9/1/2011

AnalysisofPreviousIESPapers
By

Swapan KumarMondal
IESOfficer(Railway)
NTPCLtd(5Years)
TeachingExperience(12Years)
GATEpercentile99.96

Production

Materials

Total Question

IES-2011

31

28

59

IES-2010

33

19

52

IES
2009
IES-2009

38

16

54

IES-2008

25

15

40

IES-2007

34

15

49

IES-2006

23

13

36

IES-2005

28

12

40

Average

30

17

47

Noofquestionsasked

AnalysisofPreviousGATEPapers
Production

Materials

Total Marks

GATE-2011

13

14 out of 100

GATE-2010

13

14 out of 100

GATE
GATE-2009
2009

16

18 out of 100

GATE-2008

26

26 out of 150

GATE-2007

25

27 out of 150

GATE-2006

25

26 out of 150

GATE-2005

19

26 out of 150

Average

15.22 %

0.9 %

16.57 %

WhyPPTandVideoneeded?

NoofMarksasked

DiscussedQuestionsareavailableat
www.scribd.com
Email:bestmadeeasy@gmail.com
Password:reliancejain
Thenopen"MyDocumentanddownload
desiredfile.

9/1/2011

ClassificationofManufacturingProcess

TheoryofMetalCutting

y Shapingorforming
y Joiningprocess
y Removalprocess
y Regenerativemanufacturing

BySKMondal

RegenerativeManufacturing

BasicPrincipleofRegenerative
Manufacturing

y Production of solid products in layer by layer from

raw materials in different forms.

y Very rapid, accurate used for Rapid prototyping

and tooling.

Advantages:
ProcessisIndependentofPartFeature
NoBlanksareRequires
Toolless process
EasilyAutomationPossible

Machining
y Machining is an essential process of finishing by

which jobs are produced to the desired dimensions

graduallyy removing
g the
and surface finish byy g
excess material from the preformed blank in the

Machiningaimto
y Fulfillitsfunctionalrequirements
y Improveitsperformance
y Prolongitsservice.

form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved

past the work surface. Machining is a removal
process.

9/1/2011

DrawbackinMachining
y Loss of material in the form of chips.

Machinetool
y A machine tool is a nonportable power operated

and reasonably valued device or system of device

in which energy is expended to produce jobs of
desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved
past the work surface.

Why even a battery operated

pencil sharpener cannot be
accepted as a machine tool?
y Ans.
A
In
I spite
i off having
h i all
ll other
h major
j features
f
off

machine tools, the sharpener is of low value.

IAS2009main
y Name four independent variables and three

dependent variables in metal cutting.

[5marks]
IndependentVariables

DependentVariables

Startingmaterials

Forceorpowerrequirements

(tool/work)

Maximumtemperaturein

Toolgeometry

cutting

CuttingVelocity

Surfacefinish

Lubrication

RackangleandClearanceangle

RackSurfaceandFlank
y The surface along which the chip moves upward is

called Rack surface of tool.

y The other surface which is relieved to avoid

rubbing with the machined surface, is called

Flank.

9/1/2011

RakeangleandClearanceAngle
y Rake angle () Angle of inclination of rake
surface from reference plane i.e. normal to
horizontal machined surface.

The nomenclature of different

angle and surface in turning

y Clearance angle ( ) :Angle of inclination of

clearance or flank surface from the finished
surface.

DiscussiononRackangle

Positiverake
y Reducecuttingforce
y Reducecuttingpower

Positiverakeanglesisrecommended
y Machininglowstrengthmaterial
y Lowpowermachine
y Longshaftofsmalldiameter
y Set uplacksstrengthandrigidity
y Lowcuttingspeed

Negativerake
y Increase edge strength
y Increases life of the tool
y Increases the cutting force
y High cutting speeds
y Requires ample power

9/1/2011

Negativerakeanglesisrecommended
y Machininghighstrengthalloy
y Heavyimpactloads
y Highspeedcutting
Hi h
d
i
y Withrigidset up

Zerorake
y To simplify design and manufacturing of the form

tools.
y Increases tool strength
y Avoids digging of the tool into the workpiece
y Brass is turned with zero rake angle

Clearanceangle
y Provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with

TypesofMachining

the machined surface.

y Reduce tool wear
y Increase tool life.
y Must be positive (30 150)

OrthogonalCutting
1. Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the

direction of cutting velocity.

