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    Soil Classification and Compaction Tests

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    Soil Classification and Compaction Tests

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    Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Vol 1

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    Soil Classification and Compaction Tests

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    Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Volume 1: Soil Classification and Compaction Tests Third Edition K. H. Head, MA (Cantab), C. Eng, FICE, FGS. Whittles Publishing @) CRC Press Tyler Sra Gowp Published by Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath Mains Cottages, Dunbeath, Caithness KW6 6EY, Scotland, UK. ‘woww.whitlespublishing.com Distributed in North America by ‘CRC Press LLC, ‘Taylor and Francis Group, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, ‘Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA, © 2006 K H Head Ist edition 1980 2nd edition 1992 ISBN 1-904445-36-5 USA ISBN 1-4200-4467-2 Allrights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, ‘mechanical, recording or otherwise without prior permission of the publishers. Typeset by Sharon MeTeir, Creative Publishing Services @® weru uprary I '285070201060903621 Printed by Athenaeum Press Ltd., Gateshead, UK, Preface to third edition This book, the firstof series of three is intended primarily asa working manual for laboratory technicians and others engaged on the testing of soils ina laboratory for building and civil engineering purposes. This third edition has been revised to bring the procedures into line ‘with the current requirements of BS 1377: 1990, including its subsequent amendments ‘The book is based on my own experience over many years both in managing large soil testing laboratories and in the instruction of technicians and engineers in test procedures in the UK and overseas. I have made a special effort to explain those points of detail that are often the cause of difficulty or misunderstanding. The step-by-step presentation of procedures, the use of flow diagrams, and the setting out of test data and calculations are provided for this purpose, especially for the newcomer to soil testing, It is necessary that those calculations should be properly understood. ‘This Volume presents details ofthe methods and equipment used in soil classification and compaction tests, the former including relevant chemical tests. Most ofthese procedures are covered by British Standards, the most important being BS 1377: 1990, Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes, Patts 1, 2,3 and 4. The book is nota substitute forthe ‘Standard, but it augments its requirements by its essentially practical approach, References to certain US (ASTM) Standards are included, and some guidance is given on the quality assurance requirements of UKAS, especially regarding calibration procedures. Forthcoming revised editions of Volumes 2 and 3 will similarly relate to Parts 5, 6, 7 and 8 of BS 1377. Abasic knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry is assumed, but some of the fundamental principles that are essential in soil testing are explained where appropriate. hope that the sections giving background information, general applications and basic theory will enable technicians to obtain a better appreciation of the purpose and significance of the tests they perform. The inclusion of a chapter on soil description is intended as an. introduction to that important aspect of soil mechanics, and might perhaps stimulate an interest in the broader topic of geology. ‘Thope that this book will continue to be well used in the laboratory, and I would welcome any comments and criticisms from those who use it. KH. Head Cobham, Surrey Acknowledgements Lam grateful to ELE International for supplying many of the photographs used in this volume, Thanks are also due to: British Standards Institution; Impact-Test Ltd.; Soil Mechanics; Soil Property Testing Ltd; Transport Research Laboratory and Veolia ‘Water Systems for permission to reproduce photographs, data and figures. I would also like to thank Cranfield University and the Macaulay Institute for supplying exclusive photographs for this edition. I would like to extend my gratitude to those who have provided valuable assistance in the preparation of this revision, especially Peter Keeton, John Masters, David Norbury, Philip Sherwood, Simon Townend and Dr Mike Winter, T would also like to express my sincere thanks to Dr Keith Whittles, who came to the rescue with his offer to produce a real book when others offered only an electronic version. Contents Preface . ‘Acknowledgements. a% 1 | Scope and genera requirments 1.1 Introduction a 1.2. Laboratory equipment.. 