INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS OF TEACHING

Students have different intellectual capacities and learning styles that favour or hinder knowledge accumulation. As a result, teachers are
interested in ways to effectively cause students to understand better and learn. Teachers want to bring about better understanding of the
material he/she wants to communicate. It is the responsibility of the educational institutions and teachers to seek more effective ways of
teaching in order to meet individual's and society's expectations from education. Improving teaching methods may help an institution meet its
goal of achieving improved learning outcomes.

Teaching methods can either be inductive or deductive or some combination of the two.
The inductive teaching method or process goes from the specific to the general and may be based on specific experiments or
experimental learning exercises. Deductive teaching method progresses from general concept to the specific use or application.
These methods are used particularly in reasoning i.e. logic and problem solving.
To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation.
Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive.
For example, "Ram must be in either the museum or in the cafeteria." He is not in the cafeteria; therefore he is must be in the
museum. This is deductive reasoning.
As an example of inductive reasoning, we have, "Previous accidents of this sort were caused by instrument failure, and therefore,
this accident was caused by instrument failure.
The most significant difference between these forms of reasoning is that in the deductive case the truth of the premises (conditions)
guarantees the truth of the conclusion, whereas in the inductive case, the truth of the premises lends support to the conclusion
without giving absolute assurance. Inductive arguments intend to support their conclusions only to some degree; the premises do
not necessitate the conclusion.
Inductive reasoning is common in science, where data is collected and tentative models are developed to describe and predict
future behaviour, until the appearance of the anomalous data forces the model to be revised.
Deductive reasoning is common in mathematics and logic, where elaborate structures of irrefutable theorems are built up from a
small set of basic axioms and rules. However examples exist where teaching by inductive method bears fruit.
EXAMPLES: (INDUCTIVE METHOD):
1)

MATHEMATICS:

A) Ask students to draw a few sets of parallel lines with two lines in each set. Let them construct and measure the corresponding and
alternate angles in each case. They will find them equal in all cases. This conclusion in a good number of cases will enable them to
generalise that "corresponding angles are equal; alternate angles are equal." This is a case where equality of corresponding and alternate
angles in a certain sets of parallel lines (specific) helps us to generalise the conclusion. Thus this is an example of inductive method.
B) Ask students to construct a few triangles. Let them measure and sum up the interior angles in each case. The sum will be same (= 180)
in each case. Thus they can conclude that "the sum of the interior angles of a triangle = 180). This is a case where equality of sum of interior
angles of a triangle (=180) in certain number of triangles leads us to generalise the conclusion. Thus this is an example of inductive method.
C) Let the mathematical statement be, S (n): 1 + 2 + + n =. It can be proved that if the result holds for n = 1, and it is assumed to be
true for n = k, then it is true for n = k +1 and thus for all natural numbers n. Here, the given result is true for a specific value of n = 1 and we
prove it to be true for a general value of n which leads to the generalization of the conclusion. Thus it is an example of inductive method.

2)

LANGUAGES:

A) Development of a story from a given outline is an example of inductive method because the student may develop any story from the
given outline (specific) based on his/her imagination.
B) Writing a letter to his father describing a particular event of his life, is an example of inductive method because, the event and the
language (use of words) differs from student to student (general) while the format of the letter is always specific as it always starts with
"Respected Father", then is the body of the letter and finally the closure is done by "your (loving) son/daughter" followed by name.
C) Writing an essay on "the book I like most", is an example of inductive method because while the format of essay i.e., introduction
followed by body and finally, the conclusion, always remains the same (specific) but the book and the reasons for liking it and the words used
differ from individual to individual (general).
3)

CHEMISTRY:

Elements in the periodic table are divided into several groups which have similar properties and electronic configurations etc. Thus if the
properties of individual elements in a group like chemical reactivity, melting point, boiling point, ionization energy etc. are known the
properties of the elements of the entire group can be predicted with very few exceptions. Thus it proceeds from specific to general and so is
an example of inductive method.
4)