2. The cutting edge is wider than the workpiece

width and extends beyond the workpiece on

p
either side. Also the width of the workpiece
is
much greater than the depth of cut.
3. The chip generated flows on the rake face of the
tool with chip velocity perpendicular to the
cutting edge.
4. The cutting forces act along two directions only.

Geometry of single point turning tool

Geometryofsinglepointturningtool

9/1/2011

Classification: (According to the

number of major cutting edges
(points) involved.)

SystemofDescriptionofToolGeometry
y (I) Machinereferencesystem:ASAorANSI
y (II) Toolreferencesystem:ORSandNRS

y Single point: turning,

turning shaping,
shaping planning,
planning slotting

tools etc.

y (III)Workreferencesystem: WRS

y Double point: drilling tools

y Multipoint: Milling, broaching, hobbing tools etc.

ASinglepointcuttingtool

ASAorANSIsystem

Endcuttingedgeangle,ECEA

9/1/2011

BackRakeangle

Siderakeangle(axialrake)

y It is the angle between the face of the tool and the

base of the shank or holder, and is usually

measured in a plane through the sidecutting edge,
and at right angles to the base

y It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base

of the shank or holder, and is usually measured in a

plane perpendicular to the base, to the sidecutting
edge
y Increase
in
the
I
i the
th side
id rake
k angle
l reduces
d
th chip
hi
thickness in turning.

y It affects the ability of the tool to shear the work

material and form the chip.

Sidereliefangle

Endreliefangle

y It is the angle between the portion of the side flank

y It is the angle between the portion of the end flank

immediately below the sidecutting edge, and a

immediately below the end cutting edge, and a line

line

drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to

drawn

through

this

cutting

edge

perpendicular to the base.

y It is measured in a plane perpendicular to the side

flank.

the base. It is usually measured in a plane

perpendicular to the end flank.
y The End Relief Angle prevents friction on the flank

of the tool.

Sidecuttingedgeangle,SCEA(CS)

SCEAandLeadAngle

y Itistheanglewhichpreventsinterferenceasthetoolenters

theworkmaterials.(Normally15 30o )
y Largerthisangle,thegreaterthecomponentofforcetending
toseparatetheworkandthetool.(MayinduceChatter)
y Atitsincreasedvalueitwillhavemoreofitslengthinaction
foragivendepthofcut.
y Atitsincreasedvalueitproducethinnerandwiderchipthat
willdistributethecuttingheat.(increasetoollife)
y ZeroSCEAisdesirablewhenmachiningcastingandforging
withhardandscalyskins,becauseoftheleastamountoftool
edgeshouldbeexposedtothedestructiveactionoftheskin.

9/1/2011

Lipangle
y Lip angle or cutting angle depends on the on the

Noseradius
y It is curvature of the tool tip.

rake and clearance angle provided on the tool and

determine the strength of the cutting edge.
y A larger
lip
off harder
l
l angle
l permits machining
h
h d
metals, allow heavier depth of cut, increase tool
life, better heat dissipation.
y Larger lip
angle reduce cutting speed
(Disadvantage)

y It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better

Tooldesignation(ANSI)orASA

OrthogonalRakeSystem(ORS)

Toremembereasilyfollowtherule
y rake,relief,cuttingedge
y Sidewillcomelast
y finishwithnoseradius(inch)

b s e s Ce Cs R

InterconversionbetweenASA&ORS

surface finish.
y But too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
y If nose radius increased cutting force and cutting power

increased.

i 1 Ce R

y Inclination angle (i) side rake

( ) side relief ()

end relief ( 1) End cutting edge (Ce)

Approach ( ) nose radius (mm)
y Approach angle () = 90 - CS
y [Sometimes is called principal cutting edge
angle (Orthogonal cutting)]
y For Pure orthogonal cutting, i = 0
y For Oblique cutting, i 0

Criticalcorrelations
When = 90
When i = 0
When i = 0 and = 90

s =
n =
s = n =

(P orthogonal
(Pure
h
l cutting)
i )
is principal cutting edge angle
i is inclination angle

s is side rake angle ( ASA)

is orthogonal rake angle (ORS )
n is normal rake angle (NRS)

9/1/2011

Causeofchipformation
Yieldinginductilematerial

Mechanismofchipformationin
ductilematerial

Brittlefracture inbrittlematerial

Mechanismofchipformationin
brittlematerial

Typesofchip
y Continuouschip
y Discontinuouschip
y ContinuouschipwithBUE
Co t uous c p t U
y Serratedchip

Fig.Developmentandpropagationofcrack
causingchipseparation.

