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R.hill-The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity
R.hill-The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity
I NTR OD U CT IO N
1. DefinitIon of the subject
II. 1
2. Historical outline
The ecientific st udy of the plasticity of metals may justly be regarded
&8 beginning in 1864. In that year Tresca published a preliminary
a ccount of experiments on punching and extrusion. which led him to
state that a metal yielded plastically when the maximum shear st ress
attained a crit ical valu e. Crite ria for the yielding of plastic solids,
ma inly soils, had been proposed before , for example by Coulomb (1773),
and had been applied by Poncelet (1840) an d Rankine (1853) to problems
euch as the calculation of earth-press ure on retaining walls; there ap pears,
however, to have been no earlier im portant investigation for metals.
Treece's yield criterion was a pplied by Saint-Venan t to determine
the stresses in a partly plastic cylinder subjected to torsion or bending
(1870) en d in a completely plastic tube expanded by internal pressure
(1872) (the first step to wards the solution for a pa rtly plastic tube was
taken hy Turner in 1909). SaintVenant also set up a system of five
eq uations governing the stresses and strains in tw o-dimensional 80w,
end, recognizing that t here is no one-one relation between st ress an d
total plastic strain, postulated that t he di rect ions of the ma ximum shea r
strain-rale coincided a t each moment with t he directions of the max imum
shear stress. In 187l Levy , ad opt ing Selnt -Venenr 'e conception of a n
ideal plastic mate rial, pro posed three -dimensional relations between
stress and rate of plestic strain.
There seems to ha ve been no further significant ad vance until the
close of the century when Guest inv esti gated the yielding of hollow
tubes under com bined ax ial te nsion a nd in ternal pressure, and obtained
results broadly in agree ment with t he maximu m shea rstress criterion.
During the next decad e ma ny similar experi mente were perfonned,
mainly in En gland, wit h slightly differing conclusions. Variou s yield
criteria were suggested, b ut for many metals, &8 later ILJ1d more acc urate
work was to show, t he most satisfa.ctory was that ad VlLJ10ed by von :Milles
1. 2)
(1913) on the basis of pu rely mathematical coe elderetione : it wee inter preted by Hencky some yean afte rwards as implying that yielding
occurred when t he elast ic shear -strain energy reac hed a critical val ue.
Von Mises also ind ependently proposed equations similar to Levy's.
Between the two wars t he subject wee actively developed by Germa n
writers. In 1920 and 1921 Prandtl showed that the t wo-dimensiona l
plastic problem is hyperbolic, an d calculated the loads needed to indent
a pla ne surface and a truncated wedge by a ft80t d ie. Parallel expe riments by Nadai were in a ccord with these calc ulations, but it has been
shown recently that Prend rl'a work is defecti ve in certain respects.
The general theory underlying Prandtl'a apecial eolutione wee supplied
in 1923 by Hen cky, who also discovered simple geometrical properties
of t he field of slip-lines in a state of plane plastic strain . It W80S BOrne
time, however , before the equat ions governing the variation of the
velocity of 80w along slip-lines were obtained (Gelringer, 1930) and even
longer before t he correct approa ch to the solution of plan e problems was
clarified (1945-9). I n 1923 Nadai in vestigated, both theoretically and
expe rimentally, t he plastic zones in a t wisted prismatic ba r of a rbitrary
conto ur. Th e effect ive application of plastic theory to technological
processes began in 1925 when von K arman a nalysed , by an elementary
method, the state of stress in rolling. In the following year Siebel, and
BOOn a fte rwards Sachs, put forward similar theories for wire-d rawing.
It W80S not until 1926, when Lode measured the deformation of t ubes
of various metals under combined tension and internal pressure, that the
Levy-Miees stress-strain rela tions were shown to be vali d to a tint
epproximetion . However, Lode's resu lts indicated certain div ergences,
and these were afterwards confirmed by the more controlled experiments of Taylor and Quinney (1931). Th e theory W80S now generalized
in t wo important di rections : first by Reuse (1930) who made allowance
for the elastic compo nent of strain, following an earlier suggestion by
Pr andtl ; second by Schmid t (1932) and Odquist (1933) who showed, in
slight ly different ways, how work -hardening could be brought within
the framework of the Levy-Mi ses equations. The first generalization
was broadly confirmed by experiments of Hohenemser (1931-2), and
t he second by invcstigations of Schmidt. Thus, by 1932,0. theory had
been const ruc ted, reproducing the main plastic and elastic properties
of an isot ropic metal at ordinary te mpe ratures , and substantially in
accord with observation. However, from t hen until the early 1940' ,
little progress was made in the solution of special problems. F urther
gene ralizat ions were formulated (for example, by von Miaes in 1928 and
4.
I NTR OD U CT ION
(1. 2
3. P hy sical background
During the construction of th e t heory freq uent reference is made to
th e plastic properties of metal single crystals a nd polycrystalline aggre gates. It is ass umed t hat the reader has & general knowledge of t hese, an d
only & brief resume ofthe relevant properties is given here. For broader
and more detailed accounts, presented from ot her stand points, specia list
works on metal physics should be consulted. t
(i) S ingle cryata18. In a freshly grown metal crystal, isolated from
extern al disturba nces a nd of th e highest purity , t he atoms are disposed
in equili brium und er th eir mutual forces in a regular t hree-dimensiona l
array , with a periodic structure cha racteristic of th e metal. Most of th e
well-known metals ha ve &. lattice structure which is eit her face-centred
cubic (copper, aluminium, lead , silver, gold ), body-cen tred cubic (alpha
iron, van adium, tungsten, and the alkali metals), or hexagona l closepacked (zinc, mag nesium, cadmium). According to current t heory , th e
cohesive forces binding th e atoms t ogether are such t hat a. perfect metal
crys ta l could sustain, with only slight displacements of th e atoms from
th eir normal positi ons, very much greater applied stresses th an an actu a l
t C. S . Ba rrett, S f,.ud ure 01 M ttal4 (McG ra wH ill Boo k Co.. 1943 ) ; w. Do~. An
/ nt rodw:t i01l to I~ Ph ll.~. 01 M tt aU ond A/wy. (J oh n Wiley &; Son., In e., New York.
19471; A . H , Cott re ll. Th rord k al S I"" ct" rol .U aall u"(JiI (Ed wII.rd Arn old'" Co. Lo ndo n.
1(48 ); C. F . Elam, D i.,orIKm 01 M rJ<Jl C"iI.wu (Cla rendo n P..... O&ford, 193.5); W . Hume_
Rothe ry , Alomic Th w'1l 10,. Sludl!nU oj M ttalluryy (I ratit ute of Me te.\8. London, 1(4 6) '
E . Sc:h mid and W . BoM , K ri.lallpkul iziltil (J llliua Sp ring1M'. Bor1in, 193.5); F . 5eit.s, T~
P1IV. iu oj M etaU l)leG r. .... H ilI Book Co., 1943).
1.3)
crys tal is observed to do. Thus, in a freshly prepared crys tal, sensit ive
measurements show that elastic (or reversible) deformation ha.s ceased
a fte r a macf'08COP~ shear stra in of order 10- 4, whereas & perfect crystal
should be capable of an elastic shea r st rain of order 10- 1 The discrepa ncy
is attributed to faul ts or disturbances in th e lattice stru cture, formed.
d uring growth or introduced by subsequent handling. It is th ought
that the faul ts are separated by distencea of the order of 1,000 a tomic
spacings , and t hat each extends over a volume containing perhaps
100-1 ,000 atoms. Certeln of the fa ults are considered.to be ofa kind t ha t
' weaken' the crystal, and are kno wn &8 'dislocat ions' . .Math emat ical
studies of conjectural atomic arrangements in a dislocation indicate
that a very small applied stress would cause it to move (&8 a geometrical
entity) through an otherwise pe rfect crystal. The resultant effect of t he
passage of a dislocation is a relative displacement of th e parts of t he
crystal bordering its path by a n a mou nt equa l to one or two atomic
spaci ngs. In t his way t he movement t hroug h the crystal of many dislocations prod uces an overall st rain with out affect ing the main lattice
structure ; t he substantial preservation of the st ructure during plastic
deformation is confirmed by X -ray examination. Th at t he strain
is plast ic a nd irre versib le is attributed to th e ' tra pping' of th e dlelocations at other fa ults which are not mobile und er the external stresses.
Additional dislocations are th ought to be created or liberated d uring the
deformation, but despite t his a continually increasing stress is usually
needed to enforce plastic stra in (st ra in-ha rdening); th e movement of
free dislocations is progressively impeded by th e local disordering of th e
lattice at poin ts where t rapped dislocations accumulate. The increase
in potential energy of the deformed crystal is only a sma ll fraction (of
orde r one-te nt h) of the work done by th e a pplied stress; the remain der
appears as vibra tional energy of th e atom s in or near moving dislocations
(whose speed must be close to t hat of sound) and is ult imately dissipa ted
as heat throughout th e crystal.
If the exte rna l temperature is suffi ciently grea t , th e activ ation energy
needed to move existing dislocations may also be pr ovided by thermal
agitation ; the effect ofthe applied stress is main ly to give direction to t he
resultant flow (t ransient creep ). If th e stress is removed , and th e crystal
is held at & sufficiently high te mperature for a certain period, thermal
fluctuations assist th e atoms over th eir potential barriers towards th e
original regular array, which is th e configuration of'greetest stability.
Ultimately the imperfecti ons created d uring th e pre vious deformation
are removed, and the crystal is said to have been 'enneelod',
_'.1&
11
[1.3
I . 3]
PHYSICAL BA CKGROUND
I NT R OD UCT I O N
[I. 3
orientation by more than & fa.ctor of t wo or three. Where. &8 in & hexagonal metal, only one set of slip-plenee can be ecnveted, th e polycrystal
is &8 much &8 one hundred times &8 hard as a single crys tal, despite the
intervention of other and more fav ourable mechan isms oC plasti c
deformation (such &8 twinning). Th e existe nce of such mechanisms in
hexagonal metals perm its the grains to ma intain contac t (though not
th eir absolute identities, since grai n boundaries a re unlikely to comprise
the same atom s throughou t a. process of plastic distortion). Contact
could not be preserved only by slipping over the basal plan es in each
grain, since a (uniform) plasti c strai n generally req uires the simultaneous
operation cf five independent sets of plenes if it is to be produ ced by alip
atone. Suffic ient sets are, on th e other hand, available in cubic metals,
and in th ese it is probable that the macroscopic stra in in each crystal
resembles th&t of th e aggregate as a whole.
If. then, the specimen is subjected to a large distort ion of one kind (for
instance, monotoni c compression) the same cryetellogrephie directions
in each grain are gradually rotated to wards a common a xis. A preferred
orientation is thereby crea ted, and th e specimen becomes increa.singly
anisotropic. When a plastically deformed specimen is unloaded, resid ual
etreeees on a microscopic scale rem ain, d ue mainl y to th e different states
of stress existing in t he va riously oriented crys tals before unloadin g.
If a differen t loadi ng is now a pplied such residual stresses must influen ce
th e plasti c yielding. For example, if the previous st rain W 8.8 a uniform
extension and th e specimen is then reloaded in compression in the oppo site direction, it is observed th at yieldin g (of th e specimen &8 a whole)
occurs at a much redu ced st ress. This is known as th e Bauschinger
effect , and in 80 far &8 it is ab sent from single crystals of pure metals
it is attributable to a particular kind of residual stress du e to the
grai n bound aries.
I. 4)
TH E ST R ES S ST R AIN CU R V E
"0
,
p
10
INTRODUCTION
[I. ,
In ot her words, the rate of st rain- hardening falls steadily and th e curve
bends over more a nd more. An actual stress-strain curve for an nealed
copper is shown in Fig. 5 on p. 28; curves for any one metal pre pared in
different ways may vary by some 10 per cent. There is evidence to show
th at at very la rge strains (up to the point of fract ure) the rate of hardening approaches a sma ll constant value (perhaps zero), due possibly to
spon taneous reorde ring of th e heavily distorted lattice.
If, following a certain plastic deforma tion, th e stress is red uced from
its current value at S the change in length is at first elastic . However ,
owing to t he differen t orientat ions of th e grains th e residual stresses are
not uniformly distributed and , in a few grains, may act 80 as to produce
&. very small plastic st rain before the external stress is entirely removed
(at 0 '). 00' is the strain repre sentin g the permanent change of sha pe.
On reloading t here is agai n an interval of elastic stra in, with a new
pr oporti onal limit P', followed by an interva l of sma ll plast ic strain (the
width of th e hysteresis loop is greatly exaggerated in th e diagram ).
As the stress is brought near to its original value, the curve bends sharp ly
over near Y' and t he part Y'S' becomes virtually a cont inuation of YS.
I ndeed, if t he stress had been increased continuously from S the same
curve SS' would have been described (wit hin norm al expe rimental
error); the state of the specimen at Y' after unloading and reloading
differs from what it would have been (had t he st ress increased con tinuously) only by t he additional disorderi ng of th e lattice during th e
hysteresis loop SO' Y' , and thi s is quickly overs hado wed by further
deformation. S, and similarly any point on the curve, can t herefore be
regarded, for pr acti cal pu rposes , ee the yield st ress of the specimen
strained by the amount 0 0 '. The etress-eteein curve O'Y'S ' for such a
pre-st rained met al is dist inguished from t he curve for t he an nealed metal
by a higher yield stress a nd a more rapid subsequent bend.
In a few metals, such as a nnealed mild steel and certain alloys of
aluminium, th e stress falls abr uptly after the yield stress Y. This is t hen
known as th e upper yield-point , and th e stress which is needed to enforce
further plastic deformation is known as the lower yield-point. In a tensile
test on an nealed mild steel a several per cent . cha nge in length occurs
with out a significant increase in stress a bove t he lower yield-point . Th e
fall in stress is observed to coincide with the propagati on of a Ladera'
band across th e specimen. This is a lamellar zone of plastic distortion,
inclined. at a bout 45 to the axis , and in which the macroscopic strain
appears to be a simple shear; th e remainder of t he specimen is still only
st ra ined elastically. During t he lower yield point extension ot her bands
1.4)
TH E STRES S . STRA IN CU R VE
11
usually appear . Th e deformat ion does not become uniform , nor does the
stress-strain curve begin to rise, un til th e bands have spread th rough
th e whole specimen. Pre-strained mild steel does not show t he yieldpoint dro p unless it has been rested for a certain time (strain-ageing).
It seems that t he phenomenon is caused by solute atom s, of carbon or
some impurity , which a rrang e th emselves interstitially in th e lattice
under therma l activation in such a way t hat t he normal yielding of t he
solvent metal is retarded . t The fall in stress at t he yield-point is attri buted to the freeing of dislocations, which a re then able to travel th rough
th e lat tice in the ord inar y way under th e lower yield-point stress. Since
t he first Ludera' band is initiated at a point where there is a local concent ra.tion of stress of unkn own magnitu de (due to a slight geometrical
or st ruct ural non -uniformity ), t he upper yield-point va ries greatly with
t he conditions of the test. Th e lower yield-point is, on th e other hand ,
fairly reprodu cible and in annealed mild steel is abo ut 10-12 tn ./in. (in tension), while th e upper yield-po int may exceed this by 20 or
30 per cent. in a suitably designed test at normal temperat ures and rates
of strain.
In a compression test th e applied load steadily increases durin g plastic
deformat ion since both t he st ress and th e cross-sect ional area increase .
If Ao is the init ial area and A is th e area when t he height is h, th en
A h = A oho for constant volume (neglecting t he small elastic change).
The load is th erefore
L = oA = oA oho/h = oAo/( l -e).
The grap h of load aga inst st ra in has an upward inflexion and rises
without limit as the cylinder is reduced to a t hin disk. In a tensile test
the load is
which reac hes a maximum and t hen decreases when th e rate of diminution of area out weighs t he rate of hardening. The maximu m load is
given by dL = 0, or
udA +A do = O.
Combining t his with
we obtain
l dA +A dl
0,
dA
dodl
d,
= - = - = d = -.
A
0
I
l+ e
- -
t A. H . Cottrell, R epo rt or Br iat.ol Conference ' , Phy . S oc. (1948), 30, h u propoll8d &
poqible mechenism depending on t he t endency of ecluee atom" to clu atcr round dia.
lo<:atiOn8 .
"
Thus, th e load is
I N T R O D UCT I ON
&
THE ST R ES S . ST RA IN C U R VE
(I)
maximum when
de
-=
a.
d.
ar
(I . ..
do
d~
- l+e
(2)
a+ W .
(3)
(4)
where e denotes t he exponential constant . This was proposed independen tly by Voce and Palm .f Although a -+ b 8 S f -+ co. b is unlikely
l P . Lud,..ik. EklMnk dtf' technologiden M u ha" ik (Be rlin. 1900 ).
I C. W . M..::Oregor. T imNhe"ko Annit~r.ra'll Volum41 (Ne... York. MaemilJ an. 1938 )1
Mm . 6 ( 1039 ), A-1M ; P roe, Am. Soc . T e... MGt. 40 (1 040 ). 60 8; J_ m.
FIlJrJ.:lin 1...,. 13 8 (1944), III . See aleo P . W . Bridgman, Ioc. ei~.
t E . Voce. J _m . b wt. .\IU4~. 74 ( 1948).1l31 ; _ al .e d iioeuMiorl. o n p . 160 . J . H .
Palm .4P7" i.ed Sc in't ific RUMrf h . A- 2 (1 949). 198. A _
" ha t 'l.Itular re la t ion ....
propced by M. Re mer. P N>C . 6th I nt . Congo .4P7' .\led!.. ( Paria ). 1940e .
Jou m . App .
13
n. n
TH E CRITER ION OF Y IE LD I NG
II
II W . L. B ragg, N at.. re, 149 (19 42 ).6 11 ; E . Oru..... n. J . F . Nye, and W . J . C.irruo,
Minitt ry or Supply, Annampnt R p.... ffh Depertrmo nt . Th eoretiQ.I&-rch Re port I6/t5.
"
o.
The stress may be specified either by the t hree prin cipal components or
by the th ree te nsor invariants . However, alth ough any funct ion of the
t J . V. H o....rd and S. L . Smith, PrtX . Roy. Soc. A,I07 (l1l211), 113 : R . W . l4eto.and
D. J . McAdam, J,., Nat. A dt>. C"""m. A "..,., Tech. Note 1100, March U141.
FOUN DA T IO NS OF THE TH E OR Y
[II. 2
(4)
("
at a, at a s aSat
17
Yitld
5UrflCt
(3)~
11. 2]
(6)
,,
FlO . I . Geometric al repreflentation of a plaetie etete o f etreN in
(0',.0',,0'. ) space. where a" 0'1 ' a. are t he p rincipal ecmponente,
A y ield criterion . wh ich iA independen t o f the hydrostati e com po ne nt o f 8t re98, iA re p rese nted by a. c urve C in t he plane n
whose e qu ation is 0',+0'.+0'. '" O.
18
[II. 2
FO UNDATIONS OF T HE TH E O R Y
Now if (al ' at. at) is 8. plas t ic state, 80 also is (0' 1' at. a,), since the element
ia isotropic. T he locu s is t herefore symmetrical about L L', and simila rly
about M M ' and N N ' Th is is equivalent to saying that the yield criterion
i.e a functi on of t he tensor invariants. If, for any point on the locus, 8.
radius is drawn t hroug h t he origin (representing unloading with COJl8tan t
stress rat i08), it must meet the locus aga in at the sa me distance from t he
origin,since there is no Bauschingereffect.
Hence, the locus is symmetrical, not only
about the diameters LL', 1/J/', NN' , but
- 0;
also about the three diameters orthogonal
to t hem (sho wn dashed in F ig. 2). I n ot he r
words t he shape of the locu s in each of the
twelve 30 eegmente , marked off by the
(6)
2.t
Lode. Z ,U. Phy . 34 ( 1926), 913; 811M) Z,it, . atll1. M al ia . M u ll. 5 (192 :1). 142 .
u {~, rl al'lll the Cart.Ni&n coo rd ina tee. o r P with "",peet to the d ...he<J lin.. , _ 0
and the line ON. then
a- _ (".-".){-.'2;
y _ (2"" - ... - ,,. )/....6.
Since I/o _ - 3(,,; + ,,; )/(,,; - ,,; . .... obtain fro":,~ ";,"; - (~~+ '\I3)'(Lln 1 - "3 ).
From thia equa tion the retioto
can be fo_._
t~ direction or O f' i. (iven .
W.
t ''';''';
~ , I) (CL-C'. )
Jt->
n .2]
19
.,
a.
--
"'"
t H. T~a . c_pt.u RtndruAcad.Sd .PfJrU. 59 ( 1864 ). 764 ; 8nd M (1867) . 809 ; M i ... .
SfJv. Acad. Sci, Pa,.~. 18 (lS68). 733 ; and;tO (18 72). 76 and 281 . See 800 J . Bouesineaq.
Comptu Rmd.... Acad . Sri. Pa,.i. , I 66 .nd 167 ( 1918), fOl_\'eral articleadealing ..ith the
theory of T~ . up8rimenLl.
: C. 0\. Coulomb, .Him. Mallo. d Ploy 7 (1773). 343.
20
[11.2
Most of th e various yield criteria that have been suggested for metals
are now only of historic inte rest , since th ey conflict with later expertmenta in predi cting that a hydrostatic stress alway, influences yielding .
Th e two simplest which do not have this fau lt are th e crite rion of Treece,
just described , and th e criterion due to von Misest (1913 ). Von Mises
suggested th at yielding occurred when J; reached a criti cal valu e, or , in
oth er words, that th e function/in (4) did Dot involve J;. H is criterion
can be written in the alternative forms
2J'.1
= 0'1'1+ 0'1"+"
aJ =
2'-'
e-, }
(al-0'1)1+(O'I - O'a)I+(O',-O'1)1 = 6.1:1.
(O'z -0'..)I+(a..-0'.)I+(O"- O'.:I') 1+6(~+ "'" + ~IY) = 6kl
or
or
"
O'(J O'lJ
(9)
k is a parameter depending on t he amount of pre-strain. A physieal interpretation of von !-lises' la w was suggested by Henckyt (1924). who
t R.
t H.
H . 2]
TH E CR I T E R I ON OF YI ELD IN G
21
" The yield criterion of von Mlsee halt been shown to be in excellent
F OUNDA.T I O NS O F TH E THE ORY
[II. 2
agreement with experim ent for many d uctile metals, for example coppe r,
nickel, alu minium, iro n, cold-worked mild steel, medium carbon and
alloy steele. The influence of the intermedi ate principal stress on yield ing , an d the correepcndlng failure of Tresca' e criterion. was first clearly
shown in the work of Lode] (1925), who stressed. tubes of iron, copper ,
-4
-,
2
CoM'"
.r
X Al umi nium
o MIld Stul
s:
v
Flo. 4. E zperimentaJ. re.oul~ o( T.ykwand QuinDey from com bined toraion and
ten.sion t.esu, Mch met&! being workhardened to the II&me . tate for all teeta.
The Mu.e. Ia. M o"+3r' _ yo. _ hile t he T reeeala_ M r' + ",~_ }"t, ...here
- ten&ile au-, T _ shear -u-. y _ ~ yield -U-.
and nickel, under combined tension and internal press ure. The subata ntial accuracy of t he Mises law was afterwards demonstrated by the
work of Taylor a nd Quinney: (1931), Leeeelle and MacGregor (1940),
and Da visll(1945). Asan example, t he res ults of Taylor a nd Quinney a re
given in Fig. 4. Bet ter ag reement could occasionally be obtained by
adding a small correc tion te rm in J;, but in view of other d ifferences
between the ideal plastic body and a real metal , it would hardly be worthwhile in practical applications.
Fo r the up per yield-point of annea led mild stee l Tresca 'slaw appea rs
t W . Lode. Zei~. Il"'l' M alA. 1J ed . 5 ( 192.5 ). 142 ; Zeit.. Phy . 36 (1926). 913; For.
d .. " g.JatWiten flu Vereinu de1lUcher l1ige" ~re , 303 (l921 ).
: G. r . Taylor and H . Quinn ey. Phil. Tra .... Hoy. S oc. A, l 30 ( 1931), 323 .
I J . M. t - II. and C. W. M~nlgQr. Jov", . FroMli" 1_. 130 11&40}, 163.
E . A. Da vy , T ro.... A..... Soc . ltd . E"9. 61 ( 19401, 61' ; 65 1I Df03 ). A-181. See aJ.o
Miller and Edward8,Jov",. ..4 .... Pelr. 1_ . ( 1939). 483 ; )Iaria. and 8 tanley. JotInIo. A ....
Jr eld. Soc., Weld. Ru. S ..ppl. 19 (l9401. 1'8.
I1. 2J
"
to fit the data better than Mlsee', However, the sit uation is confused
by t he sensitivity of the up per yield-point to the condi tions of testing,
for exa mple. eccentricity of loading, non -uniformity of the specimen,
stress concentration in t he fillets. Morriso n,t in particular, has ad vocated cau tion in accepti ng many of the early obeervet lona on mild steel
contained in t he work of Guestt (1900), Scoble (1906), Seely an d
Putnamll (1919), and Roe an d Ei chingert t (1926). In very careful
experiments with annealed mild stee l Morriso n hee found that the
crite rion of yielding a ppears to vary with the absolute size of t he specimen . It has been suggested by Cook,U an d by Cook and R obertson,
that t he yield stress in mild stee l is somewhat higher when the stress
distribution is not uniform (as in bending, or in a tube ex panded by
pressure). This may be true for metals in general, since t here are theoreti cal reasons for supposing th at a certain minimum volume of plastic
mate rial has to be produ ced before slip can be initiated.
Several attemptalill hav e been made to deriv e t he yield criterion of a
polycrys tal from the observed behaviour of a face-centred cubic single
crystal. No rea lly sa t isfactory t heory, taking account of the mutu al
constraints between t he grains, has yet been proposed .
3. Strain -hardening
(i) Deptndenu of tM gidd locus on llu .strain-/aulory. The yield locus
for a given state of t he metal must depend in some complicated way an
the whole of the previous Pf0CE'88 of plastic deformation since the last
annealing . I t will be supposed that the crystals remain randomly
oriented. 80 that Isotro py is preserved (t he anisotropy developed during
cold work is usually negligible 80 long as t he tota1strain is not too large,
t J . L. M. Morri llOn. Proc. I ..... Met:1t. . E"". 141 '19"') 193 ' _
144, 33.
.."
.
a1lIO di8cuuion in
: J . J . GUl"8t. Phil. M ag. ~ (1 900). GO ; _ . howe ver . Oueet.', rnoet rece nt ooneluaiolUl:
p'oc. 1M . A"lo. Eng. 35 ( 1940). 33.
I W. A. Seu ble. Phil. M ag. 11 ( 190&1. 633.
II . ' . B . Seely and W . J . P utnam . U" iv . I UirwU E"9. Ezp. B uU. 8e riell 116. ( 1919 ).
M. Ros lLJId A. Eichin~r , P eee. 2nd IN . COTIfI. App. M Wi . ZUrich 1192S). 315. See
~80 W. M880n, P roc. 1Mt . Mm . E ng. ' (1909 ),1206 ; A. J . Beeker. Ulliv. Illi~ E"g.
pt . Bull. 85 !l 916). 8
/.:: G. Conk. E"ui"u""g. IU (1931). 343; Phil. Tra .... R oy. Soc. A, 13 0 (193 1). 103 ;
rO('. Roy. Soc . A. 137 ( 1032). 660 ; T ro-... E nginur. and Shipbuikkr. in Sroda lld 8 1
(19371.371.
tt
pit G. Conk .and A. Roberteon , "9'""""9, 91 ( 1911). 183 ; A. Roberteon and G. Cook.
~ ". Roy. /joc_ A. 88 11913), 462. See ..1.0 D. Mork ovin and O. Sidebotham. V"i" .
IU,,,o... E..,. E~. B ldl., 8er... 372. (1947 ); J . A. Pope, E ngil\UP'i"l1. 1M (194'). 2840.
III O. &chs. Ze'~. Yer. dnd. I"g., 71 (1928 ). , 3-4 ; H . L. eo. and D . O . Sa pwitb. Proc.
PA_ . Soc. 9 (1931).1 34 ; U. Deblingw. Znu. M dall h...u. 35 (1943). 182 ; N. K .Snitlw,
Jo,. r" . T et:lI. P" lI" IR ..... i lJfl ). 18 (1948 ). " ' .
[11. 3
In searching for
a mathematical formulation of st rain-hardening we shall introduce a
broad simplification at th e outset. It is eseu med th a t no mat te r by what
st rai n -path a given stress state is reached the final yi eld locus is t he Mme.
