416 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec, 13-4 the loop gain, or return ratio. The difference between unity and the loop gain is called the return difference D = 1+ AB. Also, the amount of feedback introduced into an amplifier is often expressed in decibels by the definition N = dB of feedback = 20 tox | 4 (13-5) L = 20 toe | 45 | If negative feedback is under consideration, N will be a negative number. Fundamental Assumptions Three conditions must, be satisfied for the feedback network of Fig. 13-8 ini order that Eq. (13-4) be true and that the expressions for input and output resistances (derived in Secs. 13-5 and 13-6) be valid. 1. The input signal is transmitted to the output through the amplifier A and not through the 6 network. In other words, if the A is deactivated (say, set A = 0 by reducing hy. or gx for a transistor to zero), the output signal must drop to zero. This first assumption is equivalent to the statement that the system has rendered the # block unilateral, so that it does not transmit a signal from input to output (but only in the reverse direction). This condition is often not satisfied exactly because 8 is a passive bilateral network. It is, however, approximately valid for practical feedback connections, as we shall verify in each of the feedback amplifiers to be considered. 2. The feedback signal is transmitted from the output to the input through the @ block, and not through the amplifier. In other words, the basic amplifier is unilateral from input to output and the reverse transmission is zero. Note that the amplifiers in Figs. 13-1 to 13-4 satisfy this unilateral condition (such is not the case, for example, with a transistor amplifier at low frequencies iff hee #0). 3. The reverse transmission factor g of the feedback network is indepen- dent of the ond and the source resistances Ry, and R.. For each topology studied we shall point out the approximations involved. 13-4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGATIVE-FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS® Since negative feedback reduces the transfer gain, why is it used? The answer is that many desirable characteristics are obtained for the price of gain reduc- tion. We now examine some of the advantages of negative feedback. Desensitivity of Transfer Amplification The variation due to aging, temperature, replacement, etc., of the circuit components and transistor or FET characteristics is reflected in a corresponding lack of stability of the amplifier transfer gain. The fractional change in amplification with feedbackSec. 13-7 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 425 funetion of frequency, 2 should be changed to Z in Table 13-4. Then Zij(Z»)) gives the input (output) impedance with feedback. 13-7 METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF A FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER It is desirable to separate the feedback amplifier into two blocks, the basie amplifier A and the feedback network 8, because with aknowledge of A and 8, we can calculate the important characteristics of the feedback system, namely, Ap Ry, and R.j, The basic amplifier configuration without feedback but taking the loading of the 8 network into account is obtained® by applying the following rules: To find the input circuit: 1. Set V, = 0 for voltage sampling. In other words, short the output node. 2. Set I, = 0 for current sampling. In other words, open the output loop. To find the output circuit: 1. Set V; = 0 for shunt comparison. In other words, short the input node. 2. Set I; = 0 for series comparison. In other words, open the input loop. ‘These procedures ensure that the feedback is reduced to zero without altering the loading on the basic amplifier. The complete analysis of a feedback amplifier is obtained by earrying out the following steps: 1. Identify the topology. (a) Is the feedback signal X, a voltage or a current? In other words, is X, applied in series or in shunt with the external excitation? (b) Is the sampled signal X, a voltage or a current? In other words, is the sampled signal taken at the output node or from the output loop? 2. Draw the basic amplifier circuit without feedback, following the rules listed above. 