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Markushevich Areas & Logarithms PDF
Markushevich Areas & Logarithms PDF
A. 11. Mapxyuresas
nJIOIUA)lJ1 11 JIOrAPM<1>MhI
H3M TEJIbCT80 HAYKA MOCKBA
A.I. Ma.rkushevich
AREAS
AND
LOGARITHMS
Translated from the Russian
by
I. Aleksanova
MIR PUBLISHERS
MOSCOW
Ha
aHZAUUCICOM Jl3WU
English
FOREWORD
I first presented the lecture "Areas and Logarithms" in the
autumn of 1951 at Moscow University to a large audience of
senior schoolchildren intending to participate in the Mathematics
Olympiad. 'The aim of the lecture was to present a geometric
theory of logarithm, in which logarithms are introduced as
various areas, with all the properties of the logarithms then
being derived from those of the areas. The lecture also introduced
the most simple concepts and elements of integral calculus,
without resort to the concept of a derivative.
The lecture is published in this booklet with some additions.
The reader can begin the book without even knowing what a
logarithm is. He need only have a preliminary knowledge of the
simplest functions and their graphical representation, of geometric
progressions, and of the concept of limit.
If the reader wishes to broaden his knowledge of logarithms
he is referred to the books The Origin of Logarithms by
I. B. Abelson and Series by A. I. Markushevich (in Russian). The
last chapter of the latter book contains an alternative theory of
logarithms to that presented here.
The present publication includes a Supplement in which Simpson's
rule and some of its applications can be found. In particular,
the nurnber 1t is calculated.
The author
V2
x
b
Fig. I
Fig. 2
y = ax (a > 0)
is a straight line; here the area of the figure ACDB (Fig. 5)
is positive for OD > DC, negative for OD < OC, and equal to
zero in the case of OD = OC.
y
y
D
x
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
equal to the sum of the areas of the saw teeth * must be less than
the area of the rectangle. If its base. is S we obtain Iell < S BD.
Hence, the error a. can be made infinitesimal if the rectangles in
Fig. 6 are taken to be so narrow that the base S of the widest
of them is a sufficiently small number. For example, if BD = 20,
and we want the area of the stepped figure to differ from S by
less than 0.001, we must assume 8 BD = 208 to be less than
y
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
222
10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
II
Fig. 13
~a
12
OC = a, OE = aq, OF = aq",
OG= aq 3,
OI=aq"-l,
OD:aq"=b.
Fig. 14
CE=OE-OC=a(q-l),
EF=OF-OE=aq(q-l),
13
= OC 5 = as,
EEl
= OE 5 = a 5q 5, FF 1 = OF 5 = a 5q l 0 ,
GG 1 = a5 q l 5, ... , III = 01 5 = a 5q S(n -
l ).
l)
= a 6q 6(n -
l) ( q -
1).
a6 q 6<n -
l ) (q _
1)q6 - a6 (q - 1)"
q6 _ 1
= [(aqn)6 =
q5
. q- 1
6]
q6 _ 1
b6 - a6
+ q4 + q3 + q2 + q
q6 _ 1
- - = q5
( we have used the equalities b = ao" and q- 1
+ q3 + q2 + q +
+1
+ q4 +
1).
b-a .
b-a
b-a
q-l<--.
na.
The right.. hand side of the last inequality tends to zero when n
increases indefinitely; since the left-hand side is positive it must
tend to zero too, that is, q tends to unity.
This implies that q2, s'. q4 and q5 also tend to unity,
the sum q5 + q4 + q3 + q2 + q + 1 tends to 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 =
= 6 and, hence, the whole area of the stepped figure, equal to
b6 - a6
tends to the limit
S=-----
k+ 1
s=
bk+ 1 _ ak+ 1
k+ 1
15
Fig. 15
equal to k
l'
i. e. it is k
+1
rectangle ODBK, or, the same thing, k + 1 times less than the
product of the "legs of the right-angled triangle" ODB (we have
put inverted commas since we speak here not of the ordinary
triangle, but of the curvilinear one). For k = 1 we have a function
y = x, with the graph becoming a straight line (see Fig. 9)
and the triangle an ordinary right triangle with its area equalling
1
1
.
1+1 ="2 of the product of the legs.
16
o
Fig. 16
Jf(x)dx.
Every detail in this designation has a definite meaning, Here we have
a function f(x) whose graph is the upper part of the boundary
of the curvilinear trapezoid, and also the numbers a and b,
17
specifying the right part and the left part of the boundary.