Thi s can not be true of a. real metal since the yield locus depends on the
distribution of microscopic inte rn al stresses, and these in t um depe nd
on the strain -history. The latent hardening of non-active glide -planes
in &. single crystal suggests that th e yield locus would be ,. funct ion only
of th e final ap plied stress were it not for additional internel et reesee induced du ring t he previous deforma tion by t he non-uniform orientation
of t he crystal greine. It appears probable, however, that since &. mild
annealing is kno wn to remove the additional internal st resses following a
simple etrain-peth and responsible for the Bau schinger effect , it should
also remove t hese remaining after a complex path. Since we are disregarding th e Beuschinge r effect we must, for consistency, postulate
that th e yield locus for th e ideal body is uniquely dete rmined by t he final
plaatic state of stress . Th e yield loci for t wo stares, reac hed by different
etrein-pethe, then either do not have any point in common, or are entirely
coincident so that t he stares are identical ee regards pleeti c yielding.
Th ere are, of course, man y strain-paths whieh prod uce a given fina l state
of hardening, defined, say, by th e va lue of t he yield steese in te nsion.
For all of t hese t he yield loci are identical, t he yield stresses being eq ual
under any other etresa system. Otherwise expressed , th ere are only a
single infinity of distinct stares, and all can be obtained by , for exa mple,
different a mounts of pure te nsion.
D uring continued deformation th e shape of th e yield locus may change,
a nd it should not be tac itly assumed th at it merely increases in sizeol
Th us, in a n experimental investigation of th e yield crite rion, it would be
wrong to assume th e same relation to be defined by data from combined
etre eeing after different amounts of pre -strain in te nsion, the data being
repr esented non-dimensionally in terms of th e te nsile yield st ress.
Possible changes in sha pe of the yield locus ha ve not been investigated
in detail. Th e experimental data for mild steel, reviewed in th e last
section, suggests that th e yield locus changes over from a hexagon to a
circle with progressive cold-work. t However, for other steele, and for
copper and aluminium , von Miscs' crite rion appears to fit th e da ta
eq ually wcll no matter what th e degree of pre-strain. The loci are then
always circles, expa nding steadily d uring continued loading. This is
t A po.ibJe el[pl&nation h.. befm euggtMrtad b y O. I . Tay lor, PrJ. ROV Soc. A, If!
(lliI3.). I.
.
U . 31
S T R AI N . H A R DEN I N G
26
l[ 8
8 ]
(10)
where dUe (I . 1,2,3) is the vector representing th e incremental displacement of a point whose current position-vector is Xc referred to
Cartesian coordlnstee fix-ed in th e element. A part of this strain is
recoverable on removing t he added stress ckrCJ' Th is is the elastic cornponent of the strain, defined by
'
do;}
to do
d fjJ
= 20 + (1-2v)ojJ E'
(II)
t G . I . T aylor, P r. ROIl. Soc. A , I C5 ( lliI3.), 362 end 388, hu ehcwn that the parabolic
type of etl'ellll.et ra in c urve of a {.e.e. c ryltal in th Nl' can be obtained from m it.&bJe
AIIIlump t iomo a bo ut the dietribution or dialocatiomo. In la ter pape" , Joym.lu . MeltW .
6;1 (1938), 307. IUld Ti_fImko ..c""i_.arv Vol.. m~ . p. 21s (Macmillan, N ew Y ork.
1Il3s), he haa ealculated the t.en.iJe . u -.ltrain eurve o f po lY0ryNll ine a1wniniwo in
t.emu of the ebeeeved l hear.ha rd en ing of a lingle oryltal. While the agreement with the
JDNlIured cun'e ia good, the... iIIlittleevidenoe .. to the validi ty o r indfvidualAMUlDptiomo.
for .example oonoeming operat ive glid e.ptane. and the m utual eomotraintl between
gr &lmo. MOlIt da t.a eoncernin8: the macr'l*lOpio behavio u r o r gn.m. in an aggregat.e
re later. to Iwf_ p henomena. to which Taylor', t heo ry ill not ~t to apply. An
e Xl.en4ion of the theory to gen er.l
or .ue. baa no t y&t been made. See a1Io
A. K OchendOrfet', MfJIGlJjorMA"rog,:I (lliI"). 173.
Ita_
You ng's mod ulus, modulus of shear, and P oisson's ratio, respectively.
T he external work dW per unit volume done on th e element d uring t he
stra in d~(j is Q'(Jtk(J, of which a part d JY. = (J'ldf~ is recoverable elastic
energy . The re mainder is caned t he plastic work per unit volume, an d
il'l. therefore, by definition
dJt;, =
(12)
n;. =
Of}
d(~,
( I3)
a=
27
STRA IN .HARDEN IN G
1I.3J
wt" -
(1-2')d
E
a, )
(15)
,u'0 = d'
do:' '
tu+
20
and
dll'
= of}
(d'
(0-
~:')
20
'(d'
= a'J
tjJ-
~:')
20 .
kn"non. It is not clear when th e relation (14) was first introduced into
t he literature, but Taylor a nd Quinney: (19 3 1), and Schmidt (1932),
proposed a hypothesis to which (14) reduces when the elastic strainincrement can be neglected. Thi s is permissible except where the stresses
are changing very rapidly with increasing strain, for example where t he
rate of work-hardening is of order E. The function F can be determined
from the stress-strain curve of a cylind rical rod in tension (until neckin g
intervenes). a is t hen just the applied te nsile stress a, while
W. ~ o(~- ; )=
f"ldl_;i
where I is th e current length of the rod, and 10 its initial length. 'Ibue
0 =
I,
..t w. E . Aik ins, Jou m . lowe. Mdah, 13 (19 20 ), 38 1; D . H anllOn and M. A . Wheeler,
Ibld . ~ (19311, 229. U.ua.lly t he d ensity fI...,t r i_, as holM and crllCk. are c10800, and
aft.lrvards (al ia. Decreuell o ( 1_ thlUl 0 :1 per cent. were observed eve n aft.et 90 pet
ce nt . ""<iuction by ro lling . The .t-nee o( any polIiti ve ch a nge (or . ing l.. cry....Ia Wl!"gesta
that the d ec rellllMl i.a e au-t by th e ' ope ning.u p ' of pin bo undatiN .., dwo<:ationa
lI<lCumulate t .... ee. TI>e cxperimentli.l di mr u ltieol are .., grMt t h a t probably only the
di~tion of t he change, and not ita magnitude, i. Ilignificant .
: O . I . Tay lor and H . Quinney, PAil. TNf\6. R"1I. S:. A, n O ( ID31). 323.
S R. 8chmid t, l.,.m.,.,dre!liv, 3 (lD3:.? ), 216 .
"
If a is plotted against In(l/l. )-a/E, t he argu ment of F is sim ply the area
[II. 3
d (J Pt-:;)
JS
..
JI
./
-!.. ZS
!it
.s
/'
, 1
-'
, U
..
,~ "
..
S
.~
'"
.......-
S TRA IN . H AR D EN I N G
Ttn~ 1(IfI
'II
ilrt'''
Jl
ComprtSSGl
ZS
Jl
JS
In t>C'9"t (CO"'P<1SSO(W'l)
where k o and h a re t he initial and current heigh ts. It is evident t hat the
pre ssure p is the same fun ction of lo(ho/h) &8 u is of In(lllo)' In other
words, (14) im plies t hat the te nsile and com pressive stress-st rai n curves
coincide when true stress is plotted against t he so-called logarithmic
strain, but not when plot ted aga inst the con ventiona l or engineering
strains (1- 10) /10 , (lao-la}/la o More generally, it is implied that the curvea
coincide when t1 and p are plotted against t he sa me functions of 1110 and
lao/la, respectively ; for examp le, fractional reduct ion in area (I-loll) in
tension and fractional red uction in height (I -lal h.) in compression. 'I"hU
hee been found to be t rue in loading from t he annealed state (thUl
avoiding any Bauac hinger effect) provided t he eompreeeion plates are
!g
V
S
U. lI]
w.
F OUNDATIONS OF TH E T H E OR Y
30
(11. 3
thesis, less natural than (14) but used more frequently, relates ii to ..
certain measure of the total plastic deformation. A quantity lEI'. known
as the generalized or equivalent plastic strain-incre ment . is defined by
the eq uation
;r.. ~
(16)
By comparison ..... ith the definition of ii in (14) it will be seen that, apart
from a numerical factor, fI;p is the sam e invariant function of the compon ents of the plastic strain-increment tensor &8 a is of the compo nents
of the deviatori c stress ten sor (remembering that df7J = dflj. since
dfr. = 0). The equivalent st rain (kP, integrated over the strain-path,
t hen provides a meas ure of the plastic distortion. It is assumed t ha t
"
ST R A. I N . H A. R D E N I N G
II . 31
next section that for many metals t he dependence of the state of stress on
t he strain-path is such that the two hy potheses atwayslead to approximate ly t he sa me results . In fact , Schmidt's data (ment ioned previously)
agrees equa lly well. within experimental error, with both (11) and (14).
It is worth noting t hat an explicit expression for the integral in (11)
can also be obtained when the principal ax es of successive atrain-increments do not rotate relatively to the element , and, further, when the
components of any strain-increment bear constant ratios to one another.
It is supposed, too . that elastic strain-increments can be neglected, so
that ilfp and ilf are identical. Let dEl ' dE" and dE" be the principa l com ponents of an increment of stra in. Since there is no change of volume,
we may write
dEl:dE. :dE, = J : a: : -(l + a:),
where a: is constant throughout the strain-path. Then
n.
ilf
2
../3 (I + a:+ c.')1 dEl
r:
dEl =
~ (dUl) _ d(~)
& 1
Hence
dEl =
04
EI '
say.
and
1+ Ou l '
In(l+ ~J = In(~J =
Therefore
" and
Oxt
= 1 :01 : - (1 + 01:);
f iI; =
../1 (Ef+EI+(~ )1 =
(c = In(: ;):
(18)
say.
(19)
i.
i may be thought of lUI an equivalent total strain, being the same functi on
32
[11.3
of the r, a.s l( is of the dr,. The quantities defined in (18) are evidently
analogous to t he logarithmic strain In(l jl . ) a1ready defined for simple
tension, but modified to take account of possibl e non-uniformity of the
deformation. If there is a reversal of t he strain-pat h (CI retaining t he
same va lue) the integration must be restarted from the new origin, so
t hat iIf is always taken positive. It sho uld also be care fully noted that,
alt houg h quantities dr, can always be formed, eve n where t he prin cipal
axes rotate relatively to the element , they cannot generally be evaluated
explicitly, a.s in (18), nor d o t hey possess any geomet rical significance.
If, then , only etrain-pe t hs of this special type are considered, and if
eleeric et rain-inerementa are neglected, (17) is equiva lent to
a ~ H ('),
(20)
no. a od
Mau, ialprUj..,upa...uw, ZUrich. 1929 ; Proe. 3", I ,.,. Cong. App. Mrch., Stoc kholm, 3
( 1930) , 26" .
t The reader ill warned t ha.t some .riters have applied (20 ) in c_ wheee t he principfll
aXeII rotate relatively to the element (e.g. torsion ), in conjunction with dellnitbna 0
t he whi ch lead to l"lllIulta at va rian ce wit h (17): 1IllII, for n ample, A. Na.dai . Jovm. App.
PI'/I" S ( 1937) . 206 : E . A. Davis. ibid. 213. Such a p rocedure i.. legit im a te mathemati.
cally, bu t iLl eelevenee for the deformation o f me tab de pend.. on iLl physical approp riateand agreement with ex pe rim en t. At p reeen t t he re
t o be no general theory
worth considering Man a lte rnat ive t o ( H) or (17 ).
I The mUd steel was ennea led, end 80 bet ter agt"e(lIllent co uld not be oxpected it the
yie ld loolU Vu16l1 from a hexago o to a circle.
11 E . A . Dav ill. T raM . Am. S oc. M u ll . Eng . 65 ( 1943 ). A- 187: J OUrrl .'11'1'. M idi . 11
( 1945), A- I3. Boo allo W . T . L&nkford .J. R . Low , lUld M. Oensamer, TraM . Am. I"".
Mi". Md. Eng . 171 (lD"7). 6'74,; D. M. Cunn ingham, E . O. ThumMn. an<l J . E . Dom.
P roc. Am. Soc. Tell. MoI. 7 (1 947). 546. This paper atao indud~ anaceount or a~ experi .
rnent in which the It rMa.ra t iOll ..e re varied, namely by upand1llj' a t ube UI'Ider In ternal
preMUnl while applying a cou tant axial tenaion. I n thia co nn- ilion - a110 H . J,;. nav"
and E . R. Parker,
A PI' . Medt. . 15 (I9'S). 20 1 ; W. R . o-aood. ibid . 69 (194'7).
A- I.7: 8 . J . Fraenkel. ibid . 15 ( lgU), I g3.
f,
n_
_rna
J"""".
11. 31
STRA IN HA R DE N ING
33
oOlj
. oj .
oJ 3
The Condition t ha t drr; is zero for a neutral cha nge of stress is satisfied
by assum ing that
drP = G d;
lj
Ii 'J '
where Gtl is a symmetric te nsor. The Glj are supposed to be func tions of
the stress components a nd poeeibly ofthe previ ous strain-history, bu t not
t o . H . Handelman. C. C. Lin, and W . Praaw, Q.... rt.
III. '
OiJ =h~,
at7(J
d.~ ~ h ~df,
(22
at7fJ
which were a ppare ntl y first used by Melant in 1938. With th e definit ions
of J; a nd J; in (5), equation (22) may be written
n .4.]
atrain-path. Since th is locus must naturally pass th rough th e new stresspoint , it follows t hat g and h cannot both be chosen arbitra rily but mus t
satisfy a certain necessary condition. This we now proceed to find .
The opposite standpoint may, of course, equally well be taken : the rela ti ons between strain-increment, stress, and etreee-Increment, may be
laid down arbi trarily, and t he way in which t he paramete r C varies with
the stress- and st rain -history will then be Implied.
(ii) GeonutriaJl rtpru entalion 0/ the pkutie 8train-incrt ment. Sufficient
generality is retained if (22) is specialized further by ass uming that t he
ratios of t he plastic strain components depend only on th e rati os of th e
reduced stress components and not on their abso lute magnit udes. In
ot her words, states of stress specified by the same value of po, applied to
the element after varying amounts of pre -strain, elweye produce the
same ratios of the incremental plast ic strain components. Th is has
usually been tacit ly ass umed in expe rimental work ;t it is probable only
80 long as the element rema ins isot ropio and deforms by the same basic
atomic processes. g can then be taken to be a homogeneous fun ction of
the stress components, and independent of t he st rain- history. The
surface g = constant in (at, aa, (1, ) space is a cylinder of uniform section,
cutting the plane n orthogonally in some curve r. Now th e plast ic
strain-increment can also be rep resented in t he same space by a free
vector 20 (df, dff , dt": ), where the factor 20 is introduced to obtain th e
dimensions of stress. Th is vector lies in n since dff + dff + dff = 0_
The equations (22) may t hen be interpreted as stating t hat the vecto r
representing th e plastic strain-increment. is parallel to th e normal to r
at the point of intersection with th e stress vecto r (we must obv iously
suppose that r ill met only once by any radius from th e origin). Now,
with a single crystal, t he reversal of the sign of th e applied stress doee not
change the opera tive glide-planes but only t he sense of t he respective
&hears ; hence th e st ra in-increment is cha nged only in sign. This would
also be true of a polycrystal were it not for t hose internal stresses pro
duced by the previous st ra ining as a result of th e differe ntial crystal
orientations. Since we are neglecting t he effects of th ese, th e slope of
the curve I' must be th e same at opposite ends of a diameter. Hence,
th e function g must be a n even function of th e at reeeee, and th erefore
of J;. Furthermore, if th e material is isotropic, th e effect of interchanging at and (11 is merely to interchange d~1 and dfa; thus, r is
eymmetricel with respe ct to th e three axes. I t follows th at r must ,
t See, bowevlll', 8 . J . Fraenkel.Jou..... App. M edi.15 (I H 8).I Il3.
in v..no\l8 . \ate. o ( h&rde nm, (or _ given ,. .
Lode,aI.o.~W"ltd
(11. 4
Fig. 2.
Fi g. 6 shows a t ypi cal 30 seg ment of Jl , cut off by th e stress vectors
p. = 0 and p. = -1. The ab solute size of I' is, of course , immate ria l.
The plastic strain-incre ment vector RQ' is parallel to th e normal at t he
point R where the stress vecto r OP meets r (RQ ' is a free vector and
can be placed a ny where in the plane) . If if; denotes th e angle between
J.I -I
1I.4J
"
Ideally, a thin tube t wisted by couples should therefore not change ita
length ; if a cha nge is obser ved it is d ue either to anisotropy resulting
from a prefer red orientation , or to inte rnal stresses, or to a combination
of both. If the tubc is isotropic the sense of t he length change is the same
if th e to rque is re versed ; if the sens e or relative ma.gnitude is altered, the
tube mu st be anisotrop ic. Returning to the curve J' , it follows, for
reaso ns of contin uity, t hat it mu st cut orthogonally the radii bounding
the 30 segments. Apart from this, I' may conceivably be of any shape
provid ed that the normals at two points in the same segment are not
parallel, for reasons of uniqueness. The in crem ent of plastic work per
unit volum e may also be found in terms of geometrical quantities:
0:
OP.RQ'
2G
But
' d'
= 0"1'd ef + a2'd'+
t"1 a3
t"a =
IOPI = ';(a~2 + a~t+a;l ) = "'i s,
and
IRQ' I ~ 2G"(d.f'+d.f'+d.f')
2Gv! a., .
dW.p
p."'D
(J
-'V
df- df
(23)
'
The d efinition of v is ana logous to (6) for p-, and was also introduced by
Lod e. A plastic stra in-increment is complet ely specified when v is given
(for the pre sent di scussion we d o not need to know the directions of the
common principal ax es of the stress and plastic eteain-Incrernent'tensors).
In pure tension (/L = -1) it follows from symmetry t ha t v = - 1 for an
isotropic elemen t . For the ideal body t he strain cor responding to a pu re
shear stress (". = 0) must be a pure shear st rai n (v = 0). Thi s may be
shown by the following arg ument. Suppose that the st rain (dt"l' dt" t , dt"a)
corresponds to the shea r stress (a, - a, O). If, as w e ass ume, the direct ional effects of intemel atressea are negligible, the re verse of this stress,
namely (-(7, a, 0), pro du ces th e st rain (- dt"! , - dt"t , -dt",). Bu t t he
stress ( - (7, a, 0) is also obtaina ble from (a, -a, 0) by inte rcha nging the
axes, and hence, in an isotropic mate rial , produces the stra in
(dt"t, df l' d f a)
Thus ( - dt"I' - dft, - d f a) is equ iva lent to (dt" t, dt"l' dt"a ); th is is only
possible if dt"l = - d t"t and df a = 0 , that is, if t he strai n is a pu re eheer.t
t It Bhould be noted that it iB only necesaa ry to ......ume that the .....' e rea l of the et rM'
re venefl t he .trai n wh en the st rese il a pure Bhea r. Thua g noed not be
it i. l ufRcicn t if iJg/aJ; is ze ro ",hen
O.
J; _
IBn
Hence
dJfp
= iii1fPcos(ifJ- 8).
(24)
(25)
!2.... (akldt".l',),
oall
(II. ..
d.~ ~ ~ !J... df
from experimental data or arbit rarily prescribed. The equat ions (27)
a re a complete statement of plastic behavi our during cont inued loading.
If the stress-increment is such that dJ < 0 t he element unloads, and t he
change of strain is no longer governed by (27) but by th e elastic equations
(11). Further plastic deformation does not occur until the stress- point
again liea on t he yield locus defined. by t he st ress fro m which unloading
began.
- i!
= - ,"
Uz
UN
= -.~ = _I'~
O.
T N'
_~ =~ ,
T,z.
T.
or , more compactly, as
dlE jJ = OIJd.\,
(28)
where d.\ is a scalar factor of proportlonelity.t] Since Levy and von
n. til
Mises used the tota l st rain-incre ment, and not the pleatic atrain-increment, th e equations are strictly appli cable only to a fictitious material
in which th e eleenc st rains are zero. Accordingly Young's modulus
must be regarded as infinitely large, th e ma terial rema ining rigid when
unloaded. The extension of th e Le vy -Mleee equatio ns to allow for th e
eleetlc component of th e strain was carried out by Prandtlt (1924) for
th e plane pro blem, and in complete genera lity by Reu88t (1930). ReUS8
a.ssumed that
dlElj = alJ tU.
(29)
I t is evident that these equations are equivalent to t he combined statements that t he principal axes of stress and plastic strain -Increment are
coincident, and that p. = v. Regarded from the geometrical representation of Fig. 6, this means that RQ' is parallel to O P . The curve r is
then & circle, and g = J~ , tJg/Ba u = ai.J. E quations (27) become
d. Ii -- 2J
a"df
' F"
"u/2,.
. h/ = F
wlt
2q1 F'
F' =
'
a=
J( 3J~ ) , 80
dii
a 'J:io
a = H (J)
ilf" .
d(C
30iJ
ikp = 2a'
B . d e Saint.Ven ant. Comp/t" Rend" . A cad. Sci . PlIrw , 70 (1870 ), 473 ; J ourn. Mo41o .
p u ru tl IIpp . 16 ( 1871), 308 ; Crnnptu R tndUoJ Acad. Sci. Par.... 7' ( 1872) . 1009 an d 1083.
t In a pplieation. to particular probl em . Sai n t .Ve nant used T rollCa'. yie ld eriterio n
a nd euppoeed the work -ha rd ening to be zero.
f M . U v y . Comptu R t nd UoJ Acad. Sci . PlI rU.70 ( IS70), 1323 ; Journ . M w. . pt.lru II
IIpp. t6 (ISH ). 369. See I . Todh unter and K . Peerson, A H ~ oj IA. Eltul~ lind
Slrmgeh oj Motffl4h (Ca mb ridge, IS93). vel. ii. part i. 16.5 et IItIq. for a crit ica l re vill....
of t he work of Saint-Venant and Uvy.
II R . von Mieo:-A. Otlll in.ger NatAridlltn. maIA.pAy . K laIIH (19 13), .582.
tt The l'Noder ahoul d gu.ard agairult a faei lfl ana logy " 'ith thfl eq....a tiona for a Ne ....to nian
vitolou. ftuid: i l/ _
whe re the vi llCOIIit y ,. i. a material e<mItant ~ and t he rate of
train il d il"fOC'l tly linltNt " 'ilh t be epplled lIt~. Although (2S) can be :"",Itt-: n ... i ll _ A'..~
the l"fllationa bet" 'een .ttNI and .trai n a re .till indepcmd. nt of tunll tmee t hfly ano
39
(31)
e =
2iiH'
20
(d
) }
a~ 0 ,
(1- 2.) s :
(32)
U-U~ , .
F O U N D AT IO S S OF THE T HE ORY
[II. $
2Y ( .
= <1i j cU. ;
<1;jO';j = 2ylj3 = 2k l ,
On combin ing this wit h the elastic component of the strain, we obtai
eq uations originally due to Reu88:
df 'lj = a'j' d' dl'1tj
2G '
"'+
II. ' J
.,
<) 1-1
d' _
= . '" .
(33
I'1j jO'ij
f"a -
(34)
20 '
Only two of these are independent, since t heir sum is identically zero. It
should be carefully noted that dO'i (i = 1, 2, 3), defined in the first place
&8 the nonnal components of the stress-increment referred to axes of
:eference fixed in t he element , are also in t his special case eq ual to t he
l~crements d(O',) of the principa l etresa components. (When the principel axes rotate, it is not generally true, of course . t hat th e principal
components of the st ress-increme nt are equal to t he increments of the
principal components of eteeee.) As th ere are on ly two non-vani shing
t
VariOU8 go,ometrieal repreeenta.tiona have t-n. peopoeed Cor certain .pecia1 l ta.*
~r.t~ : CO~ plane I tI'&in by L. Prandtl. Pn:oe . 1.1,." CO'ftg. App. Mu4 . Do.lIft . (l92f l. 43 ;
Ie: koruon by A. Nadai. Z nu. <mg. MalA . M u4 . 3 ( lg231. 4f 2. and Proc. l .... Mu4. E,.,.
I 7 1I~7 1. 121; COl' com bined tomon and tenaion by W. Pnce~, J _",. JtP1/. Pll/I. U
( ~" I,~. TIle ClOnIt.nIetion ~bed ben! ia due to R . HiU, DiHtrf,cII
p . Sf (Cam.
bridge I':'SJ. M.ued by Miniatry or Supply. AnDUDent ~h E-tablW.
" .. Survey
I' .... It IS. genwali.&etioa oCone due to A. ReuM. Ln.... . . ,. MOlA. Md. 10 (lg30I, 26t.
(II. &
independ ent relations, t he de viatoric stresses and strains can be repre eented in a plane diagram . When t he prin cipal axes of stress and streeeincrement are not coincident , a five-dimensional space would normally
be requ ired , al th ough th e relat ions between th e dress a nd th e plastic
st rain-incremen t, or between th e stress-increment and th e elastic st rainincrement , can still be 6t parak ly represented in two dimensions.
In Fig. 1 OP and OQ represent t he curre nt deviatoric stress a nd strain
in t he plane n, t he coordi nates of Q being 2Gf j (i = 1, 2, 3), where f{
... ... ,
p'
,
,
0:
\ 0,
Stram path
o
Flc . 1. R<!'Jl~nt&tion o r t M R eUMNola t ion Bfor 6
plutie ele m"nt of wo rk ha rd en ing metaJ. when the
principal alt~ of fl t l'f:'Slll a re fixed in t he ele ment .
~~ vi R Q'.
II. I]
"
FOUN DATION S O F T HE TH E O R Y
[II. 6
-,
~ -IO
-- 2
,.
:/
1/
1/
./
Cop~r
x Alummlum
-z
-8
.. M lld l~titl
-10
'6
Lodet in 1929, with tubes machined from solid bars to minimize anisotropy, supported this view. The deviation was confirmed in 1931 by the
classical experiments of Taylor and Quinney,: who stressed tu bes of
aluminium, copper , and pre-strained mild steel in combined tension and
torsion. The axia l load was held constant while t he torque was increased,
so th at t he stress ratios were not constant. The degree of anisot ropy was
kept within allowed limits by obser vati ons of t he change in internal
volume of t he t ubes during pure tension ; this should be zero for a truly
isotropic tu be (elastic strains being neglected). The results of Taylor
and Quinney are reproduced in Fig. 8. Pragerfound that the observations can be app roxima tely fitted by ta king
g(J;, J ;) =
11.6]
J;(1-0'13 ~t:)
[II. 5
It is assumed that the strains are so small that their squa res ca n be
neglected, the te nsor of tot al slrain being defined as in elas ticity by the
equation
(a-.'+-'
au~
,
1
f'J = -
2 &xi
'"~ (Ht~)a", }
fjj
(1-2.)
(7u.
where If> is a scala r qua ntity . essentially positive during continued loadin
and zero during unloading. E qu ations of th is ty pe were p reviously u
by N&dait in the special problem of torsion. The plastic component 0
the stra in is evidently
flj = 4>aij "
(37
As &. hypothesis of'work -herdenl ng ~ is normally taken to be a functic
of u; t his is clearly equiva lent to the assumption t hat a is a given funcno
of i P. If a is constant and t he hardening zero (as in Hen cky 's origina
form ulat ion ), ~ is an unspeci fied proportionality factor, an alogous to cD.
(33). According to (37). t he components of total plasti c st ra in are propor
t ional to the corres pondi ng deviatoric stress components, whereas in th
Reuss equatio ns (29) the components of the increment of plas tic stra in a
proportional to th e devietoric st ress componente .f Again, in the Henck
equa t ions t he fina l state of strai n is determined by the final state of st
while in the Reuss equations there is no suc h unique correspo ndence. I
general the tw o systems of eq uations lead to d iffere nt conclusions .
The Reuss and H encky t heories ca n be directly contrasted by mea ns
of the previ ous geo metrical representation , if we suppose for this purpo
that t he principal stress ax es are fixed in d irecti on . E quation (36) state
that the strain-point Q lies on the prolongation of t he st ress vecto r 0 .
Thus, accord ing to Hencky'a equations, as Q describes Rome strain-pet
the stress vector rotates so that it is d irected towards Q at eve ry stage.
According to t he Reuss equations, on thc ot her hand , t his happens onlyj
when t he etreln-path is a st ra ight line th rough the origin, that is, whe
t A. N.d.i. Zfit . " ng.\lut" .1Itch . J
"
the stress and strain ra tios are held constant. t AnalyticaUy, if u fJ "'" Cufj'
where
is conetent and C is a monotonically increeei ng parameter. we
have from the Reuss equationa:
crt
ax
where u, is th e total di splacement of a pa rti cle whose init ial posit ion w
Hencky's equations are
x,.
