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Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Definitions
i positive c, n0 such that
0 f (n) cg(n) n n0 .
f (n) = O(g(n))
f (n) = (g(n))
f (n) = (g(n))
f (n) = o(g(n))
i limn f (n)/g(n) = 0.
i > 0, n0 such that
|an a| < , n n0 .
lim an = a
sup S
inf S
lim inf an
Series
n
i=
i=1
n(n + 1)
,
2
i2 =
i=1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6
i3 =
i=1
n2 (n + 1)2
.
4
In general:
[
]
n
n
(
)
1
im =
(n + 1)m+1 1
(i + 1)m+1 im+1 (m + 1)im
m+1
i=1
i=1
(
)
n1
m
1 m+1
Bk nm+1k .
im =
m
+
1
k
i=1
k=0
Geometric series:
n
cn+1 1
ci =
,
c1
i=0
n
i=0
ici =
c = 1,
ci =
i=0
ncn+2 (n + 1)cn+1 + c
,
(c 1)2
Harmonic series:
n
1
Hn =
,
i
i=1
1
,
1c
c = 1,
ci =
i=1
ici =
i=0
c
,
1c
c
,
(1 c)2
|c| < 1,
|c| < 1.
n(n 1)
n(n + 1)
Hn
.
2
4
lim sup an
lim sup{ai | i n, i N}.
i=1
n
n
(
)(
)
n
n ( )
(n)
i
n+1
1
Combinations:
Size
k
subHi = (n + 1)Hn n,
Hi =
Hn+1
.
k
m
m+1
m+1
sets of a size n set.
i=1
i=1
[n]
( )
( ) (
)
n ( )
n
m
n
nk
r+k
r+n+1
6.
=
,
7.
=
,
set into k non-empty sets.
m
k
k
mk
k
n
n
k=0
(
)
) (
)
n ( )
n ( )(
1st order Eulerian numbers:
k
k
n+1
r
s
r+s
8.
=
,
9.
=
,
Permutations 1 2 . . . n on
m
m+1
k
nk
n
k=0
k=0
{1, 2, . . . , n} with k ascents.
( )
(
)
{ } { }
n
kn1
n
n
n
10.
= (1)k
,
11.
=
= 1,
2nd order Eulerian numbers.
k
k
k
1
n
{ }
{ }
{
} {
}
Cn
Catalan Numbers: Binary
n
n
n1
n1
n1
12.
=
2
1,
13.
=
k
+
,
trees with n + 1 vertices.
2
k
k
k1
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] { }
n
n
n
n
n
14.
= (n 1)!,
15.
= (n 1)!Hn1 ,
16.
= 1,
17.
,
1
2
n
k
k
[ ]
[
] [
]
{
} [
] ( )
( )
n [ ]
n
n1
n1
n
n
n
n
1
2n
18.
= (n 1)
+
,
19.
=
=
,
20.
= n!,
21. Cn =
,
k
k
k1
n1
n1
2
n+1 n
k
k=0
n
n
n
n
n
n1
n1
22.
=
= 1,
23.
=
,
24.
= (k + 1)
+ (n k)
,
0
n1
k
n1k
k
k
k1
{
(
)
0
n
n
n+1
1 if k = 0,
25.
=
26.
= 2n n 1,
27.
= 3n (n + 1)2n +
,
k
1
2
2
0 otherwise
)
)
{ }
)
m (
n (
n (
n
x+k
n
n+1
n
n
k
,
29.
=
(m + 1 k)n (1)k ,
30. m!
=
,
28. xn =
k
n
m
k
m
k
nm
k=0
k=0
k=0
)
n { }(
n
n
nk
n
n
nkm
31.
=
(1)
k!,
32.
= 1,
33.
= 0 for n = 0,
m
k
m
0
n
k=0
n
n1
n1
n
(2n)n
34.
= (k + 1)
+ (2n 1 k)
,
35.
=
,
k
k
k1
k
2n
k=0
{
}
(
)
{
} ( ){ }
}
n
n {
x
n
x+n1k
n+1
n
k
k
36.
=
,
37.
=
=
(m + 1)nk ,
xn
k
2n
m+1
k
m
m
n
k=0
iHi =
k=0
38.
40.
42.
44.
46.
48.
[ n ]( k )
Identities Cont.
[ ]
n
1 k
nnk = n!
