall painting the knight
has a blue tabard bearing his
arms of a gold lion with red
tongue and claws. Beneath this
his mall and plate armour are
shown as entirely glided. (In situ
village church, 5t Floret; author's
photo)

11//11'1' T/(/(IIf1h!P

lit 1111

Jom'

/mu!t'IICI',

Ihall i/1)II, bl>/lpr

1/11'11 al"lrll/~\',

i,

III/H'dOl" 10 (/rm;"I,

I'IIf1b1hW J'IIII fo bri 1/1{ barh

\I)I)il~ [mill 11/1' PI/fill)',
Fl'c'!lch , I'mil's ] 'am> It
,l\'oirl 11 ,!jOI' COllI" )IlLations
and ins\C'ad n ndllcted

23

un-

war

ur c.

Another carving from the

Stadhuls In Leuven portrays a
fully armoured knight riding
down a group
foot soldiers,
perhaps representing the Duke
of Burgundy defeating rebels
from Gent. (Author's photo)

ordil111
on Ih

0'

Bundr cI

ear' War lhe r 'alilies

"Or the

24

r nch

CAVALRY 1337-1360

1: The Dauphin Chart... c.1356

2: Sou1hern French sire. 0.1340
3: Knight from the Dauphine, 0.1350

INFANTRY 13371360
1: Northern Frenc., militiaman, e,1340
2; Sergeant from Champagne. c,1360
3: Prav"" mercenary
erossbowman. c,1350

CAVALRY 1360-1415
1: Boucicault, c.1400
2; Guichard Dauphin, c.1410
3: Bertrand du Guesclin. c.1370

,
INFANTRY 1360141
1: Crossbowman, retln
of Jean d
2: Rennes militiaman, C 1370
3: Southern French ligh Infantryman, c.1400

.,.------=-D

NAVAL WARFARE 1337-1 15

1: Jean de BtHhencourt, c.1402
2: Basque sailor, c.1360
3: Castilian naval captain

."

CAVALRY 1415-1453
1: Jeanne d'Arc, c.1430
2: French knight, c.1440
3: Breton man-at-anns, c.1450

INFANTRY 1415- 453

1: Franc archer,

Poitiers, c.1453
2: Insurgent,
c.1440
3: Flemish
mercenary,
c.1430

ARTILLERY 1430-1453
1: Gunner with ribaudequln, c.1435
2: Gunner's sslstant, c.1440
3: Handgunner, c.1450

fight, Lhe kni htl), has W~ Lill L1r t or a h r. I an, and il I~ 1 t.I
I roponion or cavall , in Fr 'n ,h armies was in reasin ,
Th
mpaigns 'ull 'ol1sisl d larg I oC'raid b land and ' a, ieg s
w 1 skirmi.-I es in whi 'h '11' h r. and ro' ,] owmen oflen
k nl a
minor I art. Balll \ ere now on a r mall. al ,th ugh a numl r r
Sli cesses had a hug
impa t on Frllch m ral , M st a -tion. weI'
d )Illinat d I eli'm unl d but full arm ur d m[ -at-arm. lighting wiLl,
shan n d. P aI's an
ther bau.lc r u d up n m
nu' I of
.lrat gi riv'l' ro in " r
c liT d \ h n 'mall mobile ren b for
atta keel th' rear or En )'(ish columns at night, or \ h n Lh garrison or a
01. II <lltcmptcc!lo d
tr a I> 'sieg~r" n ampm 'nt.
Simihr Fr'l h t Li w"r' se 'n at L11 balU ofRo eb k in 1.3 2,
\ hi h in Iv'd mu h larger fore " - p rhap 50 000 on ach side. Here
rebel from Gem hrgel c n iSlcd of inranu I ,ilitias, whil Lh Fr n'h
I'a ed Ih m \ ith di.-mollnl d m n-al-arm. al rI olh r inf~lI1u" plu avalry
11 th> nanks. B >Ii 'ving that n all- )[It a' 'ault was their
nl h p , m .
G III rb 'I' laun hed a IlIa"i 'alta k' but th' 'rcnch lin h Id and the
;wall I swung around to env lop lh 'n m who weI" vinuall wiped
OUI.

nrc t pical, however, w I' d va 'talit g Engli h rheufLucl/lfe raid

aero, s mu,h
I' Fran' . 1 h
w r' laull h d not ani lor their
illlll1 diat I' ward', but in th hop
f Irawin lhe French into lh op n
I attic whi h the Fr nch kin and hi' 'oll1mand r want'd to a id. In
I~l '( lh' French garri 'OIlS g n rail r' 'j 't 'd English taun " but r, r th
COIllIllOII peopll' tl1 'se rhl'Ufl'Llchees remained a lIightmar.
song from
the so- ailed Ba 'ux hallsonnier 'omplain d: 'flltheDt/ell oj O1'1'/wnd:y
I/Wl''''

I:" so Inllrh IJi//age t.!I(///!wre OJU' mnnol have pien/

fa God want. that. th.e

coullh:v o( o/'Irlandy !mow peace.

The French solution: positional warfare
In Ih' mi Idle ar. nfLl e 14Lll "I1IUI 'lh d v I pm

I1L r unpowder
had Ilot let r a h d a . ta c . iving aUlIck r the automatic
arlvantag in"i g' warfar ; and guns 'oldd al b m unt rl in fortified
pia' . ( I' turn th' alla k r' fir . In r p ns lO Englj'h armi .'
I' '[aliv . domination f p 11 1I lei 1I hung me Fr n h kin ord red an
inv 'IHOI . of all I'ortili d pIa s in I ~58 and 1367,
tlh b II m ncl f h
al w re t.I, onified hurch .. whi h were
parti '1IIar!' ommon in .ollth rt1 ncl w' tern Fran e. ther clef< n
in (udedjor/afdurnfonifi dvillag .h(},lal()rTJalal~ rilii dh u " nd
I}{//s \ hi h app ~ar to have I n link d h IS
I' W lis around a
S' 1 'm 'n\. 'imilar
rmin I
wa us'd in Ihl ~L11 >nLUI wh n a
m'tmlll
III I I' ng fr m pI' per a 'u t a ~ rlill d hur h r hou, "
'I I'(JIJfJyriuJ1l I 'ing a habitatj n in a na urall ' d ~ n'ibl site, a tunis or

;:Ir! ill I"

ABOVE 14th century bombard

from L1sleux Castle.
BELOW la1e 14th century
veuglalre with a separate breech.
found In Llsleux Castle.
(Both in the Historical Museum,
Rauen)

33

.t

11

nll

of tow

1',

a ba. tida bing a n \ illage or town

rn term for a donjol/
vilh.g an I a mula

important

'The City 01 Moullns' in a mid15th century manuscript by

Guillaume Revel. This Intriguing
illustration of a medieval city as
It really look d Includes the old
town within Its walls and a new
citadel gate, as well as less
crowded suburbs In the
foreground. (Armourlal
d'Auvergne, Blbllotheque
Nationale, Ms. Fr. 22297, f.369,
Paris)

34

r
wa
d r. nd uch
found II th' writinghl-i line d Pi'an in .1
, he lated that a !Tarn on
r 20 m 11 required 2
arlmlet ti til/ole ( mall ro ,bow), six aT!Jnlelf?s a LmlT,

