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07 - Machining of Metals PDF
07 - Machining of Metals PDF
Machining of metals
Subjects of interest
Introduction/objectives
Type of machining operations
Mechanics of machining
Three dimensional machining
Temperature in metal cutting
Cutting fluids
Tool materials and tool life
Grinding processes
Non traditional machining processes
Economics of machining
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Jan-Mar 2007
Objectives
This chapter aims to provide basic backgrounds of
different types of machining processes and highlights on an
understanding of important parameters which affects
machining of metals.
Mechanics of machining is introduced for the calculation of
power used in metal machining operation
Finally defects occurring in the machining processes will
be discussed with its solutions. Significant factors
influencing economics of machining will also be included to
give the optimum machining efficiency.
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Introduction
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Turning of metal
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EDM machining
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Machined parts
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Grinding
Removal of the metal from the workpiece using tool made from
abrasive particles of irregular geometry.
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Electrochemical machining
Removal of material from the workpiece by electrolysis. Tool
(electrode) and workpiece are immersed in an electrolyte and
connected to a power supply.
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Mechanics of machining
What happens during
machining of a bar on a lathe?
A chip of material is
removed from the surface
of the workpiece.
Principal parameters:
the cutting speed, v
the depth of cut, w or d
the feed, f.
Time requires to turn a cylindrical
surface of length Lw,
Lw
t=
fn w
Geometry of single-point lathe turning
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Eq. 1
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feed
workpiece
Chip formation
Mechanism of chip
formation
tc
rake angle
chip
rake
face
Clearance
angle
Clearance
face
tool
Machined
surface
0.25 mm
tc
rake angle
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Shear
angle
Primary shear
Secondary shear
Secondary shear
Well defined
shear plane
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shear angle
rake angle
r=
and
t
OD sin
Eq. 2
=
t c OD cos( )
tan =
Wedge
angle
tc
r cos
1 r sin
Eq. 3
FF '
cos
=
=
h
sin cos( )
Primary shear in single point cutting
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Eq. 4
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tc = t
tc > t
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Kinematic relationship
workpiece
vc
t vc
r= =
tc
v
v
v
vs
vs
vc
tc
Eq. 5
tool
s =
cos
cos( )
Eq. 6
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v
Lc
vs
vc
Lw tb = Lc t c b
tc
Eq. 7
Lc
t
=
=r
t c Lw
tool
workpiece
Therefore we could also obtain r from the ratio of the chip length Lc, to
the length of the workpiece from which it came, Lw
If Lc is unknown, it can be determined by
measuring the weight of chips Wc and by
knowing the density of the metal .
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Wc Eq. 8
Lw tb =
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s
d
=
=
dt ( y s ) max
Eq. 9
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PR
Fns
Fs
chip
Fn
PR
Rake
face
Ft
PR
Fh
Ft F c
v os
Fv
Fh si
n
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F
h cos
Fn = Fh cos Fv sin
Fn
Fv sin
Ft = Fh sin + Fv cos
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Ft
Fv + Fh tan
= tan =
=
Fn Fh Fv tan
Eq. 10
Eq. 11
Eq. 12
Fs = Fh cos Fv sin
Fns = Fh sin + Fv cos
Fv sin
Fv
Fv cos
PR
Fh
Fh sin
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Fs
Fh cos
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Fs Fs sin
=
=
As
bt
t
D
Fs
tc
Eq. 13
tool
workpiece
Fns
Eq. 14
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D
Fs
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0.25 mm
tc
rake angle
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Eq. 15
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ko
cos( o )sin o =
k1
Where
ko
k1
cos 45 2 sin 45 + 2
Eq. 16
= rake angle
= o / 3 and o is the yield strength of the material
= u / 3 and u is the tensile strength of the material.