3. Use a Thévenin’s source if X, is a voltage and a Norton’s source if X; is a current. 4, Replace each active deviee by the proper model (for example, the hybrid-II model for a transistor at high frequencies or the h-parameter model at low frequencies). 5. Indicate X, and X, on the circuit obtained by carrying out steps 2, 3, and 4. Evaluate 8 = X,/X.. 6. Evaluate A by applying KVL and KCL to the equivalent circuit obtained after step 4. 7. From A and 8, find D, Ay, Riz, Rey, and Riy. Table 13-4 summarizes the above procedure and should be referred to when carrying out the analyses of the feedback circuits discussed in the following428 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-8 because R. = ra from Fig. 13-12c, = 1, and A, = lim Ay =p» from Eq. pos (13-15). Also, from ‘Table 13-4 RS Rr utR _ Rr Ro =D R+ arate Gt DR eu PDR (13-48) Note that = jj ro Ta Ror = fim Ray = TET which agrees with Eq, (13-42). Since the three assumptions listed in Sec, 13-2 are satisfied, the above results are exact and agree with those obtained in Sec. 10-8 without the use of feedback formulas. The Emitter Follower The circuit is given in Fig. 13-13a. ‘The feedback signal is the voltage V, across R., and the sampled signal is V, across R,. Hence this is a case of voltage-series feedback, and we must refer to the first topology in Table 13-4. We now draw the basic amplifier without feedback. To find the input circuit, set V, = 0, and hence V, in series with R, appears between B and B. Fig. 13-13 (a) An emitter follower. (b) The amplifier without feedback ond (c) the transistor replaced by its approximate low-frequency model.Sec. 13-8 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 429 To find the output cireuit, set I; = I, = 0 (the input loop is opened), and hence R, appears only in the output loop. Following these rules, we obtain the circuit of Fig. 13-13b. If the transistor is replaced by its low-frequency approximate model of Mig. 8-23, the result is Fig. 13-13c. From this figure V. = Vyand 8 = V/V; = 1. This topology stabilizes the voltage gain. Ay is calculated by inspection of Fig. 1 Since 2, is considered as part of the amplifier, then V; = Vs, and _ Ve _ halRe Ay = of = Male (13-44) _ Rat heat hykte 14 Bay = 1+ - + hi (8-45) _ Av hye Av = Dy > BF hic + lye (13-46) For hyeRe >> Rs + hin Avy © 1, a8 it should be for an emitter follower. The input resistance without feedback is Ri = Rs + he from Fig. 13-13c. Hence pps Ry thie + hyeRe Ry = RD = (Ra + hie) — Rothe = Rit hiet hye (13-47) We are interested in the resistance seen looking into the emitter. Hence R. is considered as an external load. From Table 13-4 Re 2 Re = TT pA, = (13-48) because, from Fig. 13-3c, we are looking into a current source R, = © and A, = lim Ay = © from Eq. (13-15). The indeterminacy in Eq, (13-48) may ow be resolved by first evaluating Rj, and then going to the limit Re > 2. Thus, since Ri = R., 1 RE Rule + hi) : Re =D Bet hac + Boake (18-49) and Roy = Jim Ry = Bethe ie (13-50) Note that the feedback desensitizes voltage gain with respect to changes in hye and that it increases the input resistance and decreases the output resistance. ‘The foregoing expressions for Ay,, Ri, and Rey are based on the assumption of zero forward transmission through the feedback network. Since there is such forward transmission because the input current passes through R, in Fig.13-13a, these expressions are only approximately true. In this example we have in effect neglected the base current which flows in R, compared with the collector432) INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-10 ‘The voltage gain Avs of Q2 is, from Eq, (8-52), ie ae = 50 x 287 — 108 100 1 834 geo MAB = 74 D=1+ BAy = 18.4 Ay _ 834 op == Se ae aus isa This value is to be compared with the approximate solution (based upon Ay— @) given by Avs = 1'B = 48. The input resistance without external feedback is, from Eq. (8-55), Ry = hig + (1 + hge)Re = 1.1 + 51 X 0.008 = 6.1 K Hence, from Eq. (13-14), 112 K The output resistance without feedback is R, = Ri, = 2.37 K. Hence, from Table 13-4 Ry _ 2.37 Wp = t= "kK = 1290 ta =D ek It is interesting to note that there is internal (local) feedback in the first stage of Fig. 13-14 because the R:Rz parallel combination acts as an emitter resistor. This first stage is an example of current-series feedback, which is analyzed in the next section. 13-10 CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK Two examples of the current-series topology are considered in this section. The common-emitter transistor amplifier with a resistance R, in the emitter is analyzed first. Then the FET common-source amplifier with a resistor R in the source lead is studied. The Transistor Configuration The circuit is given in Fig. 13-16a. The feedback signal is the voltage V, across R. and the sampled signal in the load current I, [For the present argument, we neglect base current. compared with collector (load) current.] Hence this is a case of current-series feedback.Sec. 13-10 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 433 In passing, note that although J. is proportional to V,, it is not correct to conclude that this is a voltage-series feedback. ‘Thus, if the output signal is taken as the voltage V., then Since f is now a function of the load Rz, the third basic assumption given in Sec. 13-3 is violated. We must refer to the second topology in Table 13-4. The input circuit of the amplifier without feedback is obtained by opening the output loop. Hence R, must appear in the input side. Similarly, the output circuit is obtained by opening the input loop, and this places R, also in the output side. The resulting equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 18-16b. No ground can be indicated in this eireuit because to do so would again couple the input to the output via R.; that is, it would reintroduce feedback. And the circuit of Fig. 13-16b represents the basic amplifier without feedback, but taking the loading of the B network into account. . This topology stabilizes the transconductance Gy. In Fig. 13-16c the transistor is replaced by its low-frequency approximate h-parameter model. (b) R, B I=, . @ , R, E ‘R, I (a) wo Fig. 13-16 (a) Amplifier with an unbypassed emitter resistance as an example of current-series feedback. (b) The amplifier without feedback, but including the loading of Rs (¢) The h-parameter model used for the transistor in (b).434 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-10 Since the feedback voltage V, appears across R, in the output circuit, then, from Fig. 13-16c (13-52) (13-53) + hie + (1 + hye)Re + (13-54) _ Gu _ xhre Ou =D = Bh + OF TR (13-65) Note that if (1 + hy-)Re>> Rs + hie andsince hy. > 1, then Guy ~ —1/R,, in agreement with Gu, ~ 1/8. If R, is a stable resistor, the transconductance gain with feedback is stabilized (desensitized). The load current is given by I. = GuyVe [(13-56) Under the conditions (1 + hy.)R.