,
m
k! m
]
n [
(
)
n
n+1
x
n
x+k
=
=
39.
=
,
k m
m+1
xn
k
2n
k
k=0
k=0
k=0
{ } ( ){
}
[ ] [
]( )
n
n
k+1
n
n+1
k
nk
=
(1)
,
41.
=
(1)mk ,
m
k
m+1
m
k+1 m
k
k
{
}
[
]
[
]
{
}
m
m
n+k
m+n+1
n+k
m+n+1
=
k
,
43.
=
k(n + k)
,
k
k
m
m
k=0
k=0
]{ }
}[ ]
( ) [
( ) {
n+1
k
n
n+1
k
n
(1)mk , for n m,
(1)mk , 45. (n m)!
=
=
k+1
m
k+1
m
m
m
k ]
{
}k (
)(
)[
]
[
(m n)(m + n){ m + k }
n
mn m+n m+k
n
=
,
47.
=
,
nm
m+k
n+k
k
nm
m+k
n+k
k
{
}( k ) { }{
}( )
[
](k
) [ ][
]( )
n
+m
k
nk
n
n
+m
k nk n
=
,
49.
=
.
+m
m
k
+m
m
k
k
Trees
Every tree with n
vertices has n 1
edges.
Kraft
inequality: If the depths
of the leaves of
a binary tree are
d1 , . . . , d n :
n
2di 1,
i=1
Recurrences
Master method:
T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n),
a 1, b > 1
(
)
1 T (n) 3T (n/2) = n
(
)
3 T (n/2) 3T (n/4) = n/2
..
..
..
.
.
.
(
)
log2 n1
3
T (2) 3T (1) = 2
Let m = log2 n. Summing the left side
we get T (n) 3m T (1) = T (n) 3m =
T (n) nk where k = log2 3 1.58496.
Summing the right side we get
m1
m1
n
( )i
i
3
3
=
n
.
2
i
2
i=0
i=0
Multiply
and sum:
xi .
2gi xi +
gi+1 xi =
c 1
i
n
c =n
c1
i=0
i0
= 2n(c(k1) logc n 1)
= 2nk 2n,
and so T (n) = 3n 2n. Full history recurrences can often be changed to limited
history ones (example): Consider
i1
Ti = 1 +
Tj , T0 = 1.
j=0
Ti+1 = 1 +
Tj .
j=0
Subtracting we find
i
i1
Ti+1 Ti = 1 +
Tj 1
Tj
j=0
= Ti .
And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1 .
i0
G(x) g0
= 2G(x) +
xi .
x
i0
i0
= 2n(clog2 n 1)
Note that
Generating functions:
1. Multiply both sides of the equation by xi .
2. Sum both sides over all i for
which the equation is valid.
3. Choose a generatingfunction
j=0
Simplify:
1
G(x)
= 2G(x) +
.
x
1x
Solve for G(x):
x
G(x) =
.
(1 x)(1 2x)
Expand this (
using partial fractions:
)
1
2
G(x) = x
1 2x 1 x
= x 2
2i xi
xi
i0
i0
=
(2i+1 1)xi+1 .
i0
So gi = 2i 1.
e 2.71828,
0.57721,
1+ 5
2
2i
pi
General
1
2
2
4
2
3
3
4
5
8
16
32
5
7
11
6
7
64
128
13
17
8
9
10
256
512
1,024
19
23
29
11
12
2,048
4,096
31
37
13
14
15
8,192
16,384
32,768
41
43
47
loga x
b b2 4ac
logb x =
,
.
loga b
2a
Eulers number e:
1
1
e = 1 + 12 + 16 + 24
+ 120
+
)
(
n
x
= ex .
lim 1 +
n
n
(
)n
(
)n+1
1 + n1 < e < 1 + n1
.
( )
(
)
e
11e
1
n
1 + n1 = e
+
O
.
2
2n 24n
n3
Harmonic numbers:
16
17
18
65,536
131,072
262,144
53
59
61
19
20
524,288
1,048,576
67
71
21
22
23
2,097,152
4,194,304
8,388,608
73
79
83
24
25
16,777,216
33,554,432
89
97
26
27
67,108,864
134,217,728
101
103
28
29
268,435,456
536,870,912
107
109
30
31
1,073,741,824
2,147,483,648
113
127
32
4,294,967,296
131
Pascals Triangle
1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
1, 32 ,
ln n < Hn < ln n + 1,
( )
1
Hn = ln n + + O
.
n
Factorial, Stirlings approximation:
...
