Torsion

Torsion is the twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded

by twisting moments or torques that tend to produce
rotation about the longitudinal axes of the bar.
For instance, when we turn a screw driver to produce
torsion our hand applies torque T to the handle and
twists the shank of the screw driver.
Sign convention Right Hand Rule
Shafts are structural members with length
significantly greater than the largest
cross-sectional dimension used in
transmitting torque from one plane to
another.
Turbine: Exerts a Torque on the Shaft.
Shaft: Transmit the Torque to the Generator
Generator: Creates an equal and opposite
Torque.

Torsion: twisting of a straight bar when

loaded by moments (or torques)
Moments or torques tend to produce
rotation about the longitudinal axis of the
bar (twisting).
Couple: the pair of forces that tends to
twist the bar about its longitudinal axis.
Moment of a couple:
T (Nm)= Force (N) x Arm (m) or
T (lb in.)= Force (lb) x Arm (in.)
Representation of the moment of a couple:
a vector with a double-headed arrow
Then we can write the moments as

T1 = P1 d1

T2 = P2 d 2

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

Net of the internal shearing stresses is an internal torque,
equal and opposite to the applied torque,
Although the net torque due to the shearing
stresses is known, the distribution of the stresses is not.

( )

T = dF = dA

Distribution of shearing stresses is statically indeterminate

must consider shaft deformations.
Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the distribution
of shearing stresses due to torsional loads can not be
assumed to be uniform.

Axial Shear
Components

Torque applied to shaft produces shearing stresses on the faces

perpendicular to the axis.
Conditions of equilibrium require the existence of equal
stresses on the faces of the two planes containing the axis of
the shaft.
The existence of the axial shear components is demonstrated
by considering a shaft made up of axial slats.
The slats slide with respect to each other when equal and
opposite torques are applied to the ends of the shaft.

From observation, the

angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to
the applied torque and
to the shaft length.

T
L

Torsional Deformations of Cylindrical Bars

When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a
circular shaft remains plane and undistorted then the
bar is said to be under pure torsion.
Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts
remain plain and undistorted because a circular shaft
is axisymmetric.
Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric)
shafts are distorted when subjected to torsion.
Consider a cylindrical bar of circular cross
section twisted by the torques T at both the
ends.
Since every cross section of the bar is
symmetrical, we say that the bar is in pure
torsion.
Under action of torque T the right end of the
bar will rotate through small angle known
as the angle of twist.
The angle of twist varies along the axis of
the bar at intermediate cross section denoted
by

( x)

Torsional Deformations of a Circular Bar

The rate of twist or angle of twist per unit
length

d
=
dx

Shear Strain at the outer surface of the bar

bb | rd
max =
=
= r
ab dx
For pure torsion the rate of twist is
constant and equal to the total angle of
twist divided by the length L of the bar

r
max = r =
L

For Linear Elastic Materials

From Hookes Law

= G

G is shear modulus of elasticity and is

shear strain
From Shear Strain equation :

max = r =

r
L

Shear Stress at the outer surface of the

bar :

max = G r

Shear Stresses in cylindrical bar with circular cross

section.

Torsion Formula : To determine the

relationship between shear stresses and
torque, torsional formula is to be
accomplished.

Longitudinal and transverse shear stresses in a circular bar subjected to torsion.

Torsional Formula
Since the stresses act continously they have
a resultant in the form of moment.
The Moment of a small element dA located
at radial distance and is given by
The resultant moment ( torque T ) is the
summation over the entire cross sectional Distribution of stresses acting on a cross section.
area of all such elemental moments.

T = dM =
A

max
r

dA =

max
r

Ip

M = A = 2

Max
r

I Polar = 2A

Polar moment of inertia of circle with

radius r and diameter d

Maximum Shear Stress

Ip =

r4
2

d4
32

max

Tr 16T
=
=
Ip d3

Max

T
=
I Polar

Generalized torsion formula

T
=
I Polar

Generalized
torsion formula

T
TL

= =
=
=
G
GI P
L
GI P

Angle of twist
per unit length

Total angle of twist

Equations derived above

are only for bars of
circular cross sections
Circular tube in torsion.

A solid steel bar of circular cross section has diameter d=1.5in and a length of
l=54in.The bar is subjected to torques T acting at the ends if the torques have
magnitude T=250 lb-ft . G=11.5x106psi
a) what is the maximum shear stress in the bar
b) what is the angle of twist between the ends?
a) From torsional formula

max

16T 16* 250*12

=
=
= 4530 psi
3
3
d
*1.5

b) Angle of twist

Ip =

d4
32

*1.54
32

= .4970in 4

(250lb ft 12in )(54in ) = 0.02834rad

TL
=
GI P 11.5 106 psi 0.4970in 4

)(

Compare the solid and hollow shafts

d hollow 67.1mm
Size =
=
= 1.14
d solid
58.8mm
Ahollow 1273mm 2
Weight per unit length =
=
= 0.468
2
Asolid
2715mm

Hollow shafts vs Solid shafts

strength

Max

Angle of twist per

unit length
Both are proportional to

Weight is proportional to the cross-sectional area (A)

TR
=
IP

T
=
GI P

1
IP

Non-Uniform Torsion

Bars consisting of prismatic segments with

constant torque throughout each segment.