Typesofchipdependson
y Work material (ductile, brittle)
y Cutting tool geometry (rake angle, cutting angle

etc.)
y Cutting velocity and feed rate.

ConditionsforformingDiscontinuouschip
ofirregularsizeandshape
workmaterialbrittle(greycastiron)
ofregularsizeandshape
workmaterial ductilebuthardandworkhardenable
feed large
toolrake negative
cuttingfluid absentorinadequate

y Types of cutting fluid and method of application.

9/1/2011

ConditionsforformingContinuous
chipwithoutBUE

ConditionsforformingContinuous
chipwithBUE

y work material ductile

Workmaterial ductile

y Cutting velocity high

Cuttingvelocity medium

y Feed low

Feed medium

y Rake angle positive and high

Cuttingfluid absentorinadequate.

y Cutting fluid both cooling and lubricating

Built up Edge(BUE)formation

Built up Edge(BUE)formation

y In machining ductile material with long chip tool

y WiththegrowthoftheBUE,theforcealsogradually

contact length, lot of stress and temperature develops in

the secondary deformation zone at the chip tool
interface.
y Under such high
g stress and temperature
p
in between two
clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take
place due to adhesion similar to welding.
y Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the
chip tool materials have mutual affinity or solubility.
y The weld material starts forming as an embryo at the
most favorable location and thus gradually grows.

increasedduetowedgingactionofthetooltipalong
withtheBUEformedonit.
y Whenevertheforceexceedsthebondingforceofthe
BUE theBUEisbrokenorshearedoffandtakenawayby
BUE,theBUEisbrokenorshearedoffandtakenawayby
theflowingchip.Thenagainstartsformingandgrow.
y ThisBUEchangesitssizeduringthecuttingoperation.
y Itfirstincreases,thendecreases,andthenagain
increases.
y Lowcuttingspeedalsocontributestotheformationof
BUE.

Contd.

EffectsofBUEformation
Harmfuleffect
y Itunfavourably changestherakeangleatthetooltip
causingincreaseofcuttingforcei.e.powerconsumption.
y Inducevibration.
y Poorsurfacefinish.
Goodeffect
y BUEprotectsthecuttingedgeofthetooli.e.increases
toollife.

ReductionorEliminationofBUE
Increase
Cuttingspeed
Rakeangle
Ambientworkpiecetemperature.
Reduce
Feed
Depthofcut
Use
y Cuttingfluid
y Changecuttingtoolmaterial(ascermets).

9/1/2011

SerratedChips
y Serrated chips also called segmented or non

homogeneous chips are semicontinuous chips

with zones of low and high shear strain.
y Metals with

low thermal conductivity and

strength that decreases sharply with temperature,

such as titanium exhibit this behaviour, the chips
have sawtooth like appearance.

Whenisforcedchipbreakingnecessaryandwhy?
Whenchipscontinuouslyformandcomeoutvery
hot,sharpandatquitehighspeed
Underthecondition
y softductileworkmaterial
y flatrakesurfacewithpositiveornearzerorake
For
y Safetyandconvenienceoftheoperator
y easycollectionanddisposalofchips

Shearangle()

V
t l
sin
1
r= = c = c =
=
tc
l
V cos ( )
and

tan =

r cos
1 r sin

Fororthogonalcutting
1
==e

Proof

Cuttingshearstrain()

= cot + tan ( )

Fromthisexpressionwewillget

(Thevalueofcanbereducedby)
y usingtoolhavinglargepositiverake

cos
sin cos ( )

y Reducefrictionbyusinglubricant.

10

9/1/2011

Proof

Velocitiesinmetalcutting
(i) The velocity of the tool relative to the work
piece (V) called the cutting speed.
(ii) The velocity of the chip relative to the work,
work Vs
called the shear velocity.
(iii) The velocity of the chip up the face of the tool
Vc, called chip velocity.

Derivetheexpressionforvelocitiesin
metalcutting.ESE2004(Conv.)

ShearStrainRate
(Note:itisnotshearstrainitisrateof
shearstraini.e.flow)

Vs
d
=
dt thickness of shear zone ( ts )

DeterminationofUndeformedchip
thicknessinTurning:(VIMP)
Forsinglepointcuttingtool
t = f sin
d
b=
sin
Where
t=Uncutchipthickness
f=feed
=90 Cs=approachangle
Cs=sidecuttingedgeangle

11

9/1/2011

Whenacutismadetheforcesactingonthemetalchipsare:

Force & Power in Metal Cutting

BySKMondal

Fc andFt

Theforcerelations

(VIMP)

F = Fc sin + Ft cos

The two orthogonal components (horizontal and

vertical) Fc and Ft of the resultant force R can be
measured by using a dynamometer.
The horizontal component is the cutting force (Fc)
and the vertical component is the thrust force (Ft)

N = Fc cos Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
Fs = Fc cos Ft sin
and =

MerchantforcecircleDiagram(MCD)

F
= tan
N

MerchantAnalysis
Assumption

( )

It is based on single shear plane theory.

9/1/2011

LimitationsofMerchantsTheory
1. Merchant theory is valid only for orthogonal cutting.
2. By the ratio F/N, the Merchant theory gives apparent

(not actual) coefficient of friction.

ModifiedMerchantTheory
s = so + ks

where, s is the normal stress on shear plane.

Fn
s =

As

1
and
d then
h 2 + - = cot ( k )

OtherRelations

FromMerchantForceCircleDiagram

TheoryofLeeandShaffer
They applied the theory of plasticity for an ideal-rigid-plastic material.
They also assumed that deformation occured on a thin-shear plane.
They derive.

= +
4

Compareturningwithorthogonalcutting

y ByStabler

y Bydimensionalanalysis

where, k, a, b, k1, a1 and b1 are empirical constants to be

established from the experimental data
f is feed and d is depth of cut.

9/1/2011

y Fc: primary cutting force acting in the direction of

the cutting velocity, largest force and accounts for

99% of the power required by the process.
y Ff: feed force acting in the direction of the tool feed.
This force is about 50% of Fc, but accounts for only a
small percentage of the power required because feed
rates are usually small compared to cutting speeds.
y Fr: radial or thrust force acting perpendicular to the
machined surface. This force is about 50% of Ff and
contributes very little to power requirements
because velocity in the radial direction is negligible.

PowerConsumedDuringCutting

MetalRemovalRate(MRR)
Metalremovalrate(MRR)=Ac.V =btV
Where
h
Ac =crosssectionareaofuncutchip
V=cuttingspeed= DN
60

FrictioninMetalCutting

Fc V
Where
Fc =cuttingforce
V=cuttingspeed=

DN
60

HeatandTemperatureinMetalCutting

Determinationofcuttingtemperature
Analytically using mathematical models (equations) if
available or can be developed. This method is simple,
quick and inexpensive but less accurate and precise.
Experimentally this method is more accurate, precise
and reliable.

9/1/2011

ExperimentalMethodsare
y Calorimetricmethod
y Decolourising agent
y Toolworkthermocouple
y Movingthermocoupletechnique
y Embeddedthermocoupletechnique
y Usingcompoundtool
y IndirectlyfromHardnessandstructuraltransformation

Dynamometersformeasuringcuttingforces
Measurement of cutting force(s) is based on three basic
principles :
(a) measurement of elastic deflection of a body
subjected to the cutting force
(b) measurementt off elastic
i.e.
strain
l ti deformation,
d f
ti
i
t i
induced by the force
(c) measurement of pressure developed in a medium by
the force.

y Photocelltechnique
y Infraraydetectionmethod

DesignrequirementsforTool force
Dynamometers

TypesofDynamometers

Sensitivity
The dynamometer should be reasonably sensitive for
precision measurement

The dynamometers being commonly used nowadays

for measuring machining forces desirably accurately and
precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics) are
Either

Rigidity
The dynamometer need to be quite rigid to withstand the
forces without causing much deflection which may affect the
machining condition

Or

Cross sensitivity
The dynamometer should be free from cross sensitivity such
that one force (say PZ) does not affect measurement of the
other forces (say PX and PY)

Strain gauge type

piezoelectric type
Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less
accurate and consistent, whereas, the piezoelectric type
are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very
expensive for high material cost and stringent
construction.

StrainGaugeDynamometers
The strain, induced by the force changes the electrical
resistance, R, of the strain gauges which are firmly
pasted on the surface of the toolholding beam as

R
= G
R

where, G = gauge factor (around 2.0 for conductive

gauges)
The change in resistance of the gauges connected in a
wheatstone bridge produces voltage output V, through
a strain measuring bridge (SMB)