~ orlml"t". Ii ITor, 20 bow , two or dH e psjJ/ingal,

:\7 ~O() a,s~ n d n )s'b~ w lolL'i, arr w, t" 7'..
'P 'til'S, t, 0 /Ili 0/1'1 (\ hich rna' htlv h n a form of
IrrfJurhpt) an I",) f()lIill{//:~ p 'rhaps anoth I' 't II 'IhrO\\~ng machine); 12 rrmllom jJPniPl" _0 lit n'
read CI1I (()rth's' g-tlllS, 00 tampon \~th m trial'
10 m~lk' 11101'<' (llftlin Il)r Ih ("11111 n, 1,00 t) I" 0
pnlllld:
~11Il' lwd '1~ and. ,
I otlnd' r I ad

or

lor bulk-t.';,
h' also lisled whal \\'e' n"d'd to b 'i g'
'llch a pIa l': fi()O
arp nt rs, fiOO assi, tanL
a"pc-nlers, 2,{)(}(} I i neel",
t sort d
rossbow:, ~O() b)\ " ~()2,()()()'~ , rL 'd arrow, and
I'o.sbow lolLli, cl, 00 war' X", l'oul' l'1/gins
tlO/fI/I/\
(pt'rhap. slOne-throwing 'ng-in'
r
c\'\'i " In help snit' lhe \ all' ,f, ur rolliflm:,
1.0()()SlUlll", t~H 1nnOl1', t,170:1 n s lor lh .e
'ann n., !),()()O pOllnd' of I ad fur I till 'l' and
30,000 pOlllld' 01' g-lln pm d 1', PI' anLi ns on
thi: sr'~le rl'prcl'it'llll'd 'I massive XI en, in gold
and lime - I ss lik"I, to be ',ailabl Lo mobile
altacking tlnllic's lhan LO slaLic resid nl galTi n',
Whe n llw IllU 'h sl11all 'I' ("\,<;11 (f
lllaillOll
was 1"1 inlo a :lale ol'readin 'ss inJul 1 I 15,10 'al
ll1l'll \Wrl' (' 'pe led In htll Iht, garri' m or ~~
: ldill'" Til 'y wn' also e Pf'CI 'el In poss
\ cal OI1l'\' spe ified I ' lhl' \P1IPrhal,
,l had
tCIl'clli '-.rcs or 'C 'noc, e bascin 'Is' hilI no I d
arrllOllr, lll()ll~h lh"y did Inv' 'mall shi1 I ; all
x epl OIH' poss., ('(I -\ ord',
m
l\ d
crn.'sbm S white olhers \ ere armd wilh W'l1plrtiTf's,
lig-htj,l\'('lins, T\ enl)' or '0 oth '1", p -rhap m r
powerful nosshows \ el' kepl in th
a LI with their alllmuniLi n,Th
GIMk iL~ II' had a c1on,jon I' keep, where lh
hat lain Ii e I, pIll' a I \ . r
COUI'! '<lrrl (Inc! a Inrhiean with lower \ all', The d
moat had to be
iraI' 'd nnd a rcd ubt w. luill u id lh
r r L11 I nj n, Th
10\\'er ('oun "(II' 1 had a W( orl n wall and \ a, d I' nel d b thr ' tOwer,
'OllIe rook 1 Wilh
lone ,I l. s
II I luzes, and a h h< ing a 'mall
cannon, The biggesl lower alsn rormed the cntrane gale, he 'enpchaL
n( w nrc! 'red Ihal a \ O( d "n parap t I' hoarding b a lei 'd to lh \\all,
\ hil' Ill' 'lItran t' 1 th 1 w I' 'Olll'l r<trcl ""ould b d r: nc! d I
'Id lilionat w'''I.~ fOI'Tlling '\ ,himnp l. ,l P n 'n m I pll, hin T a burning
waggon againsl the \ ooden gate. Within lh
ourt (lrd \ er gu.erites,
raist' 1 \II( od 'n JJlal~ I'mI' 10 allow th garri'on I lIrv Lh' 'Ilrrounrling
('Oll11lrvsi It, and prt \'ick flanking fir , 1'h I' weI'
Iso
1<11 tll I'
huilrlillg's wh're II
10 'II inhabit nL~
Itld live eludn
. and
whcn.' PCOpll' wne (' pl'CIl'C1 to keep 'to k.oo r l1lerg 'ne
Thl' .~allle degr' of 'are was Pllt illll
i g " r ar ,During
prot ng'('eI si W', lht' Fn'll h built r rLiri d /;(l:,lid~ 'I 'w t , n, ' fa ing th
EIl~li h-hd I posiliun, 'omctimcs th s weI' of \ ood .om tim
of
:l I I ' , ill whi 'Il a,
til' miRhl lat r h in orp ral d inl
rld'c:n c"
l;linr si 'g ,'; cOlli 1 c~rtailll' il v Iv .\11 ,lanli~l I' r' " a. in

A French tapestry made around

1460 Illustrates The Life of Sf
Peter, Heavily armoured
Infantrymen sleep In what may
be a symbolic reference to the
end of the Hundred Years War
between France and England,
(Musee de Cluny, Paris)

3S

140f

The ChAteau de Couches. a

small French castle typical of the
later years of the Hundred Years
W r. It has 13th century walls to
which a tall 15th century keep
and chapel have been added.
(Author'S photograph)

th
l ad'
impn)V 111 I1l
In
gllnpowder anill'l"'
lradiLic nal missil --thr )wing ma hines continue 1 l be liS d lhroug-hoUl
Lhe 14th c>ntu ; a larg' In4mrhf I was Lran I n d all lhc wa from La
Rcol to alta 'k ngli h-held Rcrgcrac in 1 77. P \ I' fill framc-moulIlcd
si gc n :sbo\\': \\' ore pI' habl mounl' I nip f' lO\\' rs, rath'r than
in, iel Lh 111,' w p 'ifieel in 'III j<C't II or In:ln . ign -d b Lh' s nior
I' 'nch 'i 'ge:: engin
r Hug" eI ,arelailla
J

Skill at arms
It Ind n' 'r be 'n lru thaI meeli \'al fighun m n r ,Ii 'el s lei
11 brut
f'or 'andf"rocil, killwilhw'al n r main d .. ntialf ra 14Ih-1:-lh
'cntul" Illan-at- rm, though \ I' 'sLling someum 'S s ' m t
h I1caLl1 hi' di ni I Inel
I th' kni htl hero of' I1l in d la ai's
Lt' Pplil.ltJlutll rip SainI"; \ a. eI -rib eI <u of' 'light buil I, lith and light,
alhletic, su' nand agiJ ' cv'n in f'ull al-mour, with npid r a ti n ,H use I weap n, wiLl1 gr at d 't rit and hi ridin skills en hied him to
clocl" and pan '.
Ihel" sourc s indi at that th b t sw rd-. Lr k ,
weI"
ut and r ver.e, Ihough a knight. h uld 't\so b' 'kill I < t a
I \ n\\'<lrd II \ and Ihm'L.
n I r, ba k th main Lar t \ '\' an
pp nenl': head, auel C Iltrol f' a hor during \h
nf'u ion of' a mel' e
wa .. : ntial . a n I to til' th animal and' as 10 g 't into a good
attacking po:iLion.
h . kill. r quir d f's I Ii
V\ar r main '0 III II h Ih sam, J aJ d
writ that wh 'n fighting f' ~ at it wa.s I ,I I ll, th ligl '\ arm III'
'on 'i 'I 'nl , ilh ad quat prol nion, H advis d hi' r ad r t pa
him' If', mail tain I is omp . lire and ain a p' h I ie-al ad al1lag' I ,
demonstrating onlid n ~. but
. Bu il also \ arn d that it \ a' as 10
g t ut f breath i on(": visor \ as I-d.
L'ss is known f'th training and kilL of'
in I, . I a 141\ \ a. I s d in Fran 'bannin all
\ iI h longbuws and crussbm "
here eem
n
s II
shooting 1111 ti n. with handgun, in I. th . ntu I Fran .Ih
arli ~:t
kn \ 11 )rnp titi I1S b -ing in Cerman', wi z ~rlal1d and (Ial '.