1.3. Techniques 14. Care of samples . 4.5. Preparation of disturbed samples for testing 4.6. Safety in the laboratory. ..nniuennnns 4.7 Calibration .. 2 Moisture content and index tests 2.4 Introduction 22 Definitions 23 TheO%Y en 24 Applications 25 Moisture content tests 26 Liquid and plastic 2.7 Shrinkage tosts 28. Empiical index tests 29 Soll suction 3 Density and particle density ... 3.4. Introduction : 3.2 Definitions .. 3.3 Theory . 3.4. Applications 3.5. Density tests 3.6. Particle density tests 3.7. Limiting density tests .. BEEBRo ae RBRREBE tests 4 Particle size 4.4. Introduction .. 42 Definitions 43 Theory 4.4 Applications... 45 Practical aspects 46 Sieving procedures 47 Sedimentation theory : 4.8 Sedimentation procedures .. 5 Chemical tests 240 5.1. Introduction 7 vo 240 5.2 Definitons and data . 247 5.3. Theory se 249 5.4 Applications — . 259 5.5. Tests for PH esos sn 281 5.6 Sulphate content tests ns eer 5.7. Organic content tests a 279 5.8 Carbonate content tests... : 285 5.9 Chloride content te8t8 -.esnn 296 5.10 Miscellaneous tests ee 304 6 Compaction tests .. . 309 6.1. Introduction ee 309 62 Definitions, oe oe att 63 Theory . sn att 6.4 Applications 7 a2), 6.5 Compaction test procedures — 323 6.6 Moisture condition tests . 346 6.7 Chalk crushing value sennnnennnn 359 6.8 Compactabiliy test for graded aggregates 361 7 Description of S0lls «1. enn 365 7.4 Introduction a a soe 7.2. Definitions an SS 368 7.3 Identification of soll... oc 369 7.4. Description of coarse (granular) soils penn 378 7.5. Description of fine solls —— 375 7.6 Description of other sol types seonenne BO Appendix: Units, Nomenclature and laboratory equipment 387 AY Metric (SI) units .. . ass ‘AZ Nomenclature seme ore 393 AS Useful data 7 395 ‘Ad Comparison of BS and ASTM sieve aperture sizes... 396 ‘AS Inventory of equipment... 397 Index... sentence 405 Summary of test procedures Test designation ‘Section Abbreviated reference” Chapter 2 Moisture content: ‘Oven drying 252 BS: Part 2:3.2 Sond-bath 253 (BS 1377: 1975**) Saturation moisture content of chalk 254 BS: Part 2:33 Liqui limit: Cone penetrometer 264 BS: Part2: 4.3 One-point penetrometer 265 BS: Part2: 44 Casagrande 266 BS; Part2:4.5 One-point Casagrande 267 BS: Part2: 4.6 Plastic limit 268 BS: Part 2:53 Shrinkage limit: ‘TRL method 272 BS: Part 2:63 ASTM method 213 BS: Part 2: 64 Linear shrinkage 274 BS: Part 2: 6.5 Puddle clay 282 ‘Nixon (1956) Free swell 283 Gibbs & Holtz (1956) Sticky limit 284 “Terzaghi & Peck (1948) Soil suction (filterpaper method) 29 BRE Info. Paper IP4/93 Chapter 3 Density Measurement 352 BS: Part 2: 7.2 Tube 353 Soil Mechanics ‘Water displacement 354 BS: Part 2: 7.4 Immersion in water 355 BS: Part2: 7.3 Particle density ‘Small pyknometer 3.62 BS: Part2: 83 Gas jar 364 BS: Part2: 82 Large pyknometer 365 BS: Part2: 84 ‘Maximum density Sends 312 BS: Part 4: 4.2 Silty soils 313 Soil Mechanics Gravely soils 314 BS: Part 4:43 Minimum density: Sands Gravelly soils Chapter 4 Sieving: Dry: simple Dry: composite Dry: very coarse soils, Wet fine 80 Wet: gravelly soils Wet: cohesive soils ‘Wet: cohesive soils with large particles Sedimentation: Pipette Hydrometer Chapter 5 pi value Indicator papers Electrometric Colorimetric Lovibond Sulphate content ‘otal sulphates—acid extraction ‘Water-soluble sulphates—extracton Groundwater Gravimetric analysis Ton-exchange analysis Organic content Dichromate oxidation Peroxide oxidation Carbonate content: Rapid titration Gravimetric Calcimeter: standard simplified Chloride content Qualitative Water-soluble ‘Mobr's method ‘Acid