Process Plant Engineering

Arman Bagongon

POLYSTYRENE

Introduction
Ostromislensky of the Naugatuck chemical company first introduced polystyrene via a pioneering
parent in 1925. At about the same time, work by I.C. Farbenindustrie began that resulted in the
commercialization of polystyrene in Europe. The Dow Chemical Company also began development
of the polystyrene product and process in 1930.
The commercial production of polystyrene first took place at about the same time in Germany and
the US during the early 1930s; it was manufactured primarily for its good electrical properties. The
polymer was produced in the UK at about the time of the beginning of the Second World War, when
it was used not only as an electrical insulant but also as a glass replacement in optical instruments
after lenses and prisms were no longer available from Germany.
The major stimulus to the production of styrene monomer came in 1942 in the US with the largescale installation of manufacturing facilities for the styrene-butadiene rubber, which was required to
replace natural rubber after the cessation of suppliers from the Far East. After the war when natural
rubber became available again, there was a large surplus production for styrene monomer, and
polystyrene became available to help meet the demand for materials, which could be used to satisfy
the shortage of consumer goods.
The polymer has good mouldability, high transparency and rigidity, which made it suitable for wide
range of applications.

Crystal polystyrene was the initial polystyrene produced was a homopolymer. It is also known as
general-purpose polystyrene and exhibits exceptional clarity with heat resistance above that of
other commodity thermoplastics. A further development was rubber modified or impact
polystyrene. Impact polystyrene is opaque and exhibits increased toughness and ease of processing
versus other commodity thermoplastics.
Another major type of polystyrene application is expandable polystyrene, which is used mainly in
lightweight insulating applications

FEASIBILTY STUDY
Polystyrene has many advantages, which include:
Lightweight: reduces transport fuel consumption and the cost of distributing products.
Performance: provides insulation and protection from contamination and impact.
Economy: usually less expensive than alternative materials resulting in savings to the
consumer.
Energy Savings: polystyrene manufacture requires less energy than alternatives resulting in
lower "greenhouse" emissions. As insulation, polystyrene foam enable enormous energy
savings in commercial installations such as cool stores.
The annual consumption of polystyrene in US comprises of 8% of the total
plastics used in the United States, making it one of the most often used types of polymers.

PLANT LOCATION
The Location Of The Plant Can Have A Crucial Effect On The Profitability Of A
Project, And The Scope For Future Expansion. Many Factors Must Be Considered
When Selecting A Suitable site.
The Principal Factors To Be Considered Are:
Location, With Respect To The Marketing Area.
Raw Material Supply.
Transport Facilities.
Availability Of Labour.
Availability Of Utilities: Water, Fuel, Power.
Availability Of Suitable Land.
Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal.
Local Community Considerations.
Climate.
Political Strategic Considerations

Marketing Area
For Materials That Are Produced In Bulk Quantities: Such As Cement,
Mineral Acids And Fertilizers, Where The Cost Of The Product Per Ton Is
Relatively Low And The Cost Of Transport A Significant Fraction Of The
Sales Price, The Plant Should Be Located Close To The Primary Market.
This Consideration Will Be Less Important For Low Volume Production,
High-Priced Products; Such As Pharmaceuticals. In An International
Market, There May Be An Advantage To Be Gained By Locating The Plant
Within An Area With Preferential Tariff.
.

Raw Materials
The Availability And Price Of Suitable Raw Materials Will Often
Determine The Site Location. Plants Producing Bulk Chemicals Are Best
Located Close To The Source Of The Major Raw Material; Where This Is
Also Close To The Marketing Area. Soda Ash Plant Should Be Located
Near The Salt Lakes Or Near Sea, Where Sodium Chloride Is Available
Abundantly.

Transport
The Transport Of Materials And Products To And From Plant Will Be An
Overriding Consideration In Site Selection. If Practicable, A Site Should Be
Selected That Is Close At Least Two Major Forms Of Transport: Road, Rail,
Waterway Or A Seaport. Road Transport Is Being Increasingly Used, And Is
Suitable For Local Distribution From A Central Warehouse. Rail Transport Will
Be Cheaper For The Long-Distance Transport Of Bulk Chemicals. Air Transport
Is Convenient And Efficient For The Movement Of Personnel And Essential
Equipment And Supplies, And The Proximity Of The Site To A Major Airport
Should Be Considered.

Availability Of Labour
Labour Will Be Needed For Construction Of The Plant And Its Operation.
Skilled Construction Workers Will Usually Be Brought In From Outside The
Site, But There Should Be An Adequate Pool Of Unskilled Labour Available
Locally; And Labour Suitable For Training To Operate The Plant. Skilled
Tradesmen Will Be Needed For Plant Maintenance. Local Trade Union Customs
And Restrictive Practices Will Have To Be Considered When Assessing The
Availability And Suitability Of The Labour For Recruitment And Training.

Utilities (Services)
The Word Utilities Is Now Generally Used For The Ancillary Services Needed
In The Operation Of Any Production Process. These Services Will Normally Be
Supplied From A Central Facility; And Will Include:
Electricity: - Power Required For Electrochemical Processes, Motors,
Lightings, And General Use Steam For Process Heating: - The Steams
Required For The Process Are Generated In The Tube Boilers Using Most
Economic Fuel.
Cooling Water: - Natural And Forced Draft Cooling Towers Are Generally Used
To Provide The Cooling Water Required On Site.
Water For General Use: - The Water Required For The General Purpose Will
Be Taken From Local Water Supplies Like Rivers, Lakes And Seas. Because Of
This Reason All The Plants Located On The Banks Of River.
Dematerialized Water: - Dematerialized Water, From Which All The Minerals
Have Been Removed By Ion-Exchange Is Used Where Pure Water Is Needed For
The Process Use, In Boiler Feed Water.
Refrigeration: - Refrigeration Is Needed For The Processes, Which Require
Temperatures Below That Are Provided By The Cooling Water.
Inert-Gas Supplies.
Compressed Air: - In An Ethylene Oxide Plant Compressed Air Is One Of The
Raw Materials. It Is Also Needed For Pneumatic Controllers Etc.
Effluent Disposal Facilities: - Facilities Must Be Provided For The Effective
Disposal Of The Effluent Without Any Public Nuisance.

Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal

All Industrial Processes Produce Waste Products, And Full Consideration Must Be Given To The
Difficulties And Coat Of Their Disposal. The Disposal Of Toxic And Harmful Effluents Will Be
Covered By Local Regulations, And The Appropriate Authorities Must Be Consulted During The
Initial Site Survey To Determine The Standards That Must Be Met.
Local Community Considerations
The Proposed Plant Must Fit In With And Be Acceptable To The Local Community. Full
Consideration Must Be Given To The Safe Location Of The Plant So That It Does Not Impose A
Significant Additional Risk To The Community.
Land (Site Considerations)
Sufficient Suitable Land Must Be Available For The Proposed Plant And Future Expansion. The
Land Should Be Ideally Flat, Well Drained And Have Load-Bearing Characteristics. A Full Site
Evaluation Should Be Made To Determine The Need For Piling Or Other Foundations.
Climate
Adverse Climatic Conditions At Site Will Increase Costs. Abnormally Low Temperatures Will
Require The Provision Of Additional Insulation And Special Heating For Equipment And Piping.
Stronger Locations Will Be Needed At Locations Subject To High Wind Loads Or Earthquakes.
Political And Strategic Considerations
Capital Grants, Tax Concessions, And Other Inducements Are Often Given By Governments To
Direct New Investment To Preferred Locations; Such As Areas Of High Unemployment. The
Availability Of Such Grants Can Be The Overriding Consideration In Site Selection.

PLANT LAY OUT

The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well the plant
and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal
factors are considered are:
Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.
The process requirements.
Convenience of operation.
Convenience of maintenance.
Safety.
Future expansion.
Modular construction.
Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting
pipe between equipment, and at least amount of structural steel work. However, this will not necessarily
be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
Process requirements
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate the base of
columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or the operating head for a
thermosyphon reboiler.
Operations
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the control room.
Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions and heights. Sufficient
working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access to equipment.

Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for cleaning and tube
replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the
out side of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places under cover.
Safety
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of an
explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process
buildings.
Plant expansion
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion of the
process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow for
future requirements.
Modular construction
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant manufacturers site.
These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The modules are
then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
The advantages of modular construction are:

Improved quality control.

Reduced construction cost.

Less need for skilled labour on site.

Some of the disadvantages are;

Higher design costs & more structural steel work.

More flanged constructions & Possible problems with assembly, on site. Some of the disadvantages are;

Higher design costs & more structural steel work.

More flanged constructions & Possible problems with assembly, on site.

PLANT LOCATION

The Plant is located at barangay Sta. Lourdes Puerto Princesa City. It occupies a
land area of about 5000 sq. meters. Its landfill occupies 1/5 of the plants land area.
Other areas are:
Polystyrene production plant- 1500 sq. meters
Recycling portion- 250 sq. meters
Warehouse- 800 sq. meters
Office-250 sq. meters
Parking area-150 sq. meters
Heavy-duty parking area-200 sq. meters
Power room- 250 sq. meters
Miscellaneous- 600 sq. meters

 The location of the plant is 1 km. away from the national highway. It is surrounded by thick
walls in order not to be entered by unauthorized individuals. The plant is far from houses and
other infrastructures. Polystyrene plant is not a treat to the community because production of
polystyrene is clean process. Still we introduce landfill in order for the very few residues to
be deposited cleanly without harming the environment.
Polystyrene production is more prone in recycling process which lessens the undesired
residues.
The sites location is near in the source of its raw materials and power supply because it is
still in the city where supplies can easily be purchases through land transportation. It is only
15 km. away from the sources of raw materials, so purchasing of raw materials is not a
problem and is not that costly.
Also, the man power needed is not a problem because workers could easily went there
through public vehicles.
The product delivery can also be done easily through land transportation since its consumers
are on the citys territories.
the plants land area can also be extended since the land area it occupies is flat, clear to any
infrastructures and livelihood, and is also a grassland, so cutting trees is controlled.
Also Puerto Princesa City has a moderate climate since it is on a tropical country.
Even though the land is flat, still it is high enough and is safe for any flood that may occur.
Also, drainage are made within the surrounding.
Water supply is also not a problem since the barangay near it, barangay Irawan, has a river,
and water district is not far from the plant.
The plant operates silently and is not a disturbance to the community.

RAW MATERIALS
Styrene monomer
Initiator
Miscellaneous (additives)
EPF's main component is styrene (C 8 H 8 ), which is derived from petroleum or natural gas
and formed by a reaction between ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) and benzene (C 6 H 6 ); benzene is
produced from coal or synthesized from petroleum. Styrene is polymerized either by heat or
by an initiator such as benzoyl peroxide. Stopping the polymerization is difficult; however,
inhibitors such as oxygen, sulfur, or quinol can be used. To form the low-density, loosely
attached cells EPF is noted for, polystyrene must first be suspended in water to form
droplets. A suspension agent, such as specially precipitated barium sulfate or copolymers of
acrylic and methacrylic acid and their esters (organic product formed by the reaction
between of an acid and an alcohol), is then added to the water. Numerous suspension agents
are used commercially. All are similarly viscous and serve to hold up the droplets,
preventing them from sticking together. The beads of polystyrene produced by suspension
polymerization are tiny and hard. To make them expand, special blowing agents are used,
including propane, pentane, methylene chloride, and the chlorofluorocarbons.