36

Artillery
III Ihe 14th CCllltlr)' I \ 'IC "lira 'y, r'lali (,'1 lig-h sion ~ cannonball and
a 'Inw I"ll' nl" lire Ii I n< l ol"f I' a vel .ri u thr '.ll lo n aj I'
rortificali)1 " How 'v 'I', prof-s'ional gU1l11 rs . .-rainl .
range or skill which 'nablecl th'm to ollllll<lnd hiull pa)' all 0 er
Ellrol r. 01 lhe leas I of Ihe.t' skills \ as lhc cui. g up of canl on, \ hi h
were lIorrllall)' carrie I in wa gC)I1s blll fired 1'1' 111 po ili n' ml edd cI in
limbel' ancl carll. Th ' I ading of a lat 1 dl l'
1'1), 1. lh
ntur
l11ul.ZJe-loading gUI was a relativel, long and complicatcd bu 'inc's; larg'
C]u'll1li Ii, or Inalll had to b l4-lnq - d r ga '-ligh l lamp ns I '1m mer d
inl ) the barrel hecause annonball were such a po r fit. In the earlie. l
lays up to lhree-firlhs or lh I arr I 01" a snl'lll 'I' Run mighl b fill d with
pm ckr, while a larnl on near lhe 111 lIlh enabl d pI" 'lIrc t) llliid L11 .0
lhm hall and l'IInp >n bur, I Olll < I" LI gun mor' lik a 'hamp' gl . 'ork
thall a I r ~jcclik I"rolll a mo I rn fir ann, B 'U
flh' "hon ming"
l
lhe llll"l1 f the 1-llh ' nLllr S;H a f:lshion for giganti.rn - ma"j
1 ornb'lrrL which made ul in III . \ "'ighl f lh ir 'h t whatlhe la k din
a 'Ctlltl ... r spcC' I. Su 'It weal ons, and th - 111 an. I lrt'ln 'pc rL lh 'm
were oldv availahle 10 Ihe l'ichc:t anllies.
Anill 'I'. madc 'ollsi I 'ral t a lane, luring LIle . e 'und jllan'r I'
lhl' ]!">lli cl'nltll')', however, Mall' annoll w rc 1l0W Ire ch-I ad 1", with
sevcral n'ln )v<lble hr 'e<.:h <.:hamb 'rs p 'r gUt whi h ould he Imld 'd in
a IVHIlCC', thus increasing lhe ral' 01' til" consid rabl ,
lh quaJjl10f
gUilt 0\ dt'r improved, iron 'annollball als
provid d a h LIeI' fil and
longer harrels olT 'red grealcr IllUI./.it' ~I() 'ill and lherefor' accurac
wilh lower puwder chaq:{l's, in' guns did nOl nO\ htl ' to be "1St
on .uch 'I Illassi,,{' . 'ale lite, \ ere easier 10 lran, port, and p ri 1
illustralions on n show annon being fir d from wh' I d (an'ia

By the middle of the 15th

century French manuscript
painting was Influenced by
Renaissance art from Flanders,
though it remained medieval in
spirit. In this detail from a siege
scene made around 1470 we can
see large breech-loading cannon
with separate breech-chambers,
mounted on wheeled carriages;
the further gun has two barrels,
Such artillery was certainly
available In the later stages of
the Hundred Years War, (Histolre
de Charles Martel, Blbliotheque
Royale, Ms, 8, f.65v, Brussels)

The late campaigns

hl' Illirl-I.r)tlt n'llllll I :;1\ a
IT\'ival in the illlJ onanc~
()
infanlr', and
su I
lroops include I in T a 'ing
IlHllll 'I" of ll"lndgunrl 'rs,

At

Ih'

S'll11e

lillle

Ih

Frl'u("1t ("on Iilllll'd to rei

Oil
avail' wit '11 the 'one! liollS S 'C 111l' I righl.
t
F()r!l1i~n}'
in
I 4H lhe
Frcllcll Ol'/(o<lt<, I a Ill,-~ II'
English 'ltlcnlJ I III say
\I hal
wa: I rt or th ir
N rm n I' ,. essions c n
lh ugh lhe l'n '111' 0111nUll bcrcd thel I I ' Up l)
1\ () 10 on '. The Fr('11 It'llso
included a subSlalllial 'onlingcnl or 1ll01l11lt,d

;'11'('1

'I'"

- who rod Oil th ' mar h,

IlllI. cnablillg Ihem 10 cro."
countl al tht' sam(' spe 'd

37

A mld- to late 14th century

manuscript illustration of a naval
battle, During the Hundred Years
War naval clashes were resolved
by boarding and hand-to-hand
combat, though this was
preceded by an exchange of
archery, Efforts were also made
to disable the enemy's rigging.
(Chronlques de St Denis, British
library, Ms. Roy. 20, C,VIl.
London)

aval, bUl fI ught on

L. Tl
Engli'h'm mpl d an v 1'tn I iti I lLlrnir g 1110 'm 'Ol, whi h w
br kIn up b a
rie of
ontr II d <Ivai
harge backed up b l110ullled arch rs.
The balL! of CasLilinn in 14, ~ was even 1ll0t-C conclllsi and wa al a
I pical
f the p ri d. H're the French built a forlifi -el arrill I r park
during Ih ir sie e )1' CasLiIl II. h 'ngli h crarri 'on ame LIt in al
auemptlo d "tro thi fi -\ I fI rufi ali n, b It \ re driv n ba k with h a
10. S -S, wh I' upon lh Fr n h I' arguard hit th III in th nank and lh
Engli I def at b am a I' III ' In man wa lhi, Fr I h vi lOI was lik
I in I'
r . wilh Lh ~ngli'h hoosing LO atta k a Lrong posiLion
der~nrl d. 011 lhi
a i n, I gUll' 1" th I' than JonU"bo~ '.
ow th
French were on the offen i e the carried OUl Tveral
d/('VlI1lrliP('.,~ lhellls -I
s. I \' ,how
I~ th . ~1Tlillgll nd1c"
"ries ( f
Fr'lKIt siege' )f 'ngli h-h Id 'iLi " L( wns and asLi
whi h I roughl
I h 'Ill final iewr, ral p rL and 'uppi had ah a s b
n viLaI it .j g'
\ arfar bUL during the laLLer part a the )-ILlfldr -d Years ar lh ~ were
th focus of, everal particuhtrl binr la, Il
ampl - during lh
En li'h j g
f a u x a F'r n h I' Ii r . JUllln S T Ll Lri I l
'arr
uppli
vel' lh ~ wall, hut on man mad a n is b' rlropping a I ox of
salted h rrings and'u n d lh English whu drove olfth relief 1'01'- .
Orlcll, alted li'h pia recl anven mol' dramatic part in the sQ-O\II d
r III H ITing in L429, during (perdLi n' t rai' lh English'j ge
BanJ
of Orlean , H r - th English had r t d v ral uti ing bn.~lide.~ l bl kad the ciL , Th' Fr 'nch attacked thes po, ilion' in tI 'ort of COllnt rsi 'g'
\ hiJ al rulll ing , liP) lies into rlean',' a h side tried to illl r 'pL LIl lh -(' S COli\! . but on this
casion the Engli'h \ r f9rewarn'd, and
turned th ir waggon' full of salt d h rrin
illl a field fortification,
The French aLta -k 'd wiLh insuftki nr number-; Lh' 'ngli -h ollnl roO
'llta ked and v ~ h 1m
th' F'r n -h and lh ir otLi 'h alii '5, who Ind
di 'mounted and w re thll, unable to ~. 'ap .
i e of Ort-an i' reg"lrded as
Rai ing th
J ann d
'. great -t' vi t ry, and it
rl.:'linl
had a hug impa lon Fr n h moral. In fa'l lhM'lid s miJilal
ar r fo'u', 'd on u h -i ge',
man of which r ult d in towns I' op ning
th ~ir gat s to King .harl s nm Ihal Fr '11 h self..
onfid n
had r"
d,
a<; Lh