( )n (
( ))
n
1
1+
.
e
n
Ackermanns
function and inverse:
i=1
2j
a(i, j) = a(i 1, 2)
j=1
1 5
2
.61803
Probability
1.61803,
2n
n k nk
[X]
=
k
p q
= np.
E
k
k=1
Poisson distribution:
e k
Pr[X = k] =
, E[X] = .
k!
Normal (Gaussian) distribution:
2
2
1
p(x) =
e(x) /2 , E[X] = .
2
The coupon collector: We are given a
random coupon each day, and there are n
dierent types of coupons. The distribution of coupons is uniform. The expected
number of days to pass before we to collect all n types is
nHn .
Continuous distributions: If
b
Pr[a < X < b] =
p(x) dx,
a
Expectation: If X is discrete
If X continuous
then
g(x)p(x) dx =
E[g(X)] =
g(x) dP (x).
= VAR[X].
For events A and B:
Pr[A B] = Pr[A] + Pr[B] Pr[A B]
Pr[A B] = Pr[A] Pr[B],
i A and B are independent.
Pr[A B]
Pr[B]
For random variables X and Y :
E[X Y ] = E[X] E[Y ],
if X and Y are independent.
Pr[A|B] =
i=1
n
k=2
(1)k+1
ii <<ik
Pr
k
[
]
X ij .
j=1
Moment inequalities:
[
] 1
Pr |X| E[X] ,
[
]
1
Pr X E[X] 2 .
Geometric distribution:
Pr[X = k] = pq k1 ,
q = 1 p,
1
kpq k1 = .
E[X] =
p
k=1
Matrices
More Trig.
C
Multiplication:
(0,1)
b
C
C = A B,
(-1,0)
(1,0)
a
B
Pythagorean theorem:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 .
det A =
sign()ai,(i) .
cos x =
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x,
Definitions:
ex ex
sinh x =
,
2
x
x
e e
tanh x = x
,
e + ex
1
sech x =
,
cosh x
e +e
,
2
1
csch x =
,
sinh x
1
coth x =
.
tanh x
cosh x =
Identities:
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1,
tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1,
coth2 x csch2 x = 1,
sinh(x) = sinh x,
tanh(x) = tanh x,
2 tan x
,
1 + tan2 x
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1,
sin 2x =
cos 2x =
1 tan2 x
,
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
cot2 x 1
tan 2x =
cot 2x =
,
2 ,
2 cot x
1 tan x
sin(x + y) sin(x y) = sin2 x sin2 y,
cos(x + y) cos(x y) = cos2 x sin2 y.
Eulers equation:
eix = cos x + i sin x,
i=1
Hyperbolic Functions
cosh(x) = cosh x,
tan x tan y
,
1 tan x tan y
cot x cot y 1
cot(x y) =
,
cot x cot y
tan(x y) =
2 2 and 3 3 determinant:
a b
c d = ad bc,
a b c
d e f = gb c ha c + ia b
d e
e f
d f
g h i
aei + bf g + cdh
=
ceg f ha ibd.
Permanents:
n
perm A =
ai,(i) .
1
,
sec x
= 1.
c
v2.02 1994
by Steve Seiden
sseiden@acm.org
http://www.csc.lsu.edu/~seiden
cosh x sinh x = ex ,
= cosh x 1,
sin
1
2
2
2
3
2
cos
1
tan
0
3
2
2
2
1
2
3
3
2 cosh2 x2
A
c
B
Law of cosines:
c2 = a2 +b2 2ab cos C.
Area:
i=1
cos a = B/C,
sec a = C/B,
cos a
B
cot a =
= .
sin a
A
circle:
AB
.
A+B+C
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x,
(
)
sin x = cos 2 x ,
(0,-1)
Definitions:
sin a = A/C,
csc a = C/A,
sin a
A
tan a =
= ,
cos a
B
Area, radius of inscribed
Identities:
1
sin x =
,
csc x
1
tan x =
,
cot x
ai,k bk,j .
k=1
1
2 AB,
ci,j =
(cos , sin )
n Z,
= cosh x + 1.
. . . in mathematics
you dont understand things, you
just get used to
them.