EQUIPMENTS
RECYCLING MACHINE- USE FOR
RECYCLING UNMADE POLYSTYRENE

 MOULDING MACHINE- FOR SHAPING

THE POLYSYRENE PRODUCT

 POLYMERIZATION REACTOR- WHERE THE

POLYMERIZATION OF STYRENE TAKES PLACE WITH
THE AID OF INITIATORS

 WASH TANK- WASHING PROCESS

CENTRIFUGE-is a device used in science to separatesuspensions by

density. The more dense particles separate out and migrate to the bottom
of the test tube, while the lighter particles move toward the top. The
machine is round, and has holes into whichtest tubes can be inserted.
Then, a lid covers the top of the machine and it can spin using its motorat
a very high speed. If someone wanted to separate blood into its
components--red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma, they
would use a centrifuge. The plasma would be floating on the top because it
has the lowest density. It can be used to separate organelles from cells and
to isolate nucleic acids. These are some examples of how a centrifuge can
be used.

 DRYER- DRYING THE DESIRED

PRODUCT

PROCESS
Polystyrene is manufactured by the addition polymerization of styrene monomer unit. The main
manufacturing route to styrene is the direct catalytic dehydrogenation of ethyl benzene:
`

CATALYST
CH3-CH

CH2

CH + H2

STYRENE
The reaction shown above has a heat of reaction of -121 KJ/mol (endothermic).
Nearly 65% of all styrene is used to produce polystyrene.

The overall reaction describing the styrene polymerization is:

INITIATOR
X CH2

CH

CH2

CH
X

STYRENE

POLYSTYRENE

This reaction is carried out in an inert organic solvent environment, which provides the reaction
medium for this cationic polymerization reaction
The different methods available for styrene polymerization are:
1. Solution (bulk) polymerization. 2. Emulsion polymerization. 3. Suspension polymerization.

Making styrene
1 The basic unit of polystyrene is styrene, which is the product of a two-fold
reaction. Ethylene and benzene, in the presence of a catalyst such as
aluminum chloride, form ethylbenzene (C 8 H 8 ), which is then
dehydrogenated (hydrogen is removed) at 1,112-1,202 degrees Fahrenheit
(600-650 degrees Celsius) to form styrene (C 8 H 8 ).

Making polystyrene
Polystyrene is formed from styrene through suspension polymerization, a
process by which tiny drops of the monomer (in this case, styrene) are
completely surrounded by water and a mucilaginous substance. Supporting
and surrounding the styrene globules, the suspension agent produces
uniform droplets of polystyrene.
Next, a polymerization initiator is added to the droplets, which are
suspended by heat radiation of about 212 degrees Fahrenheit (100 degrees
Celsius). This results in free radicals, a group of atoms particularly likely to
react with others because they contain unpaired electrons which are
available for molecular bonding. Free radicals then combine at randomly to
form chains of polystyrene.
Stopping the polymerization process is difficult. Terminators are introduced to
the process to end it at the appropriate time. Though variable, chain length
must fall within a certain range, because polystyrene with overly long chains
won't melt readily, and polystyrene with short chains will be brittle.

 Preparing the beads

After polymerization is complete, the mixtureconsisting of beads made up of polystyrene chainsis
cooled. These beads are then washed out and dried. Uniform bead size is achieved by sorting the beads
through meshes which filter out over- and undersized beads.
Making expanded polystyrene foam
First, the beads of polystyrene must be expanded to achieve the proper density. This process is known as preexpansion, and involves heating the polystyrene either with steam (the most common method) or hot air (for
high density foam, such as that used for a coffee cup); the heating is carried out in a vessel holding anywhere
from 50 to 500 gallons (189 to 1,892 liters). During pre-expansion, an agitator is used to keep the beads from
fusing together. Since expanded beads are lighter than unexpanded beads, they are forced to the top of the
vessel's cavity and discharged. This process lowers the density of the beads to three percent of their original
value and yields a smooth-skinned, closed cell EPF that is excellent for detailed molding.
Next, the pre-expanded beads are usually "aged" for at least 24 hours in mesh storage silos. This allows air to
diffuse into the beads, cooling them and making them harder.
Molding
After aging, the beads are fed into a mold of the desired shape. Low-pressure steam is then injected into and
between the beads, expanding them once more and fusing them together.
9 The mold is then cooled, either by circulating water through it or by spraying water on the outside. EPF is
such a good insulator that it is hard to cool the mold down. Using small molds can reduce both the heating
and cooling time and thereby speed up the process.
Making extruded, expanded polystyrene foam
This process yields EPF with small cell size that can be used to manufacture boards used for insulation. The
beads are melted, and a blowing agent is added. The molten polystyrene is then extruded into the proper
shape under conditions of high temperature and pressure.
Cutting, bonding, and coating
EPF is usually cut with common wood-I working tools, which must be kept very sharp at all times to cut
smoothly. It can also be bonded with adhesives that do not destroy it. Water-based adhesives are good, as are
phenolics, epoxies, resorcinols, and ureas. EPF is not resistant to weathering or

Initiator

The requirements of polymerization are:

a] Initiator. b] Suspending agent. c] Stabilizing agent. d] Catalyst
Initiators: The initiators generally used are benzoyl peroxide and t-butylhydroperoxide.

PROCESS FLOW OF
STYRENE

PROCESS FLOW OF
POLYSTYRENE

Suspending agent: To aid in the formation of the proper size drops a suspending agent is added.
Some typical suspending agents are methylcellulose, ethyl cellulose and polyacrylic acids. Their
concentration in the suspension is between 0.01-0.5% of monomer charged.
.