II. II]
+~~ .
The strains being small, d*fj is equal to ' tj, where this has the meaning
defined above. H ence
1) .
~ fC W\+20
J> a" = (A
"'+20
su = Ujj
u fJ'
Pr!
A. A . I1YllBhin. PriJ:ladnaia Matfmat ilra i _\ld cha n. ilro , 1t (1947), 293. See .. 1ao W .
gee, Jou.rn . App. P ity . 19 ( 1948). 640 .
~ .It is a com mon fall acy to . u ppoH t ha t . ainn t he . t ra iruo aN lBllBumed emall.itia
~:'n:"'te to rep lace ' II ~y d~.J in (3 7 ). Th ia " 'o u ld be eq u iva len t to the atatement th.t
y, .. equal to lI tz ... h lC h on ly tf\NI. o f co u rse , when 1//z ia eo natant .
See D. C. D rucke... Proc. Jet Annwol S ympal um j".. .App. M aJA., Am _ Ma t h. Roo. 1041.
aboo Sert. 3 (vi). Chap. V.
D O. II . H<<.le lman. C. C. Lin. <U W . P~r , op. en ., p . 33 .
I.
..
FOUNDATIONS OF TH E TH E ORY
[II. II
strain, rela tions have often been used in app lications where th e strains
are small,t particularly by Russian writers. Of course, when t he strains
are large t he Hencky equa tions cannot be used without mcdlficet lon.f
T hrou ghout t his book t he Re uss equa tlon swill be un iversally emplcyed
for t he sake of mathematical consistency and physical appropriateness.
7. Other theories
(i) T heory of SUYlinger . Anoth er system of etresa-atrain equations,
also establishing 8. one-one relat ion bet ween t he to ta l (small) strain and
th e current stress , has been propounded by Swainger.] In t heir simplest
form Sweingee'e equations are
. 20.;, +23(1
1)(" ')
P- E
ij - Uij .
' 11 =
fU
(1-2.)
E
U ti '
. 20+2
.;, 3(1P-1:1)(1 I) .
fjj
-(j 17;J.
The st rain ratios are therefore also constant . By comparison with (36)
it will be seen th at for th is special type of st rain-pat h Swetnger's equations are equivalent to Hencky's (with t he appropriate work -hardening
hypot hesis), and 80 also to equations (32).
t A . A. I1Y UlIhi n. Prilcladnaia Mat tmat ihl i M dd,anika , 7 (1943), 245; 8 (11144), 337:
9 (19411), 101 : 10 (1946 ), 623. Bend ing of plllte ~ a nd she lls. W . W . So kclovsky, pn.
lcladnGia Mattmat ika i .Ud :hano'.l:a.8 (1944).14 1. Bl"ndinll: of p lato md shel l... A. W inuor
and W . Prager, J ourn . A pp . M u h. 14 ( 1947), A- 281. E xpe neion of a circ ulAr hole in a
t hin pla te . A. Gleyul, ibid. 68 (1946), A- 261: 15 (19 48), 288. C'-mJ-.i circ ula r dia
phragm unde r p..-ure.
l No eiltelUlion of the theory to large .trairuo appean to ha"e bee n . u ~ted . Mall Y
de finitiolUl of finite It railU a re po lloSible ; pe rhapa the mQlllt natura l in thia conte d ill
df U, where dfu h.. t he mM.Iling of ( W ).
t K . H . SwaLllger. PAil. M ag. 36 ( 19U), 443 : 38 ( 1947), 422 : Proc. 1' 111 I..,. COJUI.
App. .\1 11., London ( 1948).
..
OT H E R THEORIE S
11. 7)
Y tanh(~')'
(38)
(Y')
(1j
.
= d17'1./+ (Yudu
I - ul) 17i}'
f
i v =
I,
(39)
.sth
t w. P r. r, Proc.
Int. C(n\IJ. A pp . M Wi ., Cambridge, 101. . . (1938 ), 234 ; Du.b
Math . J f1Vm . 9 (1942 ), 228 ; Rw . Fac . Sei . U..i".I.eaI'lbul, 5 ( 1941), 2111.
T H E P LA STI C P OTENTIAL
Ill. IJ
is
aU'
Let
o~
II I
/(o~ ) = /(o;j) =
1. The pl as ti c potential
THE fun ction V(O'u) defining the ratios of the components of the pla.stio
atrain-increment (equatio n (22) of Chap. II ) is known as th e plasti c
pote nti&1.
Now, if a polycrystalline element is strained, one of & number of
possible eyeteme of five independent glide directions muat be active '
eeeh crystal grain, conceived &S deforming uniformly. Such a glide
eyetem demands for its operation a state of stress in which the critica.
shear etreee is a ttai ned in these five directions and is not exceeded i
any others. The glide-system determines both the ratios of the oompc
Dente of the strain-i ncrement and also the ratios which the componen
of the applied stress must bear to t he critical shea r st ress. I t is likely
t here fore, t hat t here is a re lation, from a statistical ave rage ove r poesib
orientations of t he grains in a. polycrystel, between t he plastic poten tia
and t he funct ionf(ofj) defining the yield locus. I t is not yet kno wn wha
th is should be, th eoretically , for any particular metal.
It seems, however, th at the simple relat ion g = / has an especia
significance in the mathematical t heory of plasticity, for, as will be show
la ter , certain variationa l principles and uniqueness th eorems can the
be formulated. When g = / (t hat is, when the curve I' and t he yiel
locus are similar in shape), the plastic stress-st rain relations are
(I)
o OfJ
10
c.
GENERAL THEOREM S
d.r, ~ h 81 dl,
"
~a;j
= 0,
ao
l R. Hill,
the radius p. = 0 by OP and RQ'. From equ at ions (7) and (23) 0
Chapter II we have J' = - .'3tan8. ... = - -,'3 130 "'. Suppose t hat
is &. known function of 8, calculated from an experimentally determin
(Il . v) relation . If C and r are simila r curves , the angle between t he norma
to t he yield locus and th e radiu s po = 0 is equ al to.p. Th e equation 0
th e yield locus iii therefore
db=
tI d
tao(6 -"'), or r =
,I
)
TO CXP ( '
tao(O-",)
d8
(2
.9.
(1t4'J ). tu .
"
III . 21
~ull +h 0/ d/ , wherever
20
oUII
dUll
du
= 20'
d
(1- 2' )d
/ (ut/ ) = c and
(1
d/
0;
d/ ~ 0;
(3)
The function la, apart from being positi ve, is not restricted in any way ;
we also do not need to retain the limitation that / is a homogeneous
function. The components of th e st rain-increment must be derivable
from a displacement-increment du, such t hat
I(oXa(duI) +-ex,a(dull ).
df ll = - 2
(')
..
64
GENERAL THE OR E MS
[ Ill
- (O'ij) = 0,
- (00' / ) = 0,
oXI
oXJ
where Sail is the change of st ress at a fixed point. Thi s differs from t 6
change duo in a gitJtn element by th e amount
tU;,u- ooiJ
= du" Ca'i.
"",
~(dUk
Oxj
&ri
l)= aX
!....(du.t)8cu .
ark
ark
I
dUt: oX
!""(Oai/\
= dUA: !....(ila<l) = o.
ax"J
ax. aXj
since
In the linear th eory of elasticity the right -hand side of (6) is neglec
since t he change in strain is of order 1/ E x the cha nge in stress; whe
plast ic st rains are concerned . however, t he right -hand side is not n
eerily negligible if t he rate of work-ha rdening is small compared with
Suppose, now, th at (duu, duf ) and (du~ ,du; ) could be two distin
distributions of stress- and displacement-increments satisfying (3), (f
and (6), and correspo nding to th e sa me changes of surface stress
surface displacement . Consider t he integral
(II I
orl
(dut - du, )
"
where 11 is the unit outward nonn al to t he surfa ce. Now since (3), (4),
and (6) are st rict ly sati sfied only when the changes dUfl and du# are
allowed to become infinite simally small, ha ving the meaning of differentials in th e limit , th e possibility that th e dilferentiaM duu and du~ are
discontinu ous must be reckoned with . Thil is frequentl y 80, for instance,
across th e interface of the elastic and pleetic regions, since the rate of
change of t he stress with respect to th e extern al 10ads or displacements
may be different in th e two regions ; th e discontinuity in any element
is, of course, only momentary as th e element peeeee from one region to
th e ot her. In th e limit, th en, o(du~- duu)/iJ%1 becomes infinitely great at
such an interface of discontinuity , and t he interface makes a finite
contri but ion to th e volume integral in th e last equation. Provided th is
interpretation is given to th e volume integral the equation ie true
when dO'I ' etc., a re differentials. With the use of (6) we obtain finally
J(daZ-dou){d~-du)
dV
C:::} dV
(doZ-dl7o)(dut - du,}l1 dS = 0
(1)
(8)
on th e surface. At any interface 1: where t he stress gradient is dieconti nuous, th ere is a contribution to th e volume integral in (1) of the
amount
(dUt-du,)(dU:-dut)[~~]AI dt,
f (dq~-du'/) !....
III. 2]
a:,(dl7~-dl7jj)
dV,
"I
t Alternatively , one m.y take .. the ba~i. for an esamination or uniquen_ the
equation
(!ct; - 3(tlJ)(dt~ - d t j, ) d V 13et~ - 3et u)(d.. - d.. , )li ss
in eotn bination ..-i!.h (61. I n t he p roor of th~ equa.tion it m Ullt be noted that for..-na
of equ ilibrium ~ aa u ito eontinuo Ull ae..- _ di8eon t inuity in toorfaee.
se
GE NERAL T HEORE MS
111. ]
2
= (dut-dolj)(dt' -drijl
+3(du*-da)(d (*-
d)
+ 3( 1~2v) (do.-da)l,
where
a = 1 where l (a' /) = c an d dj
0:
Since
= 0 where/{aij)
<
0;
IX =
1 where /(ot,) = e an d
0:* =
0 where ! (Ui j)
< C, or
dJ = 8f
dUf/'
dJ
<
0;
0;
where / (Uf/ ) = c an d
dr =
oO(J
d/* <
O.
of da~,
ro(J
Oafj/oxk = 0;
that is, when t he stress distribution is uniform. If the mass is enti
elastic, or if the existing state of stress is such that t he elastic regi
t The te rm ia aero in the elB.Btie regi on , or whe re both d a;j and da~ produce unloadi
in the p lB.Bt ic regi on. since '" ... ",. ... O. W her e both produce loRding Coo = "'. _ I)
term ia e qua l to h (dr - df )l, wh ieh ia never negativ e (10 being _ntially polliti
Where daiJ produ cea loRding (<I = I ) and da~ unloading ("'- - 0 ), the term ia equal
h (df - -dfJ( -df) ; this ia never nege.tive s ince df ;;' O. df- 0;;; O. Where d"t; prod
unloading (<I _ 0 ) and d,,~ load ing ("'- _ 1), the term il equal to h(dr-df) dr ; t
again ia nev e r n"S ativ e since df 0;;; O. df ;;. 0,
67
C,
and df
<
0;
(9)
everywhere .
When the stress-increme nt maintains a plastic element a t the yieldpoint (dl = 0) t he associated strain- increment m ust be such t hat t he
pleetlc work is positive. Now
8/
"""
The scalar product of alJ and o//OU,j is posit ive since the vector representing o/lOU,j in t he plane Il is d irected along the outward normal to t he
yield locus. The requirement is satisfied, therefore, if
dA ;> O.
(10)
+3( 1-2"')(d
E
a' -
(1938). 116.
da.
)'
..
GENERAL THEOREM S
[III.
The first term on the right-hand side is alw ays positive or zero, while th
l&8t two to gether are positive unless dufJ = da'J" The argument continu
&8 before, with the conclus ion that the stress d istribution is unique whe
only small st ra ins are possible; t his was proved by Greenberg] for th
Reuss material, a nd by Bauerf for a material with & genera l fun ction
H owever , we CAnnot deduce, with out further in vestigation, t hat t he dis
placements are also unique. Whereas in a work-hardening mate rial t h
st rain-increment in any element is determined by t he st ress-increment
th e magni tude of t he plastic component of t he strain-increment in
non-ha rdening material is indeterminate from equations (9)
since d;\ can ha ve any posit ive value. It is not yet k nown , in gene ra l. f
what boundary conditions and existing stress states t he dieplecemen
a re unique; proofs of uniqueness can, however , be given in special
(see, (or examp le, Cha p. IX , Sect . 2 (iii)).
(iii) Pltutic-rig id material. A material is described &8 plasti c-rig'
when Young's modulus is assigned a n indefinitely large value.
elastic component of st rai n is zero in the limit (it follows th at t here
no cha nge of volume), a nd an element is t herefore rigid when et
below t he yield -point. In many problems where t he plastic st rains a
large th e stress dist rib ution calculated for a plastic-rigid materi al cloeel
a pproximates t hat for a plast ic-elastic material. Since t he solution
problems is ofte n much simpler for th e former , it is worth while
invest igate th e corresponding requirem ents (or uniqueness.
In th e first place, the uniqueness theorems ofthe previous sect ion
naturally st ill valid (or a material in which E has a very large, t hou
finite , value. If the existi ng sta te of stress is such t hat th e non-plea
material const rains the remainder, th e whole mass is rigid in th e lirrii
and there is only one distribution of stress-increments corresponding
prescribed increments of th e external loads. On th e other hand , if all
part of th e plastic region is free to deform th ere is not necessarily a uniq
solution.
When, however, increments in the surface displacements are p
scribed, we have to distinguish betwecn the behaviour of pleetlc-rigi
material and th at of plasti c-elasti c material with a finite Young'
modulus. It is helpful to refer to th e geometrical representation of etre
and strain (Chap. II , Sect . 5 (ii . Consider a plaati c-elaatfc element
which is applied a given stra in-Increment producing no change
volume. If th e element is not already plastic, or if it is caused to unl
t
III. 2J
"
;f
( II )
(12)
..
(III. 2
GENER AL TH E O R EM S
III. 3)
, -
at each point, where c spec ifies the local state of hardenin g immediately
before th e applicati on of th e incremental dieple cemente. Hence
d>' and
= (0 - 0 0) (
oJ. d>.. _
80iJ
8/
80Q
cIA).
(13)
01184 denotes
a/ (o4)/oaij
(for th e present purpose we do not need to write d>' &8 h df when t he
materi al work -hardens). Now (aij-utj)8floaij is proportiona l t o t he
scalar product of t he outward normal to t he yield locus at t he point 04'
and t he chord joining ajJ to at ' . Thi s product is obviously positive since
I . by hypothesis, is never convex to the origin. Since (u(j -oij )Ol l oafJ is
similarly posit ive, th e quantity (13) is also positiv e unless o;,j = oij'.
Hence, from (I I ), 0(J and oij can only differ at each point by a hyd rostatic stress which, for equilibrium , must be uniform .
Th e boundary condition (12) is also satisfied if th e exte rnal stresses
are given ( Ft = F't, ), or if t he norm al component of th e displacemen t and
th e resultant tangential st ress are given (since th e vecto r dll~ -d ll, lies
in th e tangent plane an d the " ector F~ -F't, is directed along th e normal,
their scalar produ ct vani shes }, Thus, in a plast ic-rigid material, there
cannot be two distinct plast ic states of stress satisfying the same boun dary conditions. On th e ot her hand, t he increments of strain are not
necessarily unique .
3. Extremum a nd variation al principles
(i) E laJtic mat erial , For thc purposes of later comparison, it is helpful
to ret race th e proofs of some well-known extremum principles in t he
t heory of elasticity. Let (oiJ, eiJ) be t he stress and strain in an elastic
mass which has been loaded from a st ress-free state by prescribed
e xte rnal st resses li e ver a part SJo' of its surface. and by prescribed
displacem ents over th e remai nder Sf " If xJ is t he initial position of an
element , the eq uations of equilibrium are
8 0/1 _
eX
0
,
"
- E
- - a.
~,,j must be derivable from a cont inuous displacement function Ill: such
that
t(1
l(&u.l:
U:c
'2
81l )
+ U:c,J
J
Let (oij, et) be any ot her dist ribution of stress and strain satisfying th e
equilibrium eq uetione, the stress-strain relations and the stress boundary
conditions, but not necessarily derivable from a disp lacement function.
Consider th e integral
(04- a(l)efJ dV
f a~1 {(o~-af/)Il()
f
ss
dV =
f (o~-a(,j)uf lJ ss
(F:-F't, )u(
8,
But
(04 -afJ)(t4 - e(J) =
and t herefore
0,
for all st resses 0fl and Oq. The equality holds if, an d only if, oq = 00'
Hence, unless Oq is equal to 0(1 a t all points,
..
[III. S
GENERAL T H E OR EM S
Rearranging this :
1 aZtZdV-
I F;u,dS > 1J
Ji', u, dS
"
~ ! f ;; u,dS -! f ;;u,dS,
s,
O'I / t'fjdV-
..
(14)
8"
"
Sin ce Fj =
IU.3]
"
- * (E *- oZ e jJ) = 0, or
aOjl
valu e when
aE *
~ = t jJ'
ClOlJ
aE'
eZ = - ,
aa.
ss,
"
ut
(uf - uf)J;
II
S,
8,
8,
(1 6)
Su
2(4oq-4o' J)dfu
.=: (doq th Z- dau df(l)-[doZ(th~ - th'J)+ th(l(dou - daZ)).
..
(III. 3
GE N E R A L T H E O RE MS
I(d '
d'
a'i ) + 3(1-2'
E
a
&
results
Since dF: = dJ; on SF, the last integral is a constant and the expression
ha.s a 8tationa ry va lue for va rying 40 when
>
8(ldaq~v -4oqd.'J)
= 0
at every point. Now, for a work-ha rdening material, it follows from
(3) tha t
3( 1 2)
40" 40"'
do'rIf
- .. 40 11 + "20 " + a o'dlf"
' J j'j =
E
ll
.
Therefore,
except when daij = tUlw Th us, unless daij = dail at every point,
1 f {daijdij) d V-
8(1
8(df' ) =
since
8,
or
I (d o1j
" - d0iJ
' l('loW"ij
~" -uu'
'-'J )+ 3(1-2')(d
= 20
E
a ' - da )'+
Hdaijdt-ij-daiJdfQ}
eo
' ~)'+
-ug
1 (du
" - daiJ' l(da "i j
= 20
nr. 3)
(16)
l!J(1
This extremum prin ciple is substantially due to Hodge and Prager for
8. work-hardening material, to Greenberg for & non-hardening Re uss
material, and to Bauer for 8. non-hardening material with a general
fun ct ionJ.t From (16) we may immediately deduce th e uniqueness of
the stress-increment distribution, already proved more directly in
Section 2 (i) and (ii).
t For both material, t h e tenn ~ ,.ero in the elas t io region , or where both dalj and d..lj
p roduce unloading in the p lastio region, einee <I .. <I- .. O. Where bo t h p roduce loading
(<1 " "- " 1). t he tenn ~ equa l to A(df- -d/)" or to zer o , reepec t ively; it i, therefore
ne ver n egati ve , Where dau p roduces loading (<I .. I ) and d "u unloading (.. - .. 0 ), the
tenn i. equal to A(dfl - 2dfdJ' ) and - 2dJ'd >.. . f'elIIl"Ctively ; bo t h are non .negati ve .moe
df ;;t- o. oi! , < O. <fA :> O. When d"lI p roducll8 unloading (.. .. OJ and
loading
(..- .. I ). t h e tenn ~ eq ua l to Adf" a nd ee rc, nwJp8O t ive ly; -.gain it ~ nonnegat ive.
t P . Hod Rf> and W. Prager , J "",m , MalA . Gild PAy . 11 (I9.8), 1; H . J . Greenbera:.
op . cit ., p . 1l8 ; F . B . Bauer. Gp . cit . p . :i8 , T he linot-n&med "mten p roved the t heo f'lllQ
_der t he reetriction that n o p.n of the p INt.i c re giQll ehould unJoed, ; I.he p rewnt proof
__ , up p lied la ter by the a ut hor ; letter to Prof. W . Pncw. 10 JIII>& 1....9.
etau
20
&"
"
a( i4ov~~) = ~vS(4o~).
Hence,
Also,
8(4oqrlf u ) = rIf'j8 (do~:).
Thus, t he condition for a 8tAtionary va lue is d. Z = tUu ; t hat is, th e increments must be th e actual ODes.
J ust &8 with a purely elastic material th ere is a second extremum
principle for distributions (da~,~v) where df~ is derivable from a dis placement dur satisfying th e bounda ry conditions but daZ is not in
equilibrium. FoUowing th e usual method, we begin with th e equation
>
(d(~-dfu)dajj
GENERA L THEOREMS
except when
dat =
(III. 3
~ I
8,
Compa ring this with (16) we observe tbat in the first principle the righ t ha nd Bide is the minimum of one funct ion of (dC74.dft), and in the second
t he maximum of an other. This theorem is eubstentially due to Green berg for .. non -hardening Reuss material, and to Bauer for a general
non -hardening material.f
(iii ) Pkuticrigid matuial . In Section 2 (iii) .. uniqueness t heorem was
proved for the consiste nt distribution of st ress under boundary condi tions eucb that the whole mass is deforming plastically . By anal ogy
with the previ ous results it is natural to expect t wo related extremum
principles pertaining to .. consiste nt state. In one we consider plastio
states (at ,dft ) euch that
sa tisfies the equations of equili bri um and
stress boundary-conditions butdfo is not derivable from a displacement ;
in the other, df u u deri vable from dur satisfying the displacement
boundary-conditions, but the distribut ion
is not in equilibrium.
In the proof of t he first principle the natural start ing-po int is the
eq uation
{(a: - ao)d fij}dV =
{( F:- ~)du,}dS.
s,
Now, in any element, the vectors representing at' and O;j lie. by hypot hesis, on the same yield locus, while dfo is parallel to the out ward
normal to t he locus at the point o~. Hence, (at- ai l) df fj is proportional
to the scalar product of the outward normal to th e yield locus at the
point a~with t he chord joining a;/ to au' ; it is therefore negative , since!
is concave to the origin. Th us,
a:
ao
unless
a~' =
a;j, and
<
80
"
8,
111.3]
(18)
So
unless a: and ao d iffer only by a uniform hydrosta tic stress. Thus, the
work done by th e actua l surface forces in t he prescribed displacements
is greeter than t hat done by t he surface forces corre sponding to a ny ot her
t H . J . Or-nbe rg. op . en., p . ~8; F . B . Bauo:or. op . ~it .. p. ~s . Th _ ~te ... p roved
t he theorem (o r boundary cond it ioTUI ,m" h t h. t nOplutlO e lement unl_led . the p~nt
proor u. d ue to the . uthor. op . eu.. p. 64.
and consider t he special case of the Reu ss material (j == a;' au). For this,
the vectors representing a;j and dfo are parallel. and 80 their scalar
produ ct a:j dfil (or afj dfij) is equal to the product of their lengt hs or
moduli . laul and jdf,j l, where
la{j l = .j(a'j a;j),
au'
<
unless
= a;'. ] t followe'[ t hat , unless
uniform hyd rostatic s t ress,
a: and
00
differ only by a
J(1.;'1Id.~ l)d V - J(F, dutldS > J(I;'l ld." lldV- s,J(F, du,ldS
- s,J(F, du,ldS.
5,
(19)
The right -hand sides of (18) and (19) are identical. I n this equation t he
quantity la;j l. specifying t he initial state of ha rdening, is to be regarded
&8 known. lfthe state of hardening is uniform ( Ia;jl = constant) and if,
furt her, t he displace ments a.re given at all points ofthe surface (S, = 0)
then (19) reduces to
t R. Hill. op . c i..., p - 69 , The IIILlM principle appli". a l80 ror the He ncky .t~_lltraiD
rela ti one whe n the IMoteri.1 u in~ompr-.iblll and no n.hal'den1ng ; _ A. H . Philippid u ,
J OUrn. App. MKh. IS (19. 8 ). 2. 1, and t he di.cu.es ion b y H . J . Gree n berg, ibid .
16 (1949). 103. Whe n an elaati c region u. preeent . t he Hencky relatione for a
nonhardening materia.l &l'8 ..-ocit.t.ed with. varit.tional principle IIUggested by A. H ..,
and Th . von Karman , Glf4lingn- Nacll ricllu .... -'1l..pA~ . K laue , (1909). 20' ; .. prool
of the Hau.Karm..-a p rin ciple under th_ ~onditione hu been given by H . J . Gree n_
berg, Brown Univenity, D ivi8ion of App . Math., RIp. A Il-84 ( IH9).
A heuristic principle of maximUIQ plutic ..... t..nc:e' ..... . ...ted by M. A . &dow.ky.
JOlt"". App. M ecA. 10 (1943) , A-e~, on t he buI. o r i"- IlUceMa in a re w inIIt.anoe. : the
~il'eWlUtaIlcN in whi~h it M.pp"" to rUJ'llWh the co.....,t -oIution bve been stated iD
the paper by Hill.
t R . H ill, ibid. 17 (19601, ll4.
{III. 3
OEXERAL THEORE!aIS
11I.3]
+
20
by
'k
al
80 11
811
e lemen~ unloads. Using (22) and ( ~3) to eliminate dJ- and dA from th e
respective st reee-et re ln relations, we obta in
da"
--.!L =
20
aI d')
' ,(-aald
'.. aJ
" (_'_ + al a~ \ au"
d-' _
2Gh
(2')
Wid 8a;J
We obtain
20
,(-aId'"' )
WI;l
~J
( al a~ \ a."
= d{~' _ ,
'
(26)
W idao;J
(20)
II
= 0 wh enJ(atl> <
do;
ll
(21)
Hence,
C,
or whenJ(au ) = c an d
Yd~~ ~ o.
"
0,
"
, ,( al
&;;j
d.,), ]
jj
(27)
(l + ol al )
20 k
:! d{~ <
aa'1 8aO
d ti d'li =
20[d'~'d.~ - '(~?:;1']
(28)
8aij oail
for
8.
da'd
' da"d
; j {iJII { "
ij
= 3 a d{ = _3(l _- 2v)
_ da u =
E
(I
3E
2v)
d{u
:! tU~ ~ o.
"
he.
(29)
IV. I ]
IV
THE S OLU T IO :-I OF PLASTIC-ELAST IC
PROBLEM S. I
I. Intr oducti on
THE complete solution of & general problem in plast icity involves &
calculation of th e st ress and th e deformation in bot h the elastic and
plastic regions. In th e former th e streee is direct ly connected with the
total strain by means of the elastic equati ons. I n th e la tt-er th ere is, & 8
we have seen, no such unique correspondence, and the st ress-strain
differential relations have to be integrated by following t he history of
t he deformation from th e init iatio n of plasticity at some point of the
body. A process of plastic deformat ion has to be considered mathematically as a succession of small increments of strain, even where t he
overall distortion is 80 small that t he change in externa l surfaces can be
neglected . When t he st ra ins are large th e determination of th e cha nging
shape of free plastic surfaces necessita tes, in itself, the following of th e
defonnation from moment to moment.
The solutions in t he elastic and plasti c regions a re interrelated by
certain conti nuity conditions in th e stresses and displa.cements which
must be satisfied along the plestic-elaefic boundary. This boundary is
itself one of the unknowns, and is usually of euch an ewkwerd ehepe tha t
even th e stress distribution in the elastic region can only be obtai ned by
laborious numerical meth ods. The complete and accurate solution of a
plastic problem is pra.cticable in relatively few cases, and can nonnally
only be expected when th e problem has some special sy mmet ry or other
simplifying featu re. This chapter a nd th e following one are concerned
with problems for which analytic solut ions are known, eith er in an
explicit form or such t hat the solution ca n be completed by direct
numerical Integ ration. From them it is possible to obtain a general
insight into t he interrelatio n of t he states of st ress and strain in t he
elasti c and plastic regions. We shall th en be in a position to formulate
reasonable app roximations which &88ist solutions of the more complicated problems of technical importance.
The problems described in t he present cha pter are particularly
simple, and fall broadly into two groups. In th e first group th ere i8
no plastic-elast ic boundary to be calculated , since .U elements a re
eimulteneoualy st ressed to t he yield limit . I n t be eeoond group plaatie
I NT R O D UCT I OS
11
and elastic regions exist side by side, but t he stra ins are restricted to
be small.
