Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Civil Sem3 101303nol
Civil Sem3 101303nol
Faculty Name
Subject
:
:
Name
B.MAGESH
Construction techniques equipment and
Code
101303
III
practices
Year
II
Semester
Section
Aim:
To make the student aware of the various construction techniques, practices and the equipment
needed for different types of construction activities.
To have a reasonable knowledge about the various construction procedures for sub to super structure
and also the equipment needed for construction of various types of structures from foundation to
super structure.
Text Book(s):
1.
2.
3.
Sheety, M.S, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, S. Chand and Company Ltd, Newdelhi
Dr.b.c punmia building construction, laxmi publication limited,chennai
Dr.Arrora. construction equipment and management
Reference Book(s):
1. Jha J and Sinha S.K., Construction and Foundation Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1993.
2. Sharma S.C. Construction Equipment and Management, Khanna Publishers New Delhi,
1988.
3. Deodhar, S.V. Construction Equipment and Job Planning, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi,
1988.
4. Gambhir, M.L, Concrete Technology, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New
The main objective of this course is to make the student aware of the various construction
techniques, practices and the equipment needed for different types of construction activities. At
the end of this course the student shall have a reasonable knowledge about the various
construction procedures for sub to super structure and also the equipment needed for
construction of various types of structures from foundation to super structure.
UNIT I CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY 12
Cements Grade of cements - manufacture of cement concrete chemicals and Applications
Mix design concept mix design as per BIS & ACI methods manufacturing of concrete
Batching mixing transporting placing compaction of concrete curing and finishing.
Testing of fresh and hardened concrete quality of concrete - Non destructive testing.
UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES 13
Specifications, details and sequence of activities and construction co-ordination Site Clearance
Marking Earthwork - masonry stone masonry Bond in masonry - concrete hollow block
masonry flooring damp proof courses construction joints movement and expansion joints
pre cast pavements Building foundations basements
temporary shed centering and shuttering slip forms scaffoldings de-shuttering forms
Fabrication and erection of steel trusses frames braced domes laying brick weather and
water proof roof finishes acoustic and fire protection.
UNIT III SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION 13
Techniques of Box jacking Pipe Jacking -under water construction of diaphragm walls and
basement-Tunneling techniques Piling techniques - well and caisson - sinking cofferdam - cable
anchoring and grouting-driving diaphragm walls, sheet piles - shoring for deep cutting - well
points -Dewatering and stand by Plant equipment for underground open excavation.
UNIT IV SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION 12
Launching girders, bridge decks, off shore platforms special forms for shells - techniques for
heavy decks in-situ pre-stressing in high rise structures, Material handling - erecting light weight
components on tall structures - Support structure for heavy Equipment and conveyors -Erection
of articulated structures, braced domes and space decks.
UNIT V CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT 10
Selection of equipment for earth work - earth moving operations - types of earthwork equipment tractors, motor graders, scrapers, front end waders, earth movers Equipment for foundation and
pile driving. Equipment for compaction, batching and mixing and concreting - Equipment for
material handling and erection of structures - Equipment for dredging, trenching, tunneling,
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
TYPES OF CEMENT
Ordinary Portland cement
OPC33,OPC43 and OPC53 grade
Rapid hardening cement
Extra rapid hardening cement
Sulphate resisting cement
Portland slag cement
Quick setting cement
Low heat cement
Portland pazzolona cement
Air entraining cement
Colored cement
White cement
Hydrophobic cement
Masonry cement
expansive cement
Oil well cement
Redi set cemnt
Concrete sleeper grade cement
High alumina cement
Very high strength cement
Super Plasticizers:
These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures also
known as high range water reducer
Give 1625%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them
very effective at low temperatures or where early strength is most critical.
However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability relatively quickly. SMF generally
give a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in white concrete.
They are therefore often used where appearance is important.
Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
Typically give 1625%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of larger,
unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface defects.
Retardation is more than with SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is
a very cost-effective.
Polycarboxylate ether super plasticizers (PCE)
Typically give 2035%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are
very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.
In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and
the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the
surface tension of the water.
Accelerators:
An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of
hydration of hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate
of hardening or strength development.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and
application:
1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened state.
Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an early set.
2. Hardening Accelerators,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20C and at 5C by at least
130% at 48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or
very early access to pavements is required.
They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in cold
conditions.
.
Set Retarders:
The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in
placing the concrete at high temperatures.
When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which
there is little formation of further hydrates for typically 23 hours.
The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the temperature. This is called the
dormant period when the concrete is plastic and can be placed.
At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the
setting time of the concrete.
Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the start of setting and
hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to give workability retention. Used
on their own, retarders allow later vibration of the concrete to prevent the formation of
cold joints between layers of concrete placed with a significant delay between them.
The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and
molecules are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further
reactions between cement and water i.e. retards setting.
Air Entrained Admixtures:
An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes
air, usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the
concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost
resistance.
Air-entraining admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water.
Traditionally, they were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely
been replaced by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give improved stability
and void characteristics to the entrained air.
Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the
hardened concrete. These include:
Resistance to freezethaw action in the hardened concrete.
Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic
concrete.
Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
Stability of extruded concrete.