PHYSICS:

By noting the amount of work done in lifting a body from the ground to a height h, we can derive the relation between the potential energy of
the body (P.E.) with the height attained by it from the ground, which is P.E. = m g h, where, g = 9.8 m/sec2, the acceleration due to gravity
acting vertically downwards. The height being specific, it proceeds from specific to general and so is an example of inductive method.
5)

BIOLOGY:

a) Morphological and anatomical characteristics can be studied in particular plants with prominent characteristics, such as Lemna
(Duckweed), Eichhornia (water hyacinth) hydrilla, Opuntia, Accacia, Calotropis (AK); for understanding the ecological adaptations of plants
into three groups on the basis of plant water relationships as Aquatic (Hydrophytes), Terrestrial (Xerophytes, Mesophytes) and Halophytes.
As it proceeds from particular to general, therefore it is an example of inductive method.
b) The children are explained the consequences of depletion of resources like coal, petroleum and then let them reason the need for
conservation of resources and methods for it. As it proceeds from particular to general, therefore it is an example of inductive method.
6)

ECONOMICS:

By studying the factors affecting inflation which are specific, like the supply and demand of goods in an economy etc, we can predict as to
whether the rate of inflation will rise or fall during a given period of time (general) which ultimately gives an estimate of the cost of living in an
economy and calculating the cost of living index number, the govt. is able to decide regarding the extent of increase in the dearness
allowance (DA).
EXAMPLES: (DEDUCTIVE METHOD):
1)

MATHEMATICS:

A) We have an axiom that "two distinct lines in a plane are either parallel or intersecting" (general). Based on this axiom, the
corresponding theorem is: "Two distinct lines in a plane cannot have more than one point in common." (Specific). Thus this is an example of
deductive method.
B) We have a formula for the solution of the linear simultaneous equations as and(general). The students find the solutions of some
problems like based on this formula (specific). Thus this is an example of deductive method.

2)

LANGUAGES:

A) Writing a summary of a passage known as prcis writing is an example of deductive method because for the given passage (general) we
always have certain key points which are included in the summary (specific).
B) Explaining a poem in prose with reference to context is an example of deductive method because the poem being given (general), we
always try to pen the specific idea or thought of the poet in prose. Hence it is an example of deductive method.
3)

CHEMISTRY:

The experiment of salt analysis is an example of deductive method because here, we firstly perform the preliminary test also known as dry
test (general) to ascertain as to which group it may probably belong. The group being ascertained, we proceed to perform specific
confirmatory test to identify the particular salt. Thus it proceeds from general to specific.
4)

PHYSICS:

By using the properties of semi-conductors (general), we make several instruments like diodes and transistors which have (specific) uses like
the light emitting diode (LED) is used in remote control instruments; the photo diode is used for counting the exact number of people present
in a stadium at a particular interval of time. As it proceeds from general to specific thus this is an example of deductive method.
5)

BIOLOGY:

a)
This method can best be made use of in the study and understanding of diseases where the symptoms and precautionary measures
of various diseases caused by bacteria, virus and other organisms can be explained and children are asked to identify the same on the basis
of their understanding.
b)
Classification of animals into chordate and Non-Chordate on the basis of their differences. Since, the differences are general in nature,
and the classification as mentioned above is particular in nature, it proceeds from general to particular. Thus this is an example of deductive
method.
The examples cited above are not exhaustive. Many more examples can be given and from variety of subjects as well.
Logic and Problem solving are two more areas where these methods find extensive usage.
The major task of logic is to establish a systematic way of deducing the logical consequences of a set of sentences. In order to accomplish
this, it is necessary first to identify or characterize the logical consequences of a set of sentences. The procedures for deriving conclusions
from a set of sentences then need be examined to verify that all logical consequences and only these are deducible from that set.
From its very beginning, the field of logic has been occupied with arguments, in which certain statements, the premises, are asserted in order
to support some other statement, the conclusion. If the premises are intended to provide conclusive support for conclusion, the argument is a
deductive one. If the premises are intended to support the conclusion, only to a lesser degree, the argument is called inductive.
A logically correct argument is termed "valid", while an acceptable inductive argument is called cogent. The notion of support is further
elucidated by the observation that the truth of the premises of a valid deductive argument necessitates the truth of the conclusion. It is
impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. On the other hand, the truth of the premises of a cogent argument confers
only a probability of truth on its conclusion: it is possible for the premises to be true but the conclusion is false. For example let the premise
is: "All teachers are scholars" and the conclusion be: "There are some scholars who are not teachers". Let the premise be true then
obviously, the conclusion is false. Hence it is a cogent. Again let the premise is "no policeman is a thief" and the conclusion be "no thief is a
policeman". Let the premise be true then the conclusion is also seen to be true. Thus it is a valid (deductive) argument.
Problem solving is another area where inductive and deductive processes may be used.
In inductive thinking, one considers a number of particular or specific items of information to develop more inclusive or general conceptions.
After aspirin was synthesized, for example, some people who swallowed the substance reported that it relieved their particular headaches.

Through induction the reports of these specific individuals were the basis for developing a more inclusive notion: "aspirin may be helpful in
relieving headaches in general".
"Deduction" is reasoning from general propositions or hypotheses-to more specific instances or statements. Thus, after the general
hypothesis about the effectiveness of aspirin had been put forward, physicians began to apply it to specific, newly encountered headache
cases. The deduction was that, if aspirin is generally useful in managing pains in the head, it might also be helpful in easing pains elsewhere
in the body.
Although a person may deliberately choose to use induction or deduction, people typically shift from one to the other depending on the
exigencies of the reasoning process.
Finally let me compare these two methods.
S.NO
INDUCTIVE METHOD
DEDUCTIVE METHOD
1.
It gives new knowledge
It does not give any new knowledge.
2.
It is a method of discovery.
It is a method of verification.
3.
It is a method of teaching.
It is the method of instruction.
4.
Child acquires first hand knowledge and information by actual observation.
Child gets ready made information and makes use of it.
5.
It is a slow process.
It is quick process.
6.
It trains the mind and gives self confidence and initiative.

It encourages dependence on other sources.

7.
It is full of activity.
There is less scope of activity in it.
8.
It is an upward process of thought and leads to principles.
It is a downward process of thought and leads to useful results.
To conclude, we can say that inductive method is a predecessor of deductive method. Any loss of time due to slowness of this method is
made up through the quick and time saving process of deduction. Deduction is a process particularly suitable for a final statement and
induction is most suitable for exploration of new fields. Probability in induction is raised to certainty in deduction. The happy combination of
the two is most appropriate and desirable.
There are two major parts of the process of learning of a topic: establishment of formula or principles and application of that formula or those
principles. The former is the work of induction and the latter is the work of deduction. Therefore, friends, "Always understand inductively and
apply deductively" and a good and effective teacher is he who understands this delicate balance between the two. Thus: "his teaching should
begin with induction and end in deduction."

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION:
Skillful instructors have no single set of techniques they follow. Instead, they select the techniques most
suited to the learning objectives, their own personality, and the nature of the subject materials. Before
selecting the most appropriate method of instruction, you must have thorough understanding of the
various tools available to support the subject matter.

LECTURE
The lecture is defined as the method of instruction in which the instructor has full responsibility for
presenting facts and principles orally. Lectures may be formal or informal.

Formal Lectures: The formal lecture method is primarily used when presenting information to
large groups. Communication is virtually a one way communication from instructor to students.
Student participation is severely limited.

Informal Lectures: The informal lecture includes active student participation. Learning is best
achieved if students participate actively in a relaxed atmosphere, therefore, the informal lecture is
encouraged over the formal. Active student participation can be achieved through the use of
questions and is an effective two-way communication process.