2. Theory of Hohenems er 's e xp e riment
(i) When Re uss formulated his eteeee-eteein equations he else suggested an experiment by which th eir valid ity might be tested. This "'aa
necessary because although the relation p = .. had been shown by Lode
to be app roximately true when th e st ress-increment and the elaatio
component of th e st rain were negligible, this might not be 80 when the
elastic and plaetic components of th e strain were compara ble. In other
words th e ratios of th e components of th e plastic etreln-Incremeat might
not depend only on the stress ratios, but on t he etreee-increment. a.s well.
The suggested experiment consisted in twist ing a hollow cylindrical tube
to the point of yielding, and t hen extending it longitudinally while
holding the twist constant; the wall of th e tube was sufficiently th in to
obta in a n approximately uniform distributi on of stress , and t he metal
pre-strained to secure a sha rp yield-point and reduce th e rate ofberdening to a valu e small compared with the elastic modulus . If CT and or are
the a xial stress and logarithmic st ra in, end e end ,.. are the shear stress
and strain , t he Reuss equa tions 33) of Cha p. II) give
d"
d,
= 0 = .,. tL\.+20'
d. -
da
lad.\+ E '
uf+3r = YI.
(1+6) +_1l-2,
_ ',
+v
60
-y f = In - _
1- ,
where' = <flY.
(1)
72
I _ (I \'. :Z
u desired . Afte r a tensile strain ofonly a few times t he yield -point strain
o ~ 2H '. +
ada
dT
20 '
du
:l
Pr~r.
at
ada = 3TdT,
= 3T*+YZ,
dT
+ 20'
y~
t K.
Pr. . Jrd 1,.,. CtINJ. App. Md ., Stockholm,
( 1930 ) ; Z,iU.
0"'.
MaUl . M ICh. II ( 193 1), 16. See a l80 K . H ohene meer and W .
ibid.
U ( 1932), 1.
7J
d =H'a+ E'
Hohene~ ,
IV. 2)
2H ,ln
( l +ytT
3.,\
2..[._!'tan_.(4
3.)]+2..20 "
43 Y
2H '
The (T,y) relation has a tangent of slope 20 at the origin, and gradually
bends over until the slope of t he tangent becomes 28'/3. Th e meaning
of y in this context should be care fully noted. Ii is eq ual to
r d8
2/ '
where (J is the relative twist of the ends of the tube, an d 1 and r are the
CUrrent values of t he length and radius of t he tube, which can be calculate d by using th e Re U88 equ ations for t he radial and circumferential
'740
l.
[IV. 2
and
to
d~,
<II
=7=
lU _ dr _
. de
H 'a '
dy ,.
, d9
= 2f =
3Tde }
t H'a '
(2)
,- r - -
o da
2H'a'
df, =
dt
eliminat ing
-~ [I +'-:I,(dli)']
I
31 dl/ .
(4 )
de =
H'
f [I +'lI.(d9\']1'!!
3/ dl)
I'
(6)
"
where Y is t he initial yield st ress of the tube. This is the relation bet ween
aand t he length of the tube (the left -hand side is evidently JiTt) . When
the integral has been evaluated by numerical integration, or otherwise,
o and T are directly obtainable from (4) anti (5). The tensile load L is
21TTta. and th e torq ue G is 2m-'lT. Since th e volume 27rT1l of t he tube
material is consta nt we have rll = r. 4'. Hence from (3):
~= ~ = J~'
Therefore
L=
21N'oto(~)0.
(7)
(8)
t,
(oZ+3,.t) f
(S)
(1
o da
= - 2H 'a'
where e is t he rela tive angu lar twist of th e ext reme sect ions of the tube.
It follows that dr/r = - dl/21 and hence, that
a=
80,
rs
II
= -2j '
I,
w= ..,. ,
(9)
78
I.
{IV. '
where the origin of coordinates is taken at the centre of one end , which is
held fixed . I is the length of the ba r, a nd 9 is the relative twist ofthe ends:
a dot denotes the time de rivative . Assuming furt her tha t the only nonvan ishing compo ne nts of st ress are 0 , = 0 and Til = T , equ ations (32)
of Cha pte r II redu ce] to
o~ .
f, =
-211 =
f,
O'~
ur
o~
3T~
_ a. :
= :'_'/ = ')H'
Yrw = 0;
Y"
1= H '(j;
r6
y ,:
O.
a.l
1= m :
,9
and
3.,
~ -;; .
(' .)
"Y
0 = .J(X1+3r 2)'
,y
T = .J(0).2+3,2'-
These formulae appea r to have been first stated by NadaLt The shear
stress is zero on the a xis of the bar, and rises to a max imum at the surface.
If the strain-path is prescribed, a must be regarded 8.1 a known funetion
of the length of t he bar. Conversely, if some condit ion i. placed on the
t Bee Append ix II for t he e xp..-ioll8 for t he r.te.of, train ",o mpo nente in ey lindric.I
I\. .l]
I
= i(2a/l- o. - o,,)d.\ +'E (da, - ..da,-vda,,),
( II)
E (z-zQ) = - 3Y
- In (
4
1-2.),
where ;ri) = - (l - III )Y/E is the strain when the block first yield s.
(" can be det ermined from th e second Reuss equation if required, As
the compression proceeds the last te rm becomes unimportant and 0 ,
rist's ra pidly from its valu e -IIY a t yield ing to the limiting value -iY.
For example, if v = 03 (a ty pical value for metals), 0 , is already equal to
- 1l' 498Y after a plastic stra in of only five times the yield -point strain .
Owing to this rap id initial cha nge of 0 , the elasti c strain-increment is
Comparable wit h t he plastic strain-increment up to total atreina of three
or four times the yield-point strain. Thereafter the elastic atrain-incremeut qui ckly di minishes in relative va lue, and 0 , ca.n be taken equal to
",ool'd i~t<N.
: A. N.d.i. Tn" ... Am . S oc. M h . "9. 52 (19301. 103. The ~ter .. ~. . . diff. r
en t mMnID, in N.d. i', formule. ,in~e he used t he Hfmlllr.y " ..-_,u.m ~J. ho,...
"
78
I.
(IV . 5
o. =
VO'z
0" =
_ (I - ..llY
= .J( l ..+ ..I)E
-Y
.J( l - ..+ "I)'
t""
IV.5J
CO MP R E S S IO N UN D E R P L AN E S T R A I Y
78
approximation after a plas tic strain of a few tim es the yield-point IItrain.
The elas tic component of st rai n is corres pondingly negligib le, and the
Uv}- .Mises relation ((28) of Chap. II) may be used instead of the Reu88
equations. This helpful simplificat ion continues to be valid during the
ensuing plastic deformation 80 long &8 there is no sharp ' bend ' in the
strain-pa t h, where th e stress-increm ent is of order E times the strainincremen t . The conclusion is also unaffected by the presence of work hardening. provided t he rate is small compared with E , as it will normally
be after a plastic stra in of a few per cent . On the other hand, whenever
For the usual values of .., the yiel d stress is nu merically a little less tha n
2Y /V3; t hus Ozll = - 1121Y when .. = 03. On putting 0', = 0 in (11),
and eliminating tV.. from the first and third eq uations,
ss; _
z
[1 - 2,+ (0.1'
3Y'
20'. )(20.1'
a.l]da.
H ence,
= O.
, 3Y (2YI-'3- a,)
(13)
the stress-increment is of order E times the stra in-in cre ment, considera ble
inaccuracies would be int rod uced by neglecting t he elastic strainincrement (no matter wha t the previous plas tic st rain may ha ve been) .
This will be further illustrated in later examples.
80
I.
[IV . 6
Ey
z = (1
vt) R '
z is te nsile above Ox and compress ive below it . Apart from U.' which is
equal to l"O'z ' all other st ress componen ts are zero. T he required couple
G=
-.f
2Eat
vt) R '
uzy dy = 3( 1
(14)
Ea
;1(.,. -'-+-.
...)"
( I -"')R y -
As the cou ple is further increased , plastic regions spread inwards from
both surfaces. If 2c is t he width of th e remainin g elastic zone a t a ny
moment, the corres pond ing radius of curv ature R is eviden tly given by
R
a:
C
tlJ
_ .J(I - v+ vt )Ea
( I vt )y
.
( 15)
y -
81
R = - Ry =
Ry =
IV.
(I
Ey' dy
(j _ "'jR + 2
2Ec'
Yy dy ~ 3(1 ... )R+ Y(a' - ") ~ Y (a' -j, ,).
( 16)
.,
7. Bending of a pr is m a ti c be am
A uniform prismat ic beam of non.hard ening mate rial is bent by equa l
and op posite couples G applied at its ends . For simplicity it is supposed
that a transverse secti on of tile beam (t he y: plane in Fig. 10) has an ax is
of symmet ry Oy, and that the axes of the couples a re parallel to Oz.
The origin 0 is taken on the neu tral fibre in t he ry plane. It is requ ired to
12
T HE SO L U TIO N O F P LA ST I C . ELA ST I C P R OB L EM S.
I.
[IV. 1
ff
1"' , 1)
B E ND I N G O F A PR I Sl rAT I C BEAM
83
abou t Oz, ,t he plaetlc zone penetrates acme way from this: side of th e
beam before t he other side yields . The etreee in a pleetfc fibre is a
constant te nsion or compression of amo unt Y. When the couple haa incre~ .to an extent such t hat there are two plestic zones , th e plaaticelestlc interfecee are at equal distances c = RY/E from t he neut I
F'
m
plane ( tg. 10), In genera l when th e bea m is partly plastic the neutral
(unstressed ) plane varies from moment to moment , and does not necessarily contain th e line of centroids . So long as th e fibres in the unstre~ plane ha~e only been st rained elastically d uring t he prior
bending (as th ey will ha ve for all usua l sha pes of section), t he resultant
strain in th e ne ut ral plan e is zero, and th e compo nents u, e, and w of t he
total displacement are
w= _ Y%
2R '
(17)
d.
ZYd(~) + idY,
d. = -l<2z'+!I'-Z')d(~) - 2~dY,
dw ~ - IYZd(M- 2~dy,
since the position of th e element does not change (to the order of
app roximation involved in th e assumption of small strains), but th e
y coordina te vari es d ue to th e relative movement of th e neutral plan e.
The te rms in dy represent a uniform longit udinal exte nsion of a moun t
dY/ R; th e remaining te rms represent t he st rain-increment which would
result if th e neu tral plane were fixed. The Incrementa of st rain are th en
See, for e ll6,ftlp1e, S. T~o. T~ of El4M~y. p . t !4 (McGra....H ilI Book
. 1934); R . V. Southwel. l. IUroduaioR '" fA4 T /uqry oJ El4Miatr , p . 3t1 (Clarendon
p......... 1936J; I . S. SokolDikoll. MaIA'>MGlical TAcory oj E""k~. p . I " ()(eO raw .H ilI
Book eo. I N 6 ).
eot
84
{I V. 7
IV. 8)
<I.,
where w is th e warping fun ct ion an d 8 is the twist per unit length right
handed about th e positiv e e-exls. The angula r rot ation of . ' ..na
verse
.
id
pIa ne IS e VI ently proporti onal to its distance from t he fixed . .
Th
. . f
ongm.
e warpmg IS. 0 course , proportional to th e twist in the elastic
b t .
itten i h
ra.nge,
u W 1S wn n m ~ e more general form as t he proportionality cannot
be ex~cted to contm ue when th e bar becomes plastic. Th e componenta
of stram are
f z = f . = f , = yzy = 0,
~ Yd(~) + ~ d(~).
If
T OR 8IO N OF A P RI SMA TI C BA R
a..
2YD = at - 8y.
a..
2y = &y +8z .
G(: -8y) .
v = 2Gyp = G
(';; +8z).
~ = 2Gy~ =
-r
~ _ ~D = 2G8
ax
By
(18)
8vp+~ = 0
ax By
and this is satisfied by introd ucing th e st ress funct ion ~(x, y ), where
Tn
=:,
T1t, = -~,
(19)
.11
= -
(20)
88
I.
[I V. 8
. .
: See. (or exam ple, I . s. So koln ikofl. M~wl T'-'"'r oj E~y (MeG,...H ilI
Book Co. h ac.), 19411, p. 130.
IV.8J
87
(22)
".. hile in th e elastic region'; cont inues to satisfy (21). The plastic boundary is determined by th e conditi ons (i) th at the shear stress is con.
tinuous across it , a nd (ii) that the shear stress i.e not greater then F inside
the elastic region. Ot herwise expressed , the slope of the ep surface must
be equal to l' in the plastic region, and must not be greater than k in t he
elastic region, while the height and slope of the surface must be con.
tinuous across the plastic boundary. As was first pointed out by Nadai, t
t his euggeete an extension of th e membrane analogy to simulate th e
stress function for a part ially plastic bar when th e twist is so small that
changes in t he external conto ur can be neglected . It is only necessary
to erect a fixed roof of constant slope over th e membrane with t he oute r
boundary of the section as its base. The a rea und er th e part of th e roof
where the membrane is pressed against it by th e app lied pressure represents t he plastic region corresponding to a certain torque.f
It is evident from this analogy that t he st ress distribution for a given
torque is determined solely by t he shape of t he boundary (the strains
being small), a nd that the equations (21) and (22), together with the
boundary condition f = 0, are sufficient for calculating the stresses
without reference to t he deformation. For this reason the tors ion prob lem is said to be "tatically detennind. It is worth observing th at t he
stress distribution and plast ic region corresponding to a given torque
are independe nt of th e value of the shear modulus G, since t his only
occurs in conjunction with 8; if th e torque is prescribed, equation (20)
supplies a condition to determine the consta nt para meter 2G8 in (21).
The twist for & given torque is therefore inversely proportional to G.
It is easy to see from an analyt ic expression of t he roof analogy th at
th e stress at a point in t he plastic region is uniquely determined by the
shape of th e external boundary. The stress function at a point in the
plastic region isequal to l' times its distance from the boundary, measured
along t he normal th rough t he point . The shearing stress lines of consta nt ep are orthogonal to th e normals (the lines of greatest slope), and
are evidently spaced parallel to the boundary at constant distan ces
from it . They are shown by t he full curves in Fig. 114, the broken curve
t
88
[I V. 8
IV.8J
..
Ta
80
= -ksin!f.
dw
T..
dA ~
T
8
- I
aw
iJz-
"' = kC08!f.
Tainu
T ay
(OT_+1JTp
from (23) .
= 6(- xsin.p+ycos.p).
(b)
dA ~ 8p .
d~. =
ck. =
dy~ =
0;
dYa = dy...
Ta
T..
Hence, since the shea r-strain components Ya and Y,. are proportional
to the respective stress components T ZI and T . . while the element ia
elastic , they mud cont inue 80 when it is plastic. In th e geometrica.1
representation of Fig. 7 th e st rain-path is a straight line through the
origin, th e st reee-point. remai ning fixed. We may th erefore write
Yz.
(aw l fJx )- 9y
Y.,. = (Owlay)+ 9z =
Ta
(23)
t Thito ito identical ...ith the COl'T'NpOnd ing eq uattonJ of t he H eneky t heory ((3111 01
Chap .
h ieh thu. lMd. to t he ......, warping fu netKm, ... ,.....ned b y H . O" irinpr
and W . Prager, E~"" d. ~ Nr>tu.,.,u. 13 (1934.). 3 10.
II,..
'TI/'
in the plast ic reglon.] The original eeeumption th at 'TZ I and Till are t he
only non -veniehing stress components has now been justified , since the
system of displacem ents eeeumed for th e elastic region ill else compatible
with the plastic state of eteese. (23) is an equat ion determining the
warping function, in which th e shear st resses are to be regarded ...
(24)
1crlc (0
= k
f rl.rdr =
e),
(c ~ r ~ a).
f'll"k(aJ - l c') ,
c = klG8,
(26)
9". .. Q _
_ 9". . . and the c~ ....
f~ly of ~rma'- /klr.. _ - d, lr .
: nu. equation .... be.!. applied to the ca1cuI&Uon. of the wuping ia. . - I-t..ru bT
:;;.,c. H~. Jotnft. APJ). M d . 16 11' U I. 391. It '" 1IhoW'D that the -.t.n:buUon of
be ~ con to U~ wupins beoom. -sJ.icib. at I&rp-._of twin . b.wle .. 0Ul
- -gned Ute val _ MI"O on the ~ ~ U n a the _ _ t eJ...t.icl OlIN.
90
r.
(IV . 8
1'11'.&:0 1 ,
- (~~)ay.
Tp
(:~~)bZ.
(26 )
where 8, as usual, is the t wist per un it lengt h. Th ese obviously sat isfy
the equa tion of equilibrium and t he compatibility relation (18). On the
ellipse :
'T!
,a
+~
= ( 2G9)I(al l+b1zl) =
a+b
WI
(2GI/ab)'.
a+ b
IV.8J
where
= kCOS lf,
e=
a C08lf,
(z -E)tan ~.
Setting
T. .
eand '1:
y-,
y ~ ztan ~ - (a -b )ain~ .
eq uations
= - keinlf,
II
met hod will only be of va lue if, for t he chosen contour , the plae ti c-elaetic
boundary ~s an ellipse for a range of values of 8. We could alwaye chOOlle
some elastic stress distribution, take th e plastic-elasti c bo undary as t he
curve where t he shear s t ress is k, and hen ce const ruct an extern al contou
and its normals. In general, however,
r
we should only have solved the prob~
lem for t hat conto ur for one va lue of
8, and should be no nea rer solving
it for other val ues. The s uccess of
Soko lovsky's method in t his instance
is d ue to th e circumstance t hat the
pleatic-eleeti e bo undary happem to
be an ellipse, with a simi la r elastic
stress di stribution , for a range of FIG. 12. P1ut.ie and fllutic z.onN m
angles of twist. Now t he equ ation ~wiated prieroat.ie bar of ov u 'fIoCLton
(diagrunmatic. aft Sokolovell:y) .
of a normal to the shearing stre88
lines is
Yielding t herefore occurs all along t he ellipse (but not inside it) whe n
t he twist is
k(a+ b)
9 = 2Gab
(27)
T ,a
T OR S I ON O F A PR IS MA T I C BA R
If at
a point
;r;
y = . m</{B-(A - B)eo'',(.J.
(26 )
A -B = !la -b).
a+b
2G9
OJ)= T
Hen ce
'
a- b - 2(A-B) .
a = ..!...
2G6 +A _ B + [~+
40181 (A _ B)'] I.
t
)
(29)
92
{I V. 8
~ A (2B A )O'
(30)
The method does not indicate t he shape of the pleet lc-eleet ic bou nda ry
for sma ller valu es of the twist, when points of the external conto ur are
still eleetic . In retrospect it is clear that the success of t he method is du e
to t he fact that the eq uation (28) for the contour only involves the
difference (a- b) of a and b, and not their eepe rete values. It is for t his
reason that valu es of a and b can be found correspond ing to Any given
t wist 8 ( ~8. ) . From (26) and the original equations for the warping
fun ction , t he warping in the ela.stic region is
w ~ -
(. - b)
(. +b)%JI8.
The warping in the plastic region can now be computed from (2. ),
using the fact that p = (a- b)sin40COfJ40. A nu merical example can be
found in Sokolovs ky'a origina l paper, where a formu la for t he torque
is also given .
(vi) Otkr 8Olutitnu . The only other acc urate solution kno wn at
preeent is Trefftz's conformal transformation meth od] for determining
the plsetic region at t he re-entrant corne r of an Lbeem, where there is.
concentration of stress. Trefftz bee also discussed the stress dletribution round a small circ ular hole after t he yield -point hILS been rea ched .
Th e ma thematical d iffi culties in dealing with a section of general shape
are so grea t that a numerical treatment is practi cally unavoidable.
Relaxation methods have recently been applied to ba rs with triangular
and L eecti one by Ch rietopherso n .f and to bars of hollow section by
Shaw , and also by Southwell. A fair ap proximation to the ma ximum
torque that t he ba r can with stand can easily be obtained by supposing
that t he bar is rigid up to t he yield-point. This mean s that
is
infinite a nd th at no t wist is possible until th e bar is completely pleetle.
Th e max imum torque is th us t wice the volume und er the plastic roof
coveri ng the whole section. For example, when the secti on is a square
ofside 2a the rcofle a tetrahedron of height ka, and t he t orqu e is therefore
t D . O. Chri.ttopheraon, J DtJ.rn.
6. .
IV. 8)
8S
8,
I.
8ka /3 . Other examples are given by Nadait and Sokoloveky. j H owever, such calculations are of limited significance since an actual bar
work -hsrdenaend becomes non -prismati o a t strains for which the elaatio
core is negligib le. It is worth noting that the stress is discontinuous
across lines which are the projections of ridges on the roof. This is a
genera l feature of the stress distribution in a twisted bar of rigid material.
It is easy to see that the component of shea r stress normal to such &. line
is the same on both sides; the disco ntin uity occurs in the component
parallel to the line.
(vii ) T or8Um 01 an anPUakd bar. The torsion of a bar of enneeled
~etal ', with no well-d efined yie ld-point, hILS not yet been thoroughly
-Inveetlgeted. In one respect the problem is simpler than for a pre.
strained metal, since there is no plaatic -ela.st ic boundary and the same
equations hold all over t he section. On t he other hand, the final differen,
tial equation is more complicated. From (32) of Chapter II we have
20dYa ~
o(il'hM
u> _U)d8=
dT
l'
aa
+3(hadq.
H'g'
lnf Then
f 30dq.
1 e
='/ i!8(jTa ),
e... +.) = /1 i!8e (fT..I
o(8yi!8
e...
o(8iiiiii-
)
Y
(31)
H 'g
~. an d elimin&.ting
w, we obtain an
~(~l'.
(f~)) +~(~
~(f~))
~fi!8 ~
8y fi!8
8y = - 20
(32)
-v3 Igrad~ I,
{ must be regarded aa a given function of Jgrad cPt in (32). In general,
Since
g = -V3(T:.+"s,.,)t =
w. rr.c-,
V..
[IV. 8
M(S) ~ 2.
.f,. ,.
d, -
.f
i.e.
'laB)
- 1 ( S-dM +3M) .
d9
(33)
T{aS) is t he shear stress at th e boundary ofthe secti on, where the 8hear
strain is as. Since the derivat ive dM /d9 must be computed by numerical
differentia t ion of th e measu red torque-t wist curve, this method (due to
Nadai)t does not allow a particularly high accuracy in th e initial part
of t he curve . However, t he accuracy here can be improved by writing
(33) as
' laB)
"
sections remain plane and circular, th ough radial linea become curv ed.
The displacementa, referred to cy lindrical coordina tes, are
u
= 0,
a, = a.=
O(Z-;),
=
T"
to
= 0,
= 0,
0:.
Til =
2..8'T(aS).
2wa'
TrI =
y'T(y) dy.
Conversely, if t he relat ion bet ween the to rque and the twist has been
measured for th e solid bar we can derive from it the etreae -etrain curve
in pure shear. By differe nt iating t he above equation :
~(M8') ~
IV. 9]
a.,,+a.,,+2TrI =
az
there results
ar
alv alv 1 Uv v
azs+
a,t + ; ar -;I =
'
O.
(34)
= tan e,
'"
r,.,+TJ, = kl.
lt is convenient to introd uce a parameter ljJ, defining t he inclination of
the resultant ahea r stress over a meridian plane, such that
ksinljJ,
T8. = k coaifi.
The equation of equilibrium is satisfied, pr ovided. that
TrI =
i _lan~ i + 2lan~ ~ O.
. az
&r
(3.)
d.
dr = - tan ifi,
ReUY
i =
d{J = i
- dr +-dz
&r
az
(i
- -
ar
i) dr = -2tan{1 d,
tan{1az
r '
88
[IV. 8
(36)
,=
- ""
0'
'"
1&0 +-"" - -0
o.
(37)
liz,
This evidently hee the sam e characteristics 808 equation (35), while the
variation of v al ong t hem is
dv = t' dr/r.
Therefore,
11 cc
(38)
along each eharecte riatie. Thus, in the plastic region, any surface of
revolu tion formed by characteristics is simply rotated d uring the
tw isting, without any distortion. The a mount of rotation is equal to the
angula r displace ment of elements where the aurface of revoluti on meets
the plastic-elastic interface. The non -disto rted surfaces are orthogonal
to t he shea ring lines; this is true also in t he elsetic region.
There appears to be no specific contour for which the complete analytic
solution is kn own. Sokolovsky investigated the plastic dist rib ution of
stress in a conical bar and in a stepped bar consisting of tw o cylinders
of different radii, but did not calculate the plast ic bound ary or the displa cements . Eddy and Sha w: have applied relaxation methods in an
approxima te computat ion of the stress distribution and plastic bounda ry
in a shaft wit h a collar .
t w . W . SokoloYlk y, P ri lrlGdnaia M CJUm<Jtilra i M UM" ilra, 9 ( li"6), 3"3.
v
THE SOLU T IO N OF PLA STI C ELASTIC
PR OBL EM S. II
Tms chapter ia concerned with problems of spherical and axial eymmetry. The solution of spherically symmetric problems is straightforward in principle, and for th e normal boundary conditions t he
equations can often be integrated. explicitly. As a concrete exam ple we
shall analyse the expansion of a spherical t hick-waited shell by internal
pressure ; in the extreme case when t he outer radius is taken indefinitely
large we have to do with the formation of a spherical cavity in a.n infinite
solid medium. Problems with axial symmetry are more difficult, even
when, &8 here, t he stresses are auppoeed not to vary in the longitudinaJ
directi on. Even with this simplification , it is only in special circumstances that an ex plicit analytic solution can be derived, prolonged
numeri cal calculations being generally unavoidable. We shall be
concerned mostly with the expansion of a long cylindrical t ube by
uniform internal pressure. This is a tong -standing problem because of
its connexion with the au tofrettage of press ure vessels a.nd gun-barrels;
the process has also been used to determine t he influence of a stre&1
gradient on the crite rion of yie ld ing. Although many investigators ha ve
examined the problem, it is only compa ratively recently that a.nacc urate
met hod. of solution has been formulated.
1. The expansion of a spherical shell
(i) Calculation oj tAe , lrU8U, Let the current in ternal and external
radii of the ehell be denoted by a an d b, and t heir initial values by a o
and boo No restriction is placed. on the magnitude of the expa nsion, an
essential task of the analysis being to determine the variation of the
radii with the preeeure p . This is distributed uniformly over the inner
surface, while the external preeeure is negligible compared. with the
yield stress of the ma te rial. As the press ure is gradually increased from
zero the shell is first stressed eleeticelly. According to the familiar
Lame solutiont t he stress compo nents in spherica l polar ooordinate&
118
(I )
~ p(:~+l)/(:I- I).
0,
(2)
a,-a, =
Y.
(3)
For the present it is supposed that the metal does not work-harden
80
th at Y is
8.
constant .
os-a, = 3:C:/(I-~l
Sin ce this is greatest on the inne r surface yielding begins there , the
corres ponding pressure being
p. ~2nl-~J
(0)
YEa.12(1-3MZv>a:+1+,)
u (6 ) = (l-v }Ya:
(0)
3'
Eb
'
r=
-A(~ -I),
U, =
<1. =
A(:~ +l),
2~r(:~ + I)
u = 2Yc'( 1_2 )
3Eb:
(0)
... r
+(I+,)6:j
(e -:::=:: r -:::=:: 6)
2r'
o'
(7)
ar
and the yield criterion (3) governing the tw o FlO. 13. Plutio I"llgion ro und a
unknown stress components . We imm e- e;yliDdrical or -pberieal _vit,.
e.pandfod by wUfotmly m.t.ri.
diately derive
Or
..
T H E E XPANSION OF A SPH E R I CA L S HE L L
. , = '1
V.IJ
butedp~ .
2Ylnr + B,
&CI'088
the
B =
Hence
e).
(8)
The radial stress decreases in magni tude with increasing radius, while
?wing to the yield crite rion the circumferential stress correspondingly
in Creases. Both stress components decrease through the ela.stio region,
80 that <1, is greatest on the plastic boundary. By substituting r = a in
~8), the in ternal pressure needed to produce plastic flow to & radius e
IS found to be
P ~ 2Yln(~) + 2nl - ~J
(9)
If the ratio bJa o of the external and in ternal radii is not too larg e (say
100
less than 4 or 5} the st rains and the displacement of the inner surface
are ama1Iso long as t he shell bee not yielded completely. As in elasticity, variations in a, can then be neglected so far &8 the stresses are
concerned . F or a given pressure th e stress distribution is completely
determined para metrically through c wit hout t he need. to calculate the
displacements in th e plasti c region. The problem ia t hen statically
determined, with the characteristic featu re that a limited amount of
information can be obtai ned without a full soluti on. On the other hand,
if th e internal displacement is regarded as the independent variable
and the preeeure-expen eion relation is req uired, a complete solution
cannot be a voided. F or this simple case the first correct solution was
obtained by Re usst (alt bough he did not explicitly evaluate tbe displacements).
