CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL PROCESSES, PERFORMANCE, DESIGN AND OPERATION by IWA Specialist Group on. Use of Macrophytes in Water Pollution Control Published by IWA Publishing in its Scientific and Technical Report series,Published by IWA Publishing, Alliance House, 12 Caxton Street, London SW1H 0QS, UK Telephone: +44 (0) 20 7654 5500; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7654 5555; Email: publications@iwap.co.uk Web: www.iwapublishing.com First published 2000 Reprinted 2001, 2005 and 2006 © 2000 1WA Publishing Printed by Lightning Source ‘Typeset in 10.5/12pt New Caledonia by Perfect Page Publishing Services, London, UK Index prepared by June Morrison, Helensburgh, Scotland, UK Cover design by Hilary Basing at Cato Street Design, London, UK, ‘Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, a permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by an means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or, inthe case of photographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance withthe terms of licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to IWA Publishing at the address printed above. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for cerrors or omissions that may be made. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1 900222 05 1 ISSN 1025-0913Preface his Scientific and Technical Report is not an original work. The authors have borrowed freely from a variety of published sources, and have tried to acknowledge those sources throughout the document. Three publi- cations, listed at the end of this preface, must be given special credit, because a large amount cf material has been extracted from them. The publishers’ permission has been secured for this purpose. Tels the purpose of this report to provide the boat! outline of the state of constructed wet land technology. Much more detail is available in the large literature on this subject. The reader is therefore cautioned not to use this report as a design manual, but rather to seck out the relevant publications that deal directly and comprehensively with the specific case under consideration. General and specific references to this literature are provided in Chapter 11 Constructed wetland technology has grown ‘enormously aver the past three decades. First, and still” foremost, there has been an expomental growth in their application to the treatment of domestic wastewater. Individual homes, small communities and even rather large cities have used various forms of wetland treatment, Primary, secondary, tertiary and higher treatment levels have been the goals, and both subsurface-flow reed beds and free water surface wetlands have been implemen- ted. There has also been a second type of growth of the use of macrophyte systems: many new application areas have emerged and developed, primarily within the past ten years ‘These include the treatment of industrial el ents, urban and agricultural stormwater runoff, animal wastewaters, leachates and sludges It is clear that aquatie macrophyte assem- blages are an important component of the suite of natural systems, which form the foundation of the appropriate technology for wastewater treatment in rural and developing settings. The capital costs of the systems can be sinall or large, depending on. site factors, but the operation is simple and inexpensive. Operators do not require extensive technical skills. Thus the continued growth and expansion of the technology seems assured Robert H. Kadlec Robert L. Knight Jan Vymazal Hans Brix Paul Cooper Raimund Haber! References Constructed tlds for wastecterreatent in Europe |. Mymmcl, H. Brg, PE Cooper, MLB. Groen. snd Huber) Backhuys Publishers Leiden, The Nether Tends, 1985. 365 pages) ocd beds end constrcted sland for wastewater treatment Wy BE. Cooper, . Job, MLB. Green and RIE. Shuts Wn Swindon, Wish, 1900. (Book, biography snd Ux database diskette ‘Treatment wetlands by RH. Kadlee and RL. Knight, CRC ress, Boca Raton, FL, USA. 1996 ($83 pages)Contents Preface List of authors Acknowledgements Glossary of terms 1. Biological methods for the treatment of wastewaters 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Constructed wetlands 9 13. Companion natural technologies 2 14 Integrated natural systems uM ‘Types of constructed wetland 47 2.1 Free water surface treatment wetlands 7 22 Subsurface flow treatment wetlands 20 3. Applications of the technology 23 3.1 Domestic and municipal wastewaters 23 3.2 Combined sewer overflows 28 3.3 Urban stormwater 29 34 Agricultural 30 35. Industrial 32 3.6 Landfill leachate a7 3.7 Sludge consolidation 38 4. Framework for interpreting and predicting water quality improvement 41 4.1 Hydraulies 41 4.2. Internal flow patterns a7 3 Thermal effects 48 44. Performance considerations 50 4.5. Stochastic variability 54 5. Mechanisms and results for water quality improvement 55 5.1 Suspended solids 55 5.2 Biochemical oxygen demand 58 5.3. Nitrogen 6 ‘4 Phosphorus 69 5.5. Pathogens R 5.6 Metals “ 5.7 Ancillary water chemistry 7 6. Design 79 6.1 Scaling the system 9 6.2. System layout 85 63 Compartmentation 85 64 Pond zones 86 65. Sealing the basin 86 6.6. Substrate selection 87 6.7 Inlet and outlet structures 88 7. Plants and planting 91 7.1 Varieties of vegetation a1 72 Role of macrophytes in the treatment of wetlands 93 73. Establishment 7 74 Inspection and maintenance 100 75 Weeds 101Contents 8. System start-up 103 8.1 Basin testing 103 8.2 Antecedent conditions 103, 83 Ecological transitions 103 8.4 Performance transitions 106. Economies 109 9.1 Capital costs 109 9.2 Operating costs 113 9.3. Present worth (net present value) 15 10. Case studies 417 10.1 Free water surface constructed wetlands wz 10.2 Soil-based reed beds 127 