Advantages of Lecture Method

The lecture method provides for the effective use of time and manpower in that the instructor can present
many ideas to a large group in a relatively short period of time. Also, the lecture method can be used to
supplement other methods of instruction.

Disadvantages of Lecture Method

The lecture method limits the amount of student participation. A lecture is inadequate for teaching handson skills and it is not an effective method for maintaining student interest.

PREPARING FOR A LECTURE PRESENTATION

First, you must become familiar with your subject. Your lesson plan is a guide for you to use during your
presentation. Review it prior to your teaching session and ensure you thoroughly understand it. If
corrections or additions have been published since you last taught the lesson, check to see that they
have been posted. Any training aids that you plan to use should be check to ensure that they are readily
available and in good condition.
Second, consider the teaching area. Do not assume that the classroom or dayroom in a dormitory is the
only place you can teach. If it is pleasant outside you may want to move your class to the outdoors. Try to
provide a comfortable, non-distracting learning environment. Ensure you have enough time to complete
your lessons, and if not, look for a logical breaking point.
Finally, take into consideration the mental and physical state of your trainees. Hunger or fatigue can
easily take precedence over anything you want your trainees to learn. Consider also that should you
reprimand your flight for an unsatisfactory dormitory inspection and then expect them to concentrate
while you teach, their thoughts are likely still to be on the unsatisfactory dorm. Do not waste time trying to
teach if you do not have the attention of your trainees.

PRESENTING THE LESSON

Besides the obvious requirements of voice, platform mannerisms, sincerity, eye contact, and other
communicative skills, the lecture, because of its unique instructor responsibilities, requires skillful choice
of support material. The strength or weakness of your lesson depends on your teaching effectiveness.
There are a number of techniques you can use to increase your effectiveness. The following types of
verbal support will make the lesson more interesting and understandable.

A specific instance is a short example.

An extended illustration is a single, rather lengthy and detailed example. A story type illustration.
An extended illustration does not have to be true or factual; it serves a useful purpose if it creates
interest and adds variety.
A comparison is used to bridge the known and the unknown. An effective instructor can clarify a
new subject idea, or situation by showing how it resembles a familiar subject. Comparison may
be factual or imaginary. An example of an imaginary comparison is called an analogy. An analogy
uses a story or incident with a point that parallels the point that the communicator wants to make.

The analogy does not prove a point, but helps to dramatize it.
Statistics can be used to clarify or amplify a point, but must be used sparingly and wisely. They
should be in terms that are easily understood, and unless there is good reason for giving exact
statistical figures, round numbers should be used. Honesty with a statistic is essential.
Testimonies can give the trainee an example of a real life situation. The testimony can relate
trainees' thoughts or ideas with what actually happened with the instructor.

In addition to verbal support, visual aids can be used to help clarify and illustrate ideas. Many things are
difficult to explain with word alone. Try finding a location in a strange city with only oral directions.
Remember, any visual aids used must be in good condition and correct. An outdated map is more
hindrance than help. Instructors may find the use of charts, graphs, pictures, slides, and models not only
reinforces their explanation or key points, but also decreases the necessary explanation time, and
increase the trainee's understanding of the subject. There are three types of visual aids: oral,
visual, and yourself. Oral visual aids are examples of something that the trainee can identify with at that
present moment. For example, their dormitory, their area where they sleep, etc. Visual aids (such as
slides, videos, Powerpoint, etc.) are aids shown to someone during the lecture. The third type is you.
One visual aid that many instructors fail to use effectively is themselves.

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
Good questions are essential to effective communication between you and your flight. Instructors who
lack the skill to effectively question their cadet trainees create disinterest and boredom on the part of the
trainee. They also ignore a fine opportunity to open communication lines for determining the effectiveness
of the lesson. Good questions expand on central thoughts, develops the subject, and not on minor, niceto-know points. Let us look at some rules for asking questions.