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+
cos
45
sin
45
2
2
cos( o 6 )sin o =
ko
k1
cos( o 6 )sin o =
ko
(0.552)
k1
u = 630 MPa
u = 207 MPa
415
2 o = sin 1 1.104
0.1045 + 6 o
630
k
1
sin 6 o + sin (2 o 6 ) = o (0.552)
2
k1
o = 22.3 o
k
2 o = sin 1 1.104 o 0.1045 + 6 o
k1
70
2 o = sin 1 1.104
0.1045 + 6 o
207
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Fh v Fh v Fh
U=
=
=
Zw
btv bt
Eq. 17
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Wc
0.01336kg
=
bL (7830kg.m 3 ) (0.010m)(0.500m)
tc = 0.341mm
tc =
From Eq.3
r cos
0.586 cos 6 o
tan =
=
= 0.621
1 r sin 1 0.586 sin 6 o
= 32 o
r=
t 0.200
=
= 0.586
t c 0.341
Ft Fv + Fh tan
=
Fn Fh Fv tan
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U = U f +Us
From Eq. 17
Fh
U=
bt
Fv Fns
PR
Fh
The frictional specific energy at the toolchip interface Uf and along the shear plane
Us is
Uf =
Thus
Fs
Vc
chip
PR
Friction energy U f Ft vc Ft r
=
=
=
Total energy
U
Fh v Fh
Fn
Ft vc Ft r
Fv
and, U s = s s
=
btv
bt
btv
Rake
face
Ft
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553(0.586)
100 = 29.5%
1100
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From Eq.17,
Shearing engergy Fs v s
=
Fh v
Total energy
From Eq.11,
Fs = Fh cos Fv sin
Fs = 1100 cos 32 o 440 sin 32 o
Fs = 700 N
v cos
2.5 cos 6 o
vs =
=
= 2.77 m.s 1
cos( ) cos(32 6)
700 2.77
% shearing energy =
100 = 70.5%
1100 2.5
U=
Fh v
1100 2.5
2
3
=
N
.
m
=
550
MJm
btv 0.010 (200 10 6 ) 2.5
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Continuous chips
Discontinuous chips
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Built-up edge
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Machining force
Due to complexity of practical
machining operations, the machining
force Fh often is related empirically to
the machining parameters by equation
of the type
Fh = kd a f b
Eq. 18
Effect of cutting speed on cutting force.
Speed
Force
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Three-dimensional machining
Orthogonal machining such as surface broaching, lathe cutoff
operations, and plain milling are two dimensional where the
cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector.
Most practical machining operations are three dimensional.
Ex: drilling and milling.
z
y
(a) Orthogonal cutting
y
(b) Three dimensional cutting
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Drilling machine
Drilling
Used to created round holes in a
workpiece and/or for further operations.
Twist drills are usually suitable for holes
which a length less than five times their
diameter.
Drill-workpiece
interface
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Primary
motion
Machined
surface
Continuous
feed
motion, f
Face mill
Work
piece
Transient surface
Peripheral mill
End mill
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If all the heat generated goes into the chip, the adiabatic
temperature is given by
Tad
U
=
c
For lower velocities, the temperature will be less than in Eq.19. The
approximate chip-tool interface temperature is given by
1
T
= C
Tad
Rt
Eq. 20
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Cutting fluids
The cutting fluids are designed to ameliorate the effects of high
local temperatures and high friction at the chip-tool interface.
Primary functions of cutting fluid :
To decrease friction and wear.
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Tool materials:
Carbon and low alloy steels
High speed steels (HSS)
Cemented carbide
Ceramic or oxide tools
Diamond like structure
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Rapid wear
Initial breakdown
of cutting edge
Cutting time
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1)
2)
3)
Cemented carbide
Ceramic
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Tool materials
Carbon and low alloy steels
High carbon tool steel is the oldest cutting tool materials, having
C content ranging from 0.7 1.5% carbon.
Shaped easily in the annealed condition and subsequently
hardened by quenching and tempering.
Due to insufficient hardenability, martensite only obtained on
the surface whereas a tough interior provides the final tool very
shock resistant.
Hv ~ 700 after quenching and tempering. However the tool will
be soften and becomes less and less wear resistance due to
coarsening of fine iron carbide particles that provide strength.
For low cutting speed due to a drop in hardness above 150oC.
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Cemented carbides
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Tool coatings
Changing the tool surface properties. surface engineering
Coating can improve the performance of both high speed steel
and cemented carbide tool materials. increased materials
removal rates, time taken to change the tool.
Coating a very thin layer of TiC or TiN over the WC-Co tool
reduces the effects of adhesion and diffusion and reduces the
crater wear.
Chemical and physical vapour
deposition (CVD, PVD) are two
methods of depositing thin carbide
layers onto materials.
TiN layer (golden colour) is hard and
has low dissolution rate and friction
coefficient in steel.
TiC binds well with the matrix,
has good abrasion and solution
wear resistance.
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Tool performance
Tool performance has been improved by the development
of tool coatings.