The designation (*) defines the method of seeking the area of
ACDB; this method was given in Sections 2 and 3 and involves
calculating the sum of the areas of the rectangles constituting
is
the stepped figure and passing to the limit. The sign
the extended letter S, the initial letter of the Latin word summa,
sum. The unusual shape of the letter S implies that the calculation
of the area of the curvilinear trapezoid involves not only summation,
but must also .include the passage to the limit. To the right
of the sign S, which is called the integral sign (from the
Latin integer meaning full, entire), is the productf(x) dx. It represents
the area of the rectangle with altitude f(x) and base dx. The
letter d standing before x is the initial letter of the Latin word
differentia meaning difference; dx denotes the difference between
the two values of x (see Fig. 16): dx = x' - x, The number a
is the lower limit and b the upper limit of the integral (here
the word "limit" means "boundary").
Thus, the designation (*) for the area of the curvilinear
trapezoid carries, on the one hand, all the information concerning
its form and dimensions (given by the numbers a and b and by
the function f(x)), and, on the other hand, contains within it the
method of seeking the area of the trapezoid by calculating
the areas of the rectangles with altitudes f(x) and bases dx, by
summing these areas and by passing to the limit (the integral
sign shows that the summation and passing to the limit must be
carried out). The designation (*) should be read as "the integral
from a to b, f of x dx". We repeat once again that this
designation expresses the area of the curvilinear trapezoid ACDB.
Using the new designation we may express the results of Section 5
as follows:
b
b"+ 1 _ a"+ 1
Jxkdx= - - - - a
k+1
S.f(x)dx, the second to Jf(x) dx, and the third to Jf(x) dx;
b
18
b e e
+ If(x)dx = If(x)dx.
.
a < b < c:
Here
now if a < c < b (Fig. 18), then, taking into account that the areas
ACD'B' and B'D'DB together yield the area ACDB, we obtain
e b b
we assumed that a < b, i. e. that the lower limit is less than the
y
Fig. 17
COD
b
Fig. 18
the
OD
=b
written
as
Sf(x)dx
b
and for b > c (Fig. 18) as If(x)dx (every time the lower limit
is less than the upper limit). In the first case the difference
c
in the second case to Jf(x)dx (we have made use of the equalities
of the integrals written above). To be able to express both cases
by the same formula we shall agree that for b > c we may write
c
19
Sf(x) dx - Sf(x) dx
a
Sf(x) dx (b < c)
and
e b b
Jf(x)dx - Jf(x)dx
Jf(x)dx
= -
(b > c)
Sf(x)dx - Jj(x)dx
= Jf(x)dx
(b =1= c).
Q.
Jf(x) dx - Jf(x) dx
Q
b > c or b = c, we can
C,
t
Jf(x) dx
b
Jf(x)dx + Jf(x)dx
a
Jf(x)dx.
a
Jx"dx= - - - k+1
Q
20
h(x):
b
Sf(x)dx
II
II
Sg(x)dx + Jh(x)dx
b4
b6
a4
a6
Let us prove this property of integrals, taking the case of the sum.
Jf(x)dx
II
II
"
Jg(x)dx + Sh(x)dx,
that is, that the area of ACDB is equal to the sum of the areas
of AtCtD1B 1 and A 2C 2 D2 B 2 Let us divide the segment of the
x-axis between the points x = a and x = b into parts and construct
the corresponding stepped figures for the three curvilinear
trapezoids depicted in Fig. 19. It is evident that the area of each
rectangle in the lower part of the figure is equal to the sum of the
areas of the two rectangles shown in the two upper parts of the
figure. Therefore the area of the lower stepped figure is equal
to the sum of the areas of the two stepped figures lying
above. This connection between the areas of the stepped figures
will remain no matter how we divide the interval on the x-axis
between x = a and x = b. If this interval is divided into an
indefinitely increasing number of parts whose lengths tend to zero,
b
then the
lower area
will tend to
the
limit
Sf(x) dx and
II
Since the limit of the sum is equal to the sums of the limits,
b
Jf(x)dx
II
II
II
II
21
J[g(X) -
Jh(x)dx.
h(x)ldx = Jg (x)dx -
c,
0,
b x
Fig. 19
+ k(x), then
J[g(x) - h(x)]dx
ClI
+ Jk(x)dx
=
22
ClI
ClI
ClI
Jf(x) dx and
JCf(x) dx,
Jx 3 dx
and
J2x.3 dx.
Let
us show that
b
JCf(x)dx =
C Jf(x)dx,
for example,
b
Ja 2x
b4
dx
= 2 Jx 3 dx
a
_ a4
= 2--4
f~
b
!f(X)dX and
f(x)dx.
lIb
2"f(x)dx = 2"!f(x)dx.