1. Ask questions of the entire class to promote thinking in all trainees and get them involved.
2. Distribute questions at random. Do not always ask the same trainees or those sitting in a
particular area.

3. Allow enough time for the trainee to think about and give an answer. Do not waste time waiting if
the trainee clearly does not know the answer, but do not cut the trainee off before ample time is
given for the complete though process or answer period.

4. Begin questions with the words that require thoughtful answers, such as, "Why, When, How,
What," etc. Stay away from questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no. This will
help stimulate and even guide students thinking.

5. Acknowledge all answers to ensure incorrect or vague answers are clarified.

6. Avoid frequent group or choral responses. This method provides answers that are often
unintelligible and errors that are hard to pick up.

7. Do not waste time "pumping" a trainee. If the trainee does not know the answer, either offer an

explanation or ask the question of another trainee.

8. Don't use catch or trick questions. Students will not participate and you could possibly lose them
if they feel humiliated.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Rhetorical: This type of question is effective as an attention getter at the beginning of the lesson
or to maintain interest throughout. It normally does not require an answer from the trainee, but
the instructor may answer it if desired.

Overhead: This type of question is NOT directed at any particular individual, but is asked of the
entire class . . . "over their heads." ASK - PAUSE - CALL. The ask-pause-call technique used in
asking overhead questions allows every trainee in the class to profit from the thinking involved in
the formulation of an answer. The overhead questioning technique is encouraged because your
lead-off questions will start discussions.

Direct: A direct question is asked of one person whom you call by name BEFORE asking the
question. CALL - ASK - PAUSE for the answer. Direct questions are especially effective when you
suspect an individual's attention is wandering.

Relay: The relay technique places the instructor in the position of a moderator. The instructor
accepts a question from a trainee, and then turns it over to another trainee to answer. This
technique is very effective in promoting trainee participation and class discussion. Before doing
this, bear in mind that you must be able to answer the question.

Reverse: This type of question involves an instructor who accepts a question from a trainee,
rewords it or adds an additional statement, and then turns it over to the SAME TRAINEE who
asked the original question. It "reverses" and goes back to the server. For example: "Trainee
Smith, you asked me why we have to keep a list of serial numbers of our money. If I took your
money and put it in my wallet, how would you know the money was really yours and not mine?"
Once again, you must ensure you know the answer.

CLOSING THE LECTURE

Ensure all answers have been given and offer an outlet to clarify questions that may occur at a later date.
Ask for additional questions. Some trainees may have questions, but are too hesitant to raise their hands
to ask while you are talking. Finally, close on a positive note. It give your trainees encouragement,
expresses confidence in their abilities, and motivates them.

DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE
The demonstration method of instruction provides a "clear picture" of a task that must be learned.
The performance method of instruction is bases on the principle that one learns best by doing. Trainees
learn physical or mental skills by performing these skills under supervision. An individual learns to write

by writing, to swim by swimming, and to drive by driving. This method may be used to teach something
as simple as folding a wash cloth or a more complex task such as performing a drill movement. This
show-and-tell method has certain advantages, as well as disadvantages, over the lecture method.

Advantages of the Demonstration/Performance Method

Appeals to More than One Sense. Two of the greatest gifts of communication are the senses of sight
and hearing. The sense of sight accounts for approximately 75 percent of what we absorb mentally and
hearing accounts for 13 percent. The demonstration method makes explanations concrete by showing
visually what the instructor is saying. The trainee sees the skill being performed and hears the
explanation at the same time. This allows the trainee to relate the principles and theories to a practical
situation.
Sets the Standards of Performance. Your demonstration set the standard of performance expected of
the trainee. Trainees have the tendency and desire to imitate you, therefore, it is essential that you have
a thorough knowledge of the skill so you can demonstrate it without hesitation or error. Also since the
members of your flight will imitate your methods and techniques, there will be a reduction in trainee error
in their performance.
Emphasizes Proper Sequence. The procedures for a motor skill are usually a series of steps that must
be accomplished in a particular order. An important step in acquiring a new skill is learning the required
steps in proper sequence. The demonstration method is very effective in identifying the precise steps and
fixing the exact sequence.
Provides for Individual Guidance and Evaluation. It is more student-centered and results in a higher
level of student participation and involvement than any other method of instruction.
Permits Reinforcement. Knowledge acquired through a lecture can be made more meaningful through a
demonstration, and the highest level of understanding is achieved and reinforced through actual
performance of the task.