10.3 Horizontal subsurface flow 128, 10.4 Vertical subsurface flow 132, 105 Integrated natural treatment system 137 10.6 Floating aquatic plant system 138 11. Bibliography M41 Index 151List of authors Robert H. Kadlec (co-editor) Wetland Management Services 6995 Westbourne Drive Chelsea MI 48118-9527 USA Telephone: +1 734 475 7256 Fax: +1 734 475 3516 Email: rhkadlec@ic.net Robert L. Knight (co-editor) 2809 N.W. 161 Court Gainesville FL 32609 USA Telephone: 1 904 462 1003 Fax: +1 904 462 3196 Email: bknight@fdtnet Jan Vymazal Ricanova 40 169 00 Praha 6 Crech Republic Telephone:+42 2.350 761 Fax: +42 2 350 762 Email: vymazal@yahoo.com Hans Brix Aarhus University Department of Plant Ecology Nordlandsvej 68 DK-8240 Risskov Denmark Telephone:+45 8942 4714 Fax: +45 8942 4747 Email: hans.brix@biology.aau.dk Paul Cooper The Ladder House Cheap Street Chedworth near Cheltenham Gloucestershire GL54 4AB UK Telephonelfax: +44 1285 720681 Email: paul. cooper@ladderhouse-demon.co.uk Raimund Haber! Institute for Water Provision Water Ecology and Water Management Department for Sanitary Engineering and Water Pollution Control Universitit fiir Bodenkultur Wien Muthgasse 18 A-1190 Wien Austria Telephone:+43 1 36 006 5800 Fax; +43 1 36 89 949 Email: haberl@iwef-sig.boku.ac.atAcknowledgements Acknowledgements General editing was provided by Christine Group on Use of Macrophytes in Water Waresak. Funding was provided by the Inter- Pollution Control. Final editing and document national Association on Water Quality (IAWQ). production was led by Chris Purdon of [WA This document was sponsored by the Specialist PublishingGlossary of terms ABS Allyl benzene sulphonate plastic used for making pipes activated sludge Material consisting largely of naturally ‘occurring bacteria and protozoa, used in and pro- ‘duced by one method of sewage disposal. Sewage is ‘mixed with some activated sludge and egitated with air organisms of the sludge rmukiply and purify che sewage. When allowed to settle, they separate out as a greatly increased amount of activated sludge. Part ‘ofthis added to new sewage and parts disposed of adsorption The adherence of gas, liquid, or tissolved ‘chemical tothe surface ofa solid advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) Treatment of ‘wastewater beyond the secondary treatment level. In some areas AWT represents treatment to less ‘than 5 milligrams per litre (gl) of 5-day bio- chemical oxygen demand (BOD,), 5 mgl-? of total suspended solids (TSS), 3 mg! of total nitrogen (EN), and Lmgl-t of total phesphores (TP). See also Tertiary treatment aeration The addition of air to wates, usually for the ppunpose of providing higher oxygen concentrations for chemical ne microbial treatment processes acrobie Pertaining tothe presence of elemental oxygen. algae A group of autotrophic plants that are univelialar or multicellular and typically grow in water or humid alkalinity A measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids because of the presence of one oF more of the following bases in the water: carbonates, biearbo nates, hydroxides, borates, silicates or phosphates. allochthonous External input of organic material into & steam or wetland. ‘ammonification Bacterial decomposition of organic nitro gen to ammonia anaerobie Pertaining to the absence of all oxygen (both fre oxygen and chemically bound oxygen annual Occurring over a 12-month period anoxic Pertaining to the absence of free oxygen but with nitrate, nitrite or sulphate present. aquaculture Propagation and maintenance of plantsor an mmalsby hummansin aquatic and wetland environments aquatic Pertaining to flooded environments. Over a hhydrologieal gradient, the aquatic environment is the area watersued from emergent wetlands and is characterized by the growth of floating or submerged plant species. aerenchyma Porous tissues in vascular plants that have large aifilled spaces and thin cell walls. Acre chymous tissues allow gaseous difusion between above-ground and below-ground plant structures, thus permitting plans to grow in flooded conditions, aspect ratio Ratio of wetland cell length to width. autochthonous Pertaining to substances (usually organic carbon) produced internally in an aguatie or wetland ecosystem, autotrophic An organism (process) that derives nutrition from inorganic compounds. Photonathes is an trample of en sutcrophl rocen, bacteria Micnscopi nila onartmslackng chloe iil. Moss bacteria ae heterotopic (nee Ximosuttrphs) and many sper perfor cher cal tarformatns cht ae nportan innate eng and mutter teainen baths Feidning fo cosurence on or Inthe baton ‘ediments of wetand und wpe soptens bossy Biopeal experent whee plants or tinal ceuted eet onima biomase-the masa ving tse (plat an nina, BOD (buahenicongen demand) Aunounto dsohed tnygen that disappears from a water sample a hem tine ate corain tempertue, tough {compostion of onic mater by moors BOD, Frey Boctemesl angen demand bog An acide eshvater seta, dominated by mosses, hich aly secu pt bottomand Vol wens play minted by wld te spec bulk density A mewurenent ofthe mass of si occ Pring gen volume, cacbont Ar moguls ciemlal compound conning on carbon atm an the oxygen atoms (CO) 80D, Carbonsctons BOD, CEC teaton exchange capa) A measre of the ability Of a wll or her sbsance to bid postive charged one anne deeper prton ofa water foway that has Teer urent ud water Bow channelization The eration of channel or chanel reunite water fo. decree nhac teidenge tie, and lect between mates and {shsricen vin the water ba. laifier ciel or rectanglarsedientaton tank sed toremow art sls rom water or wastcuter COD hemi onygen demand) A mean ft ongen tcpvalent of the on ater in waterbed On reaction wth tong hen nda contrcted. wetland. A wend Thats purposely constructed