>> R, + Aie and hy. >> 1, the load current is directly proportional to the input voltage, and this current depends only upon Re, and not upon any other circuit or transistor parameter. As an example, consider that this cireuit is used as the driver for the deflection current I, in a magnetic cathode-ray oscilloscope. ‘The load is then the deflection-yoke impedance, which is essentially an induetance whose reactance is proportional to frequency. Yet, from Eq. (13-56) the load current is independent of the characteristics of the yoke. If deflection which varies linearly with time is desired, i only necessary to generate a voltage waveform V, which increases linearly with time (we are assuming that the deflection of the spot on the tube face is pro- portional to the yoke current). ‘The voltage gain is given by 1 Avy = Rt oe Guy = hy Re, Rit hie + (1 + hy)Re Subject to the approximations made above, Ay ~ —Rz/R, and the voltage gain is stable if Rz and R, are stable resistors. From Fig. 13-16c, we see that Ri = R,+ha+R.. Hence, from Eq. (13-16), (13-57) = RD = Ry thet (1+ hy)Re (13-58) Because R, is considered to be part of the amplifier, it appears above as a com- ponent of the input resistance.Sec. 13-10 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 435 Since R, = ©, then Ry = R,D = ©. Hence Ri, = Ry||Ray = Ry. An alternative derivation is to use the expression in Table 13-4, namely, _ pi lt BGm RTE 6Gw Since Gq represents the short-cireuit, transconductance, then Gm = lim Gy (Bq. (18-17)]. However, from Eq. (13-53), Gy is independent of Ry, and hence Gp = Gy and Ri = Ri = Rr. The above results agree exactly with those derived in Sec. 8-15 because all three assumptions listed in See. 13-4 are satisfied. Note, in particular, that if the amplifier is deactivated (say, hy. = 0), then I, = 0, which means that none of the input signal appears at the output via the feedback block. Hence the first condition is satisfied, even though theg network is simply a resistor R,. Note that for this topology it is not necessary to assume that the base current is negligible compared with the collector current. EXAMPLE ‘The circuit of Fig. 13-16a is to have an overall transconductance gain of —1 mA/YV, a voltage gain of —4, and a desensitivity of 50. If R, = 1K, hye = 150, and ru» is negligible, find (a) Ry, (6) Rx, (c) Rey, and (d) the quiescent collector current Ic at room temperature. . Gu _ Cu Solution a. Guy = 30 or Gy = —80 mA/V Since 6 = —R,, then D=1+ 8Gy = 1+ 50R, = 50 or R,= 098K © 1K b. Avs = GusRex or c. From Eq. (18-53) hp —150 ree ee “ Fhe + Re 1+ he +1 or he = 1K R= R thet R= 3K436 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-10 Ry = RD = (3)(50) = 150 K d. From Eqs. (9-9) and (9-6) hye _ hyeVer Tse = Mae tg = EE Gm To or _fuVr _ (150)(0.026) hie 1 =3.9mA Te The FET CS Stage with a Source Resistor R ‘The circuit of Fig. 13-17a is analogous to the transistor CE stage with an emitter resistor R.. Proceeding as we did for the transistor amplifier, we obtain the circuit of Fig. 13-176. Replacing the FET by its low-frequency model results in Fig, 13-17c. Without feedback V; = V, and I, _ In = Gna =H Gu = FER, PR RL ER (13-59) where » = ram from Eq. (10-15). ge ¥ =-R (13-60) R R, L D=1+60y = 14+ Hh BETO EOE apn — Gu _ = 7 Our =D Ry GF DR (18-62) Since R, = ©, then Ry = RD = © (13-63) If R, is considered to be an external load, then from Fig. 13-17¢ R=n+R To caleulate Rey we need Gm, and from Eq. (13-17), Gu = lim Gy. Since Bis independent of Rz, then using Eq. (13-61), mee rat (ut DR 1486, = Jim D = BT Ot (13-64) Ray = RAO + BG) = Ga +R) BEMAEDE 5+ wt DR (13-65) The above results agree with those obtained in Sec. 10-7.Sec. 13-11 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 437 ifS% 5 | a * oD ¢ + . é eB HEH I “Lik eT ‘ Syl ROR (a) (o) Fig. 13-17. (a) An FET amplifier with a source resistor R. (b) The amplifier without feedback, but including the loading of K. (c) The FET replaced by its small-signal low-frequency model. Ri, is most easily calculated as Rr!|Rar. ‘The same result may be obtained from the expression in Table 13-4, with RZ = R.