soluble Total dissolved salts, 375 3.76 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 482 483 S81 332 333 554 562 563 5.6.4 565 5.6.68&567 572 573 582 583 5.84 585 392 593 594 595 5.102 BS: Part 4: 4.4 BS: Part 4: 4.5 Bs: Part 2: 9.3 BS: Part 2:9.3 BS: Part2: 93 BS: Part2: 9.2 BS: Part 2:9.2 BS: Part2:9.2 Soil Mechanics BS: Part 2: 9.4 BS: Part2: 95 Supplier BS: Part 3:9 (BS 1377: 19754) Supplier BS: Part3:5.2 BS: Par3:5.3 BS: Part3:5.4 Bs: Part 3:5.5 BS: Part 3:5.6 Bs: Part 3:3.4 (BS 1377; 1975**) BS: Part3:63 BS: Par3: 64 Collins (1906) Collins (1906) Bs: Pan 3:72.33, BS: Part 3:7.2 Bowley (1995) BS: Part 3:73 BS: Part 3: 8.3 ‘Loss on ignition 5.103 BS: Part 3:43 Indicator papers 5.104 Supplier Chapter 6 Light compaction (litre mould) 653 BS: Pert 4:33 Heavy compaction (1 litre mould) 654 BS: Part 4:3.5 Compaction in CBR mould 655 BS: Part 4:34 & 3.6 ASTM compaction 657 ASTM D 698 &D 1557 ‘Compaction by vibration 659 BS: Part 4:3.7 Harvard miniature compaction 65.10 ASTMSTP 479 ‘Moisture Condition Value: MCV as received 663 BS: Part 4:54 “Moisture Condition Calibrat 664 BS: Part 4: 5.5 Rapid Assessment 665 BS: Part 4: 5.6 Chalk Crushing Value 672 BS: Part 4: 64 Compactability of aggregates 68 Pike (1972); Pike and Acott (1975) BS implies BS 1377: 1990 unless otherwise stated *° Superseded standard ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials BRE : Building Research Establishment Supplier: Supplier’s or manufacturer's instruction leaflets Chapter 1 Scope and general requirements 1.1 Introduction 4.1.4 Solls as engineering materials Soils inthe geotechnical sense, canbe regarded.as engineering materials. The usual definition of soil for engineering purposes is given below (Section 1.1.7). The physical characteristics ‘of soils can be determined by experiment, and the application of methods of analysis enables these properties to be used to predict their likely behaviour under defined working conditions. But unlike other engineering materials such as metals and concrete, over which control can be exercised during manufacture, soils are naturally occurring materials, which more often than not have to be used in their natural condition, Even when some kind of processing is possible, either in sity or by using excavated material, the soil can be modified only to limited extent by relatively simple procedures onsite. Perhaps the most important exception isthe use of certain types of clay for the manufacture of bricks, but this is outside the scope of geotechnology. The variety of sols is very wide indeed, and no two sites have identical soil conditions. Its therefore necessary to evaluate the physical properties and engineering behaviour of the soils present at every site that is developed in any way. Many of the procedures used for determining soil characteristics consist of empirical methods derived from practical experience. 1.1.2 Soil mechanics Soil mechanics is that branch of engineering science that applies the principles of mechanics, hydraulics and geology to the solution of engineering problems in soils, It is one aspect of the earth science known as geotechnics, or geotechnology (derived from the French word géofechnique), which also encompasses rock mechanics, geophysics, hydrology and engineering geology. The study of soil mechanics covers the investigation, description, classification, testing and analysis of soils to determine ther interreaction with structures builtin or upon them ‘oF with them, Soil mechanics isthe youngest discipline of civil engineering, although soi is the oldest construction material used by man, and is also the most plentifl. 