Non-Uniform Torsion

Bars with continuously varying cross sections

and constant torque.

Bars with continuously varying cross sections

and continuously varying torque.

A shaft/gear assembly
Shaft is driven by a gear at C.
Gears at B and D are driven by the
shaft. It turns freely at A and E

d = 30mm
LBC = 500mm
T2 = 450 N .m L = 400mm
CD
T1 = 275 N .m G = 80GPa
T3 = 175 N .m

Determine the maximum shear stress and the angle of

twist between gears B and D.

TCD = 275 N m + 450 N m = 175 N m

CD =

( 2 ) = 175N .m(0.030m 2 ) = 33.0MPa

TCD d
Ip

(0.030m )4
32

CD =

TCD LCD
175 N .m(0.4m )
=
= 0.0110rad
9
8 4
G IP
80 10 Pa 7.95 10 m

)(

TBC = 275 N m
BC =
BC

( 2 ) = 275N .m(0.030m 2 ) = 51.9MPa

TBC d

7.95 108 m 4

Ip

TBC LBC
275 N .m(0.5m )
=
=
= 0.0216rad
9
8 4
G IP
80 10 Pa 7.95 10 m

)(

BD = BC + CD = 0.0216 + 0.011 = 0.0106rad = 0.61o

A tapered bar in torsion

Change of diameter with length:

Evaluate the integral of this type of equation

where

a = d A ..........b =

dB d A
L

(a + bx )

1
32TL
1
3 3
=
3G (d B d A ) d A d B

1
=
3
3b(a + bx )

Stresses and Strains in Pure Shear

Analysis of stresses on inclined planes: (a) element in pure shear, (b) stresses
acting on a triangular stress element, and (c) forces acting on the triangular stress
element (Free-body diagram).

Graph of normal stresses and shear stresses

versus angle of the inclined plane.

Stress elements oriented at = 0 and

= 45 for pure shear.

Torsion Failure
In torsion, a ductile material will break along
the plane of maximum shear, that is, a plane
perpendicular to the shaft axis.
A brittle material, will break along planes
whose normal direction coincide with maximum
tension, that is, along surfaces at 45o to the
shaft.
Note: Brittle materials are weaker in tension than in
shear. Ductile materials generally fail in shear.

Torsion failure of a brittle material by tension

cracking along a 45 helical surface.
Stress elements oriented at = 0 and = 45 for pure shear.

Strains in Pure Shear

The shear strain is the change
in angle between two lines that
were originally perpendicular to
each other. The element changes
its shape while the volume is
maintained constant (shear
distortion). For a elastic
material:

=
G=

G
E
2(1 + )

Strains in pure shear: (a) shear distortion of an element

oriented at = 0, and (b) distortion of an element oriented
at = 45.

If we rotate the element 45o, there will be no shear stresses and

the normal stresses will be maximum. When inclined 45o, the
elongation is given by:

= 45 =
o

= 45
E

(1 + ) =

=0

2G (1 + )

=0
2

Aluminum tube with G=27GPa

(a) Determine the maximum shear, tensile and
compressive stresses in the tube.

(4000 N .m )(0.080m ) = 58.2MPa

Tr
=

IP
(0.080m )4 (0.060m )4
32

= 58.2 MPa
The maximum tensile stress occurs at an tension
compression = 58.2MPa
inclination of 45ocw:

Max =

(b) Determine the maximum strains

Max

Max

58.2 MPa
= 0.0022rad
G
27000MPa
0.0022rad

= Max =
= 0.0011rad
2
2

Max =

Relationship Between E and G.

Before shear the distance bd is equal to:

Lbd = h 2

After shear the distance bd is equal to:

Using the Law of Cosines:
(1 + Max )2 = 1 Cos +
2

Lbd = h 2 (1 + Max )

L2bd = h 2 + h 2 2.h 2 .Cos +

2

2
2
(1 + Max ) = 1 + 2 Max + Max
As the and are very small,

Cos + = Sin
the equation is reduced to:

Substituting for torsion

1 + Max = 1 +

Max =

Max =

(1 + ) = (1 + )
E

E
G=
2(1 + )

Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

The most important use of circular shafts is to transmit mechanical power from
one device or machine to another. The work done by a torque of constant
magnitude is equal to the product of the torque (T) and the angle through which
it rotates ().