by humans in # non-wetland aaa 50 Combined sve auton GW Contracted wala, Aenitetfeation The lero ranformaton of arte to nitrogen gx detitis Deal plant ater that i the press of erbi ecoposton, Ss Bunkloss, Q, Groundwater recharge’ Oye Precipitation, P Catchment rinall.Q. Surface arew, A S—> Stream outflow, Qu. Volumetric outflow. Q, Groundwater discharge Figure 1.4. Components of the water budget and associated terminology, from leaf and stem detritus of emergent macrophytes in marshes or from_ sphagnum mosses in bogs. This can range from 0.3 to 14cm yr in warmeclimate freshwater marshes (DeLaune et al. 1978) and from 0.1 to L.lmmyrt for northem bogs in the UK (Durno 1961). These processes also occur in treatment wetlands. However, the antecedent soils often undergo a transformation to a hydric status (Figure 1.5). The build-up of mineral matter that settles from incoming stormwater, river water or wastewater is often slow. At the low end of the spectrum are the clean wastewaters. from advanced treatment plants, which can have less than 10mgl! of suspended matter. If this material is all inorganic and undecomposible, it can acerete in the treatment wetland. Under ‘most circumstances this represents only a few millimetres per decade of solids buildup in the wetland. Typical loadings are less than 100 mg m-2 yr“ 1.1.2.2 Chemical environment Wetland soils have a high trapping efficiency for a variety of chemical constituents; they are retained within the hydrated soil matrix by forces ranging from chemical bonding to physi- cal dissolution within the water of hydration, The combined phenomena are referred to as sorption. A significant portion of the chemical binding is cation exchange, which is the replacement of one positively charged ion, attached to the soil or sediment, with another positively charged ion. The humic substances found in wetlands contain large numbers of hydroxyl and carboxylic functional groups, which are hydrophilic and serve as cation- binding sites Wetlands are ideal environments for chemi- cal transformations because of the range of oxidation states that naturally occur in wetland soils. Free oxygen decreases rapidly with depth in most flooded soils because of the metabolism ‘of microbes that consume organic matter in the soil and through the chemical oxidation of reduced substances, This decline in free oxygen is measured as an increasingly negative electric potential between a standard platinum elec- trode and a calomel electrode. The measure of electric potential is called reduetion-oxidation ‘or redox potential (Ej) As long.as free, dissolved oxygen is present in solution, the redox potential varies little (in the range of +400 to +700 mV). However, it is a sensitive measure of the degree of reduction of ‘wetland soils after oxygen disappears, ranging from +400 mV down to ~400 mV. The greater range of redox potentials for flooded soils than for acrobic soils is important. Wetland systems ‘maintain a wider range of redox reactions than upland soils, and their most important function might be as chemical transformers. Wetlands are often the major reducing ecosystems on the landscape and therefore have great potential for processing nutrients and other materials ‘Once a soil is flooded, the oxygen present is wuickly consumed by microbial respiration and chemical oxidation. Subsequently, anaerobic microorganisms use a variety of substances to replace oxygen as the terminal electron accep- tor during respiration. This electron transfer causes significant changes in the valence state of the chemical species used and the overall reduction, Reduetion of a saturated soil is a sequential process governed by the laws of thermodynamics. Nitrate is the first soil com- ponent reduced (NO3 —> 03, B), 220 mV) afterYoung panes Water Saturated ‘miner Aerobie Mulally anaerobic Mature plants water ff Dead plant * liuer iy Oreanie. positive) and roots [ Strongly Minera nora soils oe Figure 1.5. Stages inthe maturation of constructed wetland soils: (a) newly planted, (b) mature (Kadlec &x Knight 1996), ‘oxygen, although this process can proceed be- fore oxygen is completely eonsum ‘ese as manganic ions (Mn > Mn2*, closely follows NOj in the reduction Sequence, even before NO; has completely disappeared. Although the preceding reactions can and do overlap, the subsequent sequential reactions of ferric iron to ferrous iron (Fe — Fe, Ey 120 mV), sulphate to sulphide (SO}-— S**, E, -75 to -150mV) and carbon. dioxide to methane (CO;—> CH, Fy, -250 to -350 mV) will not occur unless the preceding component ee ated reduction and oxidation processes in waterlogged soils are summarized in an excel- lent review by Laanbroek (1990). 1.1.28 Microbial processes Soil microbial populations have significant influence on the chemistry of most wetland soils. Important transformations of nitrogen, iron, sulphur and carbon result from microbial processes. These microbial processes are typically affected by the concentrations of reactants aswell s the redox potential and pH of the soil Several nitrogen transformations occur in wetlands. Organic nitrogen is biologically trans- formed to ammonia nitrogen through the process of mineralization (= ammonification). Mineralization results as a consequence of the decomposition of organic matter, resulting from the actions of both aerobic and anaerobie microbes. Ammonia is in turn converted to nitrite and nitrate nitrogen through aerobie microbial processes called nitrification. Nitrate nitrogen can he further transformed to nitrous oxide or nitrogen gas in anoxic or anacrobie wetland soils by the action of another group of microbes (denitrifiers). Nitrogen gas can also be transformed to organic nitrogen by bacterial nitrogen fixation in some acrobie and some anaerobic wetland soils. When the reduction of nitrate stops by depletion of this electron acceptor, the reduc- tion of ferric oxide starts in waterlogged soils, Ferric oxides are assumed to be one of the most abundant electron acceptors in soils as well as in sediments. The direct enzymic oxidation of Fe?