J. von Neumann
A = 12 hc,
= 12 ab sin C,
c2 sin A sin B
.
2 sin C
Herons formula:
=
A = s sa sb sc ,
s = 12 (a + b + c),
sa = s a,
sb = s b,
sc = s c.
More identities:
1 cos x
x
sin 2 =
,
2
1 + cos x
,
cos x2 =
2
1 cos x
tan x2 =
,
1 + cos x
1 cos x
,
=
sin x
sin x
,
=
1 + cos x
1 + cos x
cot x2 =
,
1 cos x
1 + cos x
=
,
sin x
sin x
=
,
1 cos x
eix eix
sin x =
,
2i
eix + eix
cos x =
,
2
eix eix
tan x = i ix
,
e + eix
e2ix 1
= i 2ix
,
e +1
sinh ix
sin x =
,
i
cos x = cosh ix,
tanh ix
tan x =
.
i
(x) =
pei i 1 (pi 1).
i=1
pei i +1 1
S(x) =
d=
.
pi 1
i=1
d|x
0
if i is not square-free.
(i) =
r
F (d),
d|a
then
(a)
.
F (a) =
(d)G
d
d|a
Prime numbers:
ln ln n
pn = n ln n + n ln ln n n + n
ln n
)
(
n
,
+O
ln n
n
n
2!n
(n) =
+
+
ln n (ln n)2
(ln n)3
(
)
n
+O
.
(ln n)4
Graph Theory
Definitions:
Loop
deg(v) = 2m.
vV
If G is planar then n m + f = 2, so
f 2n 4, m 3n 6.
Any planar graph has a vertex with degree 5.
Notation:
E(G) Edge set
V (G) Vertex set
c(G)
Number of components
G[S]
Induced subgraph
deg(v) Degree of v
(G) Maximum degree
(G)
Minimum degree
(G) Chromatic number
E (G) Edge chromatic number
Gc
Complement graph
Kn
Complete graph
Kn1 ,n2 Complete bipartite graph
r(k, ) Ramsey number
Geometry
Projective coordinates: triples
(x, y, z), not all x, y and z zero.
(x, y, z) = (cx, cy, cz) c = 0.
Cartesian
Projective
(x, y)
(x, y, 1)
y = mx + b (m, 1, b)
x=c
(1, 0, c)
Distance formula, Lp and L
metric:
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 ,
[
]1/p
|x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
,
[
]
1/p
lim |x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
.
p
(0, 0)
(x1 , y1 )
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
.
1 2
Line through two points (x0 , y0 )
and (x1 , y1 ):
x y 1
x0 y0 1 = 0.
x1 y1 1
Area of circle, volume of sphere:
cos =
A = r2 ,
V = 43 r3 .
Calculus
Wallis identity:
2 2 4 4 6 6
=2
1 3 3 5 5 7
Brounckers continued fraction expansion:
12
4 =1+
32
2+
52
2+
2+
Gregrorys series:
1
4 =1 3 +
1
5
1
7
72
2+
1
9
Derivatives:
1.
d(cu)
du
=c ,
dx
dx
4.
d(un )
du
= nun1 ,
dx
dx
7.
d(cu )
du
= (ln c)cu ,
dx
dx
9.
d(sin u)
du
= cos u ,
dx
dx
Newtons series:
1
13
1
6 = 2 + 2 3 23 + 2 4 5 25 +
Sharps series:
)
1 (
1
1
1
= 1 1
+ 2
3
+
3 3 3 5 3 7
3
Eulers series:
2
6
2
8
2
12
=
=
=
1
12
1
12
1
12
+
+
1
22
1
32
1
22
+
+
+
1
32
1
52
1
32
+
+
1
42
1
72
1
42
+
+
+
1
52
1
92
1
52
+
+
Partial Fractions
Let N (x) and D(x) be polynomial functions of x.
We can break down
N (x)/D(x) using partial fraction expansion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide
N by D, obtaining
N (x)
N (x)
= Q(x) +
,
D(x)
D(x)
where the degree of N is less than that of
D. Second, factor D(x). Use the following rules: For a non-repeated factor:
N (x)
A
N (x)
=
+
,
(x a)D(x)
xa
D(x)
where
N (x)
A=
D(x)
where
d(sec u)
du
= tan u sec u ,
dx
dx
[
(
)]
1 dk N (x)
Ak =
.
k! dxk D(x) x=a
12.