1.1.3 Purpose of soil testing The physical properties of sols are usually determined by carrying out tests on samples of soil ina laboratory. These tests can be divided into two main categories: 1 Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing 1, Classification tests, which indicate the general type of soil and the engineering category to which it belongs, 2. Tests for the assessment of engineering properties, such as shear strength, compressibility and permeability ‘The parameters determined from laboratory tests, taken together with descriptive = y 7 F Pa Ws 7 MOISTURE CONTENT Figure 24 Shrinkage curve for clay soil Shrinkage ratio ‘The shrinkage ratio is the ratio of the change in volume, expressed as a percentage of the final dry volume, to the change in moisture content, above the shrinkage limit, In Figure 2.5 the shrinkage ratio is equal tothe slope of the line AE. (Points A, E, D, F correspond to those in Figure 2.4) The heights ofthe vertical columns represent diagrammatically the total ‘volumes of soil at various points on the graph, and their subdivisions indicate the volumes of solid, water (V,), and (below SL) air, contained within the soil. ‘Volume of dry soil, Yq (aml) ‘Mass of dry soil, ma (2) Mass of water in soil, ay. ‘Moisture content, w= py Vw / ma * 100% ‘Above the shrinkage limit (13) water occupies the whole ofthe voids between particles “The change in volume on drying from point 1 to point 2 (both above ws) is therefore equal to the volume of water lost between points 1 and 2, 6 Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing sooo = #408) Sine = 8 = Shnkage rato v= (viva) awe (100)0 = Mero)» as MOISTURE CONTENT W 6 Figure 2.8 Derivation of shrinkage ratio Change in volume = ¥,-V, ‘Volume change expressed as percentage of final dry volume, denoted by A(VR): V- Change in moisture content (Aw): V, Pal 100% =P, -ypx100% By defn, shrinkage ratio = A(VRY/Aw (above ws. Therefor, fel en In SI units, pw = Ig/em?. Therefore, ‘Thus, the shrinkage ratio is equal to the ratio of the mass (g) to the volume (ml) of the oven-dried pat of sol atthe end of the test described in Section 2.7.3. oa Moisture content and index tests Shrinkage range The shrinkage range isthe difference between the moisture content at which a clay is placed (ma) and the moisture content at the shrinkage limit: cage range =m, ~ W,(%) Linear shrinkage ‘The measurement of linear (one-dimensional) shrinkage of fine-grained soils isa different procedure from the measurement of volumetric shrinkage referred to above, The linear Shrinkage is found by determining the change in length ofa semi-cylindrical bar sample of soil when it dries out, starting from near the liquid limit, Ifthe original length when made up at about the LL is denoted by Zand the dried lengts by Loy the change in length is equal to L~Lp, and the linear shrinkage, Lis given by: ne fx=!o 100% In addition to indicating the amount of shrinkage, this test can provide an approximate estimate of the plasticity index for soils in which the liquid and plastic limits are difficult to determine, Examples are soils of low clay content, ot soils from which itis difficult to obtain reproducible results, such as those with a high mica content, In these instances the linear slirinkage test can give more consistent results. An empirical relationship between plasticity index and linear shrinkage was given in BS 1377: 1967 as 1, = 213s ‘This relationship was based on experience with some British soils, and is not necessarily, valid elsewhere. Ifa similar relationship is required for other soil it should be obtained from relevant test data 2.3.7 Soil suction (Desiccation) Insome geotechnical applications involving clays, especially problems due to swelling, iis desirable to know the state of desiccation of the soil in the ground. Ths property is expressed ‘in terms of soil suction, which corresponds to the negative pore pressure” of the water in the soil voids, Soil suction is denoted by p, and is expressed in kilopascals (kPa), where 1 kPa = 1kN/m?, The value enables the state of stress in the ground to be determined, provided that. high-quality undisturbed samples are used. ‘The empirical test method described in Section 2.9 makes use of the suction properties ofa standard iter paper. A piece of filter paper placed in contact with a clay soil will absorb ‘water until equilibrium is reached between the suction in the clay and that inthe paper. The higher the suction in the clay, the less water the filter paper will absorb to reach equilibrium, It was found experimentally that there is a relationship between the soil suction p, (kPa) and the equilibrium moisture content of Whatman No. 42 filter paper vp (4). Calibration experiments by Chandler and Gutierrez (1986) indicated that a good relationship can be expressed by the following If 15%47% Uog io Pe = 6.05 2.48 08 10 Mp * Pore water pressure is beyond the scope ofthis Volume, but is defined and discussed in Volume 3. 