THE TIMELESS PRACTICE OF NON-GROUTED RIPRAP:

A HISTORICAL INVESTIGATION
ENGR. ALBERTO V. TALCO
Faculty Research Promoter
Department of Civil and Geodetic Engineering
School of Engineering and Architecture
Contact no: 09175067211
e-mail: alberttalco@yahoo.com
BANGIBANG, CLINTON B.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09269760669
e-mail: chickenthunder@gmail.com
BRAVO, SHIRLEY CLEO M.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09175979203
e-mail: chickennaturkey@gmail.com
CUH-ING, ARJAY B.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09068770024
e-mail: chickensarsarap@gmail.com
GICANA, RONEL T.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09067270931
e-mail: chicken.bopis@gmail.com
GOZE, VERNON ROIE T.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09173531153
e-mail: chickenallyoucan@gmail.com
MAYAT-AN, CLINTON M.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09465357789
e-mail: chickenyny@gmail.com
NGADE, NOEL O.
Student Research Member
Contact no: 09169219959
e-mail: noel.ngade@gmail.com

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) is bounded on the north by the province of
Cagayan, on the west IlocosNorte and Ilocos Sur, on the east by Isabela and on the south by the
province of Pangasinan and Nueva Vizcaya. The region is politically subdivided into six (6)
provinces and two cities, namely Abra, Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, Mt. Province, and
Baguio City. The creation of the Cordillera Administrative Region was provided for by
Executive Order 220, signed into law by Pres. Corazon C. Aquino on July 15, 1987.
(http://ati.da.gov.ph/car/about/cordillera-administrative-region-car, 2014)
The province of Benguet is situated in the Cordillera Region and is characterized as
having a rugged and sloping terrain. It consists of wide tracts of forest land rich in mineral
deposits and fertile soil. (www.benguetgov.com.ph, 2014) With the kind of terrain in the region,
slope protection is needed. Every year, slope slips and landslides are common during the typhoon
season. According to a study conducted by Mines and Geosciences Bureau of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, all the provinces in the Cordillera Region are among the
top 10 most landslide-prone areas in the Philippines, with Benguet in the top spot.
Last 2009, The Super Typhoons Ondoy and Pepeng have caused 40 landslides that
claimed at least 250 lives. One of the most extreme events was that of the Little Kibungan
tragedy. At least 50 bodies were retrieved from Little Kibungan alone, where 100 residents were
reported missing after loose soil slipped down the slopes covering 36 houses on hillsides.
Different methods gave been developed and used to provide a means of stabilization of
slopes. Examples of the prevalent methods are: dry stone retaining wall or dry riprap, grouted
riprap, reinforced concrete retaining wall, gabions, and lastly, shotcrete. Stone retaining walls are
especially favoured in the Cordilleras.
A dry retaining wall (or dry riprap) is a stone wall built without a binding agent such as
mortar. The stones are held together by gravity and friction, and the wall relies on good
craftsmanship to ensure stability. (Dswales.org, 2014) The arrangement of stones set in dirt must
be sturdy enough to stand up against the pressure of the earth and the water behind it.
Dry riprap especially asserts its ductility. When exposed to high stresses, dry riprap will
not readily fail. Unlike reinforced concrete retaining walls, dry riprap has the ability to deform
and redistribute stress before failure. One of its other properties is permeability. Dry riprap is
designed to let water easily pass through its voids thus lessening the stress caused by hydrostatic
pressure.