* (and also Mn®*) is confirmed. to a restricted range of organisms; most1, Introduction to constructed wetlands bacteria cause precipitation of Fe and/or Mn by indirect means by altering E), or pH, which in tum leads to chemical oxidation and precipi- tation (Grant & Long 1985). Sulphate can be reduced to sulphide by obligate anaerobic bacteria in wetlands. The sulphate serves as an electron acceptor in the absence of free oxygen at low redox potentials. Sulphides can provide a source of energy for chemoautotrophic and photosynthetic bacteria in aerobic wetlands, resulting in the formation of elemental sulphur and sulphate. The sul- phide is in turn capable of precipitating metal sulphides. Organic soil carbon is degraded microbially to carbon dioxide by aerobic respiration when ‘oxygen is available, and by fermentation under anaerobic conditions. In fermentation, organic matter serves as the terminal electron acceptor, forming acids and alcohols. Methane can be formed in wetland soils by the action of bac- teria at very low redox potentials. 1.1.24 Plant-animal-soil interactions Organic matter accumulation in some wetlands isa direct or indirect result of the primary fixation of carbon from the atmosphere by plants, Particulate macrophytic detrital material and dead algal cells contribute organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus to the wetland litter/ soil layer in the form of cellulose, hemi cellulose, lignin, proteins and_ phospholipids (Reddy & D'Angelo 1994). In some low- nutrient wetlands and in wetlands that are drained and exposed to the atmosphere, oxidation can result in no net accumulation of organic matter. Wetland macrophytes further modify the texture, the hydraulic conduetivity and the chemistry of the soil by the growth of plant roots and rhizomes. These plant structures initially serve as pathways for increased gaseous. diffusion into and out of the wetland sediments. Gas-filled aerenchyma in wetland plants pro Vides significantly’ less diffusional resistance, allowing some oxidation of soils in. the immediate vicinity of the roots (rhizosphere) and the diffusion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and even methane back to the atmo- sphere through the plants. Several of the important chemical transformations mentioned earlier occur on or within the aerated rhizo- sphere of wetland plants. The top layer of soil contains the roots of the emergent, submergent and floating-leaved macrophytes. These most often occupy the top 20-30.em of soil. A dense macrophyte stand will have a large amount of below-ground biomass in the form of roots and rhizomes, often in the range 500-5000g of dry matter m2 Fish such as carp are known to stir lake and wetland sediments in their continual search for prey organisms. Wading birds also will feed in aerobic sediments on macroinvertebrates and their resulting beak holes can number in the dozens per square metre in shallow wetland areas, Mammals can inhabit wetlands and either dig for crayfish, clams or other sediment- colonizing food organisms or build dens and burrows in or through the wetland sediments When they occur, all of these faunal processes tend to increase the localized oxidation potential of wetland soils 1.1.2.5 Treatment wetland soils The sediments that form in surface flow treatment wetlands are often different from those that form in natural wetlands, for a number of reasons. First, the enhanced activity of various microbes, fungi, algae and soft bodied invertebrates leads to a greater propor- tion of fine detritus than leaf, root and stem fragments. ‘There is a significant formation of low-density biosolids (shndge). Secondly, there can be a precipitation of metal hydroxides or sulphides, which add mineral flocs to the sediments, Finally, there is often a high ionie strength associated with effluents being trea- ted, reflected in a high content of dissolved salt. The effect of high ionic strength is to alter the structure of the highly hydrated organic ‘materials that comprise wetland sediments and soils. Some of the same types of material accrete in the pore spaces of subsurface flow (SSF) wetlands Some measure of performance control can be exerted by the use of specially tailored bed. media for constructed treatment wetlands. If sands, soils or gravels are borrowed from natural sources, there will be a period of adaptation as hydric soil properties develop. However, a bed material can be chosen that is ‘manufactured to have a very large phosphorus sorption capacity, such as an expanded clay (Jenssen et al, 1994). This design philosophy is now quite different from that for most treatment wetlands: the intent is to exhanst a short-term capacity, regenerate the wetland and repeat the cycle. This can be a feasible strategy in some cases, provided that the expense of regeneration coupled with its frequency are within acceptable economic bounds, 1.1.3 Vegetation Macrophytic plants provide much of the visible structure of wetland treatment systems. There is no doubt that they are essential for the high levels of water quality improvement typical of most wetland treatment systems. The numer- ous studies measuring treatment with and with- out plants have concluded almost invariably that performance is higher when plants areFilamentous algae | & present. This finding led some researchers to conclude that wetland plants were the dominant source of treatment because of their direct uptake