6 Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing fw) is less than 15 %, the equilibrium suction is greater than 8 MPa, and published data do not provide a suitable correlation, Soil suction is sometimes expressed in terms of the pF scale, in which pF is equal to the logarithm (base 10) of the negative water pressure expressed as a height of water in centimetres. Thus PF = logig A (cm) (approximately PF = login (10 p) where p isthe pressure in kPa, 244A) ations: 2.4.1 Moisture content ‘The reasons for carrying out moisture content tests on sols fall into three categories: 1. To determine the moisture content ofthe soil in situ, using undisturbed or disturbed samples, 2. To determine the plasticity and shrinkage limits of fine-grained soils, for which ‘moisture content is used as the index, 3. To measure the moisture content of samples used for laboratory testing, usually both before and after tests. This is normally done on all test samples as a routine procedure, 2.4.2 Classification ‘The liquid and plastic limits provide the most useful way of identifying and classifying the fine-grained cohesive soils. Particle size tests provide quantitative data on the range of sizes of particles and the amount of clay present, but say nothing about the type of elay. Clay Particles are too small to be examined visually (except under an electron microscope) but ‘he Attrberg limits enable cay soils tobe classified physically, and the probable type of clay ‘minerals to be assessed. Classification is usually accomplished by means ofthe plasticity char (also referred to a the A-line chart). This is a graphical plot of the plasticity index (I,) a8 ordinate against liquid limit (vr) as abscissa, The standard chart is shown in Figure 2.6, ‘When the values of wand Jy for inorganic clays are plotted on this chart, most of the Points lie just above the line marked ‘A-line’, and in @ narrow band parallel to it The A-line is defined by the relationship J, =0.73 (w, ~20) This line was derived from experimental evidence and does not represent a well-defined boundary between soil types, but it does form a useful reference datum. ‘The dashed line labelled ‘B-line"is a tentative upper limit forall soils, which has also ‘been drawn from experimental data. It is defined by the relationship Ip =0.9 (w, ~8) In British practice this chart is divided into five zones, giving the following categories for clays: 1, Low plasticity (CL), less than 35 liquid limit 6 ‘Moisture content and index tests suasnomy Low | Medium Extremely high ty oan 6 . : ] © 7 Pal i ‘a /@ “ey a je. * 0°40 2030 40 BO 70 BOO 00TH 80 WOU LIM wy, Figure 26 Plasticity chart ‘Medium plasticity (CD, liquid limit from 35 to 50. High plasticity (CH), liquid limit from 50 to 70. Very high plasticity (CV), liquid limit from 70 to 90. Extremely high plasticity (CE), liquid limit exceeding 90. “The letters in parentheses are the standard symbols by which each group is known. Silts when plotted on this chart generally fall below the A-line. They ate divided into five categories similar to those for clays. The group symbols are ML, MI, MH, MV, ME. Clays containing appreciable amounts of organic matter also plot below the A-line. Organic clays and silts include the letter ‘O” after the group symbol (for example, CHO, MIO). In the USA, the plasticity chart is divided into three groups: 1. Low plasticity (CL), liquid limit less than 30. 2. Intermediate plasticity (CD, liquid limit from 30 to 50. 