|\Rz. Thus a 1+ BGn Ry = RD Mat R)Ry tet +R rat Re tR _ mR FR mR FR + utr Rilre + (u + DRI rat Ro+ (wo t+ YR which is equivalent to Rz in parallel with Ro;. (13-66) 13-11 CURRENT-SHUNT FEEDBACK Figure 13-18 shows two transistors in caseade with feedback from the second emitter to the first base through the resistor R’. We now verify that this con- nection produces negative feedback. The voltage Vis is much larger than Vas because of the voltage gain of Q1. Also, Viz is 180° out of phase with Vin. Because of emitter-follower action, 1’. is only slightly smaller than V2, and these voltages are in phase, Hence V2 is larger in magnitude than Vs and438 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS See. 13-11 is 180° out of phase with Va. If the input signal increases so that T; increases, I, also increases, and I; = I — I, is smaller than it would be if there were no feedback. This action is characteristic of negative feedback. We now show that the configuration of Fig. 13-18 approximates a current- shunt feedback pair. Since Viz >> Vis, and neglecting the base current of Q2 compared with the collector current, (13-67) or (18-68) where 6 = R./(R' + R,). Since the feedback current is proportional to the output current, this circuit is an example of a current-shunt feedback amplifier, From Table 13-3 we expect the transfer (current) gain Ar, to be stabilized. el oy ESE ay " Ay =~ (13-69) and hence we have verified that Ar, is desensitized provided that R’ and R, are stable resistances. Note that J, = V,/R,. From Table 13-3 we expect the input resistance to be low and the output resistance to be high. If we assume in Fig. 13-18 that Ri, = 0, then V,= LR, = TR, and the voltage gain with feedback is TBea beg se 7) Fig. 13-18 Second-emitter to first-base feedback pair. (The input blocking capacitor and the biasing resistors are not indicated.)Sec. 13-11 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 439 Fig. 13-19 The amplifier of Fig. 13-18 without feedback, but including the loading of R’. Note that if R,, R’, Re, and R, are stable elements, then Ayy is stable (inde- pendent of the transistor parameters, the temperature, or supply-voltage variations). The Amplifier without Feedback We must refer to the third topology in Table 13-4. The input circuit of the amplifier without feedback is obtained by opening the output loop at the emitter of Q2. This places R’ in series with R, from base to emitter of Q1. The output circuit is found by shorting the input node (the base of Q1). ‘This places R’ in parallel with R.. The resultant equivaient circuit is given in Fig. 13-19. Since the feedback signal is a current, the source is represented by a Norton’s equivalent cireuit with Z, = V. ‘Ry. The feedback signal is the current J; in the resistor R’, which is in the output circuit. From Fig, 13-19, with Ibe < Tee = |Lo|. _I;__ Rk 8= [REE (13-71) in agreement with Bq. (13-68). EXAMPLE The circuit of Fig. 13-18 has the following parameters: Re = 3 K, Ra hoe 500 2, Re = 60 2, R= R= 1.2 K, hye = 50, hie = 1.1 K, and hye = Find (a) Av; (b) Ruy; (©) the resistance seen by the voltage source; and (d) the output resistance.440,” INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-11 Solution a. Since the current gain is stabilized, we first calculate Ayy from Ay. We can then obtain Ayy from Ayy. Referring to Fig. 13-19, = Tea Tea Tes Ton Te Ta Tn Ta (372) 'y approximate h-parameter models for QI and @2, I. hy = —50 z = +hyp = +50 (13-73) Ten Re =3 2 a = SL as 13-74 ia” Rata 348.55 5 (s-74) because, from Eq. (13-58), Ria hie + (1+ hy )(RR) = La + wo ( om) 3.55 K 25 If Ris defined by R= RR +R) = (18-75) then from Fig. 13-19 In 0.61 - ———_— = 0).358 13-71 1 R+h dee? (13-76) Substituting the numerical values in E Eq, (13-72) yivlds Ar = (—50)(—0.457) (50) (0.358) = +406 — = 0 _ 949 R +R, 1,250 D=1+ BA; = 1 + (0.040)(406) = 17.2 Ar _ 406 » (13-78), (13-74), and (18-76) into B A Te = 23.6 "AD ie Vo _ —TesRer _ ArsRex _ (23.6)(0.5) Appt ate enka MEO) 4, gees eases Fs Ry 12 os ‘The approximate expression of Eq. (13-70) yields Re BR, which is in error by 6 percent, Avy b. From Fig. 13-19, the input impedance without feedback seen by the current souree is, using Eq. (13-75), (0.61) (1.1) Ry = R\lhie LT = 