NAVAL FORCES
nllli th
\'\ san r na \Vh "I'
f \'\< I' hardl appli d. ost n al

38

ag. a

Th m.1 h
len. U
relativel hi h- id d v
nd ran

One of the ships

ot Jacques

Coeur on a carved relle' made

between 1443 and 1451. It Is a
two-masted vessel with an
armoured crew, two ot whom
occupy the craw's nest where
they are supplied with spears
and Javelins. (Hotel o. Jacques
Coeur, Bourges)

1I r, i

n Po

39

'The Siege of Damietta' In a

French manuscript made In
1462. It Includes (foreground)
what seems to be an armoured
assault barge powered by oars.
Similar river or lake warships
appear In Swiss manuscripts of a
few decades later, (Blbliotheque
de l'Arsenal, Paris)

V\ight in 133<
in h I.ea in 1360, Portsmollih in 136., e eral pons
b>t~e n P rtsrnoulh Clnd Ry in 1377, ani 'ra 's'nd in 13l0, Fr n 11
and. < ttish -"hil "ds eo- >p 'ral 'd in harra'sing English maritime
'ulntHullicminns in th
orth ea and along th w 5l rn s abuard.
Til' prevailing wincl. in th Eng-li'h Channel, anclth orientation >f
harb HII', , r n nil d ni I th Fr 'nell a 'up'riorit ' ,'ulTici'nl to
lhr all'n ~ngli 'h communi ati n with th 'ir armi " 'Incl pO' 'ion on
Fr nch 'oil aner lh Engli, h naval victor of III I. in Jun 1340 - 'mel
p'lru 'Idar!' aft I' the Engli, h ''1ptured Calais in I, 7,
crtll k:s,
lral1v t::lnergcd as a m<!j< I' na til lOW r in the lal r 14th and carl I!'JIII
"ntur,
mon T't lh
m t I' m rkabl
demonsu",tiolls was an
'P 'dition to conquer til 'Canal' ('lands I d b J an 1 de B ',th 'n oun
in I 02, ( Fr 'llch 111 'rchant fr m T ul u
'ms t ha c (
>rnpalli'd
D I~ 'th Il un, th 'n ross d I l Ih mainland of We 't 'rica wi 're 11
onv rt d t) Islam, marri d a 10 'al \ man.31 lev Iltuall made his \ ( ,
back t Frail via Nurth Africa in I I' ,till wilh his N',-i 'all wir ,)

FURTHER READING
his Ii t do 'not in Iud g 1 ral hi
n nI di val war/" r .

Ii s of th HilI dr d V. <Irs

<II'

g n ral work

40

Imand, . " Thl' HUltfhn! l-ems Wm; EnK!rmd rmti Fnt'l/ce rtl War c. J300(.1450 ( "lInbri Ige 19 )
n TI, ., 'I w to win at
Unlamcnt;
hniquc /" Chi alri
011 bat', Thl' A nliquarie Journal, L VIII 1988), 248-2fi4
n 0 ~ n' du ChalCtlll de (ontailloll au Debut du I <.:
Ba Ie.,).,' is
.it'c! ',Bibliofhpq/ll'd(lI'/~r.ot(ld(~\'Chartrl""
l ' (I. 71) ll.-II!)

t. I., 'U'S oniCi '<II ions d Chahli.: au X

(orlif"i I lI11 I elit" village p 11 lam la II IT
lJull~~ogne,.' [(1949) 7-: ()
BO:i'll'U ~., 'L .. pris nlliers d'
, r, III (I.b J) I ,pq f2

mm nl n
nnales de

Bru<ll1cl, Y., 'l.'al1lt:lioraLiun de h d ;ren, ' t'l

hal "lUX dll BOllrh Ilwlis p ndanl h gu'rr d III 1 s', 'om/lie
Rf'1J(III.I' rip //\('(IIII'lIIi,' rips In oilJlio7l,S ,'l 13,'I/I's-l.e/l17' (1 72) 518-540
Brllll. R"
oles.ur Ie c mill 'I"
d s armcs a ign I 'Ill. I "icc!'
Bib/if/III(-'!/((' 11,- 1'1':1'01,' tips CII(/rl/'I'S <:1 ' (19,) I) 2 9-2, 1
'(I('h lIX, P" RIJI/rl/ a tI lemjJ' df'.!nllllu' rI IT 1'1 /ll'lulrl/ll l'oCCltjJaiion allKiai, e

(10/ 19-N-I'I) ROllen ',Pali, I. ~ I

:11<\l11r iun, 1'" (;l/il/flll/l/f' til' Flnvy;
Callilnil/f'

Ii"

(:/I/I(/Iif;{!;,', Ol/Ilrilll/.liOI/ f(

I'hi:.loh~'

df' .I1'f1l7/if' Ii 'A 11', t'/ (I l'pilUle

rip 10 Tlil' lIIili/ah1' pI jlrhiPt' fll/
\If
'iPr/" (Pa I'is IYO)
ellal, 'Ia:
"IJOf'lllllf'lI/~ IMfllijl' fill Clo, tips
Gail,~\' tI" ROIIP-II f'1 (ll/X ArlllPt's de Mer tiLL Hoi
rll'I'inllfpd,' 12 1F'il 14/8, 2vols (Paris 1977-7
Clllllaillillt', P" 'I. 'S lortilitauolls lll'hain S '11
Frall'l: ;j la 1111 e1ll M , 'n
~: a:l
'lS
finallcil:1. 'l "'ollomiqucs, NeVIlr /-fi,loriqa/!
~ ,LX (I ~)7H) 2~~-17
COllt,lIl1illC, I" 'Cr'
(I :\4 ') Cl z"in urt (I l.):
UII' 'ompari, 011', ill Oilp/:I ;tI/ln'I,1 rill I(,~y('n \J(f'
ill ()(cirlrll/: A,.'r,1 du GOI/W'P.I IP1/11 (( Calnis "II 'e/lieUlbre
/974 ( ,alai, 1~)77) 2.1..41
:ol1lal11in(' Poo '1.(', Cornl agnics 1"\ cnlllr
11 Fran
I en la 111 h g'll rrc de : III
IS', Melauge r!(I I't;cole