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
Raw materials used
Calcareous
Argillaceous
Cement rock
Lime stone
Marl
Chalk
Marine shell
Clay
shale
slate
blast furnace slag
Dry process
Wet process
Dry process
General
Adopted when the raw materials are quite hard
The process is slow an the product is costly
Process
Lime stone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed together
Water is added to make a thick paste which contains 14% of moisture
The paste format are dried and off charged into a rotary kiln
The product obtained often calcinations in rotary kiln
The clinker I obtained as a result of incipient fusion and sintering at a temp about 1400c
to 1500 c
The clinker is cooled to preserve the meta stable compounds and there solid solutions
Dispersion of one solid with another solid which made the clinker again heated
Clinker is again cooled and grounded in tube mills where 2-3% gypsum is added
The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the cement particle by interfering the process of
hydration of cement particles
The flow diagram of dry process
Wet process
The operations are
Mixing
Burning
Grinding
Process
The crushed raw materials are fed in to a ball mill and a little water is added
The steel balls in the ball mill pulverized the raw material which form a slurry with water
The slurry is passed through storage tanks where the proportioning of compound is
adjusted to ensure desired chemical composition
The corrected slurry having moisture about 40%,is then fed into rotary kiln
Where it loses moisture and form on to lumps
These are finally burned at 1500 to 1600 c
It becomes clinker at this stage, the clinker is cooled and then grounded in tube mills
While grinding the clinker 3% gypsum I added this is stored in silos and packed
Further, the site engineer is required to make the concrete at site, closely following the
parameters suggested by the mix designer to achieve the minimum strength specified by
the structural engineer.
In some cases the site engineer may be required to slightly modify the mix proportions
given by the mix designer.
He also makes cubes or cylinders sufficient in numbers and tests them to confirm the
achievements with respect to the minimum specified strength. Mix designer, earlier, may
have made trial cubes with representative materials to arrive at the value of standard
deviation or coefficient of variation to be used in the mix design.
American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design 11.3 (ACI Concrete Mix Design)
This method of proportioning was first published in 1944 by ACI committee 613. In 1954
the method was revised to include, among other modifications, the use of entrained air. In
1970, the method of ACI mix design became the responsibility of ACI committee 211.
We shall now deal with the latest ACI Committee 211.1 method.
It has the advantages of simplicity in that it:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Manufacturing of concrete
Introduction
Production of concrete requires meticulous care at every stage
The ingredients of good and bad concrete are same but good rules are not
Observed it may become bad
Batching
Mixing
Transporting
Placing
Compacting
Curing
Finishing
Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching.
Methods of batching
Volume batching
Weigh batching
Volume batching
The required ingredients of conc. Are measured by volume basis
o Volume batching is done by various types of gauge boxes
o The gauge boxes are made with comparatively deeper with narrow surface
o Some times bottomless gauge boxes are used but it should be avoided
Volume batching is not a good practice because of the difficulties it offers to granular
material.
Some of the sand in loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry
compacted soil.
For un important concrete or any small job concrete may be batched by volume.
Weigh batching
It is the correct method of measuring materials for concrete.
Use of weight system in batching ,facilitates accuracy flexibility and simplicity
The different types of weigh batching are there, they are used based on the different
situation.
In small works the weighing arrangement consist of two weighing buckets connected
to the levers of spring loaded dials which indicates the load,
The weighing buckets are mounted on a central spindle about which they rotate
On large works the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment used ,the materials are
fed from the over head storage hopper and it discharges by gravity.
Mixing
Thorough mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete
The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous uniform in color and
consistency.
Types of mixing
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
Hand mixing
It is practiced for small scale un important concrete works
Hand mixing should be done over a impervious concrete or brick floor sufficiently
large size take one bag of cement .
Spread out and measure d out fine aggregates and course aggregate in alternative
layers.
Pour he cement on the top of it and mix them dry by showel, turning the mixture over
and over again until the uniformity of color is achieved.
The uniform mixture is spread out in the thickness of about 20 cm
The water is taken and sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over
The operation is continued till such time a good uniform homogeneous concrete is
obtained
Machine mixing
Mixing of concrete almost invariably carried ot by machine ,for reinforced concrete
work medium or large scale concrete works .
Machine mixing is not only efficient it is also economical when quantity of concrete
to be produced is large
Type of mixer for mixing concrete
Batch mixer
Continuous mixer
Batch mixer
Batch mixer produce concrete batch by batch with time interval
This is used in normal concrete work
Batch mixers are two types
Pan type
Drum type
Drum types are further classified into tilting ,non tilting and forced action type
The capacity of batch mixer depends on the proportion of the mix
For 1:2:4 ideal mixer 200 liters
For 1:3:6 ideal mixer 280 liters
Mixing time
Concrete mixers are generally designed to run at a speed of 15 to 20 revolutions per
minute
For proper mixing it is seen that about 25to 30 revolutions are required in a well
designed mixer
It is important that a mixer should not stop in between concreting operations for this
requirement concrete mixer must be kept maintained
Transporting of concrete
Concrete can be imported by variety of methods and equipments
Methods adopted for transportation of concrete
Mortar pan
Wheel barrow
Belt conveyors
Chute
Transit mixer
Helicopter
Mortar pan
This case concrete is carried out in small quantities
This method exposes greater surface area of concrete for drying conditions
This results a geat loss of water particularly in hot weather
Mortar pan must be wetted to start with and must be kept clean
Wheel barrow
Used for transporting concrete in ground level.
This method is employed for hauling concrete in longer distance in case of concrete road
construction.
If the distance is long or ground is rough it is likely that the concrete get segregated due
to vibration
To avoid this, wheel barrows are provided with pneumatic wheel.