Stabilizing agent: To keep the drops at proper size, a stabilizing agent is added. The stabilizing agents are
often insoluble inorganic such as calcium carbonate, calcium phosphates or bentonite clay. They are
present in small amount than the suspending agents.
Catalyst: A catalyst is used to control the reaction rate. The catalysts are usually peroxides. The most
common ones are benzoyl, diacetyl, lauroyl, caproyl and tert-butyl. Their concentration varies from 0.10.5% of the monomer charged. The ratio of monomer to dispersing medium is between 10 and 40%.
Polymerization temperature: Polymerization of styrene occurs at temperature range of 90- 950C
Process description:
The suspension method is carried out in large reactors equipped with agitators, the styrene monomer
being maintained in the aqueous phase as droplets with a diameter varying between 0.4-1mm by use of a
dispersing agent such as partially hydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate, inorganic phosphates or magnesium
silicates. To reduce the cycle time of the reactors, the entering water and styrene will be preheated. The
temperatures of the input streams will be sent so as to obtain the desired reaction temperature. The water
entering the reactor will be heated to 950C. The bulk of the styrene is to be heated to 850C before being
charged. This is done in a vertical double pipe heat exchanger, which is directly above the reactor. To
prevent the polymerization from occurring in the heat exchanger or piping system, there are to be no
obstructions between this heat exchanger and the reactor.

The catalyst, rubber stabilizer, and suspending agent are premixed in styrene and discharged by
gravity into the reactor. This mixture will not be preheated, since it might polymerize. Typical
water to monomer ratios is 1:1 to 3:1. A combination of two or more initiators is used with a
programmed reaction temperature to reduce the polymerization time to a minimum for a given
amount of residual styrene.
Purification steps and Extrusion: If the water can be removed using physical separation processes,
then the styrene and the other impurities dissolved in it will also be discharged. A centrifuge with a
washing step will be used to do this. The material leaving the centrifuge has 1-5% water. The final
purification step is drying. The polystyrene leaving this unit must meet the specifications set.
(0.03% water). Then it is passed through a devolatisation extruder to remove the volatile residues
and to convert the polymer into pellets.
It was assumed that 3% of polystyrene would be removed from the process in airveying, drying,
centrifuging, transferring, or as bad as bad product. At least 95% of that which is lost in processing
must be intercepted before it leaves the plant. Most of it can be removed and sold as off-grade
material. This waste is split among the various streams leaving the processing area.

MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES

Amount of polystyrene produced per day
= 250 TPD= 250*10 3/24= 10416.67Kg/hr
The key to successful production of polystyrene is the reaction. The ratio of materials to be used is a
compromise of literature values. All the authors discussing suspension polymerization say the reaction
should be allowed to go to completion (removing and recycling the unreacted styrene would be
expensive). It will be assumed that 99.8% of the styrene is reacted and this can be accomplished by
using an average of the temperatures and cycle time given. Temperature of reaction = 90-95C Cycle
time of reactor=5.5hrs.
Reactor: Input to the reactor:( unit ratios are obtained from literature):
Styrene
= 1.032 kg styrene/kg polystyrene = 1.032*10416.67 = 10750kg.
Water
= 2.0 kg water/kg polystyrene
= 2.0*10416.67
= 20833.34kg.
Tricalcium phosphate = 0.005 kg tricalcium phosphate/kg polystyrene = 0.005*10416.67=
52.08kg.
Dodecylbenzene sulphonate = 0.00006 kg dodecylbenzene sulphonate/kg polystyrene =
0.00006*10416.67
= 0.625kg.
Benzoyl peroxide = 0.0025 kg benzoyl peroxide/kg polystyrene = 0.0025*10416.67= 26.04kg.
Miscellaneous
= 0.004(styrene 99.6% pure)(unit ratio) = 0.004*10416.67 = 41.67kg.
Total input to reactor = 31703.75kg.
Output from the reactor:
Polystyrene =1.030 kg polystyrene / kg of polystyrene = 1.030*10416.67 = 10729.17kg.
Styrene
= 0.002 kg styrene/kg polystyrene
= 0.002*10416.67 = 20.83kg
Water
= 2.0 kg water/kg polystyrene
= 2.0*10416.67
= 20833.34kg.
Miscellaneous = 0.0116 kg /kg polystyrene
= 0.0116*10416.67 =120.83kg.
Total output from reactor

31704kg.

Input to wash tank:

Output from reactor = (1.030+0.002+2.0+0.0116)*10416.67=31704kg.
Water =2.0 kg water/ kg polystyrene=2.0*10426.67=20833.34kg.
Hydrochloric acid = 0.004 kg HCl/kg polystyrene=0.004*10416.67
=41.67kg.
Total input to wash tank = 52579.01kg.

Output from wash tank:

Polystyrene= 1.030 kg polystyrene/ kg polystyrene desired
=1.030*10416.67
= 10729.17kg
Styrene= 0.002 kg styrene/kg polystyrene = 0.002*10416.67=20.83kg.
Water = 4.0 kg water/ kg polystyrene = 4.0*10416.67 = 41666.68kg.

Miscellaneous = 0.0156 kg/kg of polystyrene = 0.0156*10416.67 = 162.5kg

Total output from wash tank = 10729+ 20.83+41666.68+162.5
= 52579.18kg

Input to the centrifuge:

Output from wash tank = 52579.18kg
Water =1.0 kg water/kg polystyrene =10416.67kg water.
CENTRIFUGE
Output from centrifuge:
The output from centrifuge comprises of two layers.
One is the desired and the other is bad product.
Desired product composition:
Polystyrene = 1.02 kg polystyrene/kg of desired polystyrene
= 1.02*10416.67 = 10625kg
Styrene = 0.0001 kg styrene/kg polystyrene
= 0.0001*10416.67 = 1.0417 kg.
Water = 0.05 kg water/ kg polystyrene = 0.05*10416.67
= 520.83kg
Miscellaneous=0.0001 kg/ kg polystyrene= 0.0001*10416.67
=1.0417kg
Bad product composition:
Polystyrene = 0.01kg polystyrene/kg polystyrene
= 0.01*10416.67 =104.17kg
Styrene=0.002 kg styrene /kg polystyrene=0.002*10416.67=20.833kg
Water = 4.95 kg water / kg polystyrene= 4.95*10416.67= 51562.52kg
Miscellaneous= 0.0155 kg/ kg polystyrene =0.0155*10416.67 =161.98kg.