and sequestering of pollutants. It is now known that plant uptake is the principal removal mechanism only for some pollutants and some types of treatment wetland (for example with free-floating plants with a regular harvest) and only in lightly loaded systems During an initial successional period of rapid plant growth, direct pollutant immobilization in wetland plants can be important. For many other pollutants, plant uptake is generally of minor importance compared with microbial and physical transformations that occur within most wetlands. Macrophytic plants are essential in wetland treatment systems because they provide structure and a source of reduced carbon for the microbes that mediate most of the pollutant transformations that occur in wetlands. The diversity of wetland plant adaptations rovides the wetland treatment system lesigner with numerous options and potential problems. Some plant species produce large amounts of carbon that are able to support heterotrophic microbes important in nutrient transformations, Other plant species provide shading of the water surfice, in turn controlling algal growth and concentrations of suspended solids in the discharge from the wetland treat- ment syste. An understanding of the | ecological properties of these wetland plant Figure 1.6. Algae and macrophytes in treatment wetlands (Kadlec & Knight 1996) species is essential for the successful design, construction and operation of wetland treat. ‘ment systems, 1.1.3.1 Algae Algae are unicellular or multicellular plants that do not have the variety of tissues and organs of higher plants, Algae are a highly diverse assemblage of species that can live in a wide range of aquatic and wetland habitats, Many species of algae are microscopic and are only iscernable as the green or brown colour or ‘slime’ occurring on submerged substrates or in the water column of lakes and ponds. Several functional algal groups are found in wetlands (Figure 1.6). Algae can be broadly classified as free-floating (phytoplankton) and attached (periphyton, “benthos). Planktonic algae swim or are found in the water column, Planktonie algae are generally not important in wetland ecosystems through their direct aetion, However, in wetlands with open water their photosynthetic activity can result in high pH values (over 10 during the day) Benthos and periphyton are composed of attached and bottorneveling onanism There is some controversy between the use of terms benthos and periphyton. Benthos is sometimes confined only to organisms attached to the bottom, and periphyton was first used to refer only to organisms growing on objects placed in the water by people. Both terms, however, include the same division into groups |1 Introduction to constructed wetlands according to the substrate to which the organisms are attached (Vymazal 1995) * epilithon (attached to stones) * epipelon (attached to mud or sand) epiphyton (attached to plants) epizoon (attached to animals) epipsammon (attached to sand particle). Attached communities always include a variety of free-living algae (not attached to the surface, i.e, metaphyton), fungi, bacteria and protozoans, Attached algae can form a signifi cant portion of the plant biomass in some wetland systems; dry biomass can amount to ‘more than 1000 g m-2 (Vymazal 1995). Algae can also form so-called floating mats that are formed mostly by filamentous algae. Quite often the floating mats are formed with epipelic filamentous species that get loose from the bottom or epiphytic species growing on small, submerged macrophytes. 1.1.3.2 Macrophytes The term macrophyte includes vascular plants that have tissues that are easily visible (Figure 1.6). Wetland macrophytes are the dominant structural component of most wetland treat- ment systems. A basic understanding of the growth’ requirements and characteristics of these wetland plants is essential for the success- {ul design and operation of treatment wetlands Vascular plants differ from algae in their internal organization into tissues, resulting from the presence of specialized cells. A wide variety of macrophytic plants occur naturally in wetland environments. More than 6700 plant species of obligate and facultative wetland plant species are present in the USA. Obligate wet- land plant species are defined as those that are found exclusively in wetland habitats; facul- tative species are those that can be found in upland or wetland areas. There are many guidebooks that illustrate wetland plants (for example, Hotchkiss 1972; Niering 1985). Annual plant species survive for only one growing season and must be re-established annually from seed. Perennial plant species live for more than one year and typically propagate each year from perennial root systems or from pererinial above-ground stems and branches The terms emergent, floating and submerged refer to the predominant growth form of a plant species. In emergent plant species, most Of the above-ground part ofthe plant emerges above the water line and into the air. Both floating and submerged vascular plant species can occur in wetland treatment systems. Floating species have leaves and stems buoyant enough to float on the water surface. Sub- merged species have buoyant stems and leaves that ill the niche between the sediment surface and the top of the water column, Floating and submerged species are more typical of deeper, aquatic habitats than of wetlands, but they can ‘occur in wetlands when water depth excceds the tolerance range for rooted, emergent species. All vascular plant roots require gaseous exchange to supply oxygen for cell respiration and to exhaust gases such as carbon dioxide that might accumulate during metabolic pro- cesses. “All plants also require water for numerous biochemical