(il) Cakulation. 01 the , train.!. Wben the strains are large, however,
th e change in th e internal radius has to be calculetedj in order to obtain
th e stresses. Without writing down the Re uss st ress-strain relations it
is easy to eee tb at only th e compressibility equation provides additional
information. For th e symmet ry of the problem constra ins t he devletoric stress vector in tb e plane diagram (Fig. 7) to the position corresponding to uniaxial compression, and consequently th e strain-path
must be a st raigh t line in the same direction {t he deviatoric elastic strainincrements being zero}. This is obviously 80 in a sym metric expansion
since the two circumferential components of an increment of strain are
equal. In calcul&ting the displaceme nt of any individual particle it is
convenient to take the movement of th e plastic boundary as t he scale
of 'time' or progress of the expansion, since t he parameter c appean
in th e formula.e for the streeeee. We may speak of th e velocity v of a
particle, meanin g th at the particle is displaced by an amount " dc
when th e pJastic bounda ry moves outwa rds a further distance dc.
v can be expressed directly in terms ofthe total displacement u . For the
incremental displa cement of a particle can also be writ ten as
~~"')'
J_,.,.. A pp. M d
. 16 IINQ), 2Q$.
(10)
10.
'
'.+d'.+-~
-
(1- 2. )
(da.+da.+da~).
where we must take care to evaluate the incrementa of stress and strain
following a given element , not at a given point in space. Th us
lU,
dq,
&r
lU,
&r
(~' +"~) de ;
0.
8r
Hence
+,
2_
(~' + v 0;-)dc.
dq, = dq. =
(1- 2. )( 8
E
8c
+v &r8 ) (CT,+2CT,).
(11)
Substituting th e expressions for CT, and CT, from (8), we obta in a differential
equation for th e velocity e:
i[2(1-2.)ij+( I+ . >j.
to,
(12)
2( 1-2')Y(I _~\~ .
(13)
E
bl/c'
Since " = dalde on th e inner surface, th e relation between c and a is
to
da ~ 3(1- .)yc'
de
Eal
biJ c
In tegrating, and neglecting second order terms in Y IE. we find after
a~
V. IJ
1+ 3(1-.)yc'
Ea~
a;J +
1- c' J
b~'
(14)
<
v(..)
au1 .11
(15)
102
II. IV. I
This may alternatively be obta ined. by using the compreeeibility equetion in the integra ted form
~ + 2(e =
au
21
en- + 7 =
(1 - 2v)
(0'~ +20'1/) ,
(b ) 110
E[(bUag)
1]
o _23Y(,'aXP
_E.)(ar3 abg
~
0'1/ =
23Y(c:_
E.)(aX +a:)
ao Po 2r3 bo
where
and
bX- ag
V. ll
loa
(9')
p
p,
2Y(I _a'l
3
(.')
bX
ae-O'~ = Y(I-'\:~)
(ao ~ r
~ e),
0'9-0'~ = y(~->.~)
r3
Po,.s
(c ~
~ bn),
2po.
(17)
(16)
104
remains constant. We find from (14), or dire ctly from (13), that
~ ~ (3(1 E ,)yji
(18)
V. IJ
r = Y+H{ - 'r+(1-211>1}'
a,-D
Th.iI may &Iso be thought of as the work needed to mak e unit volume of
t he cavity. For the common pre-etreined met.&la ElY is of orde r 300 to
400, while I' is uaua.lly in the range 025 to 0' 35. H ence cia nonnally lite
between 5 an d 6, while p is about 4Y. The expreeeicea (18) and (19)
are to be regarded &8 upper limits to which cIa tLndp approach oa hole is
expanded fro m some finite radius in a very thick shell. It may be shown
t hat t he plastic and ela.stio str&in.ll are of com parable eize t hrou ghout ..
large part of the p1&stio region . This mea ns that it would not be a pertic ularly good appro:rimation to neglect changes of volume in the ptae tio
region, even though the strains become infinite ly large near the inner
surface. Thus Bishop, Hill , a nd Mottt deri ved the value {E/(I+II) y}i
for cIa on t his assumption , a formula which overes timates cIa by some
20 per cent. A closer approximation can be obtained by neglecting
volume cha nges throughout the entire shell ; on pu tting II = tin (18)
we obtain cIa = (2E/3Y)i, which is an overestimate of about 12 per
cent . On t he other hand, considerable errors would result if volume
changes were neglected in the expansion of a thin shell, since plastio
and elas tio st rama are then compereble everywhere in the plastio region.
(v ) Incltuion a/workhardening in 1M analyft8. We have now to consider how to extend the anaJ.yeis to includ e work -hardening. The
problem is no longer statically determined even if t he st rains are smaJI
since the solutions for the stresses and strains are linked by the law of
work- hardening and have to be carried through tog ether. For convenience the eteeee-etrain curve ofthe material in compression is taken in
t he form
a _ Y +H(. ),
106
and
where
(1- 2,)
,,+2., =
Now
r,
(ar
+2a,).
" = m{r/r.l,
is the initial radius to the element . Hence
a, -a, = Y+ H (21n (;:'j - ( 1~2')(a,+a,)j.
(20)
This replaces the yield criterion (3), and, together with the equation of
equi librium and the bou ndary condition on r = c, determines the stresses
at each etege of the expenei on. Th e in clusion of the second term in the
argu ment of H is essent ial when the plas tic and elastic components of
the strai n are compa rable. If H is a general fun ction , it is evident that
the integration can only be effected by a small -arc process; no inv eetigetion of this eppeere to ha ve been published. H owever, & gres.tsimplifica
tion results if the material is treated &8 in compressible, so that v = t .
We t hen have
and
80
,
The Internal pressure is t hus
r -r: = a _a:.
3
= 3YcS/2E
(22)
106
material when the plastic strains are large, since t he effect of elast ic
compress ibility is then smallest. In t he most fav ourable case, when a
cavity is expan ded from zero radius in an infinite med ium,
~ ~ (2~1
3YJ'
nd
ra = r _a
.
p ~ 2;( I +ln (:~) +2 f H(i1n(/ l))~;
a
3,
"~
>
= !..
a
(23)
2Y[1+ln (2~]
2.'H'
3YJ +"""27.
P~ 3
V. 2]
T HE E XP ANS ION OF A CY L I N D R I CA L T U B E
107
u = A r-s- B ]r,
The elastic equations in cylindrical coordi nates (r,8,z) are
E f, = E :' = E(A
E fe =
- ~ = a,-v(ue+a~).
E~ = E(A +~ =
ue- v(o.+a,),
For cold-worked copper they too k Y = 17'5 tn ./in. , H ' = 6'5 tn./in .',
and E = 8,000 t n./in. 1 With these values t he formula gives p = 8H i
tn./in. l , of which 48 t n./in.1 is d ue to strai n-ha rde ning. The theoretical
value of p provides an estimate of the steady ma ximum resisti ve pressure
in dee p penetrati on by a punch into a qu asi-infinite med ium. The work
needed to mak e unit volum e of a cavity deep in a medium sho uld not
depend grea tly on t he shape of the ind enter or, within broad limits , on
the way the cavi ty is prod uced , provided fricti on is negligible. Using &
rotated 40 conical punch with a cut -back shank, Bishop , Hill, and Mott
obser ved a ma ximum pressure of abo ut 85 tn. /in .1 in coppe r with the
abo ve properti es ; this was attained after a penetration of some five
punch-diam ete rs, and is close to the calculated va lue. There appears
t o be no ot her reliable pu blished data on deep pun ching .
Ef, = a, -v(a,+ae),
where 0" ae, and a" are t he principal stresses. Solving these equations:
(l +v)(I -2v)~
=
E
A _( 1_ 2v)B + Vf ,
1'1
", = A
(l +v )(I -2v) 'E
o
( l +v)( I -2v)~ =
+ (I -
B Vf "
2v);:t+
2vA+ (l -V)f.
both constant over the section. A and B are determined by the conditions tha t a, = - p on r = a o, and 0, = 0 on l' = bo:
A = - Vf + ( I+ v)(I - 2v)p .
,
E(b~/a~ -l ) '
B _ (I +v)b~p
- E(bU~ -l)"
E(.+2vP/(~_I).
(24)
108
The displacement is
U=
b!)
(J+')p (
-vf",r+ E (bUa~
I) (1-2v )r+ ,. .
(25)
the magnitude of
(26)
In the eutofrettege process the tube is eit her closed at both ends by plugs
firmly attached to the t ube, or by floating pistons which allow it to
expand freely . The first method is described as s utofrettage under
closed -end conditions, and the second as under open-end conditione.
Fo r a tube with closed ends the resultant longitudinal force acting on
the central secti on is a te nsion equal to t he force exerted by t he internal
pressure on each plug , via. na~ p . Hence , from (26),
(27)
::
(29)
This case is intermediate to the first t wo, though nearer to the closed-end
condition , to which it is strictly equiv alent when the material is incompressible (v = i). In all t hree cases the radial and circumferential
eteeeeee are the same, and only depend on p . The longit udin al stress is
different, but it will be observed that it is a.lways intermediate to the
ot her two principa.l stresses.
(bU:3 p;)1r'+2(bU~_1
a,)'.
Since this is greatest when r = ao, the pressure Po which causes yielding
at the in ternal surface satisfies
(l
3p~
c4lb~)1
+(bUa~Po 1. - ll _YI
a,
(31)
Inserting the values of 0 , for t he three end conditions (27), (28), and (29),
the respective va lues of Po are
(28)
The longitudinal strain is a contracti on. A t hird end condition, some times considered owing to its relative mathematical simplicity , is that
of plane strain, or zero extension, in which
(30)
2~~/(~i -I).
i (ar+as)
::~ ~2'1'/E(:I-I)'1
oe --v, =
Po =iY(I-:D
a,= p/(~; _ I) =
109
L=
V. 2]
:D
Po =
~(1-
Po=
Po =
3
'!'(Ia~\/J(
43
bV I +( 1-2v)1a)
(closed end ) j
(open end}:
3b~
(32)
(plan e strain).
We see that the tube with open ends yields at the lowest pressure.
The yield pressures for the closed-end a nd plane-strain conditions
differ by less than 3 per cent. for the usual values of v, the fonner being
t he higher ; when bolao is 2 (a typical dimension for a gun-barrel) the
difference is about 02 per cent . The differen ces between the three
pressures become vanishingly sma ll as bo -7 00, but even for bolao = 2
they are less than 1 per cent .
. (ii) Partly plastic tube with strains of any magnitude. When the tube
IS partl y plastic (Fig. 13) the stresses in the elastic region are still of the
ro""
ar
a, =
-C(~ - l),
0,
Ef,+2vC = const ,
C(~+I).
110
Since
f.
to the axial load L it follows that, except in the case of plane st rain,
(. depends on the state of stress in both plastic and elastic regions.
The parameter C is eliminated by using th e condition t hat th e material
immediately on the elastic side of th e plastic bounda ry r = c is on t he
point of yielding. Aseuming that th ere is no work-ha rdening, and that
a. rema ins th e intermediate principal st ress (the range over which t his
is t rue will be investigated a posteriori), Tres ca's criterion furnishes
the equation
a'-Or = Y
(33 )
V.!J
%-"0
%-0'9
t o O' 8
f -O'7
111
___ t -0 ' 6
~;(~ -l),
%0 0'5
l )
a, = Yc'(b
2bJ ,1+ 1 ,
"0
(34)
c'
bi,
u. = Ef. +IIY
-lit"
2Eb:
(35)
r~ -I-In(;)+;:- }
a,Y
} - In(~)+~
r
-0-5
~
y
Fla . I'. DiatribuUon orradial aDd oireumftmmtiN
. t.re. oomponentll over u...n.vene .ction or
p&rtl,. p'-tio tube expaoded. b,. intoemaJ p~
~ criterioll;
DO
.train.~ ).
of.ar and a, is shown in Fig. 14. On the other heed, u. can only be deter(a ~ r ~ c).
(36)
2b&
; - ~W+10 -~'
~)
This formula appears to have been first obta ined by Turner'[ (1909).
If t he displacement of th e internal surface is 80 small that we can neglect
variations of the radius a in t his formula, a r and a, are determ ined by
t L. 8 . 1'wnH. Tra.... Ca nW. P Ail . Soc . ] 1 111M)8). :1'77; 1...,;""""'.9] {1911). 115.
~ (du, -
df' =
tU, =
112
II. [V. 2
o.+
a+d,.
_ (1-2.)
d( + ,+a, ).
8r ;
dc E dear 0
(38)
where v is the velocity defined in (10), end where, for sho rtnesa, we write
dc =Oc +
a
er
17
...) ~
(39)
(40)
ar
d,.
~ ( 1- 2.~ [dq - ~(I -~'\].
fk
E dc c
bV
(41)
~=
f 2rrt; . dr =
v, a nd q, is supp lied by th e
f
"
(431
af ter using (37) and (40). The boundary condit ions on r = c are t hat
tI and o. should be continuous. Hence
q~ _ e =
E,
cl
-V - i (I - 2v)ij'
"
rIc Y
bV
d,
~0
(48)
(~L. ~ (l+')ll+ll-2')~)-";c(~');
113
TH E EXPANSION OF A CY LIND R IC AL T UB E
With t his definiti on, And the use of (36), equation (38) becomes
0. +!+
V.2J
I")
Equations (41), (42), (43), and (44) are the bsete for a aolution of t he
prob lem.
where it must be remembered that dt.JrIc is independent of r, For num erical computation the differentials dq, d,.. dv, dr, and rIc, in (45) and (46),
are replaced by fin t order differences 6q , etc ., and their coefficients by
mean values, bet ween adjacent points of a characteristic network of
arbitraril y fine mesh. The computation is carrie d out by th e following
etep-by-etep procedure. Suppose that t he complete solut ion has been
obtained up to th e stage when the plastic boundary has reached a
radius c (A B in Fig. 15), and t hat we wish to advance the solution by
the next increment of expansion , during which th e plastic bounda ry
moves a further sma ll distance de (to position A ' B') . A value of th e
increment of axial strain. A.t .. ie guessed by extrapo lation from t he
relation bet ween t". and C 10 far determined. The boundary conditions
114
au
v= -.
8e
(47)
auOr+r:+f,
=
t
Detaillo
C&D
'Ey(q-3Inp:e +2h"')
(1 - 2v
I '
Ia~r.
(48)
V. 3]
ns
O.
(49)
[I - f(l-2, )q]
dq+(fq-l)d(~') +; d(~) +
+ (I- 2,)(2qc l)(l -~J dc = O.
(50)
ue
rr.
[V. 3
V.3J
117
-0 "
yielding, it follows from (29) and (30) that 0 , ha.s the valu e vYal/bl,
corresponding to th e horizonta l line c = a. At 8. late r stage 0, is equal to
vYc' /bl in th e elastic region, according to (34); this corresponds to th e
horizontal segments for various values of cia. o. is least on the inner
surface and becomes compressive t here after a comparatively small
plastic expansion.
The broken curv es in Fig. 16 represent th e distribut ion calculated by
Nada.it on th e eeeumptl on th a.telastic compressibility could be neglected
in the plastic region. According to the Reuss relatio n for th e z direction
this means that 0 , = i( or+ o,), or q = O. In view of the yield criterion
(33). t he devia toric components of th e elastic strain-increment are also
zero. Since 0 , = v(O'r+ o, ) in t he elastic region there is a discontinuity
in o. across the plastic bounda.ry of amount (1- 2v)cIY{261 (indicated by
the broken vertical lines). Th is is (1-2v)/2v, or 661 per cent., by proportion. The discontinuity is only avoided by euppoeing that v = i in
t beelastic region also. The overa ll accuracy of Nedei's solution improv es
as t he expeneion continues, since q app roaches zero with increasing
plastic straint (though not stead ily in elements near t he inner surface).
The a utofrettage operator requires th e relation between the pressure
and t he externa l displacement , in order to ensure that the tube, or gunbarrel, is everyw here of uniform and sta ndard quali ty. If the expansion,
observed at points along a nd a round th e barrel, ie too great the forging
is re-heat -treated. For th e pla ne etrain condition, and Tresca.'s yield
criterion, th e external expa nsion is given by (3S) without further
analysis:
Eu"
cl
(5')
Yb = ( 1-",)6"
-0 ' 2
0'5 CTz
Y
b =1/
,
I
.I,,"
0'3
2G Ub
" 1'11-16
'30
7J 5
-
"
0'93
OSI
.. '
,I,
"
'. , '
0=/
I ,
0'2
,'
I
, ",
~- 0 '9
~----
b-9"61 ,
I
Yb
10
.
0'1
"
"
08
0'7
/,~,f------- 06
1-fJ'-nfl-- - - - - 05
r
07
08
09
1'0
stages of the flow , marked by the rat io c/b while t he tube is partly plastio
and by the external displacement u" after it has become completely
pleetlc. The etreee distribution in a tube with a. wall-ratio less t han 2 is
given, for various values of c/b, by t he parts of th e curves to th e right
of t he abscissa a/b. While the tube is entirely ela.atio o. is consta nt over
t he tube, &8 we ha.ve seen. w hen the inner surfa ce is on the point of
(53) below).
(iii) Approximation to von Mists' yield criterion, The result that
0,
approaches the mean of t he other two prin cipal etreeeee with increasing
plast ic strain is in agreement wit h t he general conclusions of t he
analysis for simple compression in pla ne strain (Chap . IV, Sect . 5).
The movement of the stress vector in the pla.ne diagram is restricted to
an angle of less tha n 14(1 near the direction representing pure shear
t A. Nad&i. TraM . Am. S oc. M ICh. Eng , ! :J (193 0). 1'13.
: ThiB vllrifiee the initial Ulumption that (I. ill the inl.ftrmed iate principal . t ..-.
I It .. o r hiBto rie.1 in te r-t to note t ha t Sa.int .Venant . in the n...t treatment ohhe com .
p.IBtely pta.t ie tube . derived the equ.Uon Ct. _ t<". + ". l rrom Levy'. nr--.tr&in I"fl~.
tiOl18; _ B . de Sa.intVenant, C_ JI4U R ertd... AIXId. Sci. Pari, ,? US12), 1009 and 1083.
aa ' .1J
118
II. [V. :S
\ '. 3J
TH E O R Y O F A UT O FR E TT AG E P ROCESS
27r1"(1, dr = Y
= Y
2."rq dr+
'"
7J1'(0', +(1') dr
f 2""V d'+f"'(2a.+'~)d'
from the equilibrium equ ati on. Since q _ 0 with increasing st rain,
Thi. h.. been v&rifled by direc t calculation of the IOlu tion (or v on MiAN' cri terion l
_ P . O. Hod ge, Jr. a nd O. N . White. Jr., a mdUilU DiNitM <:>1 .41'1>. MfIlh., Bf'OWIl
Umvenit y , Tech. Rep . 29 (1949 ); J _ rn . .4pp . M A. 17 (19601. 180.
L-
f."
:,.(rJa,) dr =
7r{"'0',~ =
wa1p,
110
II. (V. I
Eu,
l [(1, - V(0',+17. )J. _&
Yb = Y
"
~ j(2-.~ _ .(q)"
..
<T,
1~
V. 3J
axiallltrain is equal to
(1- 2~)YtI/2Ebl,
111
1l(1-2'~H~_
The discrepa ncy (an overestimate) Increeeee as th e pla.etic region spreeda,
amounting to a bout 64 per cent, when c = b; t he eeeumption therefore
fails to give a useful esti mate of f The true axial st rain is shown in
26 1,1 1)
Vb
10
o.
-._--_ ..0'
0'
08
07
O.
05
o
0'
HI
-ez
f lO. 11. Dilltrib ution of aT>ia) .t""", eo mpo nent
in " p..-tly p"-"tie t u be with .. doeed end and
waUratio 2. Ttl" broken eurvee ecrreepend to
<I. _ l(a,+ "')'
04
l...:
A. O. wan-en. S
poNt..... _ l -....lSmuui'" MdGl# taottl A u.oy..p . 208 (publiehed
VI the l natitut.e of M
1"7).
122
II. (V.
f(U8-crr)~
for th e internal preeeure. Now it baa been shown that von Mleee' yiel
V. 3]
123
p =
(54)
T(Y);_
y.
where Yo = bly61al is the shea r strain at the bore. From (35) and (53),
II>
i1. o'--i---:--~---::~;--;-~----:""""~~-
f
v3
p== -2
dy
y-,
y
Co., 1931) .
= (1+.) Ye
_ 2(1+1') U/l
Ebl- (2 v) b '
approximately.'
+
(55)
.Ca ( b'C')
p = 28ln - +" 1- - ,
where 8 is the maximum shear stress in the material abou t to yield , and
8 ' is th e maximum shear stress throughout the plasti c region ; this may be
proved by a simple modification of the equations leadin g to (37). There
is a discontinuity across t he plastic boundary in th e circumferential
stress. It is assumed that th e plastic st rains are restricted to th e lower
yield-point range of strain (t his is usually of order 0,02, or some ten
times the elastic strain at the upper yield-point ). From experiments on
closed tubes with wall-ratio s bta ranging from 117 to 4, Cookt f heeshown
that th e value of 8 ' deduced from the observed maximum pressure
2&' In b/a is in good agreement with t hat measured in a ten sion test .
On the other hand , Morrisontt has concluded th at the lower yield stress is
t J . L. M. Morri son . Proc. I nn. M eeh. Eng. 159
(11148), 81.
Na.dai eeeumed t he material to be incomp re~~ible ( ~ .. i l,
l:OIblt&ntl.
80
that
r7
W all
~trictly
12"
II. [V.
V.3]
1211
&
c- = _
8r
dB'
t D. N. d e G. Allen an d D. G. Sopwith ,
Inl.
Lo ndon
iI948
C. W . MacG rego y, L . F . Coffin, sr.. IUld J . C. F isher, J oum. Fronklin
). See
rut ., 14!i ( 1948}. 13.5.
P roc . TV.
a1&a
126
II. [V."
(56)
e.
From (42)
(57)
Now 0r+ oS is zero in th e elastic region (see (34)), and hence so are 0
and q. We can expect th at q will be very small near th e surface of tho,
cavity where the circumferential strain is infinitely lar ge. It can be
verified a po8teriori that t he numerically greatest value of q' occu
when 8 = I, and th at it is about 0'4. Since 8 ra nges from ale to 1 in the
plastic region, while v is of order Y IE or less, it is t herefore a g
approximat ion to neglect (v-8)q' in comparison with 3 in (56). Integra
tion of this equation with th e boundary condition 11 = (l+ v)YIE 0
8 = 1 (see (44)) then gives
3{1 - 2, )Y8 (5- 4,)Y
(58
v= 2E
+ 2E8 ;
Since v = dalde on th e surface of t he ca vity and since cIa is constant , w
derive immediately from (58) th e expression
~~
[ (5
2~,)y]1
(59
38(8S as/eS ) +
1- 2, _ 0
8 ,
(~ ~ 8 ~I) .
(61)
~'alue
Y[
P ~ -13 1 + In (5
-I3E
]
4,) Y
(62)
is between abo ut 3'3 and 38Y. An earlier a nalysis by Bishop , Hill, and
Mot t,t neglected volume changes in the plastic region, but, as for the
spherical cavity, it is a bet ter epproxlmefion to neglect volume changes
universally.
When the material work-hardens, a n analysis similar to th at for th e
spherical cavity (Section 1 (v)) leads to a pressure
"~.
Y[ 1+ln ..J3Y
E]+..J32f H (1~3lntt_1
")d'7
P = ..J3
,
t =-;
a
E] w'W
Y [
p ~ -13 ' + In -l 3Y +18 '
(60)
where, for simplicity , ;( 1-2v)q has been neglected in compa rison with
uni ty in th e coefficient of q' (th e ma ximum value of q is usually less than
0'1). Integration, with t he boundary cond ition q = 0 when 8 = I,
leads to
1
127
(63)
EXPANS I ON O F A CY L INDR IC A L CA VI T Y
~ _ 03 and
t R . F . Bi8ho p.
(64)
VI
PLA N E PL ASTI C ST R AIN AND T HE TH E ORY
OF THE S LI P -L I N E F IE L D
1. Assumption of a plastlc-rtgld material
IN the last two chapters we have been considering problema to which
exact solutions are known, and where full allowance can be made for the
elastic component ofetnLin in t he p lastic region. I n ma ny of th e problema
of grea test practical interest, however, we are compelled by mathema tieal difficulties to dleregard th e elastio componen t of strain. For
consistency we must also disregard th e purely elastic stra in in the nonplastic region. In effect, therefore, we work with a material that is ~
when stressed below the yield-point and in which Young's modu lus
an infinitely great value . This bypotbeticel eolid may be referred to aa .
plank-rigid material, in cont rast to the plastic-elastic ma terial of Reuu.
I t will ha ve become clear by now that the distribution of stress in the
plastic-rigid body is only likely to approximate that in .. real metal
under similar external conditions when th e plas tic material has freedo m
to Dow in ROme direction. If t he pleetic material is severe ly constn.ined
by adjacent elaatic material (as in th e expansion of At hick-walled tube,
or in the bending of A beam) , neglect of th e elasti c component of strtoiD:
Introduces serio us errors into urtain of t he calculated etreee componenf&l
On t he other hand , even though an easy direction of flow is Available,
RO t hat th e eleenc st rain-incrementa soon become negligible throug hout
most of th e pleeti c zone, there must still be Acertain boundary layer, or
transition region , borde ring t he elaetic zone, in which t he elastic ADd
plastic strain -increments are comparable. The narrower th is t ransition
region, t he better should be t he overall approxi mation. Since t he
allowable error depends very much on t he intended field of applicat ion
of th e solution, no more explicit rule can be laid do wn. In many tec hnological forming processes (e.g. rolling , dr ewiag, forging ) experience
shows t ha t th e assu mption of a plasti c-rigid materi al dOO8 not lead to
any significant errors.
In the present chapter we shall be concerned with th e behaviour of ..
plastic-rigid material under conditions of plane strain, and in pa.rticular
with certain general properties of the stress an d velocity distribution in
the plast ic region.
(I)
,.s =
(2)
a..+ihn
=
az
&y
OTn+ao,.
_ 0'
az
&y -
(3)
+ c3v,
=
&y
O.
---'+-'
~ &y
ax.
avll
(6)
Ou z
az-&y
In an isotro pic material th e principal a xes of stress and plasti c strain rate must coincide. Hence 8 = 8', and (5) and (6) give
Ou z &vII
~ ~ &y ax.
Uz- a ll
Ou z 8v1l
az- &y
(7)
(:;.+~.)(aa+a~)
= O.
(8)
[VI . 2
o.
VI , 3J
EQ U ATIO NS R E F ER R ED T O S L I P LIN E S
133
i(o%-o,)(o;;- ~) +Tq ~q
= 0,
AU quant ities in this equation, except Oa.I8%, are already known on both
sides of C. If O:z =1= CT, t here is a unique solution for Oa,lez, which must
therefore be continuous across G. However, if 0 % = 0 " the equation
gives no information about Oa,/ax, a nd states th at hq/ax = 0 at P.
By differentia ting t he yield crite rion with respect to y it follows similarly
that OT:zllliJy = 0 at P . From the equilibrium equa tions we have efeo that
00, _ 0 _ 00,
ax - - &y
w en
_
0% -
0,1 '
(9)
P luLic
aQ'. lI
.w._
134 PL A N E P LAST IC
S TRA I ~
AN D THE S L I P L I N E FI EL D (VI . J
(10)
VI. 3)
'36
Pis the mean compreeeive etreee - 1(0'1 + 0'1) , 0'1 en d 0'1 being the principal
stresses -pk (from (1) it follows tb&t pis also equal to -1 (fll +O'I + O, ),
where fl. es fl. is the t hird. principal stress). The ehee r-et reea components
ere eq ual to k. We distinguish t he tw o families of slip-lines by the convention that, if the (I.. end {J-lines are regarded &8 a. pair of right -headed
curvilinea r ax es of reference, t he line of a.ction of the elgebreieally
greatest principal stress falls in the first an d third quadrants. Evidently
the state of stress at a point is completely specified if we know the
orientation of t he slip-lines and the va lue of p. Thus, if f is the anti doehci8~ angular rotation of t he c-line from the x-axis, the Certeeien
components of stress a re
a, = -p-hin '24>.
(1, =
T:rl =
- p+ h in 24>,
(ll)
Hence
ap
~
8%+ 2k 8%
o,
= 0,
(.!!.
(p -hin '24 ) = o.
ity
#_0
&p
By - 2k By = O.
This means that at the poin t P th e tangential deri vat ives of the quentitles p +2hf, and p - 2klj> &long the (1.- en d {J-lines, respectively, a re zero.