Input to the dryer:

Output from the centrifuge = 11148.96kg
Output from the dryer:
Output from dryer comprises of three parts;
1. Desired polystyrene with composition:
Polystyrene =1.0 kg/kg polystyrene
= 10416.67 kg of polystyrene.
Water
= 0.0003 kg/kg polystyrene
= 0.0003*10416.67 = 3.125kg

2. Product with;
Polystyrene=0.005 kg/kg polystyrene= 0.005*10416.67
= 52.083kg
Water
= 0.0499kg/kg polystyrene= 0.0499*10416.67
= 519.79kg
3. Bad product obtained has a composition;
Polystyrene = 0.015 kg/kg polystyrene
= 0.015*10416.67
= 156.25kg

HEAT BALANCE
Styrene heat exchanger:
The additive feed tank must be large enough to handle all additive plus a carrier solution of styrene. The amount of
dodecylbenzene sulfonate, tricalcium phosphate and benzoyl peroxide used per batch are:
= (0.005+0.00006+2*0.0025)*10416.67*5.5/9 = 64.039 kg.
Assume 2kg of styrene are to be used to carry each kg of additive into the reactor.
i.e. 64.039*2 = 128.078kg.
When GPPS is made, all but 128.078kg of styrene are heated to 93C. For the other products less is used. The time to charge
the reactor is set as 5min. Steam at 150psi will be used as heating medium.
Q s = msCpsTs. = Us.A. Tss ------------(1)
Where, Qs = rate of heat transfer.
ms = flow rate of styrene through exchanger. == {(1.032)*10416.67*5.5/9 128.078} /(5/60)
= 77296.4 kg/hr.
Cps = heat capacity of styrene = 0.43BTU/lb F. = 1.799 kJ/kgC.
Ts = temperature difference of styrene entering and leaving exchanger = 93 30 = 63C.
Qs = 77296.4*1.799*63 = 8760.54*103kJ/hr.
A = area of heat exchanger, m2.
Us= overall heat transfer co-efficient =150BTU/hr.ft2.F. = 851.7 W/m2K.
At 150 psi Ts=182C.
Tss = (182-30)-(182-93) /{ln(182-30)/(182-93)}= = 117.7C.

Therefore from equation (1),

8760.54*103 = 851.7*117.7*A
A = 87.39m2.
One of the heat exchanger is needed for each reactor, because they must be positioned vertically above the
reactor. This is to prevent any hot styrene from remaining in the exchanger or the piping where it might
polymerize.
The average steam rate = msCpsTs/
= (10617.82*1.799*63)/1995.98 = 602.908 kg/hr.
Where, = latent heat of vaporization = 1995.98kJ/hr.
ms = average flow rate of styrene through exchanger.
= 1.032*(10416.67 128.08) = 10617.82 kg/hr.
Therefore maximum steam rate = (602.908*5.5/9)/(5/60) = 6331.988 kg/hr.
Air heat exchanger:
The air is to be heated to 150C using 150psi steam (182C) The amount of energy required = Qa =
maCpT.
Where, ma = flow rate of air. = 14048 kg/hr.
Cp = heat capacity of air entering and leaving the exchanger = 1.0468 kJ/kgC.
T = temperature difference of air entering and leaving the exchanger. = 150 30 = 120C.
Qa = 14048*1.0468*120 = 1.76465*10

6 kJ/hr.

This assumes a 10% heat loss.

The area of heat exchanger A = Qa /(Ua. Tm)
Ua = overall heat transfer co-efficient.
Tm = L.M.T.D across exchanger. = (182-30)-(182-150)/ln(182-30)/(182-150) = 72.015C.

Ua = 1/(1/ho+1/hi)
ho = h.t. co-efficient of condensing steam =2000BTU/hr.ft2.F = 3461.5 kW/m2.C.
hi = h.t. co-efficient of air = 5BTU/hr.ft2.F. = 8.654 kW/ m2.C.
Therefore,
Ua = 1/({(1/3461.5)+(1/8.654)} = 8.632 kW/ m2.C
A = (1.76465*106) /(8.632*77.015) = 2652.7m2 of surface area.
Amount of steam required = (1.76465*106) / 1995.98 = 884.1kg/hr.
Reactor cooling system:
From reactor design,
Average energy removed per hour = 77.674*103 D3 kJ/hr. = 77.674*103*(2.486)3.
= 119.338*104 kJ/hr = 331.49kJ/s.
Inlet temperature of cooling water = 30C.
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 68C.
Let mw be the amount of cooling water required:
Q = mw.Cp. T.
mw .4.187*103*(68-30) = 331.494 kJ/s
Therefore,
mw= 2.085 kg/s in each reactor.
Therefore amount of water required in total for 9 reactors= 2.085*9 = 18.765 kg/s.