3. High plasticity (CH), liquid limit exceeding 50. ‘Aneextended version of the A-line chart, embracing liquid limits upto 500, is given in Figure 23. Liquid limit values for some of the commoner clay minerals are typically within the ranges given in Table 2.3. Approximate values of activity (Jyclay fraction) are also included, 6 Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing 7 offafe] Ua a rie di 7 @ rd QUID Lime Figure 2.7 Extended plasticity chart 2.4.3 Engineering properti Plasticity ‘The Atterberg limits may be used to correlate soil stata occurring in diferent areas of @ site, o to investigate in etal the variations of soil properties occurring within a limit zone Results of limits tests can also be applied tothe selection of soils foruse as compacted fil in various types of earthworks construction In general, clays of high plasticity are likely to have a lower permeability, to be more compressible and to consolidate over a longer period of time under load than clays of low plasticity. High-platicity clays are more difficult to compact when used as fill material While the liquid and plastic limits indicate the type of clay in a cohesive sol, the condition of the clay is dependent upon its moisture content in relation to those limits, ag expressed by the liquidity index. The moisture content used for determining liquidity index should be related tothe fraction of soil passing the 425 jam sieve (see Section 23.3). Those engineering properties that govem shear strength and compressibility are largely dependent "upon tis relationship. For many straightforward applications it is possible to obtain sufiient understanding % Moisture content and index tests of the nature of clay soil from Atterberg limits and moisture content tests if the geological history of the soil is also known. Where it is necessary to obtain additional information by further testing, the results obtained from limits tests carried out as a first stage facilitate the selection of samples for more complex tests later. Shrinkage and stickiness ‘The shrinkage limit of most British soils lies within the range 10-15% moisture content. For some tropical and lateric soils the range may be much wider, and for these soils the shrinkage limit is perhaps more useful as a criterion for classification, ‘The shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio of a clay soil, considered in relation to the field ‘moisture content, can indicate whether itis likely to shrink on drying (such as by exposure to atmosphere, movement of ground water or loss of moisture taken up by vegetation or tres) and if's0, by how much, These values are particularly useful in connection with the placing of puddle clay in reservoir embankments or canal linings. To prevent excessive cracking if some drying out ofthe clay is likely to occur, the shrinkage range can be limited to, say, 20% by controlling the placement moisture content in relation to the shrinkage limit. ‘The sticky limit can provide useful information to a contractor prior to an earthworks contract. Ifthe sticky imit is lower than the natural moisture content of aclay to be excavated, ors lower than the moisture content at which it is to be placed, the handling of the clay may prove to be difficult, owing to its tendeney to stick to construction tools and equipment. Moisture content of chalk Chalkis a very variable material with engineering properties ranging from those of rock to those of soil. When natural soil is excavated some of the material breaks down into fines (putty chal’) and some remains as relatively intact lumps. In assessing the properties of chalk to be placed as fil it is necessary to determine 1, The proportion of the fines content, by sieving (Chapter 4). ‘The moisture content of the fines, using the procedure given in Section 2.5.2. ‘The ‘saturation moisture content’ ofthe intact lumps ie. the moisture content when all the voids ae filled with wate. Ths value is significant because it usually reflects the condition of the natural undisturbed chalk (Ingoldby and Parsons, 1977). ‘The saturation moisture content is used together with the challe crushing value (CCV) (Section 6.7) to assess the stability and other properties of freshly-placed chalk fill. For natural chalk, this property is compared with other engineering properties in Chapter 3 of CIRIA document C574 (Lord et al. 2002). 2 3 Soil suction In addition to the shrinkage characteristics referred to above, a knowledge of the state of desiccation of clays in which shrinkage or expansive behaviour is suspected is needed in order to estimate the magnitude of shrinkage or expansion thats likey to occur inthe ground

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