This obviously remains true if f is measured relative to any fixed dire ction, not neceaearily parallel to the tangent at P. Since P is any point it
follows that
p +2k4> = const ant on an c -line, )
(12)
VI. 4]
though simila r ones, includ ing these a.s 8. spec ial case , were deriv ed by
Kottert &9 ea rly lUI 1903 for a plastic stress state in 8. soil; 8. soil is idealized.
&8 a plas tic-rigid mate rial whose yielding is in fluenced by hydrost&tic
preeeure, and whose weight must be taken into account (see Chap. XI,
Sect . 3).
To express th e velocity equations in 8. similar way. we int roduce
velocity co mponents u and v referred to t he e - and ,Bli nes (cons idered &8
& rig ht-handed system of curvilinear coordi nates). Th e equations snelo-
between two slip- lines of one family, where they a re cut by a slip-tine of
the ot her family, is constant along their length. In other words, if we pass
from one slip-line to another of the sa me family, along any in te rsecting
slip-line, the angle t urned through and t he change in pressure are con sta nt. Conversely , any two orthogonal fa milies of curves with t his
u", = UC08,p-tl8in~.
11,.
137
(13)
0,
' 0
= O.
dv+ud4
= 0 along
8.
,Bline.
(I' )
These equations are due to Geiri nger'[ (1930). They are nothing more
than a statement t hat t he ra te of extension a long any slip-line is zero.
p
Al, o
T herefore
~Q -~l' - ~B - ~'.
(10)
This is t he expression of t he necessary fact that the pressure difference
between two points, calculated in the two possi ble ways, is t he sa me.
Equation (15) is known ee Hencky'e first theorem: it states t hat the angle
TmM. Am. S oe, MWi . E'f'g. 63 ( 1941), A-H-. haVI!I ul!ll!ld thl!l trajl!lCtorillll of p~
I!It..- !loS curv ilin6lU' coord il'la tllll. The I"NUlting I!IquatiONo al"'> not uee ful for IIOlv inI
probll!lm>l, l!Iinee the elip -Iinee al"'> the naturall!lyl!ltem of coordinatllll.
t F . KOtte r, Btrlin Akad. BtriclaU (1903), 229. For othl!lr accounts of the work of
Hencky and K lltter. see A. Naclai . Han.dbmll der PhV. ik. 6 (1928); H . Oeiringer and W.
Pr&gl!lr, 1J,'Y9UmWH d . ua l1rn N atun.vi8 . 13 (1934). 310; H . Ol!liringer, Mtm. Sci . M ath .
86 (1937).
l H . Ol!licinger. Proe. 3rd I nl. Cong o App. Mult. SlOCkAolm, J ( 1930). 186.
Q.
--
-- --
~~-:"_~-+----l--
. . . - - --7---1.__
'1 slip-linn
property constitute & possible slip-line field for a plee tic mass in queeistatic equilibrium under certain boundary conditions; if t he value of th e
hydrostatic press ure p is stated at one point it may be calculated everyWhere in the field by mea ns of either of the equations (12).
It follows immediately that if a segment A B of a p-line, say, is stra ight
(Fig. 23), then so is the corre sponding section PQ of any ot her ,Bli ne cut
off by the e-Iinea thro ugh A and B. Notice that according to (12) and
(14)P and v a re both constant on each of the straight segments. If both
families are straigh t in a certain regio n, t he etreee (but not necessarily
138
.'
.
.................
R=
I
s=
-
"",
& ..'
"'"
a'II'
(16
where a/&.. a.nd a/&II are epece deriva tives ta ken along the 02- a.nd
linea respectively, th eir relative sense being such that t hey form e, rigb~
beaded pair. Note t hat R and S are algebraic quantities whoee .
depend on the sense of a/&.. and 8/&11' Consider two neighbo .
,B-lines and let &.p be th e constant small angle between th em at
corresponding points of intersection with e-llnee (F ig. 24). Then, fro
(16),
R&tP = &' ..,
where 68.. is th e length of the small ar c of an ex-line cut off by th e t
,B-lines. Hence
a
a
- (Rt.~) ~ - (118.) = - t.~
8'11
8'11
a,~
Similarly,
as
_=
a,.
( 17
_ I.
VI. 4]
138
~> (:_(-p+ksin)j
=
V~
~.o
~ + 2k ~ ~
lienee
~~
V~
_ 8p + 2k""' .
ar
ar
O.
= _ 2 iJp = 4,:1. .
ax
ar
-6.
W tanC<'l be t ween two ~ i,Il00..Ti"'l . Iip lin etl v....ieoI lin early with t he ir arc length ;
P....,., R a.>. F oe. . S d . U.. ill. l _ ookl. .. (I On ). 22.
I~
A
A
(~)
(b)
\'1. .5]
,<I
Ia
VI. S]
nodal points if d ,pis small enough. eey SOor 087 27 radian. Alternatively ,
the integration may be carried out along a ,Bline in terms of S .
A third method consists in t he introduct ion of quantities i and 9
defined t by th e equ ations
by the formula
S_t
8
R
-8._1 " + i (R
-R..._1- i(S
i = %C08,p +ysin,p.
(20)
9 = - %sin ,p +ycos ,p.
The geometrical inte rp retation of i and 9 is shown in Fig. 26: th ey are
the coordinates of the point P unde r consideration referred to axes
.~
+ R. -t.. )M.,p = o.
+8..._1 )JL6,p = 0,
where .\ and JL must be assigned the values
1 or - 1 according to
whether,p Increeeee or decreases in travelling towards th e point (m, a)
along t he reepectlve slip-lines. Solving for R... and 8.... and ret&ininl
powere of li,p only up to the second, t here resul ts
o . . ;-- - - - - - -- - - - - - -~ :t
+ R. _. )-I~+'S~. _.
Since the coefficients on the right-hand sides are the eame for all n
points, the step-by-ste p calculation of Rand 8 is very rapid compered
with the calculation of x and Yin th e first method. Th e values of
on DA and of Ro... on DB are obtained by numerical integration of thei
respecti ve equations (18) along DA and DB, starting from the initial
va luesSo,o and R o.o of the radi i of cur vature of OB and OA at O. No
that Rand 8 may be discontinuous across OB and OAt respect ively.
Having eva luated R end S at the nodal points the coordinates %and
a re calculated from t he formulae
s..,Il
%"",, -%0,.. =
'.f..
cosf M(l =
...
,.f.
R cos ,p ~.
,...
,...
Y...,t1 - Yo,t1 = f sin f ds(J<= f R sin f ~,
,..
,. .
,-~
- i d,l,
9 d,I.
It is sufficient simply to usc mean va lues of the integrands bet ween the
t R. Hill , E . H . X-. and S. J . Tupper. MiniRtry o r Su p ply. Ann.. men t ~
DepartRlflnt. T heo....ti ea l R -rch Rep . 28/.(5; ..1010 briefly ....ported by R. H ill IUld E . H .
Lee , Pr;. 6th I N . Congo .App . "" 1.., P .. rie ( 19f6). A eim il&r. b u t 1_ &eCura te, method.
eoneiRt.e in UIIinlil o nly the ini ti.. 1 y .. lue. o r R e nd S; _ . ro r e .. ot.mp1e. W . P raser. JOMrf40
.Aero. Sel . 15 ( lifl) . 253 .
(21)
VI.tI]
z=
11 =
i C08 ~- g sin ~ .
i ain~ +g oos ~.
(a)
Hence
-P
p,. - P
= 2k (~
=
- cp ).
2k(~,. -;" ).
(b)
....n_ .
(22)
Since the t hree et eeee compo nents a re given along 1:. t he val ues of pand
are uniquely determined there. From t he laat t wo eq uations p and ;
can then be calculated at an y nodal point .
We now calculate in turn t he coordinates of the nodal points nearest
to t . namely (1. 0). (2.1 ). (3.2)... and (0. 1). (1.2). (2. 3)... . Anyone
of three methode may be adop ted , ana logous to those described in the
pre vious section. In the first method the elementary arcs of the sliplines connecting (1, 0). say . to the ad jacent points (0, 0) and (1.1) on 1:
are replaced by straight lines whose slopes are mean valu es assigned from
the te rminal veluee of ; . H aving found the positions of nodal points
adjacent to :E we proceed to the calculation of the next tw o rows of
points : (2.0). (3. 1). ( 2)... and (0. 2). (1. 3). (2)... . The boundaryvalue problem in volved in this, and in eucceeawe stage s, has already been
considered in (i). The second method req uires the determination of R
and 8 , using the finite difference eq uiva lents of (18) described in [i].
The start ing valu es of Rand S on 1: must be obtained from the given
variation of p and;. u a/a, denotes t he tangential deri vative along 1: in
t he sen se from A to B .
a
8 a
. 8a
". = oos -+ om - .
~
a...
a.,
VI. 51
8f.
08 =
and
C08
8 sin 8
R - 8'
01:-
from (16),
!'(l!-)_cosR 8 _ sinO
a,, 2k S '
~= - 2':'8 ~(:k-~)'}
.! =
l_!'(l!-H).
2k
'"
(23)
__
2,in8 &
(al
(b)
determined slip-line field in some area to t he teft . A curve 1:, along which
.; is known (but not p ), is also given ; th e interi or angle between t he two
curves a t th eir point of intersect ion 0 is acute. On th e assum ption that
the region between OA and 1: is plastic it is required to calculate t he
slip.line field th ere. Th is is uniquely determined in th e trienguler
region bounded by OA, 1:, end th e ,B-line AB through A (prov ided, 01
course, t hat th e given conditions are such th at slip-lines of one family
do not run together to form a nat ural bounda ry).
There are two possibilities to be considered. ]f t he given value of ~
on 1: at 0 is equal to th e value of '; on OA at 0 , we ha ve the configurati on
of Fig. 28 a. On th e other hand, if t he t wo values of ,p a re not equal,
there is a singularity at O. If now, the a-direction on ~ at 0 lies in th e
interio r angle formed by t he ta ngents at 0 to ~ a nd OA , the configura tion of Fig. 28 b is obtained (the sa me a pplies, mutatis mutandis, if
OA is a ,Bline). Th e field OAA ' is defined by OA an d t he singularity
at 0 ; its construction has a lready been described in (i). OA' is the
c-line whose dire ction at 0 coincides with th e given a-direction on 1::;
the angle between OA and OA' is t herefore equal to th e difference
of th e two -values at O. The problem is thus redu ced to that of
VI . 5)
ItS
the che oge in It bet ween tw o p-lines, na mely v tLf" is else consta.nt .
Wh en both fa milies are curved we re place ( 14) by its finite difference
equivalents referred to t he previously calculated network of slip-linea:
u
- v. _1 = - i (u. + U _ I ) (~.... - ~
_l)
These equations dete rmine u and v at the nodal point (m. 71) in terms of
the values of v a nd v at t he points (m - l , 71) a nd (m,7I- l). If the network is equiangula r the equations may be solved to give
v",. = ( 1- 1~o/lt)u"' _ I...+1M.p(v
'61
J (U I 1 , v11 )
= O.
p b...-line OB.
Thus a is constant along ,8-lines, and,8 is constant along e- linee ; in
ti cular, o: = 0 is the,8 base -line and ,8 = 0 is the a base -line, j ust as wi
ordinary Cartesian coordinates. The corres pondence between & pair
values (0:,,8) and a point (x , y) is uniqu e except where one family
slip -lines is straight ; for exa mple, if a ,8-line is stra.ight t he same vel
of a an d ,8 correspond to ell po ints of t he line.
From H encky 'e first theorem (15) it follows that
and that
~ - +P
:k
(24
= ,8-a +:; ,
au
aa-v= O,
2P~
=
- :Z+(:kH),
(25
= 0'
(14'
as
.. + R ~O,
aR
ap - S - o ,:
(18'
VI. 7)
ag
..+i
. nd
From ( 14'):
From (18') :
From (2 1'):
...
ilv
= 0,
II,
ai
ap- D~ o,
...
..ap =
o's
..ap =
(21')
au
- .. = - v.
oR
- ap ~ - So
ai
a'y
..ap~
rea
-op= -Y'
0'/
..ap + /~ O.
(26)
,,
,,
1M
VI. 7]
'"
this is
(28)
J; +J;+J,
~ 0,
z
J,IO) ~
J;(O) ~
1,
0,
(29)
where deehes denote differentiation of Jo(%) with respect to a, The expansion of Jo in ascending powers (convergent for all %) is
Jo(z) =
+(-)"
~
Z2 zt
(n!) 1 = 1-"4 +64 - ..
(!%)2..
The dependence of th e function 0 on the particular point P under consideration is emphasized by the notation O(a,b, a,fJ) . We can verify
that th e functi on (28) satisfies th e differential equation (26) by direct
differentiation:
G 0'1
oaofJ
_GI_I o'G,
f ((
oG)
( oG -01 ) d~ )
G-01
oa -I -oa da+ I --G
ofJ
ofJ
-'1"
PB
+ f ((Go
l _loG)
da+ (t"G_
Gol)
d~).
Oel
oa
ofJ
ofJ
-'.
11')+
f
-'.
o'G
oaofJ
00 _ ,ilz _
' J(b-~)
- - J o- - - J o - - ,
Oel
oa
a-a
oaa~ ~ - ' o~
J" J;
'+,'
02 0
J'
"or:r.ofJ + O = J~ + zO+Jo = O.
11' =
0'
-' s
J;
by integrating by parts.
+ f J,[2~{a(b-~))] %d~
(30)
ise
The slip-line field defined by two slip-lines which are circular at'CI oli
equal ra.d.ii is of considera ble importance in applications. If we ch
th e (r , y ) ax es of reference &8 shown in Fig. 30, IX is negative andp
ti ve over the whole field. Suppose we wish to calculate th e (x,y) coordi.
na tes of a network of slip-lines by th e (R, S ) method of Section 5 (i).
R is equal to - r on OA, and S is equal to - r on OB . Hence, from (IS'),
S = -r(l-a) on OA , and R = - r(l + p ) on DB. I nserting th
y
VI. 7]
157
,,
..
,,-. ..
~~~
(a)
(b)
This field occurs in many of the probl ems whoee solutions are described.
n.e net.
_ ~Rla, b) ~
Put,
J,(2J (abll +
2J{a(b-fil}, eo that
f
"
Jol2J(a(b- fill]dfi.
8. Discontinuit ies in the etreee
f "',1'1
1,,'ab
d,
"
~~
2-'4b
or
II-
1,(2J (lablll +
d("',),
+ J~J,(2Jlabll,
a
J I~II,(2J( labll).
. I t has been shown t hat th ere may be discontinuit ies acrose slip-linea
velocity, and th e gradient of the stress.
We have not yet examined the poeelblllty that th e st ress itse lf may be
discontinuous across some curve. Considera tions of equilibri um demand
only tha t the etreee component 0'" normal to the curve (Fig . 31 a) and
the shear stress T' parallel to t he cur ve should be the same on both
sides; the components 0', and 0'; acting parallel to th e curve may be different. The reeder is alreedy familiar with one exa mple, namely in t he
bending of a plas tic-rigid sheet in plane strain (Chap. IV. Sect. 6). The
in t he velocity, the gradient of the
where J1(z) is the Bessel fun ction of the first order (J 1 = - J~ ). Hence
_ l R (a,b) = J,{2J (abl}
(31
t
t
El'. ,...
VI. 8]
Thus
0 ..
2.J(k 2 -
T 2 ).
The tangential st ress may therefore ha ve one of two values (corres pond
ing in Mohr 's rep resentation of stress to t he tw o circles of rad ius k thro
the point (O..,T)) . H ence, if there is a d iscontinui ty , it is of emoun
4.,j(k' - T' ). The jump in t he mea n compressive stress p is evidently h
this, nam ely 2J (k' - T' ).
t w. Prai"r, R. C..,.ranl A .. niveroJary Y"lu ml, p . 289 (Il1te......ience Publiahllfll, N
York, 1(I4.S l.
(32)
(P' ')
(p' ')
I
1 8
S'=-2 sin 8oa 2k+ rp
(p )
(p
1
1
8
]l = -2cos80a 2k-rp
Hence
I
I
8
8= 2s in 808 2k+ rp
~. -~ ~ 2C~U:sW;t)-IH')] '
~,+~ ~ 2s:n u:sW
U UdD}
- 2smtan
ds '
.
d8
(33)
1&0 PLAN E PLA STI C STRAIN AND THE S LIP LINE FIELD (VI.I':
which Young 's modulus Is allowed to increase wit hout limit , may
demonst rated by th e following ergument.] Suppose, if possible, th at
na rrow transition region could exist in a plastic-elasti c body such t hat:
the st ress and velocity cha nge rapidly across it . For equilibrium it ~
necessary that th e shear-stress component and th e normal st ress com
ponent must be very nearly constant t hro ugh t he region ~a~d in ~h
limit exactly so). It is t herefore impossible t ha t all the t ransition regso
should be plastic, since the stress component parallel to t he line of
t ransition region varies rap idly, by hypothesis. Th us, most ofthe chan
in stress must take place through a cent ral elastic strip. On the ot he
hand t he change in velocity must clearly take place through a plasti
strip; thi.8 req uires th e slip-lines th ere to be directed effectively alon
a nd perpendicular to th e line of t he transition region (since t he eh
strain-rate becomes infinite in th e limit ). Th is leads to an inconeieten c
since th e st ress in th e plastic strip must be very nearly constant a n
equal to th e stress just outside th e t ransition region-to which, b
hypoth esis, th e slip-lines a re inclined at some finite angle. From t
standpoint, then, slip-line fields involving simultaneous st ress
velocity discontinuitiest cannot be allowed. Such fictitious fielda
however, occasionally useful as approximat ions when the co
solution Ie not known (see pp . 172 and 220).
t Let te r by t he author to Prof. W . Prarr. Brown Univenity (23 Oct.. 19U ).
VII
TW O-DIM EN SION AL PROBLEM S OF
S T E AD Y MOTION
1. Formulation of the problem
1M this and th e t wo following chapters the ideas and techniques of
Chapte r VI are applied to the solution of a variety of pro blems of plane
strain. We begin with problems of steady motion , in which th e stress and
veloeity do not varyat anyfiIed point (referred to some coordinate system
which may be at rest or moving uniformly). This condit ion Ie fulfilled in
contin uous processes of shaping metals, for example rolling, draw ing,
and extrusion. The approximation by t he plastic-rigid body is likely to
be good since t he strains are usually large; th e error due to th e neglect of
work-ha rdening can be largely removed by a simple correction facto r, &8
we shall see. While t he two-dimensional theory Ie stric tly valid only for
wide blocks or sheets , &8 in strip-rolling, it gives a useful qualitative picture of th e deformation in such proceeeee &8 the dr awing of wire or the ex trusion of rod ; it will be shown, too, th at the theoretical results , suitably
modified, frequently provide a close estimate of t he energy consumption.
Problems of steady motio n differ from th ose we ha ve 80 far discussed
in that t he distribut ions of stress and velocity are presumably independent of the manner in which a steady state is reached. A proof is
lacking, but , provided th e external conditions are invariable, it appears
unlikely t hat t he final steady state could be affected by variations at
the outset (for example, in the shape of th e end of a length of strip
introduced. into the roll gap) . However, when t he condit iona under
which a steady state is established cannot be cqmpkuly specified, it is
conceivable that th e previous history may ha ve a n influence. For
example, the shape of the dead metal separating off at th e beginning of
direct ext rusion must partly depend on the physical properties of the
end of th e billet; since th e dead metal directs t he flow, very much 8.8 a
rough die, it must control th e final steady state. Wit hout an explicit
uniqueness th eorem we cannot be certain that th e conditions under
which we seek a steady state necess&rily ensure a uniq ue solution.
However, reference to experiment will indicate when we can reasonably
expect our conditions to be definitive.t
t nu. ~'. .. _ _ in applied. _~tioe, tacitly
b..io equatiolw _ ~ pwaIW thIo .etual pbyaieal behaviour.
t.bat the
[VII.1
Assum ing, now. that the steady state is unique. and that we do not
need to trace the previous development of the plast ic region , the streaa
and velocity at a fixed point are functions only of position; the element
of time, or progress of the deformation, is absent. The plastic region ia
fixed in space (or can be made so by imposi ng a uniform velocity on the
whole syste m); rigid material enters on one side. is deformed while pass ing through , an d leaves on t he other in a uniform stream which becomes
rigid again as it unloads. A problem of steady motion is. by its very
nature, statically undetermined since the ma inten an ce of a uniform Bow
of ma te rial, to and fro m the plastic region, imposes restrictions on the
shape and position of the plastic boundary .
We now form ulate the problem precisely. The pleetic region consists,
&8 was shown in Secti on 6 (ii ) of Chapter VI . of a part which is rigidly
held by t he non -plastic material, and a part where deformation is
occurring. The slip-line boundary separating t he tw o parts must. in
the first instance. be constructed to satisfy all condi tions in stress and
velocity that diredly concern the zone of plastically deformi.ng material.
The restrictions on t he stress d istribution in this zone may include. for
example, fricti onless surfaces or prescribed exte rnal loads ; th e usual
restricti ons on the velocity are that it must have a zero compo nent
normal to fixed bounderiee, and that t he component normal to the
plasti c-rigid boundary must be compatible wit h the rigid-body motion
of material outside th e zone. In gene ral (cf. Cha p. VI , Sect. 6) we mU8t
construct t he slip-line field by a trial-and-error process , first choosing
& field that satisfies the stress condi tions. a nd th en examining whether
it ia associated with a velocity solution t hat is consistent wit h t he velocity
conditione'[ and which implies that t he ra te of work done on every plaatic
element is positive.
It may happen that these boun dary veluee alone do not uniquely
determine the slip-line field or that the assum ption &8 to t he general
position of the plastically deforming zone is in correct (for exa mple, in
sheet-drawing we do not kn ow a priori wheth er a standing wave of
plastic materia l is formed ahead ofthe die). These questions are decided
by the considerati on that t he rigid material (which may be p1&stic,
t Mo.t write... on .teadymo ti on p robl.rnlI h.ve unfortuna tel y negleocted to d o tm.;
_ . for iruotance. W . W . Sok olonky. T hwry oj PloMkiiJI ( Moeoo.... 1 ~ 6); K. H . 8~'
e henkc , Prikbl...... a M QkmGlihI i M d ,Aa....:.l::d. 5 (1941). 4311, and 6 ( 11142), 381 ; IftlUltiJ
AI:dd. N ouJ:. SSSR, 3 (11148 ). 329: F . K . Th. van I terwon. P ltuficily i" Engi~
(BIae .. ;" , 1 ~7 1 : E . Si.bel. J o..no. I rtm OM Sled IMe . 1.55 ( I N 7), 1126; O. F . CatrieI'.
Q.-f. App. M alA. 6 ( 11148). 186 ; H . I . AMOft. 0rGd-'" Di......... oj App. MalA . B~
Um venity , Teoch . Rop.. 14 and t3( lhs). In geoenJ their p~ .up.1U:M field. c.D
be Mown to be ineoneet; eKUDp _ .... diK~ la tei' .
VI I . II
FO R M ULA T ION OF TH E PR O B L EM
163
non-plastic. or unloaded) must be a ble to sustain the forces on its peri mete r. Thus. t he va lidity of the slip-line field ie fin&lIy proved by demonstrating the existence of a eteedy-etete d istribution of st ress in t he rigid
material such t hat the yield limit is nowhere ex ceeded .
It ap pea rs to be im possible to form ula te an ex plicit ste p-by-step
met hod for the solution of problems of steady motion ; t he element of
trial an d error can hardly be elimi nated. Eac h prob lem has its peculiarities end these mU8t first be a ppraised q ualitatively. Physical intuition
havi ng ind icated t he probable general loca tion of t he plastic region. t he
positio n of a section of some slip-line is assumed ; it shou ld be a slip-line
from which , with the st ress boundary conditions . a plastic field can be
built up unam biguously . The field is exte nded . unless halted by a n
inconsiste ncy , until it seems large enough to permit t he overall deformation required by t he ste ady state ; in rolling , for exa mple, the plastic
region must clearly extend right through the sheet , since t he material
leaving the rolls moves faster than it did .before en tering. A slip-line
field ha ving been guessed. we const ruct the velocity solution , beginning
where sufficient bounda ry va lues are available. Ha ving obtained the
d istribution of velocity we examine whet her it is compa tible with the
boundary valu es not 80 far used; since t he problem is statically un determined there are al way s more bou ndary conditions than a re needed
to define the velocity solut ion for an auumtd field. If all conditions
cannot be satisfied the original choice of slip-line must be modified .
When a ll condi tions dire ctly affect ing the ptestlc zone are satisfied we
have next to verify t hat th e rate of plastic work is everyw here posi tive,
and have finally to exa mine the associated stress distribution in t he
rigid mate ria l. If everything is consistent we have found a possible
steady state .
With a little practice and experimenting the reader will soo n gain
experience in choosing a favourable starti ng slip -line , while known
solutions will suggest possible patterns of slip-lines. Nevertheless. each
new problem usua lly presents fresh features. a nd there are still many
problems of practical importance whose solutions are not known, even
qualitatively.
2. Sheet -drawtngj
(il Drawing through a nnooth dk It is supposed that t he die hae
straight rigid wells, with an included angle o f 2m, a nd t ha t t here is no
t nw. -,tion folio_ cloMl y the pa per by R. H ill and S. J . T up per, J oouro . I ron oOld
Slql l _. 159 ( I04a ), SU.
)$4
friction, so t ha t Blip-lines meet th e wall at 45. We a re seeking th e steadystate configuration in which th e t hickness of the sheet, initially H , is
reduced to h by pulling the sheet through th e die unde r a force directed
along th e central axis. There is evidently a steady state in which the
sheet passes symmetrically through t he die, and we shall suppose th&t
th e surface rema ins undistorted until it reaches t he die (Fig. 32). F or
the starting slip-line let us choose the one through A meeting the wall
at 45, and assume its shape a ver a section A C, where C is its intersection
:/
Flo . 32. Slip .line field and plaatic region for drawinl
through a IIJDOOth lII'ed ge.haped d ie giv ing a eecd e....te
red uction in thiekn_ .
with the slip-line t hrough B meeting the wall &t 45. The slip-line field
is thereby uniquely determined within A B C (third bound ary-value
problem ; Chapter VI, Section S (ill)). Now A and B must clearly be
singularit ies for the st ress dist ribution; this fact enables th e field to be
continued round A and B , as far as is necessary , to fonn the regions A CD
and B CE (first boundary-value problem , epeciel case ; Chap. VI , Sect.
S (i)). The slip-lines CD and CE then define a region CDEF (firet
boundary-value problem ). Since th e zone of plastically deforming
material must extend t hrough the sheet , th e point F lies on the centre
line, so that it is common to the two plastic zones spreading symmet rically from opposite sides of t he die. Furthermore , since there is no
reason (at this stage) for sup posing th at th e stress is discontinuous, the
slip-lines at F must be inclined at 45 to the centre line. It is easy to see
that th ese restrictions on F fix th e angles CA D and CB E , hitherto left
arb itrary. For th e moment , t he fractional redu ction in thickness,
r = (8 - 1)/H, is taken sufficiently small to mak e this constru ct ion
poeeible .
vu. t]
SHEET DRAWIN G
nu.
.t
will be u.ed ...
hne. o( the velocit,.. at a
: W e do not , ... yet.
"elocityealeu.1ated (rom
h
2 sin III
(2)
H
1+ 2sin lll '
corresponding to - = 0, 8 = III (the points E a nd F coincide).
We ha ve still to dete rmine th e stress distribution in th e pleeti c zone
and for that we req uire t he va lue of th e mean compressive steese P. a
one point of th e field, 88Y F. Th is is provided by th e condition t hat th
sheet is drawn without back -pull, t hat is, no exte rnal force i8 appli
to t he part of t he sheet approaching t he die. We hav e, t herefore,
equate to zero th e longit udina.l component of t he total force acting over:
A DF ; th is is found by Integrating along A DF t he resolved components
of the pressure P and th e shee r stress k, using Hencky 's equations ((12)
of Chap. VI ) to determine t he val ue of p at any point in te rms of PI'
Having found Pe in th is way, we can calculate the stress at a ny point in
the field . Since both families of slip-lines in A B C are 8traight, the
pressure q on th e die wall is dist ributed uniformly ; its depe ndence on
die-angle an d red uction in t hickness is shown in Fig. 33. The fcrce
T (per unit width) needed to d raw the sheet is equal to th e longitudinal
component q(H - It) of t he t hrust on the die, and th e mea n te nsile st ress
t in the d rawn sheet to qr/( l - r) (Fig. 34). Th e right -ha nd extremitiM
of t he eurvea correspond to the reduction (2), which ill pecu liar in th at an
ex plicit formula can be obtained for the dr awing eteeee. By considering
, ~I - ~ ~ --- -
Z< H~:-'<J""'~-t--+---I---j
e-
10
4'
30
%~tion
'"
~ oVUI
Ik
/'
~,/
30~ , /
os
a -z:
,
,
oZ
oI
~gt limit
:~/
Curvt COHU~~
to ynifo.-m otfl'lsiorl
'7'
k
'-,
.~
,-, "
o
10
30
40
% Rtd...ction of
<Irt<l
'"
F IO.34_ Relation bolt w_ the ..-n drawing . t reee &nd the reduc.
tion in th ickne. (or V arioUi ..,mi..-.nglee in draw ing t~h a
arnooth wedge-oped die (no backpull a nd DO workhudornng).