Disadvantages of the Demonstration/Performance Method

Requires a High Degree of Instructor Skill. Your demonstration must be flawless and made to appear
easy so that all trainees will be confident of their ability to perform in a similar manner. There may be
times when you have to perform the demonstration from a position other than normal, that is, standing
behind your equipment. This may require many hours of practice on your part before you are able to give
a flawless lesson. Remember, your demonstration sets the standard.
Restricted to Small Groups. Remember, the effectiveness of your presentation depends on the student
being able to see what you are working on. This requires arrangement of trainees and equipment. When
you are teaching a flight of trainees, this will require placing them in proper positions that allow an
unobstructed view. The size of equipment, whether small or large, and the materials used is a big factor.
For example, the instructor could not get an airplane into a dayroom due to its size and the fact it is too
expensive for use.
Time Consuming. This method consumes more time than the lecture method because of the
demonstration time and the practice time the trainees must be given if they are going to reach the skill
level desired.

Requires Higher Instructor/student Ratio. The number of instructors assigned to a class should be
increased when individual personal attention is to be provided for trainees during their performance. If
this is not possible, the flight will be divided into small groups for adequate evaluation of performance.

Techniques for Demonstration/Performance

There are certain techniques that you should use to make this method effective. Let us look at some of
them.

1. To get maximum benefit from the demonstration, use the actual equipment whenever it is
practical. The trainees get to see the process performed on the actual equipment they will be
using. Check your equipment prior to demonstration to discover that you do not have everything
you need or that your equipment does not function properly. The greatest impact, however, is on
the learning environment of the trainees.

2. Use the WHOLE-PART-WHOLE concept. That is, show them what the finished product looks like
then break it down into small parts, thus giving a step-by-step detailed explanation of how to
achieve the task in logical sequence. Now put it all back together and, again, let them see the
finished product.

3. Evaluate procedures. While the trainees are performing, evaluate their procedures as well as the
end product. The trainees must use the procedures and steps you taught in the demonstration.
This is the standard you have set for attainment, so evaluate the performance in terms of time,
quantity, and quality.

4. Provide instruction and guidance only as required. Trainees should be allowed to work on their
own as much as possible without unnecessary interruption, interference or assistance.
Interrupting the trainee while he or she is working or standing too close can cause a loss in
concentration. Even if the trainee is hesitant or pauses, leave him or her alone as long as the
performance is correct. Proficiency comes with time. Do not hesitate, however, to interrupt if you
see mistakes being made.

5. Consider using trainee assistance. The need for a higher instructor/trainee ratio during the
performance may be met by designating advanced trainees as instructor assistants. This
technique serves several purposes. It challenges the better trainees and provides additional
assistance for trainees who require more help. Exercise caution when using this technique, since
it is essential that the trainee assistant be completely knowledgeable and capable.

6. Remember this, it is still your responsibility to critique each trainee's performance. Constructively
critique the trainee's performance to point out problem areas as well as items being completed
satisfactorily.

SUMMARY
Using good lecture techniques can make your presentations much more effective and worthwhile.
Prepare your lessons by making all materials and equipment you plan to use readily available and in
good condition. Carefully select the time and place you plan to present your lesson, taking into
consideration outside distractions and the mental state as well as the physical state of your trainees.
Practice good communications skills and questioning techniques, answering all questions before closing

your lesson and leaving an open door for answers to questions that may come up at a later date.