The use and construction of dry stonewalls considered a lot of factors that essentially
contributed to its multiple properties. It considers the scientific and technical properties,
environmental impacts, and aesthetic property.
The scientific and technical properties of the dry stone wall are expounded in the
following ideas: condition and integrity, intactness, authenticity, rarity and representativeness.
The achievement of a good construction technique using difficult local materials, such as the
amorphous round-shaped fieldstone or large boulders, might also qualify a wall for inclusion
under such categories. All other things being equal, a wall, which is highly intact, would be rated
more highly than one which is deteriorated, or which has been reconstructed.
Repairs of the dry riprap enhance its integrity and condition. Minor repairs are likely to
have little or no detrimental impact on the integrity or potential heritage significance of the
riprap. Integrity will be more affected where the reconstruction has been undertaken poorly, or in
a construction style different from the original. The introduction of new stones different from the
original will also impact detrimentally on integrity. In the Cordilleras, the skill of stone stacking
is learned through experience with accomplished stone stackers.
While it has not been considered as a determining factor in assessing cultural significance
of walls, there are natural and environmental qualities, which dry stone walls may embody that
should be considered in determining their management. In particular, walls protect native species
including flora and fauna. The dry stone walls provide ideal habitat for these species as often the
adjoining properties have been de-rocked. In the landscape context, they are key habitat features.
A number of walls which connect areas of remnant vegetation, stony rises and other locations
within environmental values are believed to also provide movement corridors for native animals
and birds.
The main imperfection of dry riprap is the noticeable bulging of the stones. Some stones
may also fall due to poor craftsmanship. The aesthetic property of the riprap is also affected
when the stone stacker is inexperienced. Lastly, since the riprap is made of stone, it is prone to
weathering.

PROBLEM OF THE STUDY

The study of the non-grouted riprap raised the following problems:
1. What are the differences among the prevalent Non-Grouted Riprap construction
techniques of selected ethnic groups in the Cordilleras?
2. How competent are the Non-Grouted Ripraps in terms of economy, integrity and
aesthetics?
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study of the non-grouted riprap raised the following objectives:
1. To determine the differences among the prevalent Non-Grouted Riprap construction
techniques of selected ethnic groups in the Cordilleras.
2. To assess the competence of Non-Grouted Riprap in terms of economy, integrity and
aesthetics.
HYPOTHESES
With the problems imposed, the following are the hypotheses:
1. There is no significant difference among the prevalent Non-Grouted Riprap
construction techniques.
2. Non-Grouted Ripraps are not competent in terms of economy, integrity and
aesthetics.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

"Nearly everywhere in the world where stone was plentiful, it has been used as building
material. Dry stone walls are found throughout the world" (Post, 2005).
In 2005, Brian Post made a study on the Dry Stone Walls of the United Kingdom with a
focus on the construction methods and techniques. The study includes the following: the
advantages and disadvantages of dry stone walls, the shapes of stones that are easy to use, tools
used, anatomy of a dry stone wall, basics of walling, how to build a wall across slopes, how to
build retaining walls, the design of walls, and how to evaluate a wall. However, the study did not
include the effect they had on the populace and the methods of enclosures used.
Colas, A. et al. (2010) presented an experimental campaign on two 2.5 meter high dry
stone walls loaded by a gravel backfill until failure. This has been done to develop simulations
dedicated to dry stone walls because only a few experimental data are available to calibrate and
validate these simulations.
Villemus, B. et al. (2007) developed a model for calculating the stability of dry stone
walls. He made full size on site experiments on 5 walls (2 and 4 meters high) loaded using
hydrostatic pressure. After laboratory testing to quantify the interface friction, the data obtained
were used in a model based on equilibrium of forces at failure. The model consider the
possibility of the internal failure of the wall, taking into account the irregularity of the geometry
of the stones and their arrangement, using a parameter determined by in situ experiments.
In the study of Warren, L. and McCombie, P. entitled The Sustainability of Dry Stone
Retaining Walls, they examined a range of construction styles of dry stone retaining walls in use
across the United Kingdom. Different frictional and weathering characteristics, and the naturally
occurring shapes of stone found in an area, all affect the ways in which the stones have
traditionally been assembles into walls. Ease of construction and aesthetics are also important.

Common Shapes of Stones

Fig. 1 Common Shapes that are Difficult to Use (Post, 2005, p. 22)

Fig. 2 Common Shapes that are Easy to Use (Post, 2005, p. 22)

Anatomy of a Stone Wall

Walls have a number of distinct parts. While there is considerable variation in some
styles of wall, most are similar to the one labelled below.

Fig. 3 Anatomy of a Wall (Post, 2005, p. 20)

There are also several other terms that are important to know when discussing walls, as labelled
below.

