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Chapter 3 Voltage Control
Chapter 3 Voltage Control
Chapter 3 Voltage Control
Main Field
winding
Synchro
DC
GEN
Generator
G
Exciter
Stabilizing
transformer
Voltage
sensor
Amplifier
V
Error voltage
Voltage
comparator
Vref
Amplified
error voltage
Rectifier
Alternator
Synchronous
generator
|V|ref - |V| = e
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Here
KA
e (s)
1 s TA
KA
is the transfer function of the amplifier, GA(s).
1 s TA
(5)
The block diagram corresponding to equations (2) and (5) is shown below.
|V|ref (s) - |V| (s) = e (s)
vR (s) =
(2)
KA
e (s)
1 s TA
(5)
|V|ref (s)
e (s)
+
|V| (s)
KA
1 s TA
vR (s)
Now we shall see the modeling of the exciter field. If Re and Le represent
respectively the resistance and inductance of the exciter field, then
vR = Re ie + Le
d
ie and hence
dt
vR = Re ie + Le
d
(ie)
dt
(6)
The exciter field current ie produces voltage vf, which is the rectified armature
voltage of the exciter. Then
vf = K1 ie
(7)
where K1 is the rectified armature volts per ampere of exciter field current.
Taking Laplace transformation of the above two equations and eliminating i e(s),
we get
vf(s) =
Ke
vR(s)
1 s Te
where
Ke =
K1
Re
and
(8)
Te =
Le
Re
(9)
Ke
.
1 s Te
Ke
vR(s)
1 s Te
(8)
now we can draw the transfer function model of Comparator, Amplifier and
Exciter portion of the AVR loop. This is shown in Fig. 4.
Comparator
|V|ref (s)
e (s)
+
-
Amplifier
KA
1 s TA
Exciter
vR (s)
Ke
1 s Te
vf (s)
|V| (s)
The time constants TA will be in the range of 0.02 0.1 sec. while Te will be in the
range of 0.5 1.0 sec.
d
(if)
dt
(10)
vf (s) = [ Rf + s Lf f ] if (s)
(11)
As the terminal voltage equals to internal emf minus the voltage drop across the
internal impedance, it is clear that the relationship between v f and |V| depends on
the generator loading. The simplest possible relationship exists at low or zero
loading in which case V approximately equals to internal emf E. In the generator,
internal emf and the field currents are related as
E =
L f a if
2
(12)
Here Lfa is the mutual inductance coefficient between rotor field and stator
armature.
Thus
if =
2
E
Lf a
(13)
if (s) =
2
E (s)
Lf a
(14)
2
[ Rf + s Lf f ] E (s)
Lf a
Thus E (s) =
Lf a
2
1
vf (s)
R f s L ff
From the above eq., the field voltage transfer ratio can be written as
V (s)
E (s)
=
v f (s)
v f (s)
where
KF =
Lf a
2 Rf
Lf a
2
1
R f s L ff
and Td 0 =
Lf f
Rf
KF
1 s T 'd0
(15)
(16)
|V|ref (s)
Amplifier
Exciter
vR (s)
KA
1 s TA
Ke
1 s Te
Generator field
vf (s)
KF
1 s T 'd0
|V| (s)
|V| (s)
The block diagram representation of AVR loop shown above can be simplified as
shown in Fig. 6.
|V|ref (s)
|V| (s)
e (s)
G (s)
K
( 1 s TA ) ( 1 s Te ) ( 1 s T ' d o )
(17)
(18)
|V| (s)
e (s)
G (s)
|V|ref (s)
G (s)
G (s) 1
|V| (s)
2
x 10
100
p
Vref 0
100
(19)
e0 = Vref 0 - V0 <
p
Vref 0
100
(19)
For a constant input, the transfer function can be obtained by setting s = 0. Thus
e0 = Vref 0 - V0
= Vref 0 -
= [1-
|V|ref (s)
G (0)
Vref 0
G (0) 1
G (s)
G (s) 1
|V| (s)
G (0)
1
] Vref 0 =
Vref 0
G (0) 1
G (0) 1
Thus e0 =
1
Vref 0
K1
(20)
e0 = Vref 0 - V0 <
Thus e0 =
p
Vref 0
100
(19)
1
Vref 0
K1
(20)
It can be concluded that the static error decreases with increased open loop gain.
For a specified accuracy, the minimum gain needed is obtained substituting
eq.(19) into eq.(20). i.e.