23
2'
Fig. 20
f(- ~
b
y(X)dX
=-
= ~
~ !!(X)dX.
only for clarity. In general.
JCf(x)dx = C Jf(x)dx
is valid.
To show how the properties of integrals discussed in this
and in the previous section can be used, let us compute "the integral
24
J(3x 2
2x + l)dx
J(3x2
o
= J3x 2dx -
J2xdx
+ JIdx =
= 3 Jx 2 dx - 2 Jx dx + JX O dx =
0 0 0
Fig. 21
y=x
-1
=-
"
of the integral
,
of this integral.
We can prove if a and
b are
increased
or decreased
25
Fig. 22
lUI
Jx-1dx = Jx-1dx,
26
the ordinates are left unchanged, a figure A' C' D'B' results whose area is
three times as large, since each rectangle becomes three times as
wide. But the ends of the ordinates are no longer located
on our hyperbola. Indeed, this hyperbola is the graph of the inverse
proportion y =
~,
x
~
a~d
x
Fig. 23
Jx-
411
dx =
Jx-
dx.
II
27
however, a > b, then aq > bq; in this case we have the equality
a4
bq
JX-I dx = JX-I dx
(now b < a and therefore b and a exchange the roles they play).
b
a > b. Consequently
btl
at
X- 1 dx
Jx-
= -
Jx-
1 dx,
dx
=-
Jx-
dx.
btl
GIl
aq
JX-I dx.
If
Jx- 1dx =
1
Jx- 1dx.
b
This means that in this case the integral differs from the area of the
curvilinear tra~zoid B'D'CA only in its sign (Fig. 25). In any
b
JX-I dx
has
X-I
dx is a function of b.
28
X- 1 dx
In b.
Fig. 25
Fig. 24
+ In 3.
In(bc) = In b + In c,
that is
be
Jx-
dx =
X-I
dx
+ JX-I dx.
I I I
Jx-
qc
I
dx =
Jx-
dx
Jx 1
dx =
Jx -
dx.
29
Therefore
b
oc
X- 1 dx
l I b
But the last sum can be replaced, according to the property derived
be
Jx" 1 dx.
Hence we have
1
b
Jx-
dx
be
+ Jx- 1 dx =
JX-I dx,
In 1 = In
since In 1 = 0, In b + In
(b ~ ) = In b+ In ~ ;
= 0, whence
In
= -Inb.
1
For example, In"2 = -ln2. Next we have
c = In
lOb
(1)
b =
C
In c + In b = In c - In b
+ Ind =
= (Inb + Inc) + In d = In b + Inc
+ In d.
30
klnb.
k times
k times
Let c =
"Vb;
Inb
whence we have
F or instance
If c = bq, where
l Pi p
In bLq = In b" = -In
b = - . p In b = -In b.
. q
q
q
L.
q
o In b.
31
o
(b)
(a)
Fig. 26
32
AC+KIL I .01'
2
. ,
~~~2L2.01
. .
2
.... ,
KgL~_~YD
.01'
2
' \
or to
0.1 (0.5AC
~
x
AC =
K 3L 3 =
T
1
= 1.000; KILl ==
IT =
0.769; K 4L4
==
K 6L6 = /6 = 0.625; K 7 L 7 =
K 9L g
U' == 0.909;
K 2L 2 ==
iT =
1
1~7
19' == 0.526;
= 0.588; KsL g ==
BD =
1
-1~8
=:
.
0.833;
0.667;
0.556;
2 == 0.500.
+
+ 0.250)
= 0.6937.
33
ttL {{ the abscissas are laid off not from the point 0 but
: he point C (Fig. 27) and the new abscissas are denoted
'~h :J.~~ letter t, then the connection between the new and the old
":'~l:~~:~~tS of one and the same point will be
;:'rOfP
).: ::=
+.
t.
This '.nnection 'will be true for any point if we assume that t >.0
W~~f'~.
> 1, and t ~ O~vhen -~.:: L all substituting 1 + t for x the
v
.l
Fig. 27
1
y ~ -.~- becomes y :::::
"1-+-i-',
but the
J x--
dx = In (1 +
~)
(here ~ = CD).
~~~ ow
J(1 + tyo
In(1 +~)
= J{l +
o
'""
"
~,c.
t)-ldt.
1- t
+ t2
(3
+ ... _ t 2 n -
1.- t"
_
I +t .
:=:
t-+- t t + ... - t
2
--
2n
-/--ddt.