The glided copper statue of St

Michael on top of the steeple of
the Stadhuis In Brussels is
almost invisible from the ground,
It is, however. a remarkably
accurate representation of the
German-style armour used in
Flanders and northern France in
the mid15th century. (Stadhuis,
Brusselsl

I-i'al/('uis" d" HOllie, ,(o,'Tnl, W' PI TPlIl/JS Morln'nt's

L XX\ 11 1!17.") ~Hi -~. 6
C Iltamille Poo (:11('/'/('. Hlal ,'I Sorih,; (/ loJin tilL if) IPII 1'1',
h'I/ltll',1 WI" If'l {/nll';ps dl's Roi.l'tI" "mlll'f' 1-'37-1494 (Pari
1972

'<lll E. J..I' (;oll'llr'I(/blt' /)1' RichPlILOl1i (ArlitI' de

IJn'lagl/p, 1-'93- Ir8) Pari I f
[",\II', 'BrigClllclag"
an 1 R 'islal
in Lan astrian
ol'l11andy: A , lud ' or lh - Rcrni'sian Evidenc',
RI,((tlilIK 1\lnlin/fll Sludip,l' 'VIII (1992 I () -I.,
Fino, J.F., 'Lt,~ armcc, rr, n (lis s It I"' de la
/{Il 'IT' de CCllt
IlS, (;In,(ill ,
(I 77)
:0 '11

F H1rnicr. C" 'La d'rell cds populauc n, rural

p 'ndalll 1(\ gou '1'1' d
n tans n
b'l 'S ' u\prglle', ill Acle: riu 'e
COlI.grps I a/irmal tips, urieies
I

I ) -,

Srtv{(lIL~,

irf'

.)/'I'lil/ll rI'(/Il'hPnlogip (P'lris I.lf6)

1-7-199

.J. (, Iii), ,/(,(111111' 11'1\1'1', tine

p/m'lJU', 1111 ra.07l1wlllml (I 'Iris 1982), in Illd '
oS vcnll r 'ICVCllll ani I .

.lel j,'. Oil,

41

H nn'mal ,.J.B,,' I n iliL<I

hand Lhe r 'n h m nar 11, in Lh
Iat'
iddk g,', A/lll'r;rfl11 Hislorical Review, L'
m (J 7 )

9 6- 965
Jager, ., AS/)I'hll' rll' f.:riegt's wilL der Chevltu'ri" i1ll
.Irdu"kunrler/ in
Fra nit wirh (Be rn I JH 1)
Jarou.s <HI, ;" '[,l' gu I, l'arri'r -glltL 11:'1 gard' 11 P >il 1I p'l1dal1l
1'1 gll'ITl' dl' CCIll ns', Bullptin dp La ,'ocihr de.
'11liquairt' de
l'()//(I."I (1965) I r9202
Jlls.elin, 1.,' ,ommenl la Fran
IT d C nl
n.', l3iblio//u''111f! til' I'L~'rolp dp har/I.", L
1ll (I~J2) 20Y-2~6
Kilgour, R.L, nIl' LJl'r/i'lll' oJChivnby flS showl/ illlhe /';mcll Li/emlllTI' o(
III" I.fllf' lirlrl/" I\gl'. (Caml riel e, Mass., 19~7)
LarLigaul J. 'Ll's liellx fOrLifie.' dan la parLi' 0 idenlale d Querc
'Ill
'sic 'lc', Ilnnri/f'. dnl\llidi L I I (1967) .-1
LlIe, .. lIi.luirr dll Bprlrand dll C/lPsrlin 1'1 df' on I;;poque (Pari ) 7
1 :epli, J, 'L. 'S cllat "Ill de L lIi' d' r1 ans el I Llrs arch i I \.-;
(1~91-I'H)7)', Il/lllplin i\Iolllll7ln1la!,
[J (19
) 29 - j;
Palm 'r,.IJ I, eli,. 1';'ois,ml'l: His/orim1 (Tot, a lJ 19H I in Iud s
.l'V 'ral rl'le anl anic1 S
PllillpOllS, :" 'Thl' Fr'l eh Phn of BalLI duril y LllC gin our\.
"l1npaigll', 1~'lIg{isll Hislorira/ Rroiew, C (I Y ) t-6(1
Revcl.C<lU,,l.P,, 'L'habil de gu rre d 'Fran ai', L' 1', anon ITl rr,
1(97 Ie la Bi bl iOlh' que ati nale', Gazelle des Beaux /bt ,
III
J Y7Y) 179IJH
R '"n'llI I, '1. service I'c cit. I . n nj II I Maine'
1<1 (in dll 101l'1I ge,' Crlhin: d'ILi loire,
J
(J97J) Ilf)-lrl~)
olon. J ,D, 'aloi,
ilital
orman Frnnti 1', 1 5-1 01:
, wei
>eli' ~t1 Reform,' , 'pmltwll, LJ (I 76 91-11]
SpOilt. .,' La Mil ice rle, Franc. _. reh . rs (144
I;' 00 " RI'T/II/' til'S QUI', lio'//. H islo1"iqllP~, U
(IAn7 LII-4R0
'~'l11plcl11an, G.. 'Tw Fr 'n h
II I11pl.S t Invael
England during Ih Hundred Year
aI',' it JJ
Milne (dit), ,"ill/dips in French Language,
I.ill'mllm' olilf lIislOI)1 Prp.. ('II/Nl 10 R.l.. ,mell1.r
Pilrlli" (Cal1lbridg lJ49) 22!1-2.
lI>rbi 'I' eI . Lora', .Jmn rll' if'/1Ile. Amiral rle Fr{(II(('
I "1- { Y6 (P'lri' I H78)
Tuc()()-Chala. P., ne band' de RouLi rs dan. la
n:gi >n I :asl !ialous I I. 81-13 3', RP1/uP rte
{' \ I"!{II/Iois ( 1973) 5-35
Tu l . " I.r~~ Jo:rorr/1PlI1'S SOILS Charlps II 2 vol
( I I1lbeliard 1 74)
Wolff, p" (.'OIl1I1Wrrp,\ 1'1 ma1'l"han{L~ dp Tou/rl1lsp (vn:~
/3 ()-lIm 145U) (Pari' 195 )
Wright. N,. A'1I~~lIl and Pp(/sanls: 'l7IP Hundred Ypm:
War ill Ilip FrfYnrll Counlryside ( uudbridgc
1

42

~)H)

King Charles VII of France and

his elite Scottish guard on a
panel painting by Jean Fouquet,
made around 1450. The kneeling
monarch is dressed for riding
while his guardsmen have full
armour, relatively light salets and
decorative livery Jackets.
(Adoration of the Magi, Musec
Conde, Paris)