Dryer:
Temperatures:
Inlet
Outlet
Polystyrene
30C.
80C.
Air
150C.
85C.
Heat required raising product to discharge temperature,
= 10612.1496*1.3398*(80-30) + 3.125*4.187*(80-30). = 7.1156*105W.
Heat required removing water,
= 533.335*4.187*(80-30) + 550 + 0.45*(85-80).
= 1.12205*105W.
Therefore total heat required,
= 7.1156*105 + 1.12205*105W. = 8.23765*105W.
Tm = (150-30)-(85-80) / Ln (150-30)/(85-80) = 36.186C.
The minimum air velocity is set by the particle size. A flow rate of 1000lb/hr.ft2 is adequate for 420-micron
particle. This will be used. The minimum velocity is used since it gives the smaller dryer. The amount of air
required is determined by amount of energy the 150C. air must supply to remove the moisture from the
polystyrene.
m = Qt /( Cp.T).
Where,
Cp = heat capacity of air = 0.237 BTU/lb.C.
T = difference in air temperature entering and leaving dryer,C.
Qt = heat transferred in dryer =8.23765*105W.
m = mass flow rate of air.
m=
8.23765*105 /(0.9923*(150-85)) = 12771.65kg/hr.
The amount of air is adequate. Add 10% to account for possible heat losses.
Therefore mass flow rate = 1.1* 12771.65
= 14048.87 kg/hr.

COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS

The Chemical Engineering Plant cost Index (CEPI):
In 1969 = 119.0
In 2002 = 402.0
Let us assume that the plant is running for 325 days a year.
From literature, the capital cost for the proposed plant should range between $124 and
$253 per annual ton.
Lets take value of 1$ = Rs 50.
Lets take capital cost = $200 per annual ton.
= Rs 10000 per annual ton.
Total tones of polystyrene produced every year

= 325 * 250
= 81250tones/year.
Therefore the capital cost for proposed plant in 1969 is = 81250*10000
= Rs.8.125*108
The fixed capital cost for the proposed plant in 2002

= 8.125*10 8*(402 /119)

= Rs 274.47*107
= Rs 274.47crores.

Estimation of Capital Investment Cost:

I. Direct Costs: material and labour involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-90% of fixedcapital investment)
a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation + painting (50-60% of
Fixed-capital investment)
1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (15-40% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider purchased equipment cost = 30% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., PEC = 30% of 274.47107 = 0.30 274.47107 = Rs. 82.341107
2. Installation, including insulation and painting: (25-55% of purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the Installation cost = 35% of Purchased equipment cost
= 35% of 82.341107
= 0.35 82.341107
=Rs.28.819107
3. Instrumentation and controls, installed: (6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the installation cost = 15% of Purchased equipment cost
= 15% of 82.341107
= 0.15 82.341107
= Rs.12.35x107

4. Piping installed: (10-80% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the piping cost = 35% Purchased equipment cost
= 35% of Purchased equipment cost
= 0.35 82.341107
= Rs. 28.81x107
5. Electrical, installed: (10-40% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost
= 25% of 82.341107
= 0.25 82.341107
= Rs.20.585x107
B. Buildings, process and Auxiliary: (10-70% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider Buildings, process and auxiliary cost
= 30% of PEC
= 30% of 82.341107
= 0.30 82.341107
= Rs.24.7x107
C. Service facilities and yard improvements: (40-100% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider the cost of service facilities and yard improvement = 50% of PEC
= 50% of 82.341107
= 0.50 82.341107
= Rs 41.17x107
D. Land: (1-2% of fixed capital investment or 4-8% of Purchased equipment cost)
Consider the cost of land = 6% PEC
= 6% of 82.341107
= 0.06 82.341107
= Rs. 4.94x107

Thus, Direct cost = Rs.243.67x107 ----- (88.9% of FCI)

6. Indirect costs: expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation of
complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)
A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)
Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs
i.e., cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of 243.67 107
= 0.1243.67 107 = Rs 24.367 x107
B. Construction Expense and Contractors fee: (6-30% of direct costs)
Consider the construction expense and contractors fee = 10% of Direct costs
i.e., construction expense and contractors fee = 10% of 243.67x107
= 0.1 243.67 107 = Rs 24.367 x107
C. Contingency: (5-15% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider the contingency cost = 10% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Contingency cost = 10% of 243.67 107 = Rs.24.367x107
Thus, Indirect Costs = Rs. 73.101x107 --- (26.63% of FCI)
7. Fixed Capital Investment:
Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= (243.67 107) + (73.101x107)
i.e., Fixed capital investment = Rs. 316.771x107
IV. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Working capital = 15% of 316.771x107
= 0.15 316.771x107
= Rs. 47.516x107

V. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total capital investment
= Fixed capital investment + Working capital = (316.771x107) + (47.516x107)
i.e., Total capital investment = Rs. 364.29x107.
Estimation of Total Product cost:
I. Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.
A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)
i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of calculation-about 13% of FCI for machinery and equipment
and 2-3% for Building Value for Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 12%of FCI for machinery and equipment and 4% for Building Value for Buildings)
i.e., Depreciation = (0.1282.341x107)+ (0.0424.7107)
= Rs. 10.8689x107
ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the local taxes = 3% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Local Taxes = 0.03316.771x107= Rs. 9.503x107
iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = 0.006316.771x107= Rs. 1.901x107
iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)
Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings
= 10% of ((24.7107) + (4.94107))
= 0.10 ((24.7107) + (4.94107))
Rent = Rs. 2.964x107
Thus, Fixed Charges = Rs. 25.23107
B. Direct Production Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)
Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges (given)
Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost

Total product charge = fixed charges/15%

Total product charge = 25.23107/15%
Total product charge = 25.23107/0.15
Total product charge(TPC) = Rs. 168.25x107
i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of raw materials = 25% of total product cost
Raw material cost = 25% of 168.25x107 = 0.25168.25x107
Raw material cost = Rs. 42.06x107
ii. Operating Labour (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of operating labour = 15% of total product cost
operating labour cost = 15% of 168.25x10 7= 0.15168.25x107
Operating labour cost = Rs. 25.2375x107
iii. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL)
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 12% of OL
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = 12% of 25.2375x10 7
= 0.1225.2375x107
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = Rs. 3.0285x10 7
iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of Utilities = 12% of total product cost
Utilities cost= 12% of 168.25x107= 0.12168.25x107
Utilities cost = Rs. 20.19x107

v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05316.771x107= Rs. 15.8386107
vi. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)
Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 15% of 15.8386107 = 0.15 15.8386107
Operating supplies cost = Rs. 2.376x107
vii. Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)
Consider the Laboratory charges = 15% of OL
Laboratory charges = 15% of 25.2375x107
= 0.1525.2375x107
Laboratory charges = Rs. 3.7856x107
viii. Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 4% of total product cost
Patent and Royalties = 4% of 168.25x107
= 0.04168.25x107
Patent and Royalties cost = Rs 6.73x107
Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 119.246x107 ----- (70% of TPC)

C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and maintenance or 5-15% of total product cost);
includes for the following: general plant upkeep and overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical services, safety
and protection, restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.
Consider the plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R
Plant overhead cost = 60% of ((25.2375x10 7) + (3.0285x107) + (15.8386107))
Plant overhead cost = 0.60 ((25.2375x10 7) + (3.0285x107) + (15.8386107))
Plant overhead cost = Rs. 26.463x107
Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overheaD costs.
Manufacture cost = (119.246x107) + ( 25.23107) + (26.463x107)
Manufacture cost = Rs. 170.939x107
II. General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and development costs
Administrative costs:(2-6% of total product cost)
Consider the Administrative costs = 5% of total product cost
Administrative costs = 0.05 168.25x107
Administrative costs = Rs. 8.4125x107
A. Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for sales offices, salesmen, shipping,
and advertising.
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 15% of 168.25x10 7
Distribution and selling costs = 0.15 168.25x10 7
Distribution and Selling costs = Rs. 25.2375x10 7

B. Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)

Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 5% of 168.25x107
Research and development costs = 0.05 168.25x107
Research and Development costs = Rs. 8.4125x107
C. Financing (interest): (0-10% of total capital investment)
Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment
i.e. interest = 5% of 364.29x107.
= 0.05364.29x107.
Interest = Rs. 18.2145x107
Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 60.277x107
IV. Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses
= (170.939x107) + (60.277x107)
Total product cost = Rs. 231.216x107
V. Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of Polystyrene per ton = $ 800 (USD)
Let 1 USD = Rs. 50.00
Hence Wholesale Selling Price of Polystyrene per ton. = 800 50 = Rs 40000
Total Income = Selling price Quantity of product manufactured
= 40000 (250 T/day) (325days/year)
Total Income = Rs.3.25x109
Gross income = Total Income Total Product Cost
= (3.25x109) (231.216x107)
Gross Income = Rs. 937.84106
Let the Tax rate be 45% (common)
Taxes = 40% of Gross income
= 40% of 937.84106 = 0.40937.84106 Taxes = Rs. 375.136 x106

Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = (937.84106) (375.136 x106) = Rs. 562.704106
Rate of Return:
Rate of return = Net profit100/Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return = 562.704106100/ (364.29x107)
Rate of Return = 15.44%
Break-even Analysis:
Data available:
Annual Direct Production Cost = Rs.119.246x107
Annual Fixed charges, overhead and general expenses = Rs. 1.1197109
Total Annual sales = Rs. 3.25 x 109
Wholesale Selling Price of polystyrene per ton. = Rs. 40000
Direct production cost per ton of polystyrene = (119.246x107)/ (3.25 x 109/40000)
= Rs. 14676.43 per ton
Let n TPA be the break even production rate.
Number of tons needed for a break-even point is given by
(1.1197109) + (14676.43 n) = (40000n)
=> n = 44215.72 tons/year
n = 136 tons/day = 136 TPD
Hence, the break-even production rate is 136 TPD or 54.42% of the considered plant capacity.

POLLUTION CONTROL
AND SAFETY

Waste products that are produced during the manufacture of Polystyrene:

Polystyrene manufacture is a relatively clean process. Small volumes of liquid and gaseous wastes
are generated and these are treated within the plants. Waste polystyrene generated during
production is reprocessed or sent to a recycler. Polystyrene manufacture is a relatively clean
process. Small volumes of liquid and gaseous wastes are generated and these are treated within the
plants. Waste polystyrene generated during production is reprocessed or sent to a recycler. This is
a Most Energy-Efficient Packaging Material. Polystyrene is Safe, Hygienic Polystyrene and the
Enemy of Bacteria
Ease of disposal:
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the 1999 update of the
"Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the U.S." report, less than one percent (about 0.6
percent) of solid waste disposed of in the U.S. is polystyrene packaging - including both food
service packaging (cups, plates, bowls, trays, clamshells, meat trays, egg cartons, yogurt and
cottage cheese containers, and cutlery) and protective packaging (shaped end pieces used to ship
electronic goods and loose fill "peanuts").The disposal of polystyrene is managed safely and
effectively through the integrated system advocated by the U.S. EPA, which includes: Source
Reduction, Reuse, Recycling, Waste-to-Energy Recovery, and Landfilling.