In(1 + ~)
J1dt -- Jt dt + J
(2
Jt 3 dt + ...
dt -
f
p
Pt
... - S
2n
- 1
dt
211
t
+ -1-dt.
+t
o
We are now able to compute each of the integrals on the righthand side except for the last integral. So we can write
p
J1 dt = 13,
o
~2
Jt dt = T'
Jt
~3
dt
= -3'
Jt
o
A4
It follows that
10(1 +~) = ( ~ -
~2
1l2n
dt = ...t'4-'.. , Jt 2 11 - 1 dt = ~2 -.
0
n
~3
~4
~ln)
+ -3-- 4 + ... - ~ +
fT+t
p
2n
dt.
35
r t: r- dt.
n
.J
~2
~3
~4
p~n
p - 2 + -3-- -4 + ... -
211'
J t:~i-dt.
1
Assume,
first,
that
o < P~
2n
This means that the graph of the function y = -1-- lies below
+t
that of the function y = r2n (Fig. 28); therefore, the area CBA 1
is less than the area CRA, i. e.
p
t2n
13
~2n+t
- - d t < Jt 2 n dt = -----.
1+ t
0
2n + 1
36
~ =
In 2 ~ 1 -
l I t
2n - 1 - 211'
2 + 3 - 4 + 5 -6 + ...+
Wit
+ 1>
c
Fig. 28
t6~
putting - 1 <
P < O. We
t2n
--dt
1+ t '
but
now
know that
37
The integral
f lC:d~- is equal
shown hatched in Fig. 29. This figure is located above the line Ct,
t 1n
since y = -1-- > 0 for t > -1. Consequently the area of ABCK
tt
t2ndt
1+ t
is
positive
A'
c
Fig. 29
t2n dt
-1-- only in sign and is
+t
f~=lfP~1
+
+
1
38
p and
n ->
J the
Inequ.;~u~~-'t
1+1>1-t-~>G
1+6
and
(2"
,?n
+t
1 + r3
t'J.1l
-f"~+~-t-
bl"~k:\.)"
lies
2n
=-.;:
t
l'-+1i
in the interval
-:: :
<.
(Fig. 29). Therefore the area of the figure A.BCK is Jess than ~r~jH
of ABeL:
1
T+Tt2ndt
= -. + ~
1 ndt
02 " +
t~-
(this
is a positive
1 _
B2 n + 1
. --.----.z-n-.-t -1---since
number
~2" ~
~2P1+ J
== --
(2n+l)r"'-~~-"m
< 0, 1 +
P>
<:Hl:J
expression
for
f}
1+['
(2" dt
in
error
less
in
the
we make
an
absolute
value
than
39
p2n+ 1
IS
with
an
~2
~3
~4
2 + 3 - 4 + ... accuracy
to
~~n
-~
within
the
factor
~2n+ 1
(2n
+ 1)(1 + p)
we
take
n = 4,
the
last
(2n+\)22n'
fraction
will
be
equal
to
1
26.6
-~-~.
1
1
1
1
2=0.5000; 22.2 =0.1250; ~=O.0417; 24.4 =0.0156;
1
1.
1
1
= 0.0026; 2 7.7 = 0.0011; 28.8
== 0.0062; 26.6
= 0.0005
and we obtain
1
In 2
0.6927 ~ - 0.693
with an accuracy to within 0.001 (we take into account that the
formula itself could involve an error of up to 0.0005, and, in
addition, an error up to 0.00005 could arise when we reduce
each of the eight summands to a decimal fraction).
40
Since In
= - In 2, it follows that
~
In2
If we assume
+ ~),
In (1
1
103
we
~= - ~
can
use
in
the
0.693.
the approximate
same
and, consequently, In 3 = - In
assume
~=- k~ 1
method
formula
to
for
calculate
as well. In general, if we
we obtain In (1 - k
~ () = In k: 1
and,
P=
~~,
in which case
the error
in
the
We have:
)2
10 ~ 0.91; ( 1T
10
1T
~ 0.83;
(1T
10 )4
~.().69;
(1T
10 )8
~ 0.48;
r
s
~ 0.005.
1n 11
1
WI
11
11
...
64
11
41
In(1 +
The
error
in
this
.1
+ 1)4 + ... +
4(2k
approximate
equality
is
less
than
equal
(2n+l)(2k+l)2n+l. Now
+ 1)2-1;-'
11)'
In I - 2k + 1 ~ - 2k + T
1
2(2k +
- 4(2k
+ 1)4
yielding In (1 - 2k
(2k+~)2n+l
W-
3(2k :.t1j3- -
2n(2k +-1Yn~
~ .-) with
:[(2n+l)(1- 2k~1)J=
2k + 1
= ~. 2n + 1 . (2k
+ 1)2n+C'
In(t + __
1 )-In(1 __1_) ~
2k+l
2k+l
... +
42
+ 2k ~
1 ) and In (1 -
2k
~ 1 ). and
so it is less than
2k + 1
1
1
+ ~. 2n + 1 . (2k + 1)2n+ 1
4k + 1
1
1
---.---.