THE PLATES
A: CAVALRY 13371360
A 1: The Dauphin Charles, c.1356
Here the future King Charles V of France wears up-to-date
and fashionable armour. This Includes a 'houndskull'
bascinet helmet with visor raised, its mail aventall secured
round the edge by vervelles. Beneath a tight surcoat
displaying, quarterly, the gold lilies on blue of 'France
ancient' and a blue dolphin with red inS and tall on gold, the
Dauphin has a coat-of-plates and a mail haubergeon. His
arms are defended by full plate armour; his legs have a more
elaborate system of scale-lined fabric CUISseS for the thighs,
domed poleyns over decoratively cut white leathers, splinted
greaves and laminated sabatons. The prince's horse is also
protected by a small amount of hardened leather armour.
(Main sources: Romance of Alexander, Flemish manuscript,
1338-44, Bodleian Library, Ms. 264, OXford; Lancelot du Lac,
French manuscnpt, mid-14 cent., Bodleian Library, Ms.
21773, Oxford)

dagger and a large shield. (Main sources: Statue of an armed

guard of the Gent militia, Flemish c.1340, Stonework
Museum, Gent; 19 cent. reproduction of lost 14 cent.
wall-paintings from Leugemetefries, Flemish 1346,
Bijlokemuseum, Gent)
B2: Infantry sergeant from Champagne, c.1360
Regions close to the border between French and Imperial
territory were Influenced by both areas. Hence this professional loot soldier's coat-of-plates would be typical of the
Rhineland and Flanders, like his leg and arm defences. His
long-shafted gisarme polearm, single-edged falchion sword,
simple helmet and large infantry shield could, however, be
found across most of the country. The brass rivets and
washers on the exterior of the upper part only of his coat-ofplates show that the skirt section is of fabric alone; note the
thong. pin and loop fastening at the shoulders, and the white
cross of France stitched to the breast. Beneath it he wears a
mail hauberk and a coif, a padded gambeson, leather rerebraces on the upper arms and chausses on the thighs, plate
poleyns and splinted greaves. He carries one of his large

A2: Southern French squire, c.1340

In contrast this southerner has the old-fashioned armour still
worn on both sides of the Pyrenean frontier. It consists of a
'great helm' With a hinged visor, mail coif, hauberk and
chausses. In addIlion he has a thickly padded surcoat,
padded gauntlets and iron greaves. The surcoat is fringed at
hem and upper arm, and bears on upper arms, chest and
back hiS arms of small red crosses on gold. His horse wears
a caparison over a full mail bard, and a hardened leather
chamfron. (Main sources: Effigy of a lord of Chateau de
Bramevaque. early 14 cent., in situ Cloisters, Abbey Church
of St Bertrand de Comminges; effigy of Bernard Comte de
Comminges, early 14 cent., Musee des Augustins. Toulouse;
Story of Tnstan, French wall-palnllngs, mid-14 cent., in situ
Templer Chapel. St Floret)
A3: Knight from the Dauphine, c.1350
This knight from south-eastern France uses a style of arms
and armour influenced by neighbOUring Savoy. His bascinet
has its visor removed and is covered with a layer of
decorative cloth With a woven thread ornament at the apex.
He wears a heraldic tabard open down both sides over a
coat-of-plates covered with red fabric, and hardened leather
shoulder pieces. Apart from hardened leather couters for his
elbows and poleyns for his knees he otherwise relies on mail
protection. The heraldic charges on his almost rectangular
shield - note cut-out for lance - are heavily embossed into
the leather covering as well as painted. (Main sources: Effigy
of Count Tommaso II of Savoy, mid-14 cent.. in situ
Cathedral, Aosta)

B: INFANTRY 1337-1360
B 1: Northern French militiaman, c.1340
The bulk of infantrymen In French armies were probably
urban milil1as. This man is armoured for close combat,
wearing a brimmed chapel-de-fer over a small basclnet with
attached avental!. His body defences are a coat-of-plates
over a mall hauberk, with hardened leather armour for his
shoulders and upper arms, plate rondels strapped to the
elbows. and splinted vambraces for his forearms. He is
armed with a massive vouge polearm. a sword, a basilard

'The Knights of Christ' on a painted alterback by Jan van

Eyck, c.1435. The detail of annour and horse harness In this
magnificent example of Flemish early Renaissance art Is
remarkable, while the annour Itself appears to b a mixture
of German and French styles. (In situ Churoh of 5t Bavon,
Gent)

43

plated leather gauntlets in his simple cervelliere. (Main

sources: ivory box. French c.1 340. Hermitage. St Petersburg;
effigy from Pont-aux-Dames. c.1335. Louvre. Paris;
Crucifixion. Franco-German alabaster carving c.1350,
Metropolitan Museum of Arts. New York)
83: Provenctal mercenary crossbowman, c.1350
Many crossbowmen were recruited from Provencte - which
lay outside the fronllers of France - and detailed desrlptions
of their equipment survive. Such a soldier has a tall chapelde-fer forged from one piece; a mail coif worn inside the top
of his haub rk. over a thickly quilted aketon; an oblong
leather buckler is strapped to his left arm. His weapons are a
sword. a large basilard dagger. and three composite
crossbows carried slung on the pack on his back. The box on
his wheelbarrow probably contains crossbow bolts. (Main
sources: Chroniques de France, French manuscript. mid-14
cent., British Library. Ms. Roy. C.VII. London; Polyptych of
the Passion by Simone Martini. painted in Avignon c.1 340,
Museum voor Schone Kunsten. Antwerp)

c: CAVALRY 1360-1415
C1: 8oucicault. c.1400
Jean de Malngre (c.1366-1421), called 'Boucicault'. eventually became Marshal of France like his father before him. A
champion of the tourney and a Crusader against the Turks on
land and sea, he was captured at Aglncourt and was one of

the few noblemen whose life was spared: he died In English

captivity six years later. In his younger days he maintained a
rigorous fitness routine Which enabled him to perform stunts
such as climbing up the back of a ladder in full armour, using
only his hands. Here this enables us to see the back of his
bascinet, aventail, and heraldic 'coat armour'. as well as his
typical plate leg armour. Note the strap attaching his aventail
through a slit In the coat armour to the iron cuirass beneath:
this is worn over a mail haubergeon. His belt, with thick
gilded plates. supports a rondeI dagger; the rigid cuirass
beneath prevents the low-slung belt from slipping down.
(Main sources: Les Belles Heures de Duc de Berry. French
manuscript, c.140S, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York;
Chroniques de St Denis. French manuscript. late 14 cent.,
British Library. Ms. Roy. 20. CVIII, London; The Apocalypse,
French tapestry, c.1375. Castle Museum, Angers)
C2: Guichard Dauphin, c.1410
Towards the end of the 14th century a bascinet with a
rounded visor came into fashion, as did a rigid iron bevor to
protect the throat. Here Guichard Dauphin has a fabrlccovered brigandine with very large chest plates over a mail
haubergeon - note the iron lance-rest on the right breast. His
mail aventall is covered with blue fabric bearing small
heraldic shields - quarterly. blue dolphins on gold, and two
silver diagonals on a blue ground, with a triple red label
overall. His shield is of the oval variety used on foot, with a
An illustration from a primitive
mid-15th century Flemish
manuscript shows similar
armour, though In a much cruder
style. (Legend of 1l"oy,
Blbllotheque Royale. Ms. 9240,
f.63v, Brussels)