processes, including photosynthesis and transpiration; it assists with the intercellular transport of nutrients and ‘metabolites, One adaptation to flooding is the development of aerenchymous plant tissues that transport gases to and from the roots through the vascular tissues of the plant above water and in contact with the atmosphere, providing an aerated root zone and thereby lowering the plant's reliance on external oxygen diffusion through water and soil (Armstrong 1978). As with all plant species, wetland plants inerease their numbers and density through asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual repro- duction refers to an increase in the number of individuals of a plant species through vegetative growth; it typically occurs through the growth of roots or thizomes, with the subsequent emergence of new above-ground stems and leaves. Technically, a cattail bed that developed vegetatively from a single parent plant is a single plant, However, when these rhizomes are cut or decay, the individual daughter plants ean remain viable and continue to spread veget- atively. In sexual reproduction, two individual plants, or male and female flowers from a single plant, contribute gametes to form sceds with new combinations of genetic material Sexual reproduction is important in providing alternative strategies for plants to survive from year to year through seasonal extremes, to propagate the species over large distances, to colonize new habitats rapidly and to provide genetic variants that can adapt to changing environmental and competitive conditions. The net primary productivity of freshwater marshes is Extimated most ‘resuen itly through the harvesting of annual peak standing stocks of live and dead plant biomass, When root biomass is measured, it is usually an important part of net annual plant production. Som researchers consider net primary productivity estimates that are made by peak standing stock to be underestimates because they do not account for biomass tumover during the grow- ing season (Pickett et al. 1989). The range of net production rates in natural wetlands that are not subject to obvious anthropogenic nutrient enrichments vary from about 50g of dry matter m-? yr in arctic tundra to 3500 gof dry_ matter m tropical climates. Most temperate freshwater marshes have net primary production rates of 600-3000 g of dry matter mr? yr! ‘Nutrients affect wetland plant growth. The maximum rate of plant growth is attained as nutrient levels are initially increased, However, at higher nutrient levels, plant growth levels off while luxury nutrient “uptake continues; at higher nutrient concentrations, _phytotoxie responses can be observed. Over the life cycle of a vascular plant, all plant tissues are consumed, exported or eventually recycled back to the ground as plant litter, Litterfall and the resulting decompo: of orgunie plant material is an evologically important function in wetlands. Wetland plant tissues fall at variable rates, depending on the survival strategy’of the individual plant species. Herbaceous plant species typically recycle the entire above-ground portion of the plant annually in temperate environments. The growth season can vary from 10 months or more in subtropical regions to less than 3 months in colder climates. In addition, most herbaceous species lose a fraction of living leaf and stem material as litter throughout the growing season s0 there i continuous rain of jead plant tissues throughout the year with seasonal highs and lows of literfall Litter decomposition rates vary widely between macrophyte species. Decomposition constants have been reported in the range 0.0005-0.16 d for herbaceous wetland plants, with lower values for emergent species and higher values for submerged and free-floating species. Twigs, branches and roots of woody species have lower decay rates than herbaceous species. The half-lives (that is, the time for 50% composition} range between less than 204 for free-floating and submerged species and more than 500d for emergent species. The half-lives for parts of woody species are usually more than 1000 d (Vymazal 1995). 1.1.4 Fauna Animals have a sometimes subtle but important role in wetlands used for water quality enhancement, From the tiniest. microscopic protozoans to the largest mammals, animals consume energy-yielding biomass, convert part of this energy into new biomass, and recycle ‘unused organic matter and nutrients, Nutrients spiral their way up the food chain and are continuously used and transformed so that they can be used again. Consumers keep nutrients in circulation and regulate the populations of lower trophic levels in a manner that maximizes systern function (Odum 1983). Wetland eco- systems exposed to toxins or other factors that climinate consumer populations have smaller nutrient eyeling functions, which can in tum affect the performance of biological water quality treatment. In most eases, the wetland designer does not need to be concerned with the nutritional and habitat requirements of the animal populations present in a wetland treatment system. The diversity of adjacent wetlands and aquatic systems is frequently adequate to provide faunal colonizers for constructed wetland treat- ment systems. When these natural colonizers tare present, a diverse assemblage of organisms will establish in a newly constructed wetland in 1 few years or less and will create a balanced wetland ecosystem that has essential. self. regulating funetions. However, if « wetland treatment system is to be constructed where adjacent sources of adapted species are not present, the designer might need to promote colonization artificially through the importation of water, sediments and plants containing mieroscopic and minute