0.394 KSec, 13-12 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 441 and from Table 13-4 the resistance Riy with feedback seen by the current source is Ry _ 394 Ry = = = 23.00 7D” 172 c. Note that the input resistance is quite small, as predicted. If the resis- tance looking to the right of R, (from base to emitter of Q1) in Fig. 13-18 is Riy, then Ri = RY||R,, or 1,200R, 1,200 + Ri, 23.0 = which yields Ri = 23.4. Hence from Fig. 13-18, the resistance with feedback seen by the voltage source V. is R, + Ri, = 1,200 + 23.42 = 1.22 K i d. If Reis considered as an external load, then R, is the resistance seen looking into the collector of Q2. Since hye = 0, then R, = ©. From Table 13-4, Ryy = RCL + BA) = ©. From the calculations in part a, we note that A, is independent of the load Ri = Re. Hence A; im A;= Ay. Since Rj = R,||Re = Re, then from Ra Table 13-4 . y 1+ BAY . Rig = Ro = Ri = Rez = 5009 * 1+ BAr Rjy may also be calculated as the ratio of the open-circuit voltage Vo to the short-cireuit output current I,. Since for hoe = 0, Ze = —Jes is independent of Ras, then 2 Vo _ Vo Vets _ AvsRy _ (9.83) X (1.2) Rin = tw SE 8 EA = 0.50 K OT, Veli le Ay 23.6 0.50 which agrees with the value found above using Table 13-4. 13-12 VOLTAGE-SHUNT FEEDBACK Figure 13-20a shows a common-emitter stage with a resistor R’ connected from the output to the input. We first show that this configuration conforms to voltage-shunt topology, and then obtain approximate expressions for trans- resistance and the voltage gain with feedback. In the circuit of Fig. 13-20a, the output voltage V, is much greater than the input voltage V; and is 180° out of phase with V;. Hence Vi - Vi = — a; = BV. (18-77)442 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-12 Fig. 13-20 (a) Voltage-shunt feedback. (b) The amplifier without feedback, but including the loading of R’. where 8 = —1/K’. Since the feedback current is proportional to the output voltage, this circuit is an example of a voltage-shunt feedback amplifier. From Table 13-3 we expect the transfer gain (the transresistance) Ry, to be desen- sitized. From Eq. (13-9) Ve 1 a Ruy = Te = Re (13-78) Note that the transresistance equals the negative of the feedback resistance from output to input of the transistor and is stable if R’ is a stable resistance, From Table 13-3 we expect both the input and output resistance to be low because of the voltage-shunt feedback. If we assume that Ri, = 0, then the voltage gain with feedback is 1_ FR BR. OR, where use is made of Eq. (13-78). Note that if R’ and R, are stable elements, then Ay, is stable (independent of the tfansistor parameters, the temperature, and supply-voltage variations). (13-79) The Amplifier without Feedback We must refer to the fourth topology in Table 13-4. The input circuit of the amplifier without feedback is obtained by shorting the output node (V, = 0). This places R’ from base to emitter of the transistor. The output circuit is found by shorting the input node (V; = 0), thus connecting R’ from collector to emitter. The resultant equiv- alent circuit is given in Fig. 13-20. Since the feedback signal is a current, the souree is represented by a Norton’s equivalent with I. = V./R,.Sec. 13-12 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 443 The feedback signal is the current J; in the resistor R’ which is in the out- put circuit. From Fig. 13-20 L 1 B=f--P (13-80) in agreement with Eq. (13-78). ‘The first assumption in See. 13-8 is not satisfied exactly. If the amplifier is deactivated by reducing hy. to zero, a current I, passes through the 6 network (the resistor R’) from input to output. This current is given by Le ve 1 RAR FR ‘The output current I, with the amplifier activated is _ Vo _ Av. Te RR Hence the condition that the forward transmission through the feedback net- work can be neglected is || >> |Z,|, or |Av,| > (13-81) Since the voltage gain is at