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Taylor equation
Cutting speed is the most important operating variable
influencing tool temperature, and hence, tool life.
Taylor has established the empirical relationship between
cutting speed v and the time t to reach a wear land of certain
dimension as
vtn = constant
Eq. 21
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Eq. 22
Rapid wear
Initial breakdown
of cutting edge
Cutting time
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Machinability
Definition: The ability of a material to be machined.
Machinability depends of a number of factors:
1) Hardness soft materials are easily sheared and require
low cutting forces.
2) Surface texture how easy it is to produce the required
surface finish. Materials with high work hardening
exponent n tend to form built-up edge (BUE).
3) The maximum rate of metal removal allow low cycle
times.
4) Tool life abrasive particles can increase tool wear.
5) Chip formation uniform discrete chips suggest good
machinability.
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To improve machinability
Change the microstructure of the
materials. Soft particles are often deliberately
added to improve machinability.
Reducing the cutting temperature by using
cutting fluid can effectively act as coolant
and lubricant. Maximum tool surface
temperature remains the same but the volume
of the tool that reached the high temperature is
reduced.
Control surface texture reduce the
formation of built-up edge.
Effect of coolant on tool
temperatures.
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Grinding process
Grinding processes employ an abrasive wheel containing
grains of hard material bonded in a matrix.
Similar to multiple edge
cutting but with irregularly
shaped grain (tool).
Each grain removes a short
chip of gradually increasing
thickness. after a while
sharp edges become dull.
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Grinding wheel
Employ aluminium oxide Al2O3 or silicon
carbide SiC as abrasive grain, which are often
alloyed with oxides of Ti, Cr, V, Zr, etc, to
impart special properties.
Since SiC is harder than Al2O3, it finds
applications for the grinding of harder
materials.
Diamond wheels are used for fine finishing.
Soft grade alumina wheel has a large Vf of
pores and low glass content surprisingly
used for cutting hard materials and fast
material removal, where as hard grade
alumina wheel (denser) is used for soft
materials and for large area grinding.
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vw
t=2
Crv g
d
D
Approximate x-section of
grinding chip
b
t
Eq. 23
D/2
Where
C = the number of active grains
on the wheel per unit area
(~1 5 mm-2)
D = diameter of the wheel, and
r = b/t
vw = velocity of the workpiece
vg = velocity of the grinding wheel
U=
t
Fh v g
v w bd
vg
A
d
Lc
vw
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U=
Fh v g
Eq. 24
v w bd
Where
Fh is the tangential force on the wheel
vg is the velocity of grinding wheel
vw is the velocity of the workpiece.
Fg rt
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rv w
Cv g
d
D
Eq. 25
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Surface temperature
Large portion of energy in grinding process goes to raising
the temperature. The surface temperature Tw, strongly
dependent on the energy per unit surface area, is given by
Tw
Fg v g
vwb
Ud
Eq. 25
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Grindability
Grindability is measured by using grinding ratio or G ratio,
which is the volume of material removed from the work per unit
volume of wheel wear.
G ratio
Easier to grind
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720 Nm.s 1
Fh =
= 24 N
1
30 m.s
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Non-traditional machining
processes
The search for better ways of machining complex shapes
in hard materials.
Use forms of energy other than mechanical energy.
Source of energy
Thermal energy processes
Name of process
Electrical discharge machine, EDM
Laser-beam machining, LBM
Plasma-arc machining, ECM
Electrochemical machining, ECM
Electrochemical grinding, ECG
Chemical process
Mechanical process
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ECG equipment
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Attacking chemicals
Cleaning
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Photo
chemical
machining
product
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USM
products
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USM apparatus
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Economics of machining
Speed , feed
Machining cost
tool cost
Tool changing
Tool wear
Machining cost
Total cost
Where Cu
Cm
Cn
Cc
Ct
Cu = C m + C n + Cc + Ct
Eq. 26
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1) Machining cost
Machining cost Cm can be expressed by
C m = t m ( Lm + O m )
Where tm
Lm
Om
Eq. 27
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t
C c = t g ac (Lg + O g )
t
Where tg
tac
t
Lg
Og
Eq. 28
K
t =
v
1
n
Eq. 29
t ac =
La D
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fv
Eq. 30
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Ct = C e
t ac
t
Eq. 31
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Machining cost
Cm
Tool cost Tool changing
Ct
Cc
Cutting speed
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References
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