<
2k
2n + 1 (2k + 1)2"+1
4k + 2
1
1
1
1
1
2n + 1 . (2k + 1)2n+"
<
2k
In 1 + _1_ _ In 1 _ _1_(
(
2k+1 )
2k+l )
= In
2k+2
1
1 + 2k + l-
1
1- 2k+ 1
k+l
W +" ..
""" +
.h
h
WIt an error less t an
T"
(2n - 1)(2k
+ 1) 2n- 1
(*)
1
1
2n + 1 (2k + l)ln "
43
This yields
2
In 2 = In 2 - In 1 ~ 3 + 3~ + ~ + 7.3 7- +
9Y
~O.693146 ~O.69315.
Therefore
In 3
In 2
+ 0.40546
~
In5-ln4~9+ 3.9 3
1.09861.
1.38630; assuming k
= 4 and n = 3
5.9 5 ~O.223144~0.22314
4"7- =
1
< 0.0000001
28531441
and consequently
In 5
In4
+ 0.22314
1.60944.
2.3025Y.
44
In 10 + 0.09531
formula
2.39790.
is
less
than
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
In n
Inn
In n
Inn
Inn
0.000
0.693
1.099
1.386
1.609
1.792
1.946
2.079
2.197
2.303
2.398
2.485
2.565
2.639
2.708
2.773
2.833
2.890
2.944
2.996
21
22
23
24
25
26
..27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
3.045
3.091
3.135
3.17R
3.219
3.258
3.296
3.332
3.367
3.401
3.434
3.466
3.497
3.526
3.555
3.584
3.611
3.638
3.664
3.689
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
3.714
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
4.111
4.127
4.J43
4.159
4.174
4.190
4.205
4.220
4.234
4.248
4.263
4.277
4.290
4.304
4.317
4.331
4.344
4.357
4.369
4.382
81
82
83
84
4.394
4.407
4.419
4.431
4.443
4.454
4.466
4.477
4.489
4.500
4.511
4.522
4.533
4.543
4.554
4.564
4.575
4.585
4.595
4.605
38
39
40
3.i38
3.761
3.784
3.807
3.829
3.850
3.871
3.892
3.912
3.932
3.951
3.970
3.989
4.007
4.025
4.043
4.060
4.078
4.094
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
45
V2.
V2
V2
In
= 1/5 In 2 ~ 0.139. It remains to find the number
by
its logarithm. Our table is not very convenient, for it contains
logarithms 0.000 (corresponding to the number 1) and 0.693
(corresponding to the number 2), the first being too small and
the second too large. From this we can only conclude that
1<
0 < 2.
But
it can
be
noted
that
In(lOV2)
= In 10 +
V2
io V2
;h
5 ~
2~
the last numbers is 2.441) we can put 10 V 2 ~ 11.5, i. e.
~ 1.15. To check the result obtained take note of the fact that
In(I00V2)
= In 100 + In
and
In 115 == In 5 + In 23
f~ f
X'
In x' =
= -
dx ,
X
x'
46
J(
x
(b)
Fig. 30
This property is obvious when x > 1 (see Fig. 30b), but it is also
true for x == x' < 1. Indeed, if x' increases, remaining less than unity,
the absolute value of the area B'D'CA (Fig. 30b) decreases, and
this means that In x, which differs from that area only in sign,
increases.
.
This increase in the logarithm is seen in the graph in the
form of a curve rising as if uphill from left to right. This
47
hill, steep at first, becomes flatter and flatter. For greater clarity,
we shall call the graph of the logarithm depicted here a logarithmic
slope.
If we cut a horizontal path along the x-axis and proceed along
this path from the point 0 to the right, then, looking down,
we first see an infinite gulf with the logarithmic slope lost in its
depth. However, we need only to take a step equal to the unit oj
length to leave the gulf behind. Continuing our walk along the
path, with each step we find ourselves higher and higher on the slope.
Thus, after two steps (x = 2) our height will be In 2 = 0.693, after
three steps In 3 = 1.099, etc. Let us calculate how great the
increase in the height of the slope will be when after m steps
we take one more step. Since after m steps (a unit of length each)
the height of the slope will be equal to In m, and after In + 1
steps it will be In (m + 1), the increase in the height of the
slope corresponding to one step is
m+l = In ( 1 +
In (m + 1) - In m = In --m-
1) .