Fig. 4 Other Important Terms in a Wall (Post, 2005, p.20)

1. Foundation: This is what the wall is built on. For field walls it is often the native soil with the
turf removed.
2. Footings: The footings are the stones that make up the bottom layer, or course, of stone upon
which the rest of the wall sits.

3. First Lift: This refers to the lower portion of the wall, from the foundation to the level of the
through stones. This includes the face stones, hearting and pinning
4. Through stones: These are stones that extend through the wall, connecting the two sides
5. Second Lift: This is the top half of the wall, between the through stones and the cope
6. Cope: These are the top stones on the wall
7. Batter: Batter is the term used to describe the angle of the face of the wall
8. Hearting: Hearting are small stones used to fill in the gaps between the face stones in the wall
9. Pinning: Pinning stones are used to hold the face stones in place
10. Course: A course is the term used to describe a layer of face stones in the wall
11. Face: The term face can refer to the wall collectively or to individual stones. In both cases it
means the side(s) that can be seen
12. Face stones: Face stones are the stones that can be seen in the side of the wall. (Post, 2005,
p. 21)

Tools for Walling

In its most basic form walling can be done entirely without the use of tools. However,
there are many tools which make walling faster and easier. Additionally, the ability to shape
stones gives much more flexibility in what can be built. Shaping stones will tend to lead to a
tighter, more refined look. A description of the tools commonly used for walling and their use
follows:
1. Hammers
A hammer is the most basic tool used for walling. A common walling hammer is
between 2 and 4 pounds in weight and has one square end and one wedge shaped end.
Hammers are used to trim and split stone. Trimming is breaking off a small part of the
stone so that the remaining shape is of the desired size. Splitting is a means of shaping stones
with the intension of using both of the remaining pieces.
2. String Lines
String lines are one of the most simple and versatile tools, and also the most
complicated to used. String lines are used to keep the wall straight and the faces even.
3. Stakes and Batter Frames
A batter frame has specific dimensions and can only used for building a wall of those
dimensions. Stakes are much more flexible in terms of how they can be used. The big
disadvantages are the fact that stakes have to be driven into the ground, and that the stakes are
much easier to bump out of position when building the wall.

4. Crow Bars
Crow bars, also called pry bars are no more than long bars of steel with at least one
pointed end. There are exceptionally useful for shifting and placing large foundations.
5. Pickaxe
The pickaxe is primary used in stripping out. The pickaxe is also very useful for
removing foundation stones, and digging new foundations.
6. Shovels
Shovels are used primarily for digging foundations. These are very useful for moving
excess soil away and for collecting hearting.
7. Levels
Levels are handy for checking to make sure that courses and stones are horizontal.
8. Tape Measure
Tape measures are fairly straight forward, and are very useful for making sure the wall
has proper dimensions.
9. Sledge Hammer
Sledge Hammers are heavy and long handled. Sledge hammers are used for breaking
large stones, especially when the exact location of the break is not critical. They are also very
useful for breaking stones up to use for hearting.
10. Chisels
Chisels are most useful for splitting with the grain and for precise shaping of stones.
(Post, 2005, p. 23-27)
Basics of Walling
1. Apply the principle of cross joints.
Each stone should be crossing a joint below it so that it is setting on two stones below it.
2. Keep Stones level.
This is especially true in coursed walls or when working with a level bedded stone, but
applies to all walls. In coursed walls, the courses should be level, even when working on
slopped ground.
3. Build with the plane of the wall.
Align the stones so that there is an even plane to the faces of the wall. String lines are
useful to keeping an even plane to the wall.

4. Set the length of the stone to the wall.

T his means that the end of each stone is the part visible in the final wall. In other words
the length of each stone is perpendicular to the direction of the wall.
5. Build the wall with a tight hearting.
The wall should be built as solid as possible. Gaps between the face stones should be
filled. The tighter the hearting the stronger the wall. (Gavins, 2005)