W = T

Power is the rate at which work is done

(=rad/s):

2nT
P=
....n(rpm)..T ( N m)...P ( watts )
60
2nT
...n(rpm).....T (lb ft )...H (hp)
H=
33,000

dW
d
P=
=T
= T
dt
dt

Steel shaft in torsion that

transmit 40hp to gear B. The
allowable stress in the steel
is 6000psi.
(a) Find the diameter (d) of the shaft
if it operates at 500rpm.

33,000 H 33,000 40hp

T=
=
= 5042lb in
2n
2 500rpm

Max

16T
16T
16 5042lb in
3
= 3 d =
=
= 4.280in 3
d
allow
6000 psi

d = 1.62in
The diameter of the shaft must be larger than 1.62in if the allowable shear
stress is not to be exceeded.

Solid steel shaft in torsion. Motor transmits

50kW to the shaft ABC of 50mm diameter
at 10Hz. The gears at B and C extract
35kW and 15kW respectively.
Calculate the maximum shear stress in the
shaft and the angle of twist (AC) between the
motor and the gear C. Use G=80GPa.
P
50000 watts
=
= 796 N .m
2f
2 (10 Hz )
16 239 N .m
= 9.7 MPa
BC =
35000 watts
3
=
= 557 N .m
(0.050m )
2 (10 Hz )
239 N .m 1.2m
=
= 0.0058rad

BC
15000 watts

=
= 239 N .m
(80000000 Pa ) (0.050m )4
2 (10 Hz )
32

P = 2fT TA =
P
2f
P
TC =
2f
TB =

16TAB 16 796 N .m
=
= 32.4 MPa
Maximum shear stress = 32.4MPa.
d 3
(0.050m )3
AC = AB + BC
TAB LAB
796 N .m 1.0m
= 0.0162rad
=
=

GI Polar

AC = 0.0162 + 0.0058 = 0.022rad = 1.26o

4
9
80 10 Pa (0.050m )
32

AB =
AB

Statically Indeterminate
Torsional Members
The equilibrium equations are not enough for
determining the torque. The equilibrium equations
need to be supplemented with compatibility equations
pertaining to the rotational displacements.
First step : Write the equilibrium equations

T = T1 + T2

Second Step : Formulate equations of compatibility.

Third Step : Relate the angles of twist to the
torques by torque-displacement relationships.
Solving:

G1I P1

T1 = T
G1I P1 + G2 I P 2

T1L
1 =
G1I P1

1 = 2
T2 L
2 =
G2 I P 2

G2 I P 2

T2 = T
G1I P1 + G2 I P 2

Bar ABC is fixed at both ends and loaded at C by a

torque TO.
Find the reactive torques TA and TB., the maximum
shear stresses and the angle of rotation.
Equilibrium equations:

TA + TB = TO

Compatibility equations

Separate the bar from the

support at the end B. The
torque TO produces an
angle of twist 1. Then
apply the reactive torque
TB. It alone produces an
angle of twist 2.

1 + 2 = 0

Torque-Displacement Equations:

1 =

TO LA
GI PA

2 =

TB LA TB LB

GI PA GI PB

The minus sign appears because TB produces a rotation that is opposite in direction
to the positive direction of 2
Substitute in the equation:

1 + 2 = 0

TO LA TB LA TB LB

=0
GI PA GI PA GI PB

Solution:

LB I PA

TA = TO
LB I PA + LA I PB

LA I PB

TB = TO
LB I PA + LA I PB

Maximum shear stresses

AC

TAd A
=
2 I PA

AC

TO LB d A
=
2(LB I PA + LA I PB )

CB

TB d B
=
2 I PB

CB

TO LAd B
=
2(LB I PA + LA I PB )

Angle of Rotation:

The angle of rotation C at section C is equal to the

angle of twist of either segment of the bar.

TA LA TB LB
TO LA LB
C =
=
=
GI PA GI PB G (LB I PA + LA I PB )
In the special case that the bar is prismatic TA =

AC

TAd
=
2I P

AC

TO LB d
=
2 I P (LB + LA )
C =

CB

TO LB
L

TB =

TO LA
L

TB d
=
2I P

CB

TO LAd
=
2 I P (LB + LA )

TA LA TB LB
TO LA LB
=
=
GI P
GI P GI P (LB + LA )

Strain Energy in Torsion

and Pure Shear
The work W done by the torque as it rotates
through the angle is equal to the area below
the torque-rotation diagram.