Crane bucket and rope way
This is one of the right way for transporting concrete above the ground level
Crane can handle concrete in high rise construction project and are becoming familiar
sites in big cities
Rope way buckets of various sizes are used
Chutes
Transit mixer
This is the equipment for transporting concrete over a big distance particularky ready mix
concrete
They are truck mounted having a capacity of 4 to 7 m3
The speed of rotation of truck mixer is 4to16 rev/min
A small concrete pump is also mounted on the truck carrying transit mixer
Pumps and pipe lines
Universally accepted method
Starts with the suction stroke for suck the concrete inside the pipe
It has a piston which moves forward and backward to have suction and delivery of
concrete
Number of bends
Slump of concrete
Placing of concrete
Concrete must be placed in a systematic manner to yield optimum results
Some situation where we used provide concrete
Placing concrete within earth mould
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
Placing concrete in layers with in timber or steel shutter
Placing concrete with in usual form work
Placing concrete under water
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
For construction of road slabs,air field slabs and ground floor slabs in building conc os
placed in this method
The ground surface must be free from loose earth pool of water ,grass or roots or leaves
The earth must be compacted well
Poly ethylene film is used in between conc ground to avoid absorption of moisture
Concrete is laid alternative layers to give enough scope for shrinkage
Placing concrete in layers with in timber or steel shutter
This can be used in the following cases
Dam construction
Construction of concrete abutments
Raft for a high rise building
The thickness of layers depend on
Method of compaction
Size of vibrator
Frequency of vibrator used
It is good for laying 15 to 30 cm thick layer of concrete ,for mass concrete it may varie
from 35 to 45 cm
Its better to leave the top of the layer rough so that succeeding layer can have the good
bond
The concrete must be placed very care fully a small quantity at a time so that they will
not block the entry of subsequent concrete
Placing concrete under water
Concrete is often required to be placed under water or I a trench filled with slurry
In such a cases use of bottom slurry buckets or termic pipes are used
In the bottom bucket concrete is taken through water in a water tight box or bucket
reaching final place of deposition
The bottom is made to open by some mechanism and the whole concrete is dumped
slowly.
Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the
concrete
Roding
Ramming
Tamping
Roding
Poking the concrete with about 2m long 16 mm dia rod to poke the concrete
reinforcement
Ramming
Should be done with care
Permitted in unreinforced foundation concrete in ground floor construction
Tamping
The thickness of conc should be comparatively less
Consist of beating the op surface by wooden cross beam
The section of wooden beam is about 10x10 cm
Compaction by vibrators
We can place the concrete economically when compared to hand compaction
The use of vibrators may be essential for the production of good concrete
Type of vibrators
Internal vibrator
Formwork vibrator
Table vibrator
Platform vibrator
Surface vibrator
Vibratory rollers
Compaction by pressure and jolting
This is one of the effective method of compacting dry concrete
Often used for compacting hollow block ,cavity blocks concrete blocks
The stiff concrete is vibrated pressed and also given jolts
With the combined action of the three the stiff conc gets compacted to an dense form to
give good strength and volume
Compaction by spinning
This is one of the recent method of the compacting concrete
This is adopted for fabrication of concrete pipes
The plastic concrete when at every high speed get well compacted by centrifugal force
Potential products such as spun pipes are compacted by spinning process
Vibratory rollers
One of the recent methods of compacting very lean or dry concrete
The concrete compacted by rollers can be called as roller concrete
Tests on concrete
Concrete Slump Test
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete.
The slump test is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable.
The measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable
than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability.
It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its
workability.
Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
Rule
Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from around
the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the sample
fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another must be taken. If
this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Compression Test
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete.
The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions.
The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always
be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete
cylinder for the compression test.
The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic
strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concretes ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.
Small scoop
Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
Steel float
Steel plate
Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times. Cylinders
may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and crushed
to test compressive strength
Sequence of operation
It is always desirable to divide large projects into several construction stages
For prepare progress of construction each stage may be constructed under separate
contraction
It should be carried out in the proper method and arrangement
Before starting to construct the structure we must go for the sequence of operation in the
project it is better way o arrange the labour material and equipment
Following are the sequence of operation in a highway project
Site clearance
Earth work for laying embankment
Construction of drainage works
Construction of pavement structures
Installation of light poles and road signals
All the specifications are made by tape or prismatic compass may be used for setting out right
angles
Similarly outer lines of the foundation trench of each cross wall can be set out
For big project reference pillars of masonry is constructed first, these pillars may be about 20cm
thick and 15cm wider than the width of the foundation
EXCAVATION
Excavation of foundation can be done by manually or with the help of special mechanical
equipments
Manually it can be done by the help of following equipments
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Spade
Phawrah
Pick axe
Crowbar
Rammer
Wedge
Boning rod
Sledge hammer
Basket
Iron pan
line and pins
FOUNDATION
The foundation is he lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmit the load of super structure to sub soil
Functions of foundation
Lateral stability
Types of foundation
Shallow foundation
Deep foundation
Shallow foundation
If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation it is called as shallow
foundation
Types of shallow foundation
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Mat foundation
Spread footing
Spread footing is those which spread the super imposed load to of a wall or column over the large
area
Spread footing support either a column or a wall
It has the following types
Single footing
Stepped footing
Sloped footing
Wall footing with out step
Deep foundation
If the depth of foundation is equal to or more than the width of the foundation is called deep
foundation
Types
Deep strip rectangular or square footing
Pile foundation
Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation
Well foundation or caissons
Deep strip footing
Whenever the depth of strip footing is more than the width it is called as deep strip footing
Pile foundation
it is a type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of vertical
members which may be timber or concrete or steel
Types of pile foundation
End bearing pile
Friction pile
Combined end bearing and friction pile
Compaction pile
End bearing piles
End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing stratum
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads to hard strata
Multi storied buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the settlements are
minimized
Friction piles
Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying material by means of
skin friction along the length of the pile
These piles mostly used in granular soil
Combined end bearing and friction pile
These are the piles which transfer the super imposed load both through side friction as well as end
bearing
Such piles are more common, especially the end bearing piles are passed through granular soil
Compaction piles
These piles are used o compact loose soil thus increasing there bearing capacity
The pile tube driven to compact the soil is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place thus
forming the sand pile
Pier foundation
A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support transfer large super
imposed loads to the firm strata below
Generally pier foundation is shallower in depth than the pile foundation
It has two types
o
o
Masonry
concrete pier
Drilled caissons
Well foundation or caissons are box like structures circular or rectangular which are sunk from
the surface of either land or water to the desired depth
Caisson foundations are used for major foundation work such as
Bridge pier and abutments in river
Wharves and quay walls docks
Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and horizontal
loads
Well foundations are caissons are hollow from inside, which may filled withstand and are
plugged at the bottom, the load is transferred to the perimeter wall called as steining
Stone Masonry
Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.
Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable
mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness.
Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types:
2. Squared rubble masonry:The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on
all joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is
called squared rubble masonry.
a. Coursed Square rubble masonry: The square rubble masonry in which chisel
dressed stones laid in courses is called coarse square rubble masonry. This is a
superior variety of rubble masonry. It consists of stones, which are squared on all
joints and laid in courses. The stones are to be laid in courses of equal layers.
and the joints should also be uniform.
Suitability: Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools,
markets, modern residential buildings etc and in hilly areas where good quality of
stone is easily available.
b. Un coursed square rubble masonry: The squared rubble in masonry which
hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses is called un coursed
square rubble masonry. It consists of stones which are squared on all joints and
beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be laid are of different sizes.
Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in hilly areas where a
good variety of stones are cheaply available.
3. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any
mortar is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary
masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case
the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at
3m intervals.
2. Ashlar masonry:
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as
ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular,
thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of
stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers and
abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the sides
of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of
joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of
masonry is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness
of the wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For economy the facing
are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.
Brick masonry
cher bricks on edges instead of bed
This bond is weak in strength but it is economical Brick masonry is made up of brick units
bonded together with mortar
Components of brick masonry
Brick
Mortar
Types of mortar
Cement mortar
Lime mortar
Cement-lime mortar
Lime surkhi mortar
Mud mortar
Types of bricks
Traditional bricks
Modular bricks
Traditional bricks
It has not been standardize in size
Dimensions varies from place to place
Thickness varies from varies from cm to 7.5cm,widthvaries from 10to13 cm and length varies
from 20to25 cm
Modular brick
Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by bis
The nominal size of the modular brick is 20cm x10cmx10cm
Actual size is 19x9x9
Classes of brick
First class brick
Second class brick
Third class brick
Stretcher bond
Header bond
English bond
Flemish bond
Facing bond
English crossing bond
Brick on edge bond
Dutch bond
Racking bond
Zigzag bond
Garden wall bond
Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall\
This pattern is used only for those wall which have thickness of half brick
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall
This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick
English bond
It is the most commonly used methodthis bond is considered to be the strongest
This bond consist of alternate course of stretchers and headers
Alternative courses will show either headers or stretchers in elevation
There is nop vertical joint
Every alternative header come centrally over the joint between two stretchers in corse in
below
Since the number of vertical joint in the header course twice the number of vertical joints in
stretcher course ,the joints in the header course are made thinner than the joints in the
stretcher course
Flemish bond
Inthis type of course is comprised of alternative headers and stretchers
Types of Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond
Single Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond
Every course consist of headers and stretchers placed alternatively
The facing and backing of the wall in each course have the same appearance
Single Flemish bond
Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing an English bond backing
and hearting in each course
Facing bond
This bond is used where the bricks of different thickness are to be used in the facing and
backing of the wall
The nominal thickness of facing brick is 10 cm and that of backing bricks is 9 cm the header
course tis provided at a vertical interval of 90 cm
English cross bond
This is he modification of English bond to improve the appearance e of the wall
Brick on edge bond
This type of bond uses stret
dutch bond
Causes of dampness
Moisture rising up from the ground to the walls
Moisture constantly travels through the substructure. in impervious soil lot of soil moisture
present in the soil this moisture may rise up in the wall and floor trough capillary action
Ground water rise will also result in moisture entry into the building through walls and floors
If the balconies do not have proper outward slope water will enter in the building interior and it
would completely deface the decoration of the wall
Condensation
Due to condensation of atmospheric moisture water is deposited on the
Walls, floors and ceilings
Surface treatment
Guniting
Pressure grouting
Surface treatment is effective only the moisture is superficial and its not under pressure
Cavity wall construction
this is an effective method of damp prevention in which the external wall of the building is
shielded by an outer skin wall leaving a cavity between the two
guniting
This consist of depositing under pressure ,an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over the
exposed for water proofing or over pipes for resisting the water pressure
Cement mortar consist of 1:3 cement sand mix which is short on the cleaned surface with the help
of cement gun under a pressure of 3to 4 kg/cm2
Pressure grouting
This is the process of forcing cement grout under pressure, into cracks, voids, fissures etc present
into the structural components
This method is quite effective in checking the seepage of raised ground water
Materials used for damp proofing course
Hot bitumen
Mastic asphalt
Bituminous or asphaltic felts
Metal sheets
Combination of sheets and bituminous felts
Bricks
Stones
Mortar
Cement concrete
Plastic sheets
FLOORS
The purpose of floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of the
building, furniture, equipment and some time interior wall
The floor must satisfy the following requirements
Adequate strength and stability
Adequate fire resistance
Sound proof
Damp resistance
Thermal insulations
Components of a floor
Sub floor, basecourse or floor base
Floor covering or flooring
Selection of flooring materials
Factor that affect the choice of flooring