least unity, this inequality is easily satisfied by selecting Ry + BR! > Re. EXAMPLE ‘he cireuit of Fig. 13-20 has the follo Rl = 40 K, R, = 10 K, hye = 1.1 K, hi = 50, and hy (0) Ris, and (0) Rly. Solution a, Since the transresistance is stabilized, we first calculate Ru, from Ru. Define Ri and R by g parameters: R, = 4 K, ue = 0. Find (a) Avs, Ris rie’ = 28) 504 (13-82) and R= Blk’ = anyeo 8K (13-83) From Fig. 13-206 Ry wen = ahhh uae (13-84) Ry = BN) Ley 8411 1 = -—S = -——= —0.025 mA/V 8 R 40 may D=1+ BRy = 1 + 0.025 x 160 = 5.00444 ,/ INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS Sec. 13-12 (13-85) = 0.968 K = 968 9 Note that the input resistance is quite small, as predicted. If the input resistance looking to the right of R, (from base to emitter in Fig. 13-202) is Rij, then Riy = Riy||,. Solving, we find Ri, = 196 Q. The impedance seen by the voltage source V, is R, + Riy = 10.2 K. c. If Re is considered an external load, the ontput resistance, neglecting feed- back, is R, = R’ = 40K. Since ah RR 50)(40)(8) < Ry = lim Ry NS = ~1,760 K, a 8411 » because in Eq. (13-88) lim Ri = From Table 13-4 (with R, = R’) Reve 40 Bor aR,” 1+ (on2sycr,7a0) © ~ 898 and _ (890)(4,000) = £820) (4,000) _ 708.4 RuslB 1500 728 Alternatively, Rj, can be calculated from the formula in Table 13-4. ‘The output resistance, taking Re into account but neglecting feedback, is, from Fig, 13-208, R, = Rel R’ = R= 3.64 K. From ‘Table 13-4 K = 7282 in agreement with the value calculated above. _—————_ It is instructive to examine the approximate expression for the voltage gain given in Eq, (13-79). Avy =Sec, 19-12 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS / 445 which differs from the value of —3.20 by about 22 percent. ‘This approximate formula lends to the erroneous conclusion that Ay, increases without limit as R,> 0. The difficulty arises because Eq. (13-79) is valid only if @Ra >> 1. However, from Eqs. (13-84) and (13-83) . ee ( teRIR\ (Wye BRR doy a= in (—R) > ig ) ‘The correct result for Ay, is obtained from Eq. (13-85), namely, 4 Ruy y —hyeRh yeh Ar BER ny RT he Tae ‘This equation can be obtained by inspection of Fig. 13-20b. With R, = 0, Ay, = V.,V. is the voltage gain of a CE amplifier with a load Ri = R,||R’. The circuit of Fig. 13-20 is the basic form of the operational amplifier, which is discussed in detail in Chap. 15. (13-86) REFERENCES 1, Jennings, R. R.: Negative Feedback in Voltage Amplifiers, Hlectro-technol. (New York), vol. 70, pp. 80-83, December, 1962. Jennings, R. R.: Negative Feedback in Current Amplifier, ibid., vol. 72, pp. 100~ 103, July, 1963. Jennings, R. R.: Negative Feedback in ‘Transeonductance and Transresistance Amplifiers, ibid., vol. 74, pp. 37-41, July, 1964. 2. Bode, Il, W.: “Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design,” D. Van Nos- trand Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1945. 3. Uzunoglu, V.: “Semiconductor Network Analy: Hill Book Company, New York, 1964. Ghausi, M. 8.: “Principles and Design of Linear Active Circuits,” chap. 4, MeGraw- Hill Book Company, New York, 1965. ‘Thornton, R. D., et al.: “Multistage Transistor Cireuits,” vol. 5, chap. 3, Semivon- ductor Electronics Education Committee, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1965, Hakim, §. §.: “Junction Transistor Cireuit Analysis,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1962. and Design,” chap. 8, McGraw- 4, Uzunoglu, V.: Feedback and Impedance Levels in Transistor Circuits, Electron. Equipment Eng., pp. 42-43, July, 1962. Blecher, F. H.: Design Principles for Single Loop Transistor Feedback Amplifiers: IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-4, p. 145, September, 1957. Blackman, R. B.: Effect of Feedback on Impedance, Bell System Tech. J., vol. 22, no. 8, p. 269, October, 1943. 5. Gray, P. E., and Searle, C. L.: “Electronic Principles,” chap. 18, John Wiley & Sons, Ine., New York, 1969,