-~-
The greater the number of steps we take the less will be the
number
J.._,
m
In (1 +
~) will be to
the more 1 +
~ will approach
m
48
4~
m
increases, i. e.
4m+ 1
-<----~
m2
(m + 1)2
---
---
xtan
in x
x
(b)
Fig. 31
1 4
4m (2m)2 ( m + m )2
(m + 1)2 : -;;j2 = (m + 1)2 = m + 1 = m + 1 ~ 1,
m
4 +
41
42
4m
= x tan ex,
49
4m
--r- ~ 4, and therefore
m
the ratio between the height of the path and the height of the
logarithmic slope is not less than
4 tan ex
.
In 4 m, and for a sufficiently
JC
Fig. 32
L 1L2 by
Xl
XIX2
+2 X2
50
In fact,
and
= lnxi + Inx2
2
Xl
+ X2
2
>
lnx!
+ Inx2
2
But we have
(~ - ~)2
(in case X t and
Therefore
X2
= Xl - 2 VXtX2
+ X2
>0
next
and finally
51
Fig. 33
17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79,
83, 89, 97; consequently 1t (100) = 25. However for a large n the
problem becomes rather difficult. How can we calculate 1t (n), even
very approximately, when n is equal to a million, a thousand million,
and so on?
Chebyshev found that to calculate 1t (n) approximately it is
52
nn
1<Y'
(1<Y') ~ 2.303 k .
2.3~3
::::: 0.434, we
can
obtain
k-.
It (I
1~
(1000)::::: 0.434
It (10
1~
1O~ ~
106
1t (10 6 ) ~ 0.434 -6- ~ 72300 (the correct result is 78498).
The relative error of the last result is
78 498 - 72 300 '" 0 08
78498
"'.,
53
will become less. than 0.1 per cent; next, less than 0.001 per cent,
etc. This explains why Chebyshev's formula is. of great theoretical
value.
To Chebyshev's credit is another formula for an approximate
calculation of 1t (n), somewhat more difficult but allowing a better
approximation:
n
n(n) ~
dt
In t .
f ~~
lnt
177
(1t(1000) = 168);
10000
f .z.;
Int
1245
(1t (10000)
= 1229),
1 000000
~~78627
In t
1 000000
7[(1 0000(0)
dt
In t
is equal to
178498 - 786271 '" 0 0016
78498
"'.
,
54
This means that the area of ACDB (Fig. 34) is less than 1, and the
area of ACDtB 1 is greater than 1. It can be expected that
somewhere between the points D and D 1 there will be found a
point D' such that the area of ACD'B' will be equal to 1.
Such a point D' does exist. If we denote OD' by e we may state
that 2 < e < 3. Making use of the table of logarithms given on
y
Fig. 34
55
it follows that 2
In b = x,
i. e. the natural logarithm of b coincides with the exponent x.
Thus we see that natural logarithms 'can be determined
without resort to geometric representations. It could be said from
the very beginning that the natural logarithm of the number b
is an exponent of the power to which the number e ~ 2~71828
must be raised to obtain the number b. But this definition does
not -show clearly enough why we are interested in the
exponents of the power of the number e and not of some other
number. Now if natural logarithms are introduced as areas, their
definition becomes pictorial enough, and does not leave any doubt.
We should say, at this point, that besides natural logarithms,
some other logarithms can be introduced, with another base.
Thus, for instance, a common logarithm of the number b is the
exponent of the power to which the number 10 should be raised to
obtain the number b. The common logarithm of the number b
is denoted log b. Ifwe have log b == ~, then, by definition, we must have
b = lOP; it is evident that log 10 = 1. Common logarithms are
studied in high school, and there all their properties are
derived not by geometrical means, but on the basis of the known
properties of power exponents.
There is a simple relationship between common and natural
logarithms. Let In b = ex and log b =~. This means that b = e~
and b = 10'\ i. e. e':1 = lOP, Consequently, In erJ = In lOP or
e ln e = ~ In 10, i. e. rJ. = ~. 2.30259. Thus we have In b = 2.30259 log b,
whence
1
log b = 2.30259 In b = 0.4342910 b.
0.30103.
56
0.434292.30259 = 1.