1
p
Vref 0 <
Vref 0
K1
100
i.e. K + 1 >
100
p
i.e. K >
100
- 1
p
(21)
For example, if we specify that the static error should be less than 2% of
reference input, the open loop gain must be > 49.
G (s)
}
G (s) 1
|V|ref (s)
G (s)
G (s) 1
|V| (s)
(22)
K
( 1 s TA ) ( 1 s Te ) ( 1 s T ' d o )
There are three loci, each starting from an open-loop pole (marked x). They are
located at s = - 1 / TA, - 1 / Te and - 1 / Td o respectively. For low values of loop
gains,K, the eigenvalues (marked
is comparatively
large, the pole - 1 / Td o is very close to the origin. The dominating eigenvalues s2
is thus small, resulting in a very slowly decaying exponential term, giving the
loop an unacceptable sluggish response. The gain K would not satisfy the
inequality (21), K >
100
- 1 thus rendering an inaccurate static response as well.
p
By increasing the loop gain, the eigenvalues s 2 travels to the left and the loop
response quickens. At certain gain setting, the eigenvalues s 3 and s2 collide.
( 2 1) 180
for = 0, 1,2, n-m-1 ( n = no. of poles and m = no. of zeros)
nm
= (2 + 1) 60 for = 0, 1, 2
= 600, 1800 and 3000
K ( 1 s Tc )
( 1 s TA ) ( 1 s Te ) ( 1 s T ' d o )
(23)
The added network will not affect the static loop gain K, and thus the static
accuracy.
The dynamic response characteristic will change to the better. Consider for
example the case when we would tune the compensator time constant T c to equal
to the exciter time constant T e. The open-loop transfer function would then is
G(s) =
K
( 1 s TA ) ( 1 s T ' d o )
In this case
(24)
j
-
1
TA
1
T
do
'
x
s2
s1
Low loop gain (a) still results in negative real eigenvalues, the dominant one of
which, s2, yields a sluggish response term. Increasing loop gain (b) results in
oscillatory response. The damping of the oscillatory term will, however, not
decrease with increasing gain, as was in the case of uncompensated system.
V1
V2
R+jX
I
P+jQ
Fig. 10 Transmission line supplying a load
V2
V
I
Fig. 11 Phasor diagram
V2
V
I
Fig. 11 Phasor diagram
(25)
where
V = | I |R cos + | I |X sin
(26)
= | I |X cos - | I |R sin
(27)
P
V2
and | I | sin =
Q
V2
(28)
RP
XQ
+
V2
V2
(29)
XP
RQ
V2
V2
(30)
V1 = V2 + V
(31)
RP
XQ
+
V2
V2
(32)
XQ
V2
(33)
From eq. (33), we can state that the voltage drop in the transmission line is
directly proportional to the reactive power flow (Q-flow) in the transmission line.
Most of the electric load is inductive in nature. In a day, during the peak hours, Qflow will be heavy, resulting more voltage drop. However, during off-peak hours,
the load will be very small and the distributed shunt capacitances throughout the
transmission line become predominant making the receiving-end voltage greater
than the sending-end voltage (Ferranti effect). Thus during off-peak hours there
may be voltage rise in the transmission line from sending-end to receiving-end.
Thus the sending end will experience large voltage drop during peak load
condition and even voltage rise during off-peak load condition.
Reactive power control is necessary in order to maintain the voltage drop in the
transmission line within the specified limits. During peak hours, voltage drop can
be reduced by decreasing the Q-flow in the transmission line. This is possible by
externally injecting a portion of load reactive power at the receiving-end.
Fig.(12) illustrates the effect of injecting the reactive power.
1
V1
V2
jX
Q
Voltage drop V =
V1
X
Q
V2
Real power = P
Reactive power = Q
V2
jX
(1- k) Q
Reactive power
injection = k Q
Voltage drop V =
X
(1 k) Q = (1 k) V
V2
Real power = P
Reactive power = Q
If 70% of load Q is injected at the receiving-end, then the value of k is 0.7 and the
voltage drop will be only 30% of the original value.