wetland animals and iicrobes from more distant sources. In cases in which the wetland designer wishes to achieve significant wildlife benefits in addition to water quality treatment benefits, greater consideration must be given to wildlife populations during the design, construction and operation of wetland treatment systems. The ancillary benefits potentially achieved when treatment wetlands are built to attract wildlife can be an added value with relatively little capital expenditure and operating cost. Some animal activities ean be detrimental to treatment functions or to the physical integrity of the constructed wetland, Beavers, mutria and rmuskrats are all capable of great damage by burrowing and herbivory. Grazing and foraging animals, such as deer, elk and wild pigs, can cause damage to vegetation. Several species of bottom-foraging fish can defeat solids setting. 1.2 Constructed wetlands 1.2.1 Technology description [A wetland is a complex assemblage of water, substrate, plants (sear and alge), litter (primarily fallen plant material), invertebrates (mostly insect larvae and worms) and an array of microorganisis (most importantly bacteria). ‘The mechanisms that are available to improve ‘water quality are therefore numerous and often interrelated. These mechanisms include: + settling of suspended particulate matter filtration and chemical precipitation through contact of the water with the substrate and litter + chemical transformation * adsorption and ion exchange on the surfaces of plants, substrate, sediment and litter10 1, Introduction to constructed wetlands. * breakdown, and transformation and up- take, of pollutants and nutrients by micro- organisms and plants * predation and natural dic-off of pathogens. ‘The most effective treatment wetlands are those that foster these mechanisms. ‘The specifies for the various types of wetlands and ‘wastewater are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Constructed wetlands are a cost-effective and technically feasible approach to the treatment of wastewater and runoff for several reasons: * wetlands can be less expensive to build than other treatment options * operation and maintenance (energy and supplies) are low © operation and maintenance require only periodic, rather than continuous, on-site labour * wetlands are able to tolerate fluctuations in flow * wetlands are able to treat wastewaters with low organic load (too low for activated sludge) they facilitate water reuse and recycling, In addition: expenses * they provide habitat for many wetland organisms * they can be built to fit harmoniously into the landscape * they provide numerous benefits in addition, to water quality improvement, such as wildlife habitat and the aesthetie enhanee- ment of open spaces * they are an environmentally sensitive app- roach that is viewed with favour by the general public. Wetland treatment systems use water tolerant plant species and shallow, flooded or saturated soil conditions to provide various types of wastewater treatment. The two basic types of wetland treatment systems include constructed free water surface (FWS) or sur- face flow (SF) wetlands, and constructed SSF wetlands Constructed wetlands mimic the optimal treatment conditions found in natural wetlands but provide the flexibility of being construc- table at almost any location and can be used for treatment of primary and secondary waste- waters as well as waters from a variety of other sources including stormwaters, landfill leach ate, industrial and agricultural wastewaters, and acid-n Surface flow wetlands are densely vegetated by a variety of plant species and typically have water depths less than 0.4 m. Open water areas can be incorporated into a design to provide for ne drainage, the optimization of hydraulics and for wildlife iabitat enhancement. According to Wi (1990), typical hydraulic loading rates are between 0.7 and 5.0.emd-! (between 2 and dha per 1000 mP d-1) in constructed surface flow treatment wetlands. SSF wetlands use a bed of soil or gravel as a substrate for the growth of rooted emergent wetland plants. Pretreated wastewater flows by gravity, horizontally or vertically, through the bed substrate, where it contacts a mixture of facultative microbes living in association with the substrate and plant roots. The bed depth in SSF flow wetlands is typically between 0.6 and 1.0m, and the bottom of the bed is sloped to minimize water flow overland. Most frequently used species in SSF con- structed wetlands are common reed Phrag- mites australis), cattail (Typha spp.), bulrush (Scirpus spp.), reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea} and sweet mannagrass (Glycerta ‘maxima). Some oxygen enters the bed substrate by direct atmospheric diffusion and some through the plant, resulting in a mixture of aerobie and anaerobic zones. Most of the saturated bed is anoxic or anaerobic under ‘most wastewater design loadings. According to WPCF (1990), typical hydraulic loading rates in wetlands range from 2 to 20 em ¢! (from 05 to Sha Dm-3 d Wetlands have been found to be effective in treating biochemical osygen demand, suspen ded solids, nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as for decreasing the concentrations of metals, organic chemicals and pathogens. Effective wetland performance depends on adequate pretreatment, conservative constituent and hydraulic loading rates, the collection of moni- toring information to. assess system perfor- mance, and a knowledge of successful oper- ation strategies. A.common difficulty experienced by wetland treatment systems has been inadequate oxygen supply. When wetland systems are overloaded by oxygen-demanding constituents, or are operated with excessive water depth, highly reduced conditions occur in the sediments, resulting in plant stress and decreased removal efficiencies for biochemical oxygen demand and ammonia nitrogen. A common problem encountered in SSF constructed wetlands is an inadequate hydraulic gradient and_ resulting surface flows. Constructed FWS wetlands require a capital expenditure typically between US$10,000 and U$$100,000 ha-!, primarily as a result of the earthwork costs. SSF wetlands are typically more expensive per unit area than FWS sys- tems, with capital costs from US$100,000 to US$200,000 ha-!, Operation and maintenance costs for constructed wetlands are primarilyrelated to system monitoring and are generally very low (US80.03-0.09 m-4 (WPCF 1990)). 