Initial cost
Appearance
Cleanliness
Durability
Damp resistance
Sound insulation
Thermal insulation
Fire resistance
Smoothness
Hardness
Maintenance
Types of flooring
Muram flooring
Muram is a form of disintegrated rock with binding material
To construct such a floor a 15 cm thick layer muram is laid over prepared sub grade over it 2.5
cm thick powder layer of muram is spread and rammed
Brick flooring
The sub grade is compacted properly, to the desired leveland 7.5 cm thick layer is spread
Over this a course of brick is laid flat in mortar is built
Such flooring is used in cheap construction, especially where good bricks are available
Flag
stone flooring
Flag stone is laminated sand stone available in 2cm to 4cm thickness in the form of stone slab of
30X30 cm or 45X45cm and 60X60 cm
This type of works also called paving.
The stones are laid on concrete base the subsoil is properly compacted over which 10 to of lime
concrete or lean cement concrete is laid
Terrazzo flooring
Terrazzo flooring is another type of floor finish that is laid in thin layer over concrete topping
It is very decorative and good wearing properties
Terrazzo is a specially prepare concrete surface containing cement and marble chips in the
proportion to 1:1 1/4 to 1:2
When the surface has set the chips are exposed by grinding operation
Mosaic flooring
Mosaic flooring Is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement or of marble
arranged in different pattern
These pieces are cut to desired shape and sizes
a concrete base is prepare as in the case of concrete flooring over that 5to8 thick lime surkhi
mortar is spread over an area, over this 3mm thick cementing paste is layered and is left to dry
about 4 hours,
,there after small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of different colors arranged definite
pattern and hammered in different layers
Tiled flooring
Tiledflooring is constructed from square ,hexagonal or other shapes made up of clay cement
concrete and terrazzo
These are available In various thickness
Thes are commonly used in residential houses ,schools,hospitals and other public buildings
Over the concrete base a 25 to 30 mm thick layr of lime mortar 1:3 to serve as a bedding
The bedding mortar is allowed to harden for 12 to 24 hours
Neat cement slurry is spread over it and the tiles are laid flat over it
Marble flooring
It is the superior type of flooring used in bathrooms and kitchens of residential building and
hospitals ,sanitorium ,temples etc
After the preparation of base concrete 20 mm thick bed layer of 1:4 cement mix spread under the
area of each individual slabs.
The marble layer is then laid over it and pressed with wooden mallet and leveled
Timber flooring
Timber flooring is used for carpentry halls ,dancing halls auditorium
Etc
These are not commonly usedin India because its costlier
But hilly area where wood is available and temperature drops very low timber flooring is quite
common
The suspended type of wooden floor is supported above the ground
The solid type of wooden floor is fully supported on the ground
SCAFFOLDING
When te higt of wall or column or othet structural member of a building exceeding1.5 m
temporary structures needed to support trhe platforms over which the work man sit and carry o
the work
These temporary structures constructed very close to the wall is in the form of imber o steel frame
work commonly called as scaffoldings
Components of scaffoldings
Ledgers
Braces
Put logs
Transoms
Boarding
Guard rail
Toe board
Single scaffoldings
This consists of a single frame work of standards, legers, put logs etc
Constructed parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.2 meters
The standards are placed at a distance of 2to2.5m interval
Ledger connected with the standards, and are provided at a vertical distance of 1.2to 1.5 m
Put logs or connected with one end on the ledgers and other end at the holes of the wall at an
interval of1.2 to 1.5 m interval
Single Frame
Te standards are supported on series of needle taken out through opening or through holes
Double frame
The needles are projecting beams are strutted inside the floors
Suspended scaffolding
It is the light weight scaffolding used for repair works such as pointing, painting etc
The working platforms are suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains etc
Trestle scaffolding
Such type of scaffoldings are used for painting and repairing work inside the room up to a height
of 5m
The working platform is supported over the top of movable contrivances such as tripods ladders
etc
Steel scaffolding
Steel scaffolding is practically similar to the timber scaffolding, here wooden members are
replaced by steel couplets are fittings
Such scaffolding can be erected and dismantled rapidly
It has a greater strength and greater durability
Patented scaffolding
Many patented scaffolding made of steel are available in the market
Thos scaffoldings are equipped with special couplings frames etc
TRUSSES
Trusses are the frame formed by number of straight members connected in the form of
triangles
The embers are made by steel angles and they are joined by rivet or welding, these joints
are called nodes
It is assumed that the external loads act at the nodes only and the members are subjected
to only tension or compression
The compression members are called as struts and the tension members are called as ties
Steel roof trusses are used under the following condition
Large spans are to be covered
Intermediate columns are to be avoided to have an unobstructed working area inside
There is a heavy rain or snow fall
Here t he
common rafters are supported by wooden frame work called truss under required interval
The frame work consist of a king post, two struts two principal rafters and tie beam
The truss rest on stone bed blocks at either end
The common rafters rest on wooden purlins which in turn are fixed to the principal rafters
of the truss
The king post connect the ridge post and the middle of the tie beam
The struts are connected to the king post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top
The roofing material is fixed to the common rafters king post truss is used for spans of
5m to 9m
Queen post truss
The frame work consist of two principal rafters ,two queen post one straining sill two
struts one tie beam and one straining beam
The common matters rest on wooden purlins
The staining beam resist the horizontal thrust developed
The struts are connected to the queen post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the
top
North light roof truss
North light or saw tooth roof truss is special type of roof trusses suitable for factories
engaging in manufacturing work
North light truss is sawtooth
Actual lighting is taken an advantage during day time by using the north light roof trusses
In this type of trusses vertical drops are provided this drops are covered with glasses so as
to permit light in to the interior
ROOF FINISHING
Roof finishing accessories include all types of accessory materials that are used to finish a roof.