44

OPPOSITE Few pieces of 15th

century clothing survive, but this
French heraldic tabard is one. It
bears a white cross contrebretesse on a red ground.
(Hermitage Museum, St
Petersburg)

substantial wooden grip and padded leather squab; he would

be armed with a shortened spear for Infantry combat. (Main
sources: late 14 cent. French effigies, in 18th century
engraving by Gaigniers, Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. Est.
Res. Pe 1, Paris; Chronicles of Froissart, French manuscript,
early 15 cent., BibliotMque Municipale, Ms. 865, Besan90n)
C3: Bertrand du Guesclin, Constable of France,
c.1370
Du Guesclln was a short. muscular man with a battered
prize-fighter's face; see the Illustration on page 17. As
Constable he would have had the finest equipment available,
here consisting of a tall baselnet with a very pointed
'houndskull' visor. The aventail is attached in the normal
manner and has its own thickly padded lining. His thickly
quilted jupon is worn over a cuirass. which is not visible here.
with plate gauntlets and full leg-harness. Several parts of this
armour are also gilded. Du Guesclin's arms are displayed as
small embroidered shields on his jupon and on his horse
caparison. The horse's chamfron Is covered with black fabric
with gold braid decoration. and has fabric 'sleeves' over the
ears. His sword has a hand-and-a-half hilt. (Main sources: Du
Guesclln Chronicles. French manuscript late 14 cent.,
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; St George, Burgundian carving
by Jacques de Baerze, late 14 cent.. Muse Historique, Dijon)
D: INFANTRY 1360-1415
01: Crossbowman in the retinue of
Jean de Hengest, c.1407
In addition to carrying a pavise shield with the arms of Jean
de Hengest, Master of the Crossbowmen of France, plus
those of 'France modern', this man has a lead badge in the
form of a sprig of broom sewn to the left breast of his quilted
pourpoint. Such badges of political affiliation were
characteristic of later 14th century France. The pourpoint is
worn over a brigandlne and a mall haubergeon, and the coif
worn under his kettle-hat is thickly padded; quilted cuisses

overlap the plate lower leg defences; and single iron plates
are strapped to the backs of his mail-faced gauntlets. He is
armed with a powerful steel crossbow - note wolfskincovered quiver of bolts, and broad belt with spanning hooks;
a broad thrusting sword (obscured here, on his left hip); and
a basilard. (Main sources: Livre de Chasse, French manuscript, early 15 cent.. Bibllotheque Nationale, Ms. Fr. 616,
Paris; sword. mid. 14 cent., Cathedral Museum, Chartres:
pourpoint of Charles de Blois, c.1370. Musee des Tissus.
Lyon)
02: Militiaman from Rennes, c.1370
This urban foot soldier could have found himself fighting for
either side. While his equipment illustrates the fact that arms
and armour travelled over great distances as arms merchants
sought customers wherever there was conflict. The scalecovered aventail might be English, his Winged mace Italian or
southern French. his hardened leather limb defences
Flemish, his mail haubergeon and chausses from anywhere in
France. (Main sources: helmet, Milanese, c.1350-70, Museo
Poldi Pezzoli. no. 2598, Milan; clerestory windows, mld-14
cent.. In situ Abbey Church, Tewksbury; funerary plaque of
Gilles de Hamel. c.1355. in situ church. Heeren-Elderen)
03: Southern French light infantryman, c.1400
At first the term brigand referred to soldiers or mercenaries
protected only by scale-lined, cloth-covered brigandines as
worn here; note the attached mail cap sleeves. This man also
has a light bascfnet, worn over his fabric hood with a long
liripipe: a mail colliere around his neck and shoulders. and a
mail haubergeon; and would have worn plated gauntlets. He
also carries a small round buckler. His weapons are a slender
thrusting sword and a new style of rondel dagger. (Main
sources: Crucifixion from the Parement de Narbonne,
painted altar hanging, French, c.1375, Louvre Museum,
Paris; Martyrdom of St George, Italian wall painting, c.1380.
in situ Oratorio di San Giorgio, Padua)

E: NAVAL WARFARE 1337-1415

E1: Jean de Bethencourt, c.1402
Jean de Bethencourt is shown during the complicated
process of putting on full armour, a task which required the
help of another man. He already wears his off-white quilted
arming coat - a garment which would later be further
developed, having small pieces of mail attached at the vulnerable points (armpit. groin, etc) so that the mail
haubergeon which De Bethencourt holds here could be
abandoned. His hose are laced to the arming coat at the
hips; his armour and shield await him - note thickly
embossed blazon on the leather-covered shield. (Main
sources: Livre des Nobles Femmes, French manuscript late
14 cent.. Bibliotheque Natlonale, Paris; breastplate,
Milanese. late 14 cent.. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)
E2: Basque sailor, c.1360
The costume worn In northern Spain and south-western
France differed from that seen further north. This seaman,
helping button the tabs down the front of the knight's arming
coat, wears a round cerveiliere with the decorated rim
favoured in northern Spain, plus a mail coif with small eye
holes - another characteristic fashion of Castile. His
sleeveless. quilted jerkin may have been more of a Catalan or

45

Aragonese fashion; note the wooden buttons down the front

and coloured woollen fringes at hem and shoulders. A broad
'cummerbund', here Interpreted as rawhide, would be worn
by Medlterrean sailors as late as the 18th century. His shirt
sleeves are rolled up; obscured here, he would wear his white
woollen hose rolled down below the knees and secured there
by laces. His weapon is an Iron polearm; the purpose of the
hooked filment on his convex shield Is unknown. (Main
sources: The Betrayal, Aragonese wall painting, mid-14 cent.,
In situ church, Urries, Saragossa; Crucifixion, painted retable
by Jaime Serra, Catalan, mid-14 cent., Museu Episcopal, Vic;
Arrest of Jesus, Navarrese carving, mid-14 cent., in situ
Calhedral, Pamplona)
E3: Castilian naval captain
Castilian military equipment had various distinctive features
such as a preference for light armour, much of It of hardened
leather reflecting a residual Arab-Islamic heritage. Here the
caplaln wears such hardened leather leg armour over mail
chausses, which were probably suited to naval warfare. His
coat-of-plates has a high collar; and a yellow fabric lining
with bra ded edges, ex1ended at the arms and skirt and
Incorporating Internal leather upper arm defences. (Main
sources: Crucifixion, painted retable by Jaime Serra, Catalan,
mid-14 cent., Museu Episcopal, Vic; Arrest of Jesus,
Navarrese carving, mid-14 cent., in situ Cathedral,
Pamplona)
F: CAVALRY 1415-1435
F1: Jeanne d'Arc, c.1430
Joan of Arc was undoubtedly an inspirational leader, though
it was her less inspiring male colleagues who provided the
military know-how. Here Ste Jeanne is shown wearing typical
middle-class women's costume, with her hair loose and
uncovered - this marked the virginal status of 'The Maid' plus a sword at her side. The banner carried by the Breton
man-at-arms In the background is based on a small drawing
of Jeanne made during her lifetime, while her shield is said to
be based on written descriptions. (Main source: drawing of
Jeanne d'Arc on the Registre du Conseil du Parlement de
Paris, 10 Mai 1429, Archives Nationales, Paris)

F2: French knight, c.1440

This rather gorgeously appointed knight - demonstrating his
wealth by his fashionable pearl-strewn fur and velvet hat, and
his courtly accomplishments by his musical skills - wears a
tabard bearing the arms of Guillaume de Flavy, the Captain of
Compiegne, who fought at Jeanne's side. He also wears a
surcoat wi h puffed sleeves repeating his arms, over his full
plate armour, and his 'great bascinet' stands ready at his feet.
His 'ballock' dagger is visible at his hip; for close foot combat
he would also be armed with his sword and a poleaxe. (Main
sources: great bascinet, Burgundian c.1430, Navarre
Museum, Pamplona; Sf Maurice, French statue from the
Tarrasque Alter, c.1460, In situ Cathedral, Aix-en-Proven<;e;
statue of a Knight, French mid-15 cent., Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York)
This little drawln9 in the margin of a record of the Conseil
du Par/ement de Paris, dated 10 May 1429, Is the only

46

known picture of Jeanne d'Arc made during her lifetime.