14.
d(arcsec u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
d(sinh u)
du
21.
= cosh u ,
dx
dx
23.
d(tanh u)
du
= sech2 u ,
dx
dx
25.
d(sech u)
du
= sech u tanh u ,
dx
dx
20.
26.
d(arcsinh u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
1 + u dx
d(arctanh u)
1 du
29.
=
,
dx
1 u2 dx
32.
d(arccsch u)
1
du
=
.
dx
|u| 1 + u2 dx
2.
4.
dx
= arctan x,
1 + x2
sin x dx = cos x,
8.
d(csch u)
du
= csch u coth u ,
dx
dx
d(arccosh u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 dx
d(arccoth u)
1 du
30.
= 2
,
dx
u 1 dx
d(arcsech u)
1
du
=
,
dx
u 1 u2 dx
Integrals:
1.
cu dx = c u dx,
n = 1,
d(coth u)
du
= csch2 u ,
dx
dx
28.
31.
6.
d(arccsc u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
d(cosh u)
du
22.
= sinh u ,
dx
dx
24.
27.
3.
d(csc u)
du
= cot u csc u ,
dx
dx
16.
19.
1
xn+1 ,
x dx =
n+1
(u + v) dx =
11.
14.
v dx,
12.
u dx +
1
dx = ln x,
5.
ex dx = ex ,
x
dv
du
7.
u dx = uv v dx,
dx
dx
9.
cos x dx = sin x,
10.
d(cot u)
du
= csc2 u ,
dx
dx
d(arccos u)
1 du
=
,
dx
1 u2 dx
d(arccot u)
1 du
18.
=
,
dx
1 + u2 dx
d(arcsin u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
1 u dx
d(arctan u)
1 du
17.
=
,
dx
1 + u2 dx
15.
d(ln u)
1 du
=
,
dx
u dx
d(cos u)
du
= sin u ,
dx
dx
10.
13.
x=a
k=0
8.
d(tan u)
du
= sec2 u ,
dx
dx
Ak
N (x)
N (x)
=
+
,
m
mk
(x a) D(x)
(x a)
D(x)
d(u + v)
du dv
d(uv)
dv
du
=
+
,
3.
=u
+v ,
dx
dx dx
dx
dx
dx
( du )
( dv )
cu
v dx u dx
d(u/v)
du
d(e )
5.
=
,
6.
= cecu ,
dx
v2
dx
dx
11.
]
.
2.
arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa +
a2 x 2 ,
13.
a > 0,
15.
arccos
x
a dx
= arccos
sin2 (ax)dx =
17.
1
2a
x
a
a2 x2 ,
Calculus Cont.
a > 0,
16.
arctan xa dx = x arctan xa
)
ax sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
cos2 (ax)dx =
18.
1
2a
ln(a2 + x2 ),
a > 0,
)
ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
sec2 x dx = tan x,
19.
a
2
csc2 x dx = cot x,
20.
sinn1 x cos x n 1
cosn1 x sin x n 1
+
sinn2 x dx,
22.
cosn x dx =
+
cosn2 x dx,
n
n
n
n
tann1 x
cotn1 x
n
n2
n
tan
cotn2 x dx, n = 1,
tan x dx =
x dx, n = 1,
24.
cot x dx =
n1
n1
tan x secn1 x n 2
secn x dx =
+
secn2 x dx, n = 1,
n1
n1
cot x cscn1 x n 2
cscn x dx =
+
cscn2 x dx, n = 1,
27.
sinh x dx = cosh x,
28.
cosh x dx = sinh x,
n1
n1
tanh x dx = ln | cosh x|, 30.
coth x dx = ln | sinh x|, 31.
sech x dx = arctan sinh x, 32.
csch x dx = ln tanh x2 ,
sinn x dx =
21.
23.
25.
26.
29.
33.
sinh x dx =
1
4
sinh(2x)
36.
arcsinh
x
a dx
= x arcsinh
x
a
1
2 x,
x 2 + a2 ,
34.
cosh x dx =
1
4
sinh(2x) +
1
2 x,
35.
sech2 x dx = tanh x,
a > 0,
37.
arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa +
a
2
ln |a2 x2 |,
x
x arccosh x2 + a2 , if arccosh xa > 0 and a > 0,
a
38.
arccosh xa dx =
(
)
dx
39.