Flashing, drip edge, and roof drains are all examples of roofing accessories.
Roof finishing accessories are widely available for a range of applications and may be chosen for
functional, aesthetic, or budgetary reasons.
Roofing accessories are largely made from aluminum, steel, copper, or PVC vinyl. They include a
range of products including
Rain gutters and Drains and guards
Flashing or weatherproofing materials
Roof caps
Drip edges
Chimney caps
Leader boxes
Weathervanes.
Roof caps, drip edges, ridges and shingles, and chimney caps
Roof caps, drip edges, ridges and shingles, and chimney caps are also common, functional roof
finishing accessories
. Roof caps provide ventilation via the rooftop. They are commonly made from copper or
galvanized steel, and often include an insect screen.
Drip edge roof finishing accessories are useful in stopping water from seeping under a roof deck,
which can prevent frame rot.
Roof ridge caps and shingles are also used as finishing accessories. Roof shingles are individual,
overlapping elements used for water-resistance.
At the roof ridge, there is typically a copper, lead, or plastic cap to ensure water protection.
Ridge vents are also commonly used as roof finishing accessories to provide ventilation to attic or
upper crawlspaces.
ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science of sound ,which deals with origin ,propagation and auditory sensation of
sound and also with design and construction of different building units to set optimum condition
for producing and listenig speech musi etc
FIRE PROTECION
No building material is perfectly fire proof
A wider interpretation of the fire safety may be deemed to cover the following aspects
Fire prevention and reduction of number of out breaks of fire
Spread of fire both internally and externally
Safe existence of any and all occupants in the event of an out breaks of fire
Fire load
Fire load is the amount of heat in kilocalories which is liberated per square meter of floor
area of any combustible parts of the building itself
The fire load is determined by multiplying the weight of all combustible materials by
their calorific value and dividing the floor area under consideration
Grading of building according to fire resistance
The national building code of India (sp:7-1970) divides building in to the following four
types according to the fire load the building is designed to resist
Type 1 construction all structural components have 4 hours fire resistance
Type 2 construction all structural components have 3 fire resistance
Type 3construction all structural components have 2 hours fire resistance
Type 4 construction all structural components have 1 hour fire resistance
General fire safety requirements for buildings
All building and particularly building having more than one storey shall be provided with
liberally designed and safe fire proof existence
The exist shall be so placed that they are always immediately accessible and each is
capable of taking all the persons on that floor a s alternative escape route
Escape route shall be well ventilated as persons using the escapes are likely to over come
from smoke
Fire proof door shall conform rigidly to the fire safety requirements
Electrical and mechanical lifts while reliable undr normal condition may not always be
relied on escape purpose
Lift shafts and stairways invariably serve as flues are tunnels thus increasing the fire by
increased draught
Floors are required to withstand the effect of fire for full period stated for the particular
grading
Roofs of the various fire grades of the building shall be designed and constructed to
withstand the effect of fire for the maximum period
To avoid settlements of over laying roads or rail track soil is excavated after it enters the cutting
heads
Excavation ahead of the cutting is avoided the cutting head is moved forward in small increments
to avoid any having of the road or rail track
In addition to that, without stabilizing the soil, the box technique would cause the super structure
to settle the threatening structure failure so the ground ahead of tunnel boxes needed to be frozen
PIPE JACKING
In tunnels of damages above 2m men and machines worked the tunnel phase exacting and
providing soil support to the excavator soil by erecting the lining. The tunnel diameter becomes
small it becomes difficult for workers to carry out soil excavation of in erect the tunnel lining
system with in the tunnel shield
For diameter in the range of 0.5m to 1.5m it is more efficient to excavate the soil by drilling
systems controlled from a shaft or a pit to push the tunnel lining segment from the shaft or pit
these techniques are often referred to us pipe jacking or micro tunneling techniques and
equipments
Pipe jacking refers to a technique in which a man in a sitting or crouch position, users epic and
shovels to excavate tunnel face and the pipe is jacked forward from a shaft using hydraulic
jacking system
Horizontal auguring refers to a similar technique in which the man is replaced by a horizontal
continuous flight helical auger
INSTALATION
The pipe sections are moved forward by hydraulic jacking and the miniature TBM derive its
reaction from these section
Pipe segments of length 1 to 3 diameters 0.5 to 2m can be jacked into the soil using reaction from
the concrete wall erected at the rior of jacking pit.