1020 = In2
SUPPLEMENT
1. To calculate the area of a curvilinear trapezoid we replaced
it either by the sum of the areas of rectangles (p. 8), or by the sum of
the areas of rectilinear trapezoids (p. 33). Using the latter method we
got for In 2 the approximate value 0.6937. On p. 44 we employed
another method to compute In 2 and obtained the value 0.69315,
which contains an ertor less than 0.000005. Hence we see that the
calculation with the aid of trapezoids led to an error greater than
0.0005, notwithstanding the fact that we divided the line segment
CD in Fig. 200 into many parts (10) so that the altitudes
of the rectilinear trapezoid represented by these segments constituted
only 0.1 each.
There are other methods of approximation suitable for any
curvilinear trapezoid and leading to highly accurate results while
requiring computations no more difficult than with the methods
just described. We shall now consider a method named after an
eminent English mathematician Thomas Simpson (1710-1761),
although a method like it was suggested 75 years earlier by his
countryman James Gregory (1638-1675). The main idea is to replace
the arcs of the graph of the function, not by chords, as was done in
the case of rectilinear trapezoids (see Fig. 26b), but by the arcs of
parabolas.
In high.. school algebra books the term parabola is used to describe
the graph of the function y = ax 2 Here we shall use this term
in a wider sense, describing as a parabola the graph of any
function of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c. For a i= 0 and b = c = 0 it
is a parabola in its ordinary' position, with a vertex 'at the origin.
If a =I: 0, as before, but one of the coefficients, b or c, is also
different from zero, then, as can be verified, the graph of the function
is the same parabola but with its vertex transferred to some
point different from the origin (Fig. 35). Finally, if a = 0, we have a
straight line y = bx + c. Taking this into account, we shall continue
to call it here a parabola, interpreting it as a special case.
Let us prove now that through three points of a plane, A (xo, Yo),
B(Xb Yd, C(X2' Y2), with pairwise distinct abscissas xo, Xl and X2
we can draw one and only one parabola. This means that there
exist coefficients a, band c such that the graph of the function
y = ax 2 + bx + c will pass through each of the indicated points.
In this case the values of the coefficients are determined
uniquely by the choice of the points A, Band C.
To prove this assertion we take a, band c as unknowns.
58
o
Fig, 35
Yo = aX5 + bxo + c,
(I:
+ bx, + C,
+ bX2 + C.
(~)
YI = ax!
Y2 = ax~
(3)
If we subtract termwise the first equation from the second and the
second from the third, we shall have a system of two equations with
the unknowns a and b:
YI - Yo = a(xi - x5) + b(XI - xo),
(1')
Y2 -
Yl
2'
= a(X2 -
2
Xl)
+ b(X2 -
Xl).
(2')
Yt - Yo
- - - = a(xl
Xl -
+ xo) + b,
(1")
Xo
(2")
Now we subtract the first equation of the last system from the
second equation and obtain a single equation defining a:
Y2-YI
- - - YI-YO --a( X2- x)
0X2 -
Xl
Xl -
Xo
means that
Xl =
Xo
+2 X2
A
I
I
Yo 0
x,
Fig. 36
trapezoid
X2 -
Xo
ADEC.
(Yo
We
+ 4Yl + Y2)
shall
prove
that
it
is
equal
to
Xo
S = --6 -(Yo
60
+ 4Yl + Y2)'
(4)
The case is not excluded when all the three points lie on a single
straight line. If this line is parallel to the x-axis (Fig. 37a),
then Y2 = Yl Yo, and from formula (4) we obtain the expression
%:
for S: S
X2:
Xo
J't
T
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
x,
x2
(a)
I
I
I
I
x2
...x
(b)
Fig. 37
= Yo + Y2
61
xI x 2dx, xJ x dx and
X2
Xl
j dx, we obtain
X2
S= J(ax 2 + b x + c ) d x = a J x 2 d x + b J x d x + c Jdx=
Xo
Xo
3
2a(x~ - xg) + 3b(x~ - X5)+ 6C(X2 - xo)
6
All the binomials placed in parentheses here have a common
factor X2 - Xo. This is obvious for the last binomial and, besides,
x~ - x5 = (X2 - XO)(X2 + xo) and x~ - xg = (X2 - xo)(xi + X2 XO +
+ x5). Consequently, moving the common factor outside the
parentheses we express S in the form
S = X2
Xo
[a(2xj
Use the expressions (1), (2) and (3) for Yb Y2 and Y3. Since the
left-hand side of equation (5) does not contain the abscissa Xl
of the point B, we' replace Xl
by the
expression
Xo
+2 X2
_ (x o+2
Yl - a
X2
) 2 + b(
Xo
+2 X2 ) + c,
whence
Consequently
+ Y2 = (ax~ + bx., + c) +
+ [a(x5 + 2XOX2 + xi) + b(2x o + 2X2) -t 4cJ + (a2x~ + bX2 + c) =
= a(2x~ + 2XOX2 + 2x~) + b(3xo + 3X2) + 6c
Yo + 4Yl
62
f d;,
2
of the integral
by an arc of the
o
Fig. 38
which
1
Xo
= -=
Xo
= 1,
X2
1, Y2 = -
X2
2,
=
Xl =
Xo
-2 and YI
+2 X2
= -
1.5,
1
Xl
and
Yo
.