11>e right-band broken eurve llO~pon<bito ....wonn de(o~tion.
and IJw le l't.hand curve to inc ipie nt bulgi ng.
VII . 2]
the equilibrium of the drawn sheet under the tension T and the etreeeea
along BEB (E and F are coincident), we easily find that
BCE ,ABC. CEDF, AGFG, and AGH (first and third boundary-value
problems). It may be demonstrated that the velocity conditione are
satisfied when BE is straight (and therefore inclined at 45 to the
centre line); the slip-lines of the same family in BEG are then also
straight, as are both families in ABC and the AC family in AGFG. The
velocity solution must be begun in AGH, the only region where two
boundary conditions are available, and continued in the order A CFG
ABC, GEDF, and BGE. The solution is possible only when the cal:
euleted velocity on BE is compatible with the rigid-body movement of
t = 1:-po'
A18O, by Hencky's equations, the pressure q is equal to k+po+2ka.
On combining this with the expreeeion q = (1-,.)t/,., and eliminating
Po, we obtain
t
2(1+a:)sina
q
1+a:
21: = 1+2aina'
21: - 1+2aina'
It remains to verify that both the drawn and undrawn parts of th
sheet can sustain the eteeesea applied on their boundaries. For the un
drawn sheet these are the calculated stresses along ADF, and zero ex
temal loeda elsewhere; for the drawn sheet they are the celcula
stresses along BEF, zero loads on the plene surfaces , and the applied
tension T . The rigid part of the plastic region is indicated in Fig . 32
but, as no investigation of the stress distribution hes yet been made
the plastic boundary is only meant to be diagrammatic . However , fro
calculations of the ave"age shear stress over oblique sections, it see
that, in genera l, the yield stress is unlikely to be locally exceeded. a
the oth er hand , it is easy to set an upper bound to the validity of th
solution . Drawing is impossible when the reduction is 80 great that t h
calculated mean ten sile stress in the drawn sheet exceeds 2k ; this li .
is not reached in the range of angles and reduction in Figs. 33 and 3.
At the other extreme, when the reduction is sufficiently small, it .
evident from Fig. 33 that the die-pressure may become 80 large that th
surface of th e sheet ahead of th e die becomes plastic, rather as thou
the die were an indenter. It will be shown later (Chap. IX, Sect. 6 (0)
that thi s is possible when the pressure q is equal to 2k(1+ r -a); th
curves in Figs. 33 and 34 are terminated at this value . For stillsmalle
reductions theory indicates] that a standing wave of plastic mate .
forms in front of the die (near A ) ; this has been observed in drawin
bars and in ironing thick-walled cupe.f
When the reduction is greater than (2) the slip-line field of Fig. 3
does not apply for reasons of geometry, and we must tum to the field 0
Fig. 35a. Here the most convenien t starting slip-line is BE, and wh
its shape has been assumed we may determine successively the regia
t R . Hill. DW,motion, p . 158 (C&mbridge 1948 ). wued by Mini.try of Suppl,.
Armament Beeeareh Eetabllahmen t, &OJ Survey 1/4S.
: M6lIo8uremen tll of the wave form. ~d an inv Mtigation of ita dependen ce on
an glo an d reduceicn , have been made by O. C. Driggs and H . 'W. Swift , Motor Ind
RUYlrth A , .oociation , Rep . U47 /Rf4.
SHEET . DRAWING
'"
(b)
Flo.3l!i. (lJ) Slip.lin., field for aomewhat larger reductiollll . (b) Incorrect
field for .till larger reduotioDll. with 8n 8CCompanying d iscontinuity
in velocity slang the errcwed dip.linllll.
VII .2J
17I
VII . 2]
Chap. II). We can therefore define a mean equivalent st rain for sheet
drawing equal to tlY, or tN3k. Let us assume t hat , to 8. 6nt epproximstion, the same mean equivalent st rain t/.J3k is imparted by the die whet ever the strain-hardening characterist ics of the material. Then the
drawing stress, or the mean work per unit volume, is equal to t he area
under the equivalent stress -strain curve (the true-stress vereue Iogerith !Die-strain curve in compression) up to th e strain t/.J3lc. This strain is
eu.,
173
=
,,,bf.l'll:l'Of/,
,
,
I
I
1
\
\
D,lfFI~ k-_ _
-~~
FI o . 37. Sli p-line field and p1Mbo region Cor
drawing through,. f"Ougb Wl!Od!t"-wped d ie giving
a moderate red uct ion in thic~
I"I'/k,
(4)
Fig. 37shows the slip-line field, which ill &nalogous to that for t he smooth
die (Fig. 32). It may be proved by the argu ment used previously that
the velocity boundary conditions are satisfied when t he slip-line A Cis
(6)
0
(7)
(6)
VII. 2]
S H E E T . DRAWING
17&
where q and t are th e die-pressure and drawing stress for the die when
smoot h (corrected for work-hardening, if necessary) . Sachs and other
wri~t8 ha~e take~ account of friction in a more complicated way, but
their theories retain the defect already noticed for smooth dies.
For a given redu ction the frictional cont ribution to th e drawing load
decreases as th e die-angle is increased ; on the other hand the contribution
from the non-useful work increases. For a given redu ction and co.
effi? ient of frict~on th ere will, th erefore, be a n optimum die-angle for
w~lch th~ dra';lng ~oad is least. This can be directly determined by
mung (8) In con junc tion with Fig. 34. For a non-hardening material and
a coeffi cient of friction of 0'05, for exa mple, it is found that the relation
between th e optimum half-angle (i and th e fra ctional reduction T can be
closely represented by th e relation (iQ = 40r (r < 0'5); when po = 0.10
the optimum is a bout 10 per cent. greater. Th e optimum angle is less
for an annealed metal t han it is for a pr e-strained metal ; precise values
for any given stress-strai n curve can be found by applying the correc tion
(iii) for hard ening to t, before sub stituti on in (8). Since th e load rises
sharply for di~-~ngle8 less than the optimum, and only gradua lly for
those greater, It IS bet ter when grinding dies to err on the side of a too large angle.
.(v) ~he infl~n ollxuk-pull. Suppose that a tensile force F (per unit
WIdth) IS applied to th e sheet approaching th e die. If there is no die
frictio~ all bou.ndary condit ions in th e zone of plastically-deformin g
~atenal are evidently satisfied if a hydrostatic tensile stress I = FIH
IS added at every point, th e slip-line field being unaltered. Thi s is equa lly
~rue for a work -hard ening material , provided the law of hardening is
Independent of the hydrostatic component of stress. Th e rigid part of
the pl~st~c zone is, of course, altered, and it is assumed that th e rigid
mater ial 18 a ble to sustain th e new syste m of bound ary stresses. The
pressure on the die is reduced by I (a change tending to minimize die
: ear). while the drawing stress is aug mented by I, and t he drawing force
y fA or F hJH. It is convent ional to define a factor b, expressing th e
depen~ence of th e drawin g force T and die load Q on th e back-pull F
according to the relations
T ~ T, + Il- b)F.
Q ~ T, - bF,
(9)
If, however, the die is ro ugh the problem i.e very mu ch more difficult.
A change in the pressure on the die alters the angle of intersection of the
slip-linea with the wall (equation (4)), and with it the whole slip-line field.
The effect of back tension on the etress distribution is therefore Dot
merel y additive. Failing an accurate solut ion we lJl&y obtain en epprcximationt for the back-pull faotor by introducing the eaeumption (7),
and 80 writing
Q' = (1 +~ cot .)(H-h )q' _ ( J+~coto)(H-h)q ~ (I +~ coto)Q .
H ence, if T ' and T;, are the drawing forces for a rough die with, and
without, back-pull,
..be",
b ~ (J+~ cot .)r.
(10)
This O1&y be compared with a formula du e to Lunt and MacLellan :t
b = l_(l_r)l+,. OOtt!.
(Il )
This follows either from Sachs' theory or from the eeeum ption that the
pleetlc materi&l is drawn towards the virtual a pex of t he die (Bee footnote
on p. 171); the same expression is obt&ined ifwork-hardening is included.
The form ulae (t o) and (tl) a gree (to the first ord er ) when 110 is small,
while (10) predicts the greeter b when 110 is l&rge; however , both rest on
eeeumptione which ere likely to be lese acc urate when p. is large.
The efficiency of ba ck-pull drawing depends on whether the work done
against the back-pull by the sheet can be usefully recovered. Let U'
suppose that this is possible, in order to set an upper limit to the efficiency .
The exte rnal energy expended per unit volume of material is then r - /'
which , from (9), is eq ual to
1- . I
(I-b)I -I = (, - (b-.)
(, + 1- .
.. u for
a. D . S . M:~LeI.
VU . 2J
8HE ET.DRAWING
1'77
aotlOUD'
i'. _
t FOI' aD.
o( Sachlo' ' heo ry . and empirioallDOdific&\iona of
R. W . L un '
llnd G. D . 8 . MacLeUaa... op . ci'. p . 176. A -.ride revie... of..v.drawiJ:>g Iitera'UN hu
been given. by G. D . 8 . HacLeUan, cp . ci'. p . ne.
t W . I.in icua a nd O . Sachlo. Mil' . ~k" M",u";<JlpnlJu..,~n~ . 16 (10311. SII.
31
\"II.
existence of an optimum die-an gle gi ving minimum load has been observed in many experiments, for example by Linicua and Seche and by
Weiss.t who fit ted his data. for coppe r wires by the relation lio = 30r
(coefficient of frict ion not known). The deriva tion of the formula for the
back-pull factor can be taken over unchan ged. Alth ough the linear
cup diameter, however, the hoop strain is everyw here negligible compared. with the strain compo nent resulting from the reduction in t hick.
ness. Thus, if Wand w are the wall t hicknesses before and a fte r ironing,
and d is the punch dia mete r, t he ma ximum hoop strain is roughly
2( W - w )fd , while t he red uction in t hickness involves a strain not less
than In( Wl w). For the practical ran ge of red uctions, My up to 50 per
cent., t he hoop strai n is always abo ut a fraction 2w/d of the strain result ing from the chan ge of t hick ness. If d is not less t ha n, say, 30 W it sho uld
be a good app roximation to treat the problem &8 one of plane strain,
experimental determination of flo prevents 8. test of the form ula for b.t
A dir ect determination of fl , under act ual conditions, demand s 8.
knowledge of the mean pressure on t he die . This is more difficult to
obtain in wire-drawing than in sheet-drawing, where the tw o helves
of the die are sepa rate and t he resultant load can be measu red d irectly.
The difficulty can be overcome, in principle, by t he use of a die split in
tw o along a plane t hrough the &Xis ; t he force needed to hold the hive.
toget her d uring drawing is to be meeeured. Let Q. be the splitting force,
that is , th e transverse component of the reaction between the wire and
one-half of t he d ie, a nd let Q( = T ' - F ) be th e lon gitudinal component
of t he rea.ct ion on the whole d ie. Then
Q~
(12)
where q' is the mean pressure on t he die. A resolut ion in the transverse
dire ction of forces on one half of the die gives
Q. =
[(A -a)(cot"-~).
(13)
Combining (12) and (13), we obtain a formula.for ,.,.in termaof meeeure ble
quantities :
1- 1'l'(QJ Q)tan D;
(H )
3. Ironing of a thin-walled cu p
The pa rticular ironing process to be a nalysed here is one where t he
wall t hickness of a cup is reduced while the inte rnal d iam ete r is kep
constant . This is achieved by forcing t he cup, mounted on a tig btlyj
fitting pu nch, throug h a d ie (Fig. 38a ). Th e circ umferent ial, or hoop,
strain imparted to an an nular element on the inside of the wall is exa.ct lyj
zero, while it increases steadily for annular elements of increasing initial
radius. When the wall thickness is a sufficiently small fracti on of th
t
L . Wei-.. ,zriU W'd4llh ..ar . 19 ( 1\12 71, GI. 8eoe AOO E . L . FrNlC'is And F . C. Thomp
IOn, J tnuw . J-e . Md4l" 46 (19 31), 3 13.
l See t c ritioeAlrev ie_ of t .... lite rAt ure on bAckpull by J . o . Wu.t rmch . J tN.r7I . 1
aM Slul b
15 7 C19f 71. f 17 ; t he effeeu on ..--hAnk.1 propen.i.. Ate . ood"u.-d.
I R . H ill , ibiJ. 161 ( 19491, u .
I R O N I N Q OF A THI N W ALL E D CU P
r-)
(b)
"
FIa.38. (a ) Iro n ing a t hin-", &I1ed tu~or cup . (b) The.l1.ip .Jm. field
when the d e formAt ion is t~ted . . .pprollimately plane . t.n.in.
and also to neglect t he contribu tion of the hoop stress in the equat ions
of equilibrium.
We shall be concerned only with the steady state, which is established
if there is no friction between the wall and the punch , and if the length
of the cup is sufficiently great. It is ev ident t hat the problem is identical
with tha t of sheet-drawing if we regard the surface of t he punch as t he
centre line of the sheet (Fig. 38 b). Th e pun ch load , t ransmitted to the
wall of the cup through its base , is
"",d+ w)" ,
where t' is the mean tension in the ironed wall. From (8) this is
L = 1IW(d+w)( 1+/-lcoh )l ,
( 15)
[VII. J
since W is being held constant ). All curves would ulti mately p&88 through
a maximum and return to zero. Th e broken curve (l- r)ln{l /{l-r)) ,
rep resent i.ng the load. for uniform com pression, is included for comparison ; it reaches a maximum val ue of I l l. (_ 0-368) for a fraction&!
reduction I - l It (-- Q-632). Also sh own is the locus 1 = 21; whi ch
rep resents the limit set by yielding of the ironed wall and intersec ts the
lower curve at ita maximum . The effect of t he factor ( l+~coh) is to
",
b Jwk
lI"OI'I1
YJ'
I...-f,'
,Y.&'
o1 InciP'tnt~
fl
Wglng ~\S.
oZ
';'.k.
" '''''
, 1\1""
-;::/
",
---
'-- -
VII.3J
4. Sheet extruslont
(i) E:dT'U8ion tkrQUlJh a wedge-81laped d~ . In direct ex trusion the metal
billet is held in a container and forced through a die by a ram (Fig . 40).
"'",",, 00
t-r.;/'
'V
V
o
181
01
06
make the cur ves cross , indicating an optimum die-angle for which the
load is least (see (iv) above). Th e gen eral effect of work- hardening is to
increase t he slopes of the curves without altering their relative positions.
If the punch is not perfectly smooth, frictionel streeeee will be induced
where the wall and the pun ch move with differen t speeds, that is, to t he
left of F where t he punch moves fa ster than the wall (the ironed wall ia
ob viously carried along with th e p unch ). The presence of t his friction it
recognizable by the decrease of the load, since progressively less of the
wall remains un -ironed . Th e problem is not then stric tly one of steady
motion, since th e slip-line field mu st be conti nual ly altering . However,
we can easily form a ro ugh est imate of the in8uence of the friction . If
the slip-line field intersects t he pun ch in one po int only, t he frictiona l
stresses are equivalent to a negat ive bac k -pull. The frictional force F
on t he p unch therefore decreases the te naion in the ironed wall by the
a mount ( l - b)F , where b is the back -p ull fac tor d efined in equa tion (9).
We are concerned now with the ext rusion of a sheet t hro ugh a wedgeshaped d ie of total in cluded angle 2a:, the thickness being red uced from
H t:o h._ The pl'OCe88 is clearly very similar to that of sheet-dra wing, the
main diff eren ce bein g that in the one process the sheet is pushed , and in
the ot~er pulled, t~rough t he die. Thus, all bounda ry cond it ions direc tly
affectmg the plasti c zone are satisfied by the slip-line field used in the
problem of sheet-dr awin g (cf. Figs. 32 and 37). T he rigid part of the
P~&8tic region and the srreeeee in the n on-plas tic material are, h owever,
different, owing to the new dis tribution of surface forces . Wh en the die
t G. ~ha. J . D. Lubahn, ~d D. P . Tracy , J OfUft.
t.e!nRp
. H Ili. J OfUft. 1NJft aM 8 Iftl 1...,. 158 ( 1 ~".8' - .177. I~oorreel lJlip.line fl"ltU hay.
~ by F . K. Th . y~ I~. PlaaflCUy ,.. Eroga"""",, IBJ.c kioe. 1947), Nld
by F.: Stebel , J ount. 1"", <SOld St.d 1.... 155 (19471. 62t1; _ ither Yri'- e1&IIlined tho
""'"
VII. 41
S HEE T E XTR US IO N
183
VII. 4]
SHE ET EXTRUSI ON
186
~k
3
,
1
./
// /
--
'"%
'"
//
In ..!:L
h
BO
100
F ra . ' 2. Ext.nl.Bion p nl88unl ve l'lJ\14 reduction in inverted enrosion through a square di e. The broken curve correepcnda to
uniform deformation .
,,
,
Ct nt rt
~nt
VII . 5)
i8 smell, th e Acute Angle between the Axis And the deformed tra
verse lines of the grid being cot- 1(B /la - I )1 when th e reduction is I
then 50 per cent. Th ere ie no cusp for t he field in F ig. 44.
(iii) Dirm txtrurion tArougla a IlqU4Te die. Since th e billet moves re
P IE R C ING
187
is used , th e fricti onal stress reac hes the VAlue 1- Andslip-lines ofone fA
meet th e wall tangentially. A possible dead -metal region (similar
whet is obeervedt) is shown in Fig. 44; t he slip-line field is eelf-exp
tory . By analogy with previous solutions t he velocity boundary
ditions can be immediately seen to be satisfied (t here is now no veloci
discontinuity Along CD And OD ). The extrusion pressure hAS not
calculated. It is observed t hat the load on t he ram stead ily dec
d urin g extrusion, attaining its minimum value shortly before th e 00
pleti on of extrusion. A rapi d rise then follows, owing to th e difficulty
eject ing the remainin g disk . It is found that th e minimum load is roughl
equal to the eteedy-etete load in inverted extrusion.
per cent. is shown in Fig. 45; th is should be compa red with Fig. 41 b.
When the container is not perfectly lubri cated, t he angles at which the
slip-lines meet th e wall must be suitably modified.
When th ere is no wall frict ion, th e pressure on the punch is clearly
equal to (extrusio n pre88ure)/(reduction in thickness), th e extrusio n
pressure being thAt corresponding to t he same reduction in inverted
extrusion. Th e relation between th e punch pressure P And t he reduction
in thickness, i.e. (punch width )/(width of container), has been derived
from Fig. 42 and is shown in Fig. 46. The pressure has a minimum VAlue
of 2k(1+lw) for a 50 per cent. redu ction, and th e curve is symmetrica l
about this point (in the range of validity of th e solut ion). Such a flat
minimum was obtained by Siebel a nd Fangmeiert in experiments on
the piercing of cylind ricallea.d billets with cut -back flat punches. Th ey
found thAt th e pressur e rose rap idly towerda the steady-state value,
and that the rise was steepest for large reductions. Th e steady state
persisted until t he punch had penetrated to within half ita wid th from
t
E . Siebel &lid E .
Fan~ier,
M ilt .
(1931 ), 2s.
,..
VII . e]
the base of the con tainer. In t he present prob lem t he punch preeeure
needed to begin piercing would be 2k( 1 i1T) for red uctions of less thaQ
60 per cent . (see Cha p. IX , Sect. 5 (i)), while for reductions greater tha
60 per cent. piercing would not begin unt il the steedy-stete press ure
applied. This is in broad a.greement with the obeerva tione of Siebel &n
F a.ngmeier , if ellowence is made for the rounding of the preaeu
penetration curve by eleet ic stra.ins and work-hardening. When
Jik4
1/
<,
3
<,
../
,
1+'f
1
20
40
60
%R.cl uetiM
80
100
6. Strtp -rolltng
(i) Scope 01 1M theory. The following account of theories of rollin g:
restricted to the cold rolling of strip. Th is is the term applied to t
sheets with a thickness not more than about 02 inches, an d & wid
thickness ratio of at least ten. Th e strip is red uced in tblckneeeby p .
it between two parallel cylind rical rolla whose radius is of the order
STRIP . ROLL IN G
s..,.
VII. Sl
arc of larger rediuet (the cha nge in shape du e to the frictional forces i.e
probably very small and is neglected ). The shape of t he flattened roll
ia thus expressibl e by one paramete r only, nam ely t he radi us Ir ofthe
deformed arc of contact . This is a great mathema tical, and indeed a
prac tical, convenience. The acc uracy of H itc hcock's method is not
known , but it is difficult to eee how his assumption could be im proved in
any simple or useful way.
S T R I P _RO L L I NG
"R -
).foil ( .. eo...
H iU Boo k
ce., 111M).
'01
(17)
which is Hitchcock 's formula for the radius of t he deformed Arc of contact. Th e angula r measure Cl of the deformed are, with respect to its
centre, is L IR' or .,J(SI R' ) (note , also, t hat L = S/(I).
(iii ) General ~ratioM. Since the speed of the strip is increased in
passing t hrough the rolls there shou ld be a point N on the arc of contact
where the local elements of the roll and strip move with t he same speed ;
this is called the neutra l point . To the entry side of N , where the roll
moves faste r than the at rip, frictional stresses are induced which draw
the material into the roll gap ; to the exit side of N, the frict ional stresees
oppose t he de livery of the st rip, which here moves fu ter than the roll.
In a steady state t he strip ad justs its speed relati vely to t he speed with
which t he rolls are driven, in such a way that the extem alstresses acting
on t he strip are in eq uilibrium. This determines t he posit ion of the
neutral point.
Let fJ be t he angular position of a generic point on t he a rc of contact
referred to 0 ' B, a nd let be t he an gula r position of th e neutral point N .
If pte) is the distribution of normal pressure! on the roll, a small element
of the surface , of length R' dB, is acted on by a norma l force pR' dB
(per.unit width) and a tangential frictional force IlpR' dfJ (1 Ie lese than
01 In cold rolling with a lubri can t , and 80 the frictional etreee IlP is
almost always less th an the shear yield stress k ). The equation of
a-
f,
.
.
.
f'
PdD).
(18)
The resultant vertical force P per unit width a cting on t he r oll is gi ven by
P =
).
pdD.
(19)
The torque G per unit width act ing on each roll is found by taking
moments about t he spindle ax is 0 for forces on th e roll. The lever arm
of the force pR' d8 is Approxima tely (R' - R)(1C&- 9), depending 0
which Bide of 0 th e element lies. The lever arm of the force p.pR'
is R , to the same ord er of approximati on. Hence
.'
1113
RR'! pDd9-jRT,
Hence
(2 1')
;,~ ,f
ST R I P . ROLL ING
If the moment of the normal pressure is neglected, the formula. for the
torque is
..
VII. 5]
(22)
(20
where w is the an gula r velocity of the rolla and U is the exit speed of
the strip. It is conventional to define a quantity J ,lmown as the forward
slip, expressing the relative difference in the epeede of st rip a nd roll at
the point of exit:
(21
by E . Oro_ lUI. PTw.l_ . M eclo. "4. 150 (1043'. 1'0. A . N~, -!&tMft. A JIP: M~
(193 9), A-65. h.. oonai denod fric t >onal eo ndit ionl . uc b ttw.t the fnotlonal .t~ .. pro
tioDal to the~.,. ~ oI"'ip.
U I Rw ~
1+/,
from (22). But A,,- A _ R'",', with neglect of higher order terme
in~,
and hence
[VI I. e
VII. e)
to von
(24)
This form ula is not valid for very large redu cti ons.
(iv) Eltmtntary Ikory oj 1M. St T8 S distribution. Conside r the etreesee
on a thin alice of the etrip contained between two verti cal eecrione
distant % and %+dz from the exit plane 0' B (Fig . 47 ). Let y{%) be the
thickn ess of the strip at any point . Let qy be the resultant umik force
acting over a vertical section ; q is then t he mean. taken over the eection,
of the normal component of stress in the horizontal d irection . The two
forces pR ' dB, acting on the ends of the alice, hav e a horizon tal reeultent'
of amount 2pR' sin BdB, or p dy. The two forces~pR' dBhav e a resultant
of am ount 2~pR' C08 BdS, or 2~p dz . The equation of equilibrium of the
slice is therefore
d(qy)+p dy2~p <Ix ~ O.
(25)
where the upper aign refers to the exit side of the neutral point N , and
the lower eign to t he entry aide.
So far the analysis baa been exact; we now introduce the assumptio
that characterizes t he elementary theory:
p +q _ 2k,
(26)
where 1', &8 usual. denotes the yield stress in shea r. Th is equation may be
derived from t he yield crite rion by making three sepa rate assumptions,
namely (i) that the stress is uniform ly distributed over a vertical section,
(ii) that p and q are the magnitudes of the principal stresses at any point
on the arc of contac t. and (iii) that t he plastic region exte nds everywhere
between t he pla nes of entry a nd exit. ] 0 many presentations the second
assumption is rep laced by the state ments that the principal stress axes
are everywhere horizontal and vertical, and that t he magnit ude of the
vertical principal etrees is t hen ap proximately equal to p. However, it
eeeme preferable to make only the one postulate (26). If the material
work-herdene, I: is to be regarded as a function of x , Assuming t hat the
deformation is app roximately uniform compressio n, the va lue of 2.t
at a section x is the ord inate of the compressive etreee-etre in curve,
obtained und er conditions of plane strain, correspo ndi ng to the abscissa
In(H l y ). Alternati vely, 2k is equa l to 2/-.13 times the ordinate of the
unia xial etresa -atrain curve at t he ab scissa. (2/.J3)ln(H /y) (this is the
equivalent stra in; see p. 30). When I: varies, equation (25) must be
integrated by a smell-ere process . A simple met hod of a llowing for
work-hardening is described later.
The theory of strip -rolling expressed in equations (25) and (26) is due
."
tion of q gives
(2l )t
dy
2z
dz = g O
to the usual approximation for small angles of contact . Subst itution in
(27) gives
()
I Ia + ~, ~~ = 21: ; . ~p.
( 28)
Introducing the non-dimensional q uant ities
!
we obtain
,H
- p
"1 -
21: '
~J(~,) ~ ~J(l~')'
(29)
where T is the fractional reduc tion 8/H, and a is a parameter whose va lue
is normally between 0'5 and 20 in strip-rolling (R'/1a is normally in the
range 50-500). The boundary conditions are
~ O;
"1 = 1-
t.
,
2k
! =
J(t' ,).
t Thill eqUAtioD i.I a pp lica ble (wit h the upper . ign ) to .heet .drawing or lIlttlUllion
through a die o r any contour 1I(~) . Wh en the d ie i.I wedp. ha ped (dll /cb: _ 2 t.a.n" j the
eq uation l...ds to the p1&ne. t ....in analogu-: or Sacha' rormula Ip , 111) ror t he drawing
. t ,-,. A . T . T aelikov, M d4lJwrp 6 (1938). el (R uaiao ). hu bued a t heory or rolling o n
an a ppro:a:imation to t he an: o r contact by itoa "hom; ro r an aocoun t in Engli.... _ L . R .
Underwood. ShuJ Mdal I~riu. (February. " ..e). 288.
standard method for solving linear first -order equa tions we find that
. tan ~ #1
, - .-...[(I -;k)...._2f....
(entry side,
.p~ ~
, =....[(1_ ~) +2 f'-"'tan~ #l
(30)
where
~~
.p ~ .p..),
tan-If ~ tan-'j(~) 9.
~,~
a nd t/I.., the value of t/I corresponding to the neu tral point, satisfies the
equaUon
~
VII.6J
ST R IP RO L LI NG
..
..
= . .... [(1_ ;~) + 2 f '-"' tan~ #l
tan~# - (l - ~).
(1 -;k)....-2 f....
From (19) th e roll-force is
I
01
(31)
oIlr /(t- r ))
~ R' P d9 ~ 2l;.J(R'h )
,df.
"'lrf(t - ~lI
_ 2kR'h
'"
Wben',
." .
(entry aide), }
." =
(l -~)e"' sec~
(exit side).