Walling on Slopes
1. Walling across gentle slopes
It is nearly same as walling on flat ground. However, the foundation should be dug so
that the bottom is level.
2. Walling across steep slopes
The bottom portion will take the function of a retaining wall while the top will remain
free standing. There are two different ways to build the lower portion. The first is to dig down
until the foundation is level just below the ground level on the downhill side of the wall.
However, it takes a lot of digging and there is a lot of stone to place below ground. The more
common method is to have a stepped foundation. This reduces the digging necessary for the
foundation, and is a more efficient. (Post, 2005, p. 41)

Retaining Walls
Retaining walls are walls that provide permanent lateral support to vertical or near
vertical slopes of soil (Das, 2000). It can be classified into four categories: gravity retaining wall,
semi-gravity retaining wall, cantilever retaining wall, and counterfort retaining wall.
Two Ways to Build Retaining Walls
1. Single faced Retaining Wall
Building a single faced wall is much faster and uses about half the stone of a double wall.
However because it is inherently less massive and relies on what it is retaining to stay up, it is a
weaker structure. Trace walling is not acceptable in single retaining walls, and long through
stones should protrude back, tying the wall face to hearting behind. Typically it is not
recommended to build single retaining walls higher than 4 ft, and only when there is no top load.
2. Double Faced Retaining Wall

Building a double faced retaining wall is a much more substantial walling project than
single walls. The wall is built like a normal freestanding wall except that it does not mater how
neat and even the buried face of the wall is. T he building process begins by digging back into
the bank the required amount. (Post, 2005, p. 48)

Design of Retaining Wall

Developing a standard specifications for all dry stone walls is impossible because the
stone is a variable material. (Post, 20005, p. 47)
An Engineer must know the basic soil parameters such as unit weight, angle of frication,
and cohesion of the soil retained behind the wall and the soil in the foundation. In the design of
retaining walls, the structure is checked for stability which includes checking for possible
overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failures (Das, 2000).
Other design considerations include the effects of water in the backfill and evaluation of
the magnitude, direction, and significance of wall movements due to settlement.(Perloff, 1976)
In a study of wall failures in the United States, Peck et al.(1948) found that the major
cause of failures of retaining walls to be inadequate performance of the foundation of the wall.

Landslides
Landslides are the sudden movement of masses of soil from a point of high elevation to a
lower elevation. This movement is caused by a variety of factors, both natural and man-made,
and the effect of the said movement greatly affects residents living near around the landslide site.
Landslides are caused by a number of reasons. These may be natural or man-made. Here
are examples to state a few.
1. Rainfall It is well known that there is a strong direct relationship between heavy rainfall and
landslides, with that; there is no need to further elaborate. With that in mind, during severe
typhoons, groundwater pressure levels spike or peak that makes the soil become unstable.
2. Springs and Seepage Groundwater is often perched where water bearing sands and gravels
overlie more impermeable soils like bedrock and the like. Author said that rainfall flows into the
ground until it reaches the less permeable stratum. With the groundwater building up above the
impermeable stratum and flows laterally to a slope face where it comes out as a line of seepage
or spring.

3. Irrigation and Aqueducts With imposed water loads and the waters characteristics being as
it is, having a more concentrated amount through irrigation and aqueducts, both natural and man
made, the soil in contact is greatly affected. This, entail, would give a plausible outcome, which
is a possible landslide.
4. Weathering Weathering affects the soil in which it may cause a landslide. Through
weathering, the soil, stones, rocks and boulders would have parts, chunks, and in some cases the
whole mass being detached and thus falling down to a lower elevation.
5. Fills Fills cause landslides through increasing the load on the ground and/or by artificially
steepening the slope.
6. Earth Dams and Reservoirs Earth Dams are engineered fills that have to be capable of
performing a dual function as a water barrier and gravity-retaining structure. Even with factors of
safety, the potential loss of strength due to temporarily elevated groundwater pressures during
strong and sudden earthquakes is a major concern. It gives out a process called liquefaction in
which it liquidizes the soil due to extreme pressure.
7. Cuts It is the artificial reshaping of the soil surface by steepening the slope of the soil or
making it gradual
8. Artesian Pressures This is when the groundwater head in the soil or rock is higher than the
head in the overlying ground. Artesian conditions develop when a less permeable layer above it
traps groundwater, fed by an upslope source.
9. Concentrated Water Sources The concept of this is similar to the concept of Irrigation and
Aqueducts.
10. River Erosion - It is a natural geological process by which rivers are widened and deepened.
Most erosion occurs during flooding conditions when the water is high, rapidly flowing and
turbulent. Floods also raise groundwater in the riverbanks. Failure of the banks may occur as the
river level recedes after the peak flow.
11. Earthquakes Again, it is well known that there is a strong direct relationship between
strong, sudden earthquakes and landslides, with that; there is no need to further elaborate.
There are other causes of landslides like Coastal Erosion, Subaerial Submarine Flow
Slides, Debris Flows, Ancient Landslide Reactivation, and Delayed Failure. The said topics
would not be discussed in the text due to it being not a part of the study (Feng, X., 2011, p. 31).