= ln x + a2 + x2 , a > 0,
a2 + x 2
2
dx
x
1
2 x2 dx = x
arctan
,
a
>
0,
41.
40.
=
a
a2 x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a > 0,
a
a
2
a2 + x2
4
42.
(a2 x2 )3/2 dx = x8 (5a2 2x2 ) a2 x2 + 3a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
a + x
dx
dx
1
x
dx
x
,
43.
= arcsin a , a > 0,
44.
,
=
ln
=
45.
2
2
2
2
3/2
2
2
2
a x
2a
ax
(a x )
a x
a a2 x 2
2
dx
46.
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 a2 ln x + a2 x2 ,
47.
= ln x + x2 a2 , a > 0,
x 2 a2
1 x
dx
2(3bx 2a)(a + bx)3/2
=
ln
,
48.
,
49.
x a + bx dx =
2
ax + bx
a
a + bx
15b2
a + bx a
a + bx
1
1
x
dx = 2 a + bx + a
50.
dx,
51.
dx = ln
, a > 0,
x
x a + bx
a + bx
a + bx + a
2
2
a + a2 x2
a x2
2
2
dx = a x a ln
52.
53.
x a2 x2 dx = 13 (a2 x2 )3/2 ,
,
x
x
a + a2 x2
4
dx
54.
x2 a2 x2 dx = x8 (2x2 a2 ) a2 x2 + a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
55.
= a1 ln
,
2
2
x
a x
2
x dx
x dx
x
56.
= a2 x2 ,
57.
= x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin a,
a > 0,
2
2
2
2
a x
a
a + a2 + x 2
a2 + x 2
x 2 a2
a
dx = a2 + x2 a ln
dx = x2 a2 a arccos |x|
, a > 0,
58.
59.
,
x
x
x
x
dx
,
60.
x x2 a2 dx = 13 (x2 a2 )3/2 ,
61.
= a1 ln
x x2 + a2
a + a2 + x 2
62.
64.
66.
67.
68.
Calculus Cont.
dx
dx
x 2 a2
1
a
,
= a arccos |x| , a > 0,
63.
=
a2 x
x x2 a2
x2 x2 a2
x dx
x 2 a2
(x2 + a2 )3/2
= x 2 a2 ,
65.
dx
=
,
x4
3a2 x3
x 2 a2
2ax + b b2 4ac
ln
, if b2 > 4ac,
2
2
dx
b 4ac
2ax + b + b 4ac
=
ax2 + bx + c
2
2ax + b
arctan
,
if b2 < 4ac,
4ac b2
4ac b2
a
dx
=
1
2ax b
ax2 + bx + c
arcsin
,
if a < 0,
a
b2 4ac
2ax + b 2
4ax b2
dx
ax2 + bx + c dx =
ax + bx + c +
,
2
4a
8a
ax + bx + c
x dx
ax2 + bx + c
b
dx
69.
=
,
2
2
a
2a
ax + bx + c
ax + bx + c
1 2 c ax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c
, if c > 0,
c ln
x
dx
70.
=
2
x ax + bx + c
bx + 2c
1
arcsin
,
if c < 0,
c
|x| b2 4ac
2 2
71.
x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 15
a )(x2 + a2 )3/2 ,
xn sin(ax) dx = a1 xn cos(ax) +
72.
73.
x cos(ax) dx =
xn eax dx =
74.
1 n
ax
xn eax
n1
sin(ax) dx,
n+1
(n + 1)2
n+1
xn (ln ax)m dx =
x
m
(ln ax)m
n+1
n+1
x1
x2 =
x3 =
x2 + x1
x3 + 3x2 + x1
=
=
x2 x1
x3 3x2 + x1
x4 =
x5 =
x4 + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1
x5 + 15x4 + 25x3 + 10x2 + x1
=
=
x4 6x3 + 7x2 x1
x5 15x4 + 25x3 10x2 + x1
x1
x1 =
x1
x =
x3 =
x +x
3
x + 3x2 + 2x1
x =
x3 =
x x1
x3 3x2 + 2x1
x4 =
x5 =
x4 =
x5 =
Dierences:
(cu) = cu,
f (i).
i=a
(u + v) = u + v,
(uv) = uv + E vu,
(xn ) = nxn1 ,
(Hx ) = x1 ,
(cx ) = (c 1)cx ,
(2x ) = 2x ,
(x) ( x )
m = m1 .