U =W =

TL
=
GI P

T
2

T 2 L GI P 2
U=
=
2GI P
2L

Non-uniform torsion
The total energy of the bar is obtained by adding the
strain energy of each segment

Ti 2 Li
U = U i =
i =1
i =1 2Gi (I P )i
n

If either the cross section of the bar or the torque

varies along the axis, then

2
[
T ( x )] dx
dU =

2GI p ( x)

U =

[T (x )]2 dx
2GI p ( x)

Strain Energy Density in Pure Shear

Consider an element of height h and thickness t.
Then the forces V acting on each face is :

V = ht
The displacement ( )produced is

V
2
h 2t
U=
2
U =W =

u=

2G
G 2
u=
2

= h

Strain energy per unit volume:

u=

Prismatic bar loaded with TA and TB

simultaneously
TA = 100 N .m
TB = 150 N .m
L = 1.6m
G = 80GPa
I P = 79.52 10 mm
3

When both loads act on the bar, the torque in segment CB is

TA and in segment AC is (TA+TB)

( 2 ) + (T

TA2 L

T L
U = i i =
2GI P
i =1 2Gi (I P )i

( 2) = T L + T T L + T L

2 L
)
T
+
A
B

2
A

A B

2
B

2GI P

2GI P

2GI P

2GI P

2
2
(
(
(
100 N .m ) (1.6m )
100 N .m )(150 N .m )(1.6m )
150 N .m ) (1.6m )
U=
+
+
3
4
3
4
2(80GPa )(79.52 10 mm ) 2(80GPa )(79.52 10 mm ) 2(80GPa )(79.52 103 mm 4 )

U = 1.26 J + 1.89 J + 1.41J = 4.56 J

Prismatic bar fixed at one end and loaded

with a distributed torque of constant
intensity t per unit distance.

t = 480lb in / in
L = 12 ft

T ( x) = tx

G = 11.5 106 psi

I P = 17.18in 4

U =

[T (x )]2 dx =
2GI p

1
2GI P

2 3
t
L
2
(tx ) dx =
6GI P

(
t 2 L3
480lb in / in ) (144in )
U=
=
= 580in lb
6
4
6GI P 6 11.5 10 psi 17.18in
2

)(

Thin-Walled Tubes
under torsion
Stresses acting on the longitudinal
faces ab and cd produce forces

Fb = btb dx

Fc = ctc dx

From equilibrium:

b tb = c t c

shear _ flow = t = f = cons tan t

dT = rfds
T= f

LM

rds = 2 fA

Where LM denotes the length of the

median line and AM is the area enclosed
by the median line of the cross section.

T
=
2tAM

The area enclosed by the median line is not the cross

section area.
For a rectangular section:

AM = bh

vert
horiz

Area enclosed by the median line

T
=
2t1bh
T
=
2t2bh

AM = r 2
T
=
2r 2t

Strain Energy of a Thin Walled Tube

Find the strain energy of an element
and then integrating throughout the
volume of the bar.

2t 2 ds

f 2 ds
dU =
tdsdx =
dx =
dx
2G
2G t
2G t

Where f is the shear flow constant

f 2 LM ds L
f 2 L LM ds
T 2L
U = dU =
dx =
=

0
0
0
t
2G
2G
t
8GAM2
4 AM2
J= L
M ds
0 t

Introducing a new property of cross

section called the Torsion Constant

For a constant thickness:

Angle of Twist

T 2L
U=
2GJ

2
M

4tA
J=
LM

For a circular tube of

thickness t

T
T 2L
TL
=

=
W =U =

2
2 G 2 r 3 t
G 2 r 3 t

LM

ds
t

LM = 2r
AM = r 2

J = 2r 3t

Comparison of circular and square tubes.

Both tubes have the same length, same
wall thickness and same cross sectional
area :
r

4bt = 2rt b =

Circular Tube

AM 1 = r 2
J1 = 2r t
3

A1 = 2rt

Square Tube

AM 2 = b 2 =

2r 2

Stresses

4
3r 3t
3
J2 = b t =
8
A2 = 4bt = 2rt

2r 2

1 AM 2
4 = = 0.79
=
=
4
2 AM 1
r 2

Ratios of circular tube over square tube

3r 3t

8 = = 0.62
Angles of twist 1 = J 2 =
2r 3t
2 J 1
4

The circular tube not only

has 21% lower shear
stress than does the square
tube but it also has a
greater stiffness against
rotation.

Stress Concentration
in Torsion
Stepped shaft in torsion.
The effects of stress concentration are
confined to a small region around the
discontinuity.

Max = K Nom

16T
Tr
=K
= K 3
IP
D1
K = Stress Concentration Factor

Nom = 1 = no min al _ shear _ stress

Stress-concentration factor K for a stepped shaft in

torsion. (The dashed line is for a full quartercircular fillet.)