0=
(32)
is equivalent to writing
lb),
# ~ 1'-"' coso~ d(tan'lb) -1d(tan'
end
(tan'lb).
f
.... tan~#
- f.... C08'1b d(tan.~) - .....COs'lb,fd
21-"'tan~
~j(~') ~ ~ v,.
a:
n D. R . BLuld
\'11. II]
ST R I P R O L L I S G
'"
P.
~ =
a =
en
,.,
.z
04
F lo.8 A.
03
(}5
'6
.,
----------
ez
-,
--
" "
-, -,
"
" ,
F lO. 8 B.
F lo . 48. Th&Ortotieal rtol.tiona bet.... een (II) roll -force and reduction, .nd (/I)
torque and red uct tcn, (or various ValUH o f /I _ "..j(R'/H) .
0'6
rs
"'_0'1
06
funct ion of the convent ional compressive strain e (fractional red uction in
height ). Now th e value of e at t he point 80n t he arc of contac t is given by
H(, - . ) ~ R'I!',
Hence, if the pressure were equal to the local value of t he yield streee,
the roll-force would be
17 -
R'
2k(.) dO
STR IP _R OLL I N G
VII . 6J
201
a:
a:
~ J(R' H I J~ dt.l'
201,-- - - - - - - ----,
a:,
\ -0
1--- ---
0-8
06~----
01'0
0'5
%.
2W.
The theoretical predi ction that t here should be a pressure peak (the
friction hill , &8 it is called) bea boon confirmed by expe riment. A pressuretransmitting pin is held in contact with th e strip through a radial bore
in one of th e rolls, t he pressure being measured by a. pieeo-electricf or
photo -elastic met hod. The distrib ut ion is found to be more rou nded
tha.n th e theory predicts , both at the pea k and at the points of exit and
entry. The roun ding is probably due partly to t he elastic behaviour of
the strip. and partly to th e dietortiona inherent in th e method ofmeasurement . A closer comparison is rendered uncertain by th e leek of direct
experimental determinetiona of ~. Thi s difficulty is present , too, in the
comparison of t heoretical and experimental values of t he roll-force or
torque.11 It seems likely t hat th eories of rolling have not infreque ntly
been brought into agreeme nt with th e measured roll-force by attaching
spurious values to p.. For a significant test of t he th eory it is desirab le
to compare th e values of both Go and Po (it should be noted t ha.t Go/Po
it.almost independent of po in th e pra ctical range). Fig. 50 illustrates t he
success with which experimental datatt is represented by the preceding
theory. Th e material was 3 in. x 0 0 63 in. annealed mild steel, red uced.
by varying amounts between rolls of 5 in. radius with flood lubricant.
The th eoreti cal curves are based on a coefficient affliction eq ual to OOS.
t D . R . Bllld:ld and H . F ord, op . cit ., p . 189.
f B See H . Ford, Proc . l u. M d . Eng . 159 I ltH S), 115, fo r e llpe rim on UJ. va luel or eeu.
bOroe ~d torqUl' for top pe r n ri p. and .. del&iled co mpuilon _ ith the valuel p red.icted
y V&l1OWl t heoriw.
ft
obtained in 19.8 on the experiment&! ro llingmill a t SheftieJd Uni ve m ty ,
~_ .. rep roduoed by the ki nd ~;.ion of the Direc to r. The Britiloh Iro n a: Steel
-- r eh A.:>ciation.
':l'hill ...
vu.er
"
203
.~
.E
Thfo rttiCdl
Torqu e
OC,f
'"",
~
7f,
0
10
Mrilsvrtd RolI-fQfce
+ Mtd~urrd TorQue
"
zo I) 40 SO
Percen t age Il.t d",ction
60
(v) I nfluence of applied tenai<m8. The effect on the pressure distribu tio
of applying front and back ten sions can be understood from (30). Exce
near the neutral point (Fig. 49) the pressure is reduced by an emoun
which, a.t points on the entry side of t he pressure peak, is directly p
portional to the back tension stress tb , and at poin ts on the exit side
the front te nsion etrese tf (thi s is not quite accurate since t he change .
roll-force slightl y affect s the lengt h of the arc of contact ). The reduc tion
in pressure varies according to position on the ar c of contac t , bein
proportional to exp{2a (r#.-r#l} on the entry side, and to exp(~)
the exit side ; both factors increase towards the neutral point. In gene
the position ofthe pressure peak is alte red , being moved forward by tb
t E . QroWllfI , P'O" . Intl l. M h . Eng. 1!9 {I 94SI, HIS.
t,
t,
(~
lal
FlO .
:n.
be lab orious to compute, and difficult to present, data sheets of t he rollforce and torque covering a range of values of b, r, t, /21c, and tll /21c. An
alternative method of approach to this problem is suggested by t he consideration that the dependence of the roU-force and torque on the
applied tensions is probably only slightl y affected by t he precise distribution of pressure on the rolls. This appears likely in view of the general
shape of the friction hill, and the restricti ons upon it imposed by the
equations for the equilibrium of the strip as a whole , Theoretical con.
~derationst indicate t hat there should be an approximately linear rela tion bet ween the non-dim ensional quantities GIPR and TIP, and that
the intercept of the line on the TIP axi s should be very nea rly equal to
the angle of contact 0: (F ig, 51 a) . Both predictions have been demon Btrated experimentally'[ over a wide range of conditions (Hitchcock 's
:ormula being used to calculate 0:). The linear relation may be expressed
In the form
(33)
M~"" . E1lfI.
,,.
vII. 6)
where the subscript zero denotes no-tension values. That the intercept
on the T /P axis should be approximately equal to 0: can be understood
by reference to equat ion (21). Wh en 0 = 0 (this corre sponds to Steckel
rolling, or drawing t hrough idling rolls), we have
..
~~
_+.
y [ p dO ~ [ pO dO.
~ 0+ RR'(2y-o).
(!!:\
pl a..o
(3f
o=
__
(D
p}a..o
0:
when
y --
to:.
It is found that the line cuts the ordinate axis a little below the pain
io:; the intercept is very nearly equ al to the angular position of t he centroid of the pressure distribution when T = O.
Th e (algebraically) leas t value of T /P for which rolling is possible'
found by substituting tP = 0 in (20):
f
,
(36)
0 -
[I+ (1 _RR,)(RP,
- I)J(!!-.)
20
PR .-0'
a
(36)
Hence
G ( R)( T
'G );
P- PR
~ ~ PR+1 1- R'
or, from (33),
ST R I P R O L L IN G
(37)
where lfo = 200/ ( I / o)Rh. When the forward slip is small (as it usually
is except when a large frout tension is applied), W --lfo. Thus th e
energy expended per unit volume of material remains roughly constant
when tensions are a pplied. Therefore, apart from possible savings in
the dri ve, the efficiency cannot be significant ly improved by rolling with
tensions, but may be materially lowered. if the back -tensi on energy
cannot be usefully recovered .
If, now, we elimi nate 0 betw een (33) and (37), we obtain a relation
between P and the ten sions (Fig. 5I b):
P = PrJ -A1f-BTb ,
where
A = RPo_!,
2GQ
a.
(38)
B = ! _( I _ r)RPrJ.
a.
20 0
This agrees qualitatively with experim ent in predi cting th at the rollforce is decreased more by a back te nsion than by the same 8t re88 applied
as a front tension. Th e quantitative agreement is less good, due to the
t R . Hill , op. eu ., p. 203.
Fot pre_Rtained met&k, bcwe ver, a d~ not depend. linearly on ' -.rui q uadrat.io
terme in 4 a nd 'I'. m\lllt be added to lMICUnl elcee ~ent .
\'11 . 7)
7. M.chlnlnllt
In the proc ess of machining, a surfa ce layer of metal is removed by a
wedge-shaped. tool which is const rained to tra vel para llel to t he surface
Pat h if ~ltmtnt
MAC HI SIN G
F lO.
T
t
r - -
F.",.
..I. _
. .n' _
8in~
cos( ~
0::)
(39)
r cosC& ,
l -r sin o::
= .
cou
= r - 2rsinC&+ I
smcos(-a)
r coe c
(40)
$0< \lrt<Jl..
1194.1 ), 299.
VII . 7]
or
r-.\
The apparent coefficient of friction can thereby be deduced from measuremente of P and Q. In the experiments of Merchantt po had valuee between
a bout 0'5 and 10. Th ese high values are und entandable since t he chip
surface , bearing on the tool. is freshly fonned and should therefore be
free from adsorbed filma. It is found that an Increeee of the speed by ..
factor of 5 lowers p. by ebout 20 per cent.; there appears .180 to be
ecele-effect in that the epperent value of p. depends on the depth of
mechlning.
Let ok be the shear stresa of the materiel after the stra.in y. Considering
the equilibrium of the chip, and resolvin g perellel to the line of sheer,
we find
kTloin4 = P eo<4-Qoin4
_ P[eo<4-oin4tan(A- .>] from (42)
_ Pco'(4+~ -.)fco. (~ - .) .
(43)
The average value p of the eompreeelve stre&8.cting ecrcea the shear line ia
p = ktan(A+4- )
(<<)
PIT =
k eo A-.>/oin 4 eo 4 + ~- .>
(46)
~(~=o .
...
MA CHINI NO
eo ,+ A-.) ~
~~ oin4eo4+A-
.).
(46)
In view of (40) ok is a known fun ction of q" calculable from the stressstra in curve in shear at the eppropriete temperature and rate of strain.
If there were no work-hardening the eclutio rrt of (46) would be simply
4-
"+I . -I~.
(47)
unpli. that lhe eu U ml edp . .. aingulari~y for t he atate o f at..- m the e h ip . Thus, if
~be ~lioll of rDas imum ahN,r aU- .. ~ a poiDl on ~he ehip wrl_ adj~" \0 lbe
CUUmg edp were paralW \0 lbe m-r line. _. Iboukl. have ~ _ l"+"' - .l. Thia ~
that t.he direeUon of u.. ...wtazol av- .... ting on the t.ooI f_ _ .. priDcipal direetion
(or t.he atate o( aU- . l the eu~t.ing edge; lDOI"8OVW, the other principal componen~
of ewe. u. ~. ~ fannula undere.t.imal . ~, aDd oolTMJlOlldingly ov-"ima _ the
reeiatanoe \0 machining ; OD 0 priori JtI'OWldl, i~ is ce rtain ly Invalid (or large nega~ive
rak. _inc. i~ impli. a nega~in ~.
VII. 8]
The yield crite rion is sa t isf ied by the introduction of . param eter "'.
depending only on 8 by hypotheeie, end such tha.t
TrI
= hin2l,b,
ar- a, = 2k cos2.p .
8_
(48)
f 008~d+
(I"
where A is a.nother constant . Since we a.re taking '" to have the same
sign as 8, c must be positive, and moreo ver must be greater than unity
to avoid infinities in t he integral. Integrating:
8~ -H J('.'
.......
O<:~-1L
"
_ r-
..-T,.
l ~dr
----~-- - - -
,,,I
,,
'1(,,'
l) tan-'lJ(:~ :)t&n ~)
ar + a8 +
;k-cos~ =
a.
it follows tha.t
all(8) = clleC"14- 1,
Since
(02)
('3)
= g(B)
ir- i , _
-2g(8)fr _
2y" - 2TI'f or
g'(8) /r l - cot 2ifJ
zc:
Hence
(61)
2Trt9 = O.
f sin~d8+J(r).
r.
1)t&n-'j(:+:)~ 1w+ e,
g(8) = exp( -2
BI (e-cos 21jJ)
and
.,e
- i l'l'
I),
a0 8
(e >
As 0; varies from 0 to i1l', c varies from <X) to 1'1 92 (eppro x .). From ('9)
and (50) the ateeeeee are , fina lly,
81-"
('O)
C COS 2.p'
,,
'"
.;
('9)
= r (c
B
cos 2lp) '
(54)
~ow, since the flow is radial and t he shear stress is constant along any
redlus, the stress distribution within a sector 8 Ie the solution for a
chan nel of angle 28 and a frictional stress J: sin 2.p. Conversely if we
recut
'
' onal
qUire t he 8O.ution
corres pondi ng to a channel of angl e 28 and a fricti
t A. Sadai. Z. iu . / .
streee ,\k (0 ~ ,,~ 1), we simply solve (51) for the appropriate value
of c. with 2I/J = sin-I ,\. The stress components are then given by (48),
(61), end (63).
If, by BOrne means, t he shear stress on the sides of the channel were
directed towards the apex, 80 tha.t it assisted the motion, the state of
stress would be obtained by taking y, opposite in sign to 8. It followa
from (50) that c must certainly be less than COBa, end that
(-1
~ o ~ 0).
(66)
Tre =
k-8 ,
"
B~
fco,d+.
c
c+ cos2t/J
VIII
NO N S T E AD Y MOT I ON PROB LEMS I N TW O
D I MENSIONS. I
I. Geometric si m ilarity and the unit d iagram
WE now consider problems in which the stress and velocity at any fixed
point are varying from moment to moment. To begin wit h, we restrict
our attention to problems where the plastic region develops in such a
way that the entire configuration remains geometrically similar. We
have already encountered two examples, namely t he expansion of a
cylindrical or a spherical cavity from zero radius in a n infinite medium;
when the configuration at any moment is scaled down to a constant
cavity radius the same distribution of stress is obtained. Other exampl es
are th e indenting of th e plane surface of a semi-infinite block by a conical
or pyramidal punch . For geometrical similarity it is necessary that
the distortion should be initiated at a point or along a line, and that
the specimen should be infinite in at least one dimension. Although
either condition precludes the exact realizat ion of similarity in prac tice, it is easily attained within experimental error. For example,
Vickers pyramid hardness is observed] to be effectively independent of
the applied load, provided the specimen is large compared with the
diameter and depth of the impression , and provided the impression is
large compared with the grain size and the radius of curvature of th e
tip of t he cone.
To formulate the idea of similarity more precisely, let r be th e position
vector of an element referred to the origin of distortion, and let c be a
cha~acteristic length defining a stage of t he deformation ; for exa mple,
c m~ght be the radius of th e plasti c region round an expanding spherical
cavity, or the depth of penetration by a conical indenter. Now in a general
problem of non-steady motion th e stre ss and velocity are certa in
functions of r and c. When geometric similarity is preserved. the stress
and velocity are functions only of the single variable ric. Hence, if the
confi.guration at any sta ge is scaled down in the rat io c: 1, we always
obtain exactly th e same geometrical figure, at a fixed point of which the
:~ponding stress and velocity are unvarying ; in particular, th e
gion representing the plastic material does not alter. This figure , in
p f P . Field F oeter, The Mec/uJnicol TMti>lg oj M dah a l'ld A lloy., 4th ed iti on , p . IIll
( Itnllm & 8ona, 1948).
3. 3; .1"
...
N O N . ST E A DY ) IOT IO N PR OB L EM S. J
[VI II. I
which the characteristic length bee been mad e unity, will be called the
uni~ diagram. t An element. whose posi tion vector is r in ec t uel epece, is
re presented in t he unit d iagram by a point whose position vector is
p = rIc.
There is a close resemblance between problema where geometrio
simila rity is ma intained &nd problems of steady motion. Wb en the
ex te rnal condit ions a re completely specified, there is no development 0
the plastic region to be traced and. in bot h, 8. system of coordinates can
be found such that t he corresponding distribution of stress and velocitJ'j
is consta nt. Both ty pes of problem are statically undetermined and the
same t rial-and-erro r procedure must be followed. to constru ct a slip-lin
field sati sfying th e stress and velocity boundary conditions. In both,
the fields are finall y justifie d by showing that positive wor k is don e on a
plastic elements , and that in the rigid material there is an associated!
state of stress such that t he yield limit is nowhere exceeded. The only!
feature of difference in the method of solution is the form taken by t
velocity boun dary condit ions expressing the maintenan ce of similarity
It is more ad van tageous to phrase these in te rms of the movement 0
elements in t he uni t diagram, rather t han in ect uel epece . If t he velocit
of a n element in the actual space is v = d r /de (referred to c as the scale
' time' ), an d the velocity of t he corresponding point in t he unit dia.gra
is dp/de. t hen
d
dp
dp
(I
v = de(ep) = c de + p, or c de = v - po
This equation etetes that the corres ponding point in the unit dU~"'f
moves, at eac h moment, to wards a focus whose position vector is v
and t hat ita speed is equal to t he q uotient of its focal distance and tb
parameter e. The path of an element in actual space is represented b
some t ra jectory in the unit dia gram which is calculable from (1); .
particular, t he trajectory of a n element which is at rest in act ual s
(for exa mple, an element not yet overtaken by t he spreading pleati
region ) is a straight line directed to wards the origin. After the elemen
becomes plastic the corresponding point in the unit d iagra m describes
in general, a curved t rajectory . It is evident that a ll elements initiaU
sit uated on t be same rad ius through the origin describe t he sa me trajeo
tory in the unit diag ram ; this is a complete express ion of t he contin .
geometric simila rity. We she ll eee late r how this property of the uni
diagram facilitates a calculation of the distortion of a square grid.
t R. Hill, E . H. I.-, and S. J . Tupper. P roc.
R~.
Soc. A. ( BS IU n ). 213.
VIII . 2]
W EDOf;. I N D E NT A T ION
2, Wedge -Indentatfont
'"
Flo . 54. Inde ntation 0 ( . p lano su rface by a smoo t h wedge , Bho" 'ing ths slip .
lin&fit kl on t he ri gh t a nd th& main (ea tu N'tl o(the d istortion o n the I&ft.
problem). Since the free surface will not necessarily meet the wedge
orthogonally, the point A must be a stress singularity. This, with the
slip-line AD, defines the field ADE, 'which may be continued round A
through any desired angle (first boundary-va lue prob lem, special case) .
The slip-line A E, together with th e requ irement t hat A C must be a free
surface, defines the field AEC and, incidentally, the shape of A C (converse of second bounda ry-va lue problem). Now the poin t C must lie
on t he origina l plane aurfece ; th is determines the angu lar spa n .p of t he
field AD E . We ha ve next to exa mine wheth er, with our init ial choice
of BD, t he velocity boundary conditions are sa tisfied. Along AB the
component of velocity normal to the wedge is equa l to the normal com ponent of the speed of penetration ; along BDEC the norma l component
of velocity is zero since th e material underneath is rigid. The velocit y
solution may t herefore be begun inA BD (third bou ndary-value problem ),
and exte nded successively to ADE and AEC (first boundary-value
problem ). Th e calculated velocities of elements on the free surface must
t . R. H ill, E. H . I.-, and 8. J . T uppel', op. cit .. p . 21 Ths problem o( obliqU&~_
trat lon by a wl'ldgoo h&I t-n treated by R . Hill and E . H . L.e, Min ifiry o( Supply ,
Armunen t n-rc h Departmont. Theo,.., t ieal ~ h Rep . 1/4e.
2UI
[VIII. !
VIII . 2]
WEDGE_INDENTATION
217
The elimination of hIe from (2) and (3) gives the relation between ifJ
and 8:
C08 !/J
oo 29 - ~) - 1+ &. + '
(4)
Since similarity is maintained by this solution, and since the velocity
equations express incompressibili ty. it neceeeerily follows that the
volume of ma terial d isplaced a bove t he original surface is equa l to the
...... . ....
~,
.... .....
-""1('--
1I(oo< 9-.m(9-+)] ~ c.
Since vis zero on the plast ic-rigid boundary BDEC. it is zero everyw h
by Geiringer's equation for the variation of v along t he straight p.u
I t follows that u is conatant on each a-line , an d hence, by the boun
condition on AB, it is univ ersally equal to .....h inB (the downward
of the wedge is unity on the ecele c). Thus. at any moment, all elem
a re moving with the same speed along the a-lines. The surface AO
therefore displaced to a parallel position, and the new configu ra cen be mad e geometrically similar by a suitable choice of the length
BD or. equivalently, t he position of A . Referring, now, to the
diagr am (Fig . 55), the foci all lie on a circular arc H K of span '"
radius Ivl = .....2ein8. where OH and OK are pa rallel respectively
E C and BD. H is the focus for elementB in AEC, and K is the focus fi
elements in ABD. Since OK is of length .....2ain 8 and is inclined at '"
to A B , K must lie on A B . In ADE the focus for an element at Pis
point F where the arc H K is intersected by the perpendicular from.
to AP. Now we have seen th at, for similarity, the tangent at any po
on A C must be directed towards its associated focus ; hence A O m
p&88 t hrough H. The condi tion for this is that the projection of ...
perpe nd icular to CA shou ld be equal to the sum of the projectfcns
OR and OB ; th at is,
A B COB !/J = OH sinl'n+OBC08(8- !/J ),
('
A008+ - c(.in9+ooo(9-+ll
0'
0'
\
Flo. s:i. Un i' diagTam and 'rajeetoriee o r e1emeot. (or
wedp-indf'flta'ion .
[VI n.
'"
The load per unit width is 2Phsin 6, and the work expended per u
f-
l.
I'
s
10
V
lIJ
/
.,. ,
WEDGE .INDENTATION
VIIl.2J
'"
be found ; this would imply that plastic dt/ormalion had begun elsewhere.t
(iii) Distortion round 1M imIWtMWn. An inspectio n of t he trajectories
in Fig. 55 reveals t ha t an element initially between OD an d OB remains
in K BD and 80 always moves parallel to BD after becoming plastic.
Hence th e material initially situated in OBD finaIly occupies KBD,
and its deformation is equi valent to a simple shear parallel to BD.
Similarly, an element which ie finally within AEC bee always moved
parallel to E G after becoming plaatic. Th e materiaJ finally OCCUP)ing
AEC has, in effect , been shee red parallel to E C from the initial position
JEG, where J is the meet of OG with th e parallel to CE through A .
'The deformation of material initially in ODE J hee no simple properties,
except th at surface elemen ts initially on OJ are finally in contact with
the wedge along K A . Thus, part of the original surface is drawn do wn
the side of the wedge; thie phenomenon is eccentueted if th e wedge i8
not free from friction.
The calculation of th e distortion of a square grid it moet conveniently
carried out in th e unit diagram. Th e problem is to find th e final position,
when t he penetration is c, of th e comer of a square wboee initial position
is r . Suppose that the plastic boundary fint reach es the com er when
the penetration is e. e), and let P. = r oleo be t he posit ion of the
corresponding point in the unit diagram. Th is point lLfterwllrds moves
along the tra jecto ry through P. Th e trajectory ha ving been calculated,
let , be th e further distance traversed by th e point when the penetration
has increased.to e, and let/(, ) be th e corresponding focal distance. Then,
from ( I ),
In;' ~ ,j K.i.
(6)
.....
I'!laulta .... of Iigni.ficNlce in decid ing ho. tarp . apec'lmen ahouW be foJ' . val id hardn_
""
it ahown in Fig. 61.
vIII . 2]
W ED G E_I N D E N TATI O N
22'
heavily pre-stra ined metal t he further work -hard ening is slight , and th e
load needed to effect the second mode of deformati on is reached before
that needed to overcome th e elastic resistance in th e first . In lubricated
indentation of a pre -strained metal a ridge or coronet is alway s t hrown up.
,
,
_ 1Iquat'll
(iv) I nfluence Q
I Jrit:tUm and 8train-hartkning. The solution when
wedge is rough (eliding fri cti on) differs only in that the slip-linea do
meet the face at 46 0 The displaced eurfsce A C is still straight, tho
inclined &t a smaller angle, end the pressure on th e wedge is unifo
distri buted. F or &. sufficiently blunt wedg e a nd a large eno ugh coeffioi
. '111.
-~- --
, c
~~
~~
as. Slip. line fipld a o<l d ("{ormat ioo io a wedge l'Omp ~1 b)" 1\ IlmQOth flat die.
moment bet ween the die and the fiattened wedge, and let the lengt h 0 B
betaken as tbe t ime-scele e. Proceeding ee in t he last section, we can show
that th ere is a possible plastic region preserving similarity when the
displaced surfaces A O are straight. The slip-line field shown in Fig. 58
is self-explanatory, a nd it is evident that elements move with uniform
speed 0/2 along t he slip-lines parallel -to the plastic-rigid boundary
BDEO. If AB = A O = h, a nd angle DAE = y" th e requirement that
C should lie on th e original surface is satisfied when
AB+ A Osin y, _ ta 8
OB +A C cosy, n,
or
(7)
The foci lie on a circular ar c HK of span y, and radius .J2, where OB and
OK are parallel respect ively to EO a nd BD (we may, with out confusion,
regard th e right -hand half of Fig . 58 eith er as th e unit diagram or th e
actual configurat ion). Since OK is inclined at 450 to BA , K must be
situated on the die face. For geometric similarity H must lie on CA
t R. Hill, P roc. rIA I fIJ. c~ . App. M uA ., London,lle4 8).
[VIII.
'"
produced ; th.i.e requires that the projection of AB perpendicular to C
(8
tane =
(1+sin.p)2 ;
cos.p(2+sin,p)
~ _ l + sin,p.
c
cos '"
(9
vIII."1
E X PANS I ON OF A S E MI.C Y L IN D R IC A L CA VI T Y
'"
/"
~ 2 k(1 + ~) .
,,
"
(l + 2sinljl)2 ;
~ _ 1+ 2 sin if!.
(11
4 cos "'(I sin rlt)
c
2 cos if;
It is to be presumed th at both configurations could be obtained .
practice by suitably modifying the sha pe of the wedge tip . This preble
exemplifies a prev ious state ment that the final steady state may
dependent on the initial conditions .
tane =
F lO. 60. Slip. line field and d efonnation round a lJemi .cylindricaI
cav ity e xpanded in a plane surface .
[VIIl. f,
will 800n con vince him salf that ABOD can only be in equilibri um un der
this distribution of forces when BD is straight and P. = k. All plines
in BDK are then straight, the e-linee being the involutes of the circle
with centre 0 and radius cl..J2 (cf. Fig . 23). Using t he property that t he
p-lines may be generated. by unwinding a taut thread from the circle evolute, we see tha.t B D is of length rre/2..J2 since t he p lines between
E and B are tangential to the evol ute over an angular span of 11'1'. U
VIII. 4]
theore m the mean comp ressive atreee at t he surface is k( 1 26), and the
neceeeery norm al pressure is 21:(1+ 8). Th e mea n work needed to make
",,,
circle
!!5
,,
E,
,
(P'- I)"
It will be seen from Fig. 61 that the focal distance /(,) is eq ual to p, and
eo, from (6),
ln ~ =
'0
f.!!..
J (, )
= _
p: - l
o
"
where Po is the length of the radius to the point where the trajectory
meets DE. Th erefore,
CI( p2_ 1) = c:(p: - l ) =
(13)
r:- c:.
To find the final position (p,8) , when the cavity radius is c, of a point
overtaken by the plas tic boun dary when ita position was (Po, 80 ) , we fint
calc~te the correspondin g trajectory 8(p) from (12). From (13) we
obtam p , and hence 8. Th e final poRit ion in actual 8p&Oe is (r, 8), or
(Cp,8). In tlria way the deformation of a sq uare grid (Fig. 62) bu been
COmputed. The surface of the cavity ia formed fro m elemen te initially
(VIII.
'"
situated vertically below O. and it will be seen that these elements have
plates, and a va riety of materials and frict ional properties, indi cate that
t he plastic zones spreading in ward fro m left and right in variably meet
first in the geometric centre of the block. No theoretical investiga tion
has been carried out, nor indeed is it essential for a usefu l ana lysis of the
sub sequent distortion. We take t he experimental observat ions &8 our
starting-point, and auumt that the p lastic region develope in such a
way that a non-plas tic area is left in contact with each pla te over a
certain length near the centre.
Ou r idea lized material being rigid
t.
'r=~=-1
''-- - .-----'
Flo. 8%. Dietonion of a IqIlaN grid near a .emi-ey lin drical cavity ex panded in a p
...rlace.
[VIII. 5
Since we have
mad e a hypothesis about th e development of the plastic region in one
direction, we cannot a void makin g anoth er about its development in
the opposite direction. Ex periments'[ suggest that t he overhang, even
if partly pia.stic, is thrt18t sideways as a rigid whole. I t follows that
the external plaaticrigid boundary must pass through t he edges 0 of
the plates (Fig. 64), intersecting the horizontal a xis of symmetry a t 4150
in A.
(ii) T M yWd potnlload.t Cons ider . now. t he slip -line field in the upper
'"
must be non-plaetde since th e surfaces are stress-free.
.E-
3 lA
,,
/ Pr~l l
f-7l~.(
distr1~.o.:
,,
,,
,
- --
~
. ~_
---- _#--
Flo. M . Slip .line field and plut ic regi on in a block cc m preeeed between
perfectly ro ugh palM, toge th er with . oomparison orthe aetuaJ p..-Ur&
diAribution