Sums:
cu x = c u x,
(u + v) x =
u x + v x,
uv x = uv E vu x,
n+1
n
1
x x = xm+1 ,
x x = Hx ,
(
)
( x )
x
x
x
c
,
c x = c1
m x = m+1 .
Falling Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x 1) (x n + 1), n > 0,
xn =
n < 0,
n > 0,
x0 = 1,
x1
b1
xn = x(x + 1) (x + n 1),
x1 =
x1 =
f (x)x =
1
,
(x + 1) (x + |n|)
xn+m = xm (x m)n .
Rising Factorial Powers:
n
a
xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1
75.
76.
sin(ax)
n
a
xn =
f (x) = F (x)
f (x)x = F (x) + C.
x0 = 1,
n
a
Finite Calculus
1
,
(x 1) (x |n|)
n < 0,
xn+m = xm (x + m)n .
Conversion:
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x n + 1)n
= 1/(x + 1)n ,
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x + n 1)n
= 1/(x 1)n ,
n { }
n { }
n k n
xn =
x =
(1)nk xk ,
k
k
k=1
k=1
n [ ]
n
xn =
(1)nk xk ,
k
k=1
n [ ]
n k
n
x =
x .
k
k=1
(x a)i
(x a)2
f (x) = f (a) + (x a)f (a) +
f (a) + =
f (i) (a).
2
i!
i=0
Expansions:
1
xi ,
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
=
1x
i=0
1
= 1 + cx + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +
=
ci xi ,
1 cx
i=0
1
n
2n
3n
=
1
+
x
+
x
+
x
+
=
xni ,
1 xn
i=0
x
2
3
4
= x + 2x + 3x + 4x +
=
ixi ,
(1 x)2
i=0
n { }
n
k!z k
n 2
n 3
n 4
=
x
+
2
x
+
3
x
+
4
x
+
=
in xi ,
k (1 z)k+1
i=0
k=0
xi
=
,
ex
= 1 + x + 12 x2 + 16 x3 +
i!
i=0
xi
ln(1 + x)
= x 12 x2 + 13 x3 14 x4
=
(1)i+1 ,
i
i=1
i
x
1
ln
= x + 12 x2 + 13 x3 + 14 x4 +
=
,
1x
i
i=1
x2i+1
1 3
1 5
1 7
sin x
= x 3! x + 5! x 7! x + =
(1)i
,
(2i + 1)!
i=0
x2i
1 2
1 4
1 6
cos x
= 1 2!
x + 4!
x 6!
x + =
,
(1)i
(2i)!
i=0
x2i+1
tan1 x
= x 13 x3 + 15 x5 17 x7 +
=
(1)i
,
(2i + 1)
i=0
( )
n i
2
x
+
=
(1 + x)n
= 1 + nx + n(n1)
x,
2
i
i=0
)
(
(n+2) 2
1
i+n i
= 1 + (n + 1)x + 2 x + =
x,
(1 x)n+1
i
i=0
Bi xi
x
1
1 2
1
4
=
1
x
+
x
x
+
=
,
2
12
720
x
e 1
i!
i=0
( )
1
2i i
1
2
3
(1 1 4x)
= 1 + x + 2x + 5x +
=
x,
2x
i+1 i
i=0
( )
1
2i i
= 1 + 2x + 6x2 + 20x3 +
=
x,
i
1 4x
i=0
(
)n
)
(
(4+n) 2
1 1 4x
2i + n i
1
= 1 + (2 + n)x + 2 x + =
x,
2x
i
1 4x
i=0
1
1
3 2
11 3
25 4
ln
= x + 2 x + 6 x + 12 x + =
Hi xi ,
1x 1x
i=1
(
)2
Hi1 xi
1
1
4
x
+
=
ln
= 12 x2 + 34 x3 + 11
,
24
2
1x
i
i=2
x
2
3
4
=
x
+
x
+
2x
+
3x
+
=
Fi x i ,
1 x x2
i=0
Fn x
2
3
=
F
x
+
F
x
+
F
x
+
=
Fni xi .
n
2n
3n
1 (Fn1 + Fn+1 )x (1)n x2
i=0
A(x) =
ai xi .