Reactive power can be injected into the power network by connecting
1. Shunt capacitors
2. Synchronous compensator ( Synchronous phase modifier)
3. Static VAR compensator (SVC)
During off-peak period, voltage rise can be reduced by absorbing the reactive
power. This is possible by connecting
1. Shunt reactor
2. Synchronous compensator ( Synchronous phase modifier)
3. Static VAR compensator (SVC)
Shunt capacitors
Shunt capacitor are used in circuit with lagging power factors such as the one
created by peak load condition. Capacitors are connected either directly to a bus
bar or to the tertiary winding of a main transformer. Reactive power supplied by
the capacitor is given by
QC = |V| |IC| sin 900
QC = |V| |IC| =
IC
V
XC
V C VAR / phase
2
(35)
where |V| is the phase voltage and C is the capacitance / phase. Unfortunately, as
the voltage falls, the VARs produced by a shunt capacitor reduce. Thus when
needed most, their effectiveness falls.
Shunt reactors
Shunt reactors are used in circuit with leading power factors such as the one
created by lightly loaded cables. The inductors are usually coreless type and
possess linear type characteristics. If XL is the inductive reactance per phase and
|V| is the phase voltage, reactive power absorbed by the inductor is given by
QL = |V| |IL| =
V
XL
VAR / phase
(36)
Synchronous compensators
A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a
mechanical load. Depending on the value of excitation, it can either inject or
absorb reactive power. When used with a voltage regulator, the compensator can
automatically run over-excited at times of high load and supply the required
reactive power. It will be under-excited at light load to absorb the reactive power.
Anti-parallel
thyristor switch
Fixed
capacitor
Inductor
Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of SVC
Bus
Anti-parallel
thyristor switch
Fixed
capacitor
Inductor
Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of SVC
(37)
In SVC, reactive power QL can be varied and thus reactive power Qnet is
controllable. During heavy load period, QL is lesser than QC while during light load
condition, QL is greater than QC. SVC has got high application in transmission
bus voltage control. Being static this equipment, it is more advantageous than
synchronous compensator.
V1
ts V1
V2
tr V2
R+jX
1 : ts
tr : 1
The total
ts V1 = tr V2 +
RP
XQ
+
t r V2
t r V2
i.e.
R P XQ
t r V2
(38)
(39)
As ts tr = 1, tr = 1 / ts. Thus
ts =
1 V2 R P X Q
(
+
) i.e. ts2 =
V2 / t s
V1 t s
ts2 (1 -
V2
R P XQ 2
+
ts i.e.
V1
V1 V2
V
R P XQ
) = 2
V1
V1 V2
(40)
Example
A 400 kV line is fed through 132 / 400 kV transformer from a constant 132 kV
supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another transformer
of nominal ratio 400 / 132 kV. The total impedance of the line and transformers at
400 kV is (50 + j 100) . Both the transformers are equipped with tap changing
facilities which are so arranged that the product of the two off-nominal settings is
unity. If the load on the system is 200 MW at 0.8 p.f. lagging, calculate the
settings of the tap changers required to maintain the voltages at the both ends at
132 kV.
Solution We know
ts2 (1 -
V2
R P XQ
) =
V1
V1 V2
The load is 200 MW at 0.8 p.f. i.e. 200 MW, 150 MVAR.
50 x ( 200 x 106 / 3 ) 100 x (150 x 106 / 3 )
R P XQ
=
V1 V2
( 400 / 3 ) 2 x 106
50 x 66.6667 100 x 50
= 0.15625
230.942
2.
Develop the block diagram of comparator and the amplifier in the excitation
system.
3.
4.
5.
Draw the block diagram of the AVR loop, without stability compensator.
Reduce it as a single block between the input and output.
6.
7.
8.
Static error in AVR deceases with increased loop gain. Justify this. Find the
minimum value of open loop gain K, for the static error to be less than i)
1% ii) 2% and iii) 3% of reference input.
9.
Consider the block diagram of the AVR loop without stability compensator.
The values of the time constants are: T A = 0.05 s; T e = 0.5 s and T F = 3.0 s.
We would like the static error not to exceed 1% of reference input.
a) Construct the required root locus diagram and prove that the static
accuracy requirement conflicts with the requirement of stability.
b) Specifically, compute the closed loop poles if K is set at 99.
c) Reduce K by 50% and repeat part b.
10.
In AVR, high open loop gain is needed for better static accuracy; but this
causes undesirable dynamic response, possibly instability. Justify this.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another transformer
of nominal ratio 132 / 11 kV. The total impedance of the line and transformers at
132 kV is (20 + j 53) . Both the transformers are equipped with tap changing
facilities which are so arranged that the product of the two off-nominal settings is
unity. If the load on the system is 40 MW at 0.9 p.f. lagging, calculate the settings
of the tap changers required to maintain the voltages at the both ends at 11 kV.
Answers
8.
99;
49;
32.333
9.
17.