IS
not
given in the figure since in this case it differs very little from
63
f d: ~ ~
2
In 2 =
(1
+ 4
~ + ~) = ~
= 0.694 ...
Fig. 39
+ X4
--2--''''
X2n- 1 =
X2n.- 2
+ X2"
Xl =
Xo
+ X2
- - 2 - ' X3 =
64
arc and the point located above the middle of the corresponding
interval of the x-axis. These are not in the drawing since they
almost merge with the arcs of the graph under consideration.
The areas of the parabolic trapezoids derived by formula (4) are
expressed as follows:
X2n - X2n-2
... , ---6--(Y2n-2
+ 4Y2n-l + Y2n),
this sum note that the difference between the two x's and the
. hb ounng
. even num bers
b -a
neig
ers IIS n
b-a
6n
outside
the
brackets we obtain:
b
b- a
(6)
65
fd:
2
taking n = 5. Here a = 1,
compile
the
necessary
sums
to
Xo
= - - = 0.500000O, Yl
substitu te
+ YI0 = 1.500000o; Y2
them
1.00000oo,
= -
XI0
YIO
into
= 0.8333333,
X2
1
1
1
Y4 = - = 0.7142857, Y6 = ~ = 0.6250000, YB = X4
X6
= 0.5555556,
XB
0.9090909, Y3 =
Xl
=-
= 0.7692308, Ys = -
X3
Xs
Y9 = - = 0.5263158, 4(yl
X9
0.6666667, Y7 = -
0.5882353,
X7
+ Y3 + Ys + Y7 + Y9)
13.8381580.
In 2 =
f d: ~ 6 \
66
1t
4.
Fig. 40
67
will differ from the preceding points that are nearest to them by
1
16
We obtain: Xo == 0, Xl6 == 1,
X2
8'
X4 =
4'
3
X6 == 8'
1
5
3
7
1
3
xS==2' XIO==g' XI2==4' Xl4 ==s,xI=16' x3==16'xs=
==
16~ .':7
== 16'
9
X9
== 16' Xli
==
11
16-'
l3 ==
13
16'
15
XIS
==
16
11~2
"4 = JV 1 o
When
1t
1
x dx ~ 6~ (1.0000 + 11.3590 + 25.2536) = 0.7836.'
~.~.
V3
222
68
3~O.
Thus
the
difference
0.5
J Vi -
1. e.
0.5
n = 4 to compute
J ~ dx;
division points xo, Xh X2, X3' X4, xS, X6, X7 and Xs will
remain the same as before. But we shall now calculate the
corresponding ordinates to seven decimal points to attain a high
degree of accuracy in the result. In this way we receive the following
values for the ordinates and their sums contained in Simpson's
formula: Yo = 1.00000oo, Ys = 0.8660254, Yo + Ys = 1.8660254; Y2 =
= 0.9921567, Y4 = 0.9682458, Y6 = 0.9270248; 2 (Y2 + Y4 + Y6) =
= 5.7748546;. Yt = 0.9980450, Y3'Z:: 0.9822646, Ys = 0.9499178, Y7 =
= 0.8992184, 4(Yl + Y3 + Ys + Y7) = \5.3177832. Substituting these
y
A
Fig. 41
Jo VI - x
2dx
05
0.4783055.
12 =
0.5
J VI - x 2dx o
0.2165064 ~ 0.2617991.
69
TO THE READER
Mir Publishers welcome your comments on the content,
translation and design of this book.
We would also be pleased to receive any proposals you
care to make about our future publications.
Our address is:
Mir Publishers
2 Pervy Rizhsky Pereulok
1-110, GSP, Moscow, 129820
USSR
RECURSION SEQUENCES
by A.1. Markushevich, Mem. USSR Acad. Sc.
This book is one of the "Popular Lectures in Mathematics"
series, widely used by Soviet school mathematics clubs and
circles and on teachers' refresher courses. Is a clear introduction
for fifth and sixth-form pupils to the variety of recurring series
and progressions and their role in mathematics. Is well illustrated
with examples and 73 formulas.