DIAPHRAGM WALL
In structural engineering, a diaphragm is a structural system used to transfer lateral loads
to shear walls or frames primarily through in-plane shear stress
. These lateral loads are usually wind and earthquake loads, but other lateral loads such as
lateral earth pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in
a building or the deck of abridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
Diaphragms are usually constructed of plywood or oriented stand board in timber
construction;
Metal deck or composite metal deck in steel construction; or concrete slab in concrete
construction.
The two primary types of diaphragm are flexible and rigid. Flexible diaphragms resist
lateral forces depending on the tributary area, irrespective of the flexibility of the
members that they are transferring force to
. On the other hand, rigid diaphragms transfer load to frames or shear walls depending on
their flexibility and their location in the structure.
Parts of a diaphragm include:
the drag strut member, used to transfer the load to the shear walls or frames
The chord, used to resist the tension and compression forces that develop in the
diaphragm, since the membrane is usually incapable of handling these loads
alone.
TUNNELING
Process of making tunnels in order to reduce distance of travel or traffic congestion for
highway and railway is called tunneling
Tunneling is important for the following purpose
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Methods of tunneling
Shaft tunneling
Pilot tunneling
Shaft tunnels
Vertical passages are created along the line o the tunnel then the tunnels can be excavated
by the passage of having distance half of the distance between adjacent passage openings
are available to take the excavated material ,shafts can also be used to pump out the water
Pilot tunneling
If the height of the mountain is more then we can exercise this method of tunneling but uf
he horizontal length is more, shaft tunneling is done
PILE DRIVING
This is the process of inserting the pile inside the soil
It is a process by way of which a pile is forced in to the ground with out excavating the
soil
Pile driving an be done by two methods
Using hammering
Using pile driver
Hammering
Heavy bl0w is given by means of a hammer
Variety of hammers available to perform some of the acion
Drop hammer
Single acting hammer
Double acting hammer
Diesel hammer and
Vibrating hammer
Drop hammer
The hammer is lifted by a winch and dropped down
The hammer is connected to the rope by a hook
When it is lifted up after reaching a particular height it is dropped down
Single acting hammer
Hammer is lifted by stream and dropped then it will fell down in the top of the pile by
gravitational force
Double acting hammer
It is the same as that of single acting but here both the lifting and dropping is done by
steam engine
Diesel hammer
The process of lifting and dropping is done by diesel engine
Vibrators
If the soil condition is loose ,then using some vibrators the pile is inserted
SHEET PILES
It is the type of pile that is made of concrete, steel or wood
The thickness of the pile is very less when compared to the length and width of the pile
To prevent the entry water in construction the sheet piles are used, this is also used to
separate the vertical member of the building
The piles are inserted by some machine the depth of the piles can be increased by proper
joints in successive installment
Functions
To enclose the site or part to prevent escape of loose soil
To retain the sides of trenches or excavation
To construct retaining wall in the marine structures
To prevent seepage below the dams or hydraulic structures to construct coastal defense
work
To protect the foundation from scouring action of nearby river
DEWATERING
DEFINITION
When water table exists at a shallow depth below ground surface, it is essential to lower the water
so as to carry out construction of foundation, basement, and metro tunnels etc.This is achieved by
pumping out water from multiple wells installed at the site. The process is called as dewatering.
Types of dewatering method
Dewatering can be done by adopting one of the following four strategies
Dewatering of soil by temporary lowering of water table using wells and pumps prior excavation
as depleted in figure
Allowing water to reap into excavation area, collecting it in sumps and pumping it out. Before
that adequate steps have to be taken to support the soil on sides of the excavated area, to prevent
washing away of fines and have sufficient space for the work area.
Making the soil around excavated zone impermeable by technique such as grouting are freezing
so that inflow of water is stop are minimized.
INSTALATION TECHNIQUE
Sufficient size and capacity of dewatering system is necessary to lower and maintain ground
water table and to allow material to be excavated in a reasonable dry condition.
Excavation slopes to be stabilized where sheeting is not required
Dewatering system is to be operated continuously until backfill work has been completed.
Then, the structure to be constructed at the excavated area has to be finished
The complete stand by have to be available for immediate operation as may be required, to
adequately maintain dewatering on continuous basis and in the event that all or any other part of
the system may become inadequate or fail
The water removed from the excavation to be disposed in such a manner as will not endanger
portions of work under construction or completed.
For dewatering purpose, well points deep well, caissons and tunnels are used.
WELL POINTS
DEWATERING
When construction operation have to be excited below the ground water table level. Dewatering
of soil can be done by the following methods
Collecting water in sumps and pumping it out.
Installing well points small or deep wells and pumping out ground water
Using special technique in fine grained soils such as vaccum dewatering and electro-osmosis
WELL POINTS
To pump out the ground water small sized wells called well points are used for a more dry
working area the two methods used most often for lowering water table below the excavation
level are the well point method and the deep well method.
WELL POINT METHOD
:
This is economical and useful for lowering the water table by 15m or less.
Incase of well point method or deep well method it is based on the fact that removal of water by
continuous pumping from a well causes the water table level to become depressed and result in
the formation of draw down.
When a series of wells are placed close to each other, the overall effect is lowering of the water
table level.
Well points, being smaller, are easy to install.