(Archives Natlonales, Paris)

F3: Breton man-at-arms, c.1450

By the middle of the 15th century most knights had
abandoned their surcoats; but some pictures show men
wearing what could be described as 'national insignia', in this
instance consisting of cloth cut in a kind of inverted T-shape
and bearing the black cross of Brittany. His armour consists
of a visored salet with a plate bevor, the red feather plume
attached to a gilded holder at the top of the visor; a full
cuirass in Italian style, plus plate arm and leg defences - note
decoration with gilded rivets. By this date his horse has no
armour. (Main sources: statue of Dunois. c.1450, in situ
Castle Chapel. Chateaudun; Cronicques at ystores des
Bretons, French manuscript mld-15 cent., Bibliotheque
Nationale, Ms. Fr. 8266, Paris)

G: INFANTRY 14151453
G1: Franc archer from Poitiers, c.1453
Surviving documents indicate that francs archers - 'free
archers' - often wore the arms of their own city, though few
would have been as spendidly attired as this man. Each
archer was to provide his own arms, armour and clothing
unless he was so poor that he needed help from neighbours.
This longbowman would therefore seem to be from the
Increasingly prosperous urban middle class. His salet has a
blue cloth covering and much gilded decoration. The arms of
Poitiers are applied to his quilted pourpolnt (which is laced
down the sides), and the black and yellow colours are
repeated in strips on the quilted chausses worn with plate leg

Towards the end of the Hundred

Years War firearms begin to
appear regularly In French art.
This mid-15th century Flemish
tapestry entitled the Apocalyptic
Siege of Jerusalem shows a twoman team firing a handgun. One
soldier holds the pole stock on
top of his shoulder with both
hands and takes aim, while the
other leans In to bring the match
to the touchhole - and also
seems to be bracing his comrade
from behind g Inst the coming
recoil. Both have visored salets
with extra side plates, and substantial shoulder, upper arm and
torso armour. (Castle Museum,
Saumurl

defences. He carries an arrow bag behind his right hip, and

is armed with a heavy falchion. (Main sources: Life of St
Peter, French tapestry, mid-15 cent., Musee de Cluny, Paris;
Flemish carvings. mid-15 cent., in situ Hotel de Ville Louvain)
G2: Insurgent, c.1440
Here a man in peasant costume (partly tucked up into his
sash for ease of movement) is armed with a longbow - a
weapon clearly not limited to the English. He also has a
sturdy dagger, a leather water flask carried in a leather net,
and a sheaf of arrows thrust into the back of his sash.
Bagpipes are shown in several French manuscripts. (Main
sources: Les Belles Heures de Duc de Berry. French manuscript, c.1405. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York;
Grandes Heures of Anne of BriHany, French manuscript, late
15 cent, Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. Lat. 9474, Paris)
G3: Flemish mercenary, c.1430
This man is traditionally equipped as a heavily armoured
infantryman. He has a massive chapel-de-fer helmet; an early
form of scale-lined. canvas-covered jacque, which laced
down both sides, worn over a mall haubergeon; and some
plate armour for his arms and legs. In addition to a round
buckler and relatively short sword he carries a langue-deboeuf polearm. (Main sources: helmet and langue-de-beouf.
French 15 cent., Musee de l'Armee. Paris; Crucifixion. panel
painting by Jan van Eyck. Flemish c.1425-30, Metropolitan
Museum of Art. New York)
H: A.RTlLLERY 1430-1453
H1: Gunner with ribaudequin, c.1435
Artillery was an aspect of 15th century warfare in which the
French outstripped their English opponents. Here a mastergunner prepares to fire a mulH-barrelled ribaudequin. Despite
many references to such guns in the 14th and 15th centuries
they remain something of a mystery. Originally the term

referred to a light cart, to which a number of small gunbarrels

were later added; they were probably fired in rapid succession producing a rippling fire, and were clearly
anti-personnel weapons rather than wall-battering pieces.
The gunner himself is heavily armoured with mail and plate
because of his exposed position, valued status and relative
wealth. (Main source: The Three Maries at the Tomb, panel
painting by Hubert van Eyck. c.1430, Boymans-van
Beuningen Museum, Rotterdam)
H2: Gunner's assistant, c.1440
The assistant, pulling the mantlet open to allow the gun to
fire, has been given here the costume of a working man since
his task was essentially that of a labourer: a doublet and hose
laced together over a shirt. canvas leggings, an apron, and a
substantial belt knife as his only weapon. His visored salet is
his only armour. (Main sources: Les Echecs Amoureux,
French manuscript, 15 cent., Bibliotheque Nationale, Ms. Fr.
143, Paris; salet, French c.1440, Musee de l'Armee, Paris)
H3: Handgunner, c.1450
This gunner wears a deep chapel-de-fer with an eye-slit in
the brim. though it is pushed back here for better visibility.
Substantial pauldrons protect his shoulders and upper arms
while the plackart and fauld from an Italian cuirass cover part
of his brigandine, itself worn over a mail haubergeon. The
quillons of his sword have a ring fitting to protect his forefinger when fencing in the new 'Italian' manner. He is about
to fire his weapon with a length of smouldering slowmatch;
his powder flask, bullet bag and scouring stick would lie
close by when in combat and would be carried slung when
on the march. (Main sources: St Michael, panel painting by
Bernardo Martorell, Gatan c.1440, Museu Diocesa.
Tarragona; Life of St Sirmin on the Tomb of Bishop Ferry de
Beauvolr, French carving, late 15 cent., in situ Cathedral,
Amiens)

47

Detail from Flemish illustration of soldiers sacking a

captured city, made around 1460. It not only shows their
salets, brlgandln s and minimal leg defences, but also that
while som are clean-shaven others wear moustaches and
short beards. The assorted booty Is being carried off in

baskets, chests, sacks and bundles; It Includes jugs. bottles

and cooking utensils. Note the wheelbarrow In the foreground. pushed with the aid of a shoulder rope - see Plate
83. (Chronlques de France, 8ibllotheque Natlonale, Ms. Fr.
2466, Paris)

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MEN-AT-ARMS

FRENCH ARMIES OF THE HUNDRE'D YEARS WAR 1337-1453

For Englishmen and WeJ hmen the Hundrd
Year War repre ent an important chapter in
their 'national myth , - nam
uch as Cr'
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likely to be infi rmed about the impre ive
Fr nch r 0 ry which a
ngli h armie
dri en out of France by th mid-15th centur
under the leader hip of uch remarkable figures
Bertrand du Gue c1jn and Joan of Ar , Thi
fa cinating anal is of th organi ati n,
appearance and tactics of rench armi co er
a p nod mark d b important change.

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