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Interview
experienced stone
stackers

Evaluation of
existing nongrouted riprap

Professional opinion

1. Distinctive techniques in nongrouted riprap construction.

2. Qualitative data on the
structural integrity of nongrouted riprap.

The research study regarding the The Timeless Practice of Non-grouted Riprap: A
historical investigation will follow the following concept.
In order to determine the different techniques in non-grouted riprap construction, the
researchers will evaluate existing non-grouted ripraps and interview stone stackers in the locality.
The information will be attested by a certain professional, who have dealt with the construction
of riprap, for the assessment of competency of non-grouted riprap. Thus, giving us information
on the longevity of the indigenous practice of non-grouted riprap.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The effective prevention of landslides would not be possible without the construction of
the dry stonewall. To think of the dry stonewalls constructed a long time afore, and are still in
existence, is an achievement of the people who built them. With the demand of structures that are
more structurally sound, cost effective and aesthetically pleasing, are the existing dry stonewalls
proficient enough?
With retaining walls being improved drastically in terms of its structural capabilities and
aesthetics at limited budget allocations, the construction of the non-grouted riprap is slowly
being discarded. The study of the non-grouted riprap would help determine its capabilities and
establish whether or not it is a danger, liability and a waste of money. Considering that there are
many techniques developed by different ethnic groups in building the non-grouted riprap, one
would be able to determine the most feasible way to build the non-grouted riprap in certain
conditions, especially when it involves massive natural forces, limited financial resources and the
enrichment of a certain property in terms of aesthetics.
Considering local culture and traditions, with the idea that ideologies of different
indigenous groups vary, the non-grouted riprap may or may not be as important. With science,
safety and development impending, retaining walls have come a long way. Modern retaining
walls are stronger, cost effective and neat to look at. This is possible with the help of various
reinforcements like steel and concrete. To further add the aesthetic points of the retaining walls,
with concrete and other materials, more visual design schemes are possible to apply.
The non-grouted riprap is a soil retaining structure that can be found around the
Cordilleras. Compared to modern retaining walls, it would visually look like it is weaker yet for
some reason, these dry stonewalls are still existing. The structures have stood the test of time and
natures wrath. With that in mind, one would think that it is as strong as modern retaining walls.
The non-grouted riprap mostly uses raw materials, which generally covers big stones and rocks
that are placed at a certain manner to which it would effectively retain or hold off soil. For
different indigenous groups, the methods on how the retaining wall is built vary. Aesthetically
speaking, in urban areas, non-grouted ripraps are not mostly accepted in terms of elegance and
refinement especially when the structure is placed at random areas in which development is
indisputable. When considering dry stonewalls located in rural areas, the structure gives out a
natural unpretentious ambiance in which it complements nature and its surroundings.
There are a lot of techniques in the construction of the non-grouted riprap that makes the
structure interesting. With that, the structures competence is deliberated especially in terms of
economy, integrity and aesthetics. With that, there is a need to study the different techniques in
constructing the non-grouted riprap and to determine the non-grouted ripraps competence in
terms of economy, integrity and aesthetics