Well points, can lower the water table by only 6.7m because the pump, is located at the ground
surface and connected to group of well points through a pipe, cannot lift water from greater
depth.
Beyond 7m, multistage well points are used.
DEEP WELL METHOD
This method is useful for lowering the water table by more than 15m.
Deep wells have larger diameter more depth and greater spacing.
The pump is located at the bottom of well and hence can pump out water from greater depth.
Deep wells become more economical if more points are required.
Continuity ensures that whether or not it has been designed to do so, it will participate in
the overall structural action of the superstructure.
Contributing to the top flange of cross girders at supports and, where present in
twin girder and cross girder structures, throughout the span, Figure 1(3).
It may be necessary to take account of these combined actions when verifying the design
of the deck. This is most likely to be the case when there are significant stresses from the
overall structural actions in the same direction as the maximum bending moments from
local deck actions, e.g. in structures with cross girders where the direction of maximum
moment is along the bridge.
The passage of each wheel load causes a complete cycle of local bending stresses. The
number of significant stress cycles is, therefore, very much higher for the deck than for
the remainder of the superstructure. In addition, some of the actions of the deck arising
from its participation in the overall behaviour are subject to full reversal;
an example is the transverse distribution of vertical load between girders. For both these
reasons, fatigue is more likely to govern the design of the bridge deck than the remainder
of the superstructure.
SHELL STRUCTURES
Shells are 3d structures constructed on storage tanks or roof for large column area such as
indoor stadiums, exhibition halls, theatres, complex churches etc
Classification
Singly curved
Doubl curved
Cylindrical shells
Singly curved
It can be used for rectangular shape buildings, shells represents the roof of the building
Dome storage tank for water and petroleum is example for single curved
Doubly curved
For doubly curved structures the super structure should be in hexagonal or circular shape
Cylindrical shape
These ae just modification of pitched roof and frequently emloyed in modern age
construction
It has two types
Off shore platforms are self contained platforms with adequate facilities for drilling, derrick,
drilling mud electric power, pumping equipment for the offshore construction these are artificial
facilities above the elevation of off shore platforms
Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy equipment
All these structures require few battery powered screw gunes and some ropes and pulleys
No scaffoldings is require for assembly and disc assembly of the structures because the structure
itself provides the scaffoldings as it goes up or comes down
Almost any number of column sections can be added to make it any height we desire
During the construction of tall structures the following equipments areused for the aerial
transporting and handling
Aerial cable way
Helicopter
SHELL STRUCTURES
Shells are 3d structures constructed on storage tanks or roof for large column area such as
indoor stadiums, exhibition halls, theatres, complex churches etc
Classification
Singly curved
Doubl curved
Cylindrical shells
Singly curved
It can be used for rectangular shape buildings, shells represents the roof of the building
Dome storage tank for water and petroleum is example for single curved
Doubly curved
For doubly curved structures the super structure should be in hexagonal or circular shape
Cylindrical shape
These ae just modification of pitched roof and frequently emloyed in modern age
construction
It has two types
North light shell roof
Barell vault shell roof
Both are different to provide lighting effect in factories
In barell vault ventilation s provided in middle
Tractors
Tractors are machine which change the engine energy into tractive energy
These are primarily used for pull or push the loads
They are also used for different purposes by mounting many types of accessories
Types of tractor
Crawler type or track type
Rubber tired or wheel type
Bulldozers
Dozers are machine designed primarily for cutting and pushing the material over short
distance
They consist with a front mounted blade controlled by hydraulic cylinder to vary the depth of
cut and rate of leveling depending on the material and application
a dozer is frame mounted unit with a blade, curved in its section, extending in front of the
tractor
Bulldozer is most versatile and most important equipment on construction project
Basically its pushing unit but its widely used as multipurpose equipment and can perform
large number of operations with minor changes
Scrapers
Scrapers are the devices to scrap the ground and load it simultaneously, transport it for the
required distance and dump it and then spread it for the required area
The scrapers are designed to dig,load,haul,dump and spread
The scrapers are of three types
towed type
conventional type
self loading or elevating scrapers
Towed type
The towed type scrapers are provided with either cable or hydraulic control
It can be operated in extremely adverse condition
Conventional scrapers
These are generally manufactured from 10to 25cubicmetres
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Proper selection of construction equipment place a vital role in the speedy and economical
completion of the construction
Following are the main points which should be considered while selection off the
construction equipments
Standardization
It is better to have same type and size of equipment in a construction then it is easy to have
spare parts, and to understand its operations
Availability of equipment
Availability of spare parts
Multi purpose equipments the selected equipments must be capable of performing various
operations
EXCAVATORS
Excavators are basically digging machines having three major components
An under carriage to give mobility
A super structure with operators cabin mounted on either a sloe ring to traverse through
360or on a rigid frame
Hydraulically articulated boom or tipper arms with bucket
Types of excavators
Crawler mounted excavators
Truck mounted excavators
Self propelled excavators
Excavators mounted on barge or rail
Compactors
Compaction is the process where by material particles are constrained to pack more closely
together through
a reduction of air void content generally by mechanical means
Types of compactors
static smooth wheeled rollers
sheep foot and pad foot rollers
pneumatic tired rollers
vibratory rollers
Tunneling equipment
Selection of equipment
Muck loading
Mucking is the operation of loading the broken rock or earth for removal from tunnel
Mucking process can be done by the following equipments
Power shovels
Tractor loader
Mucking machines