i=0
xi
A(x) =
ai .
i!
i=0
Dirichlet power series:
ai
A(x) =
.
ix
i=1
Binomial theorem:
n ( )
n nk k
(x + y)n =
x
y .
k
k=0
xn y n = (x y)
xn1k y k .
k=0
A(x) + B(x) =
(ai + bi )xi ,
i=0
xk A(x) =
A(x)
k1
i=0
xk
aik xi ,
i=k
i
ai x
A(cx) =
ai+k xi ,
i=0
ci ai xi ,
i=0
A (x) =
(i + 1)ai+1 xi ,
i=0
xA (x) =
iai xi ,
i=1
A(x) dx =
ai1
i=1
A(x) + A(x)
=
2
A(x) A(x)
=
2
xi ,
a2i x2i ,
i=0
a2i+1 x2i+1 .
i=0
i
Summation: If bi = j=0 ai then
1
B(x) =
A(x).
1x
Convolution:
A(x)B(x) =
aj bij xi .
i=0
j=0
1
1x
)n
tan x
1
(x)
(x)
2 (x)
Eschers Knot
(
)
( )n
{ }
n+i i
1
i
=
(Hn+i Hn )
x,
=
xi ,
i
x
n
i=0
i=0
[ ]
{ }
n i
i n!xi
x
n
=
x,
(e 1)
=
,
i
n
i!
i=0
i=0
[ ]
i n!xi
(4)i B2i x2i
=
,
x cot x
=
,
n i!
(2i)!
i=0
i=0
2i 2i
2i1
1
i1 2 (2 1)B2i x
=
(1)
,
(x)
=
,
x
(2i)!
i
i=1
i=1
(i)
(x 1)
(i)
=
,
=
,
x
i
(x)
ix
i=1
i=1
1
=
,
Stieltjes Integration
1 px
p
If G is continuous in the interval [a, b] and F is nondecreasing then
d(i)
=
where d(n) = d|n 1,
G(x) dF (x)
xi
i=1
(x)(x 1)
S(i)
xi
where S(n) =
d|n
d,
i=1
2n1
(2n)
x
sin x
(
)n
1 1 4x
2x
x
e sin x
|B2n | 2n
, n N,
=
(2n)!
=
=
n(2i + n 1)!
i=0
i=1
1x
x
(
)2
arcsin x
x
1
exists. If a b c then
c
G(x) dF (x) =
i=0
i=0
i!(n + i)!
i/2
sin
i!
i
4
xi ,
(
)
G(x) d F (x) + H(x) =
x,
(4i)!
xi ,
i
16 2(2i)!(2i + 1)!
4i i!2
x2i .
(i + 1)(2i + 1)!
G(x) dF (x).
b
(
)
G(x) + H(x) dF (x) =
G(x) dF (x) +
a
c G(x) dF (x) =
i
H(x) dF (x),
G(x) dF (x) +
a
G(x) dF (x) +
(
)
G(x) d c F (x) = c
G(x) dH(x),
a
b
G(x) dF (x),
a
b
F (x) dG(x).
a
Cramers Rule
Fibonacci Numbers
00 47 18 76 29 93 85 34 61 52
If we have equations:
a1,1 x1 + a1,2 x2 + + a1,n xn = b1
a2,1 x1 + a2,2 x2 + + a2,n xn = b2
..
..
..
.
.
.
an,1 x1 + an,2 x2 + + an,n xn = bn
Let A = (ai,j ) and B be the column matrix (bi ). Then
there is a unique solution i det A = 0. Let Ai be A
with column i replaced by B. Then
det Ai
.
xi =
det A
Improvement makes strait roads, but the crooked
roads without Improvement, are roads of Genius.
William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell)
86 11 57 28 70 39 94 45 02 63
95 80 22 67 38 71 49 56 13 04
59 96 81 33 07 48 72 60 24 15
14 25 36 40 51 62 03 77 88 99
Fi = Fi1 +Fi2 , F0 = F1 = 1,
Fi = (1)i1 Fi ,
)
(
Fi = 15 i i ,
21 32 43 54 65 06 10 89 97 78
42 53 64 05 16 20 31 98 79 87
73 69 90 82 44 17 58 01 35 26
68 74 09 91 83 55 27 12 46 30
37 08 75 19 92 84 66 23 50 41