1.2.2 Historical development 1.2.2.1 Free water surface wetlands Natural wetlands have been used as convenient wastewater discharge sites for as long as sewage has been collected (at least 100 years in some locations in the USA). Examples of old wetland sites include the Great Meadows natural wetland near the Concord River in Lexington, Massachusetts, which began receiving waste: water in 1912; the Brillion Marsh in Wisconsin that has received municipal wastewater dis- charges since 1923; and the Dundas sewage treatment plant, which began discharging to the Cootes Paradise natural wetland near Hamilton, Ontario, in 1919. When monitoring was initiated at some of these existing di charges, an awareness of the water quality puri- fication potential of wetlands began to emerge. ‘The FWS wetland ‘technology’ started in North America in the 1970s, with the ecological engineering of natural wetlands for wastewater treatment (Ewel & Odum 1984; Kadlec & Tilton 1979). In 1973, the first intentionally engineered, constructed wetland treatment pilot systems in North America were constructed at Brook- haven National Laboratory near Brookhaven, New York. These pilot treatment systems com: bined a marsh wetland with a pond and a meadow in series and were designated as the ‘meadow/marsh/pond (MMP) treatment system. Also in 1973, the Mt View Sanitary District in California constructed about 8.5 ha of wetland marshes for wildlife hubitat and wastewater discharge. Industrial stormwaters and process waters were also applied to constructed pond wetland systems as early as 1975 at Amoco Oil Company's Mandan Refinery in North Dakota (Litchfield 1989). Currently, Florida has several of the largest constructed wetland treatment areas in the world, including the Lakeland and Orlando constructed wetlands, both, of which were started in 1987. Each wetland has about 500 ha for the advanced treatment of municipal ‘wastewater. Another large constructed wetland in Florida (1490 ha) has treated drainage from, the Everglades Agricultural Area since 1994. The largest constructed treatment wetland is the 1800 ha Kis-Balaton project in Hungary, which has operated since 1985 This historical perspective should help to illustrate the relatively recent development of wetland treatment technology and emphasize the youth of even the oldest operating, full: scalé engineered wetland treatment systems (about 20 years in 1995). This relatively short period of experience in the design and oper- ation of wetland treatment systems is eause for reflection and understanding and is not unlike any of the other wastewater treatment technologies used today. 1.2.2.2 Subsurface flow wetlands The origins of SSF wetland technology are in the work of Seidel and co-workers at the Max Planck Institute in Germany, during 1960-80 (Seidel 1976; Kickuth 1977). The treatment process was called the root-zone method (RZM) (in German, Wurzelraumentsorgung) nce then, the technology has grown remar~ ably in many European countries and is finding worldwide application. The British Water Research Centre (WRe) first became aware of reed bed treatment systems (RBTS) in mid-1985 and started to investigate the potential of the horizontal-flow RZM system, which had then just started to be applied in Denmark. The water authorities were interested in a system that would allow them to apply low-cost, low-maintenance systems to small village communities that either had inadequate treatment or no treatment at all, Their interest was typically for its use in villages with populations of 50-1000 person equivalents 'WRe staff became convinced that there was enough potential in the system to justify re search and development work. It was, however, clear that there were several problems with the system that required solutions. To achieve rapid progress it was decided that all the authorities and WRe should work together and create the Water Services Association Reed Bed Treat- ment Systems Co-ordinating Group, which was formed in late 1985. The aim was to share information from the different pilot and demonstration systems that were built around the country, In addition, a number of contracts were placed with organizations outside the UK water industry to study specialist areas that lay outside the normal field of expertise in the water industry. The first UK systems went into ‘operation in October 1985. Ten years later, there were more than 400 systems in the UK (Cooper & Green 1995). Severn Trent Water alone had more than 180 systems by 1998, A five-year programme of development culminated in the International Conference on. Constructed Wetlands, which took place at Cambridge in September 1990 (Cooper & Findlater 1990). At the same time, co-operation with European colleagues was developing, and in 1986 it was decided that an Expert Contact Group under the aegis of the European Comimnity and the European Water Pollution Control Association should be formed. This allowed workers from nine European eountries to exchange design and operational experience and resulted in the European Design and n