Polystyrene safe to use in contact with food :

For more than 40 years, polystyrene has been in widespread use as a hygienic material for protecting and
preserving food. In fact, one-reason polystyrene single use food containers are so widely used in hospitals
and other sensitive environment is that they are significantly more hygienic than the alternatives.
Polystyrene does not harbour bacteria, which is a major concern among health specialists. A recent
American study shows that 1 in 7 reusable dishes harbour a level of bacteria which exceeds US health
standards. In contrast, no disposable food service items exceeded the standard.
Foam Polystyrene Presence of CFCs:
Extruded foam polystyrene produced in for meat, chicken and vegetable trays and takeaway food
containers, does not use CFC blowing agents. Producers converted away from CFC's in 1989 and now
operate on recycled carbon dioxide or hydrocarbon gases. Expandable or bead polystyrene (EPS) such as
in produce boxes has always used a hydrocarbon blowing agent.
Reuse:
Reuse, the practice of utilizing polystyrene products in the same form, is important not only because it
delays the final disposal of a product, but also because it reduces the manufacture and purchase of new
products. As a result, reuse prevents waste. Nearly 30 percent of polystyrene loose fill (some times called
"peanuts" because of its shape) is used again, making it one of the most commonly reused packaging
materials in some retail locations. For mailing services, the reuse rate of loose fill is as high as 50 percent.
The successful application of reused loose fill polystyrene reduced the demand for virgin polystyrene by
25 percent in 1997 alone and, to this day, continues to directly reduce waste.
Other packaging and disposables commonly reused by the polystyrene industry include:
pallets, insulated shipping boxes, test tube trays, auto part trays, ice chests and coolers.

Recycling:
The recycling of polystyrene protective packaging and non-packaging polystyrene materials, (such as
audio/visual cassettes and agricultural nursery trays/containers) has increased dramatically during the last
decade and there has been a decrease in the amount of polystyrene food service packaging recycled
during this period. Non-food service packaging is not contaminated with food and other wastes as is food
service polystyrene packaging, and therefore is more cost-effective to recycle. Presently, food service
polystyrene packaging is generally not recycled because it is not economically sustainable. It is important
to note that because of unfavorable economics, no other post-consumer foodservice disposable material,
including paper and paperboard, is recycled in a measurable way.
Before 1988, there was essentially no recovery of post-consumer polystyrene for recycling, but as of
2000, just twelve years later, more than 397 million pounds of polystyrene packaging were recycled. A
portion of this material came from durable polystyrene products such as coat hangers, compact disc
"jewel cases," single-use cameras and agricultural nursery trays.
Some companies that make protective packaging are collecting it back for recycling through the Alliance
of Foam Packaging Recyclers. In addition, some makers of loose fill "peanuts" have set up a network of
collection sites for reuse and recycling of their polystyrene products.
Products that have incorporated recycled-content polystyrene include: foam egg cartons, lunch trays,
transport packaging, audio and videocassette cases, office supplies, and building materials.

Waste-to-Energy Recovery:
In many overseas countries polystyrene is recycled through incineration of municipal waste for energy recovery. The
burning of polystyrene is no more hazardous than combustion of many natural organic materials. Polystyrene consists
solely of carbon and hydrogen. When combustion is complete, water and carbon dioxide are given off, leaving trace
levels of ash, the same combustion products as from paper or wood. While some polystyrene in medical an municipal
wastes is currently incinerated in Australia, the energy recovery option has not yet been implemented.
When incinerated, polystyrene produces energy, which compares favorably with coal and oil. Because of its high fuel
value, polystyrene in properly designed incinerators helps to burn wet garbage more efficiently, and maintain the high
burning temperatures necessary for safe combustion.
The incineration of plastics can also generate energy and this potential is already being harnessed in some overseas
countries, particularly in Western Europe, The United Stated and Japan.
Land filling:
While recycling and reuse continue to grow in popularity, most of the waste in this country still goes to landfills. People
assume the waste inside a landfill biodegrades. But the fact is that very little - not paper, not polystyrene, not even food
waste - degrades in a meaningful way.
Polystyrene is effectively and safely disposed of in landfills. Modern landfills are designed to protect the environment
from the liquids and gases produced during the very slow breakdown by reducing the exposure of garbage to air, water
and sunlight - conditions needed for degradation. Therefore, by design, modern landfills greatly retard the degradation
process to reduce the by-products that might otherwise contaminate
groundwater and the air.

Preventing Litter :
The polystyrene industry cares about the environment. A widely held
misconception is that litter is a problem caused by specific materials themselves
rather than aberrant consumer behavior. The reality is that some people improperly
dispose of materials by littering. Littering is a matter of behavior; people who
discard materials into the environment usually do so because they don't think or
don't care. Attributing the litter issue to one particular packaging material does not
solve the problem because another type of packaging will take its place as litter
unless behavior changes. To address concerns effectively, the polystyrene industry
supports organizations such as Keep America Beautiful, that work to prevent litter
across the country.

USES OF POLYSTYRENE
Uses:
1. Extruded foam sheet of polystyrene can be thermoformed into such parts as egg cartons or carryout food containers. Foam
grade polystyrene is generally a high-heat crystal polystyrene with a high molecular weight.
2. Another type of polystyrene foam is that produced from expandable polystyrene beads. These beads can be molded to
produce hot drink cups, ice chests, or foam packaging. Also, the expandable beads can be molded in very large blocks that can
then be cut into sheets for thermal insulation. Densities of as low as 1lb/ft3 on foamed products are commercially obtainable.
3. Extruded crystal polystyrene sheet can be biaxially oriented by mechanically pulling the extruded melt in multiple directions.
The stretched sheets is then cooled and allowed to set with the biaxially orientation frozen into the sheet. This process produces
crystal polystyrene sheet of thin gauge wit very high strength.
Typical applications include envelope windows, cap layers for glossy sheet, or thermoforming into food packaging
applications.
4. Optical property of polystyrene is used in manufacture of unbreakable glasses for gauges, windows and lenses, as well as in
countless specialties and novelties and also for edge lighting for the edge lighting of indicators and dials
5. Solid or liquid pigments and dies color high impact and crystal polystyrenes. This can be accomplished in both extrusion and
injection molding processes. These colorants are added and mixed during the melting stage of both the processes. Also,
polystyrene parts are amenable to high quality printing. Labels can be
printed directly on the polystyrene part to produce attractive containers.
6. Polystyrenes are also used in furniture, packaging, appliances, automobiles, construction, radios, televisions, toys, house
ware items, and luggage.