In accordance to the society, in general, the study gives a profound knowledge on what
the structure is, ideally and ethnically. Ideally in a sense that, it is a structure that makes a certain
area safe and make the residents of the area be secure especially in terms of soil retention.
Ethnically in a sense that the forefathers of the indigenous groups made the non-grouted riprap
and stood the test of time. The structures made have become an integral part of the community in
which the residing people have considered them valuable.
The significance of the study to civil engineering is very substantial and diverse in a way
that, it gives the professionals ideas and options to aid them in designing and solving problems in
relation to soil retention considering aesthetics and ethnic acceptability. With the thought of
knowing the mechanics and structural capabilities of the non-grouted riprap, civil engineers
would learn more about the social value and cultural essence of the non-grouted riprap
constructed.
In accordance to Saint Louis University's mission to transform, the study will give the
hard working faculty and students of SLU additional information about the non-grouted riprap
with regards to ideas for their future studies. It will help give a deeper understanding and
admiration for the non-grouted riprap and its ethnicity and value.
Considering the individuals who have constructed and who are constructing the nongrouted riprap, the study of the structure would give off a deeper understanding and appreciation
of the non-grouted riprap. With that in mind, the builders of the structure would further admire
the possible reasons on why they are building the non-grouted riprap.
Taking into account the researchers and the future generation, the study would give a
deeper perceptive on why the non-grouted riprap still exists and how it is valued structurally and
ethnically by the society. The knowledge acquired in this study would help future generations in
appreciating the aesthetics, integrity and proficiency of the non-grouted riprap.
Without this study, admiration of the non-grouted riprap would deteriorate thus the
essence of why our forefathers developed the techniques of building the non-grouted riprap will
be futile. The study would be considered an integral part of society in which it provides
knowledge and appreciation to the non-grouted riprap structures built and to be built.
DESIGN AND METHODS
Research Design
A qualitative method of research will be mainly utilized in this study. Interviews with
expert builders and professionals will be conducted to acquire information regarding the different
techniques employed by ethnic groups in the Cordilleras to construct non-grouted ripraps. Data
from local agencies and findings from related researches will also be acquired to be used as
supplementary references for the assessment of the techniques. A comparative approach will then

be used to determine the similarities and differences, and advantages and disadvantages of the
said techniques. A normative approach will then be considered to determine how the indigenous
techniques fare against the commonly used reinforced concrete retaining wall.
Data Gathering Techniques
Interviews. Personal interviews with professionals and experienced dry-riprap builders
will be the primary source of information for this research. Representatives from the ethnic
groups will be asked to answer a set of structured questions regarding the techniques they
employ in the construction of non-grouted riprap. If deemed necessary, follow-up questions may
be asked by the researchers to acquire supplementary information. To obtain the information as
accurate as possible, the interview will be conducted in the language where the interviewee is
comfortable with.
Visual Inspection. A number of existing non-grouted ripraps will be visited and observed
by the researchers. A visual inspection will be conducted to determine physical properties of the
cases. Visual inspections will provide physical representation of the information provided by the
expert builders non-grouted riprap. Alternatively, interviews with the locals residing near the
structures will be conducted to obtain information visual inspections cant provide, e.g., the date
when the riprap was built, the impact of the construction of the riprap to the vicinity.
Document Analysis. Related articles, researches and studies will be gathered and
reviewed to validate the information initially gathered through the interviews and visual
inspections. Additional information regarding classifications of stones, characteristics of soil,
recent atmospheric activity, etc. will be acquired from related local agencies. These documents
will assist in the affirmation or negation of the imposed hypotheses.

ACTIVITY

Data gathering

DESCRIPTION

Inspection of existing dry riprap and interview

with dry riprap builders in the provinces of
Benguet, Bontoc, Ifugao, etc.

TARGET
DATE

EXPECTED
RESULTS

December

Detailed information
regarding the existing
riprap with its builder

Data sorting
(to be checked
by promoter)

Examine and compile gathered data to be

presented among professionals

January

Documentation of the
information gathered

Consultation

Interview professionals who are fully acquainted

with the construction of dry riprap - Engr.
Eduardo Cruz

February

Affirmation of the
presented data.

Compilation

Data input
Writing of conclusion and recommendation

Final output
(to be check by
promoter)

Submission of
output

Journal
PowerPoint
Tarpaulin

February

March

End of
March

Creation of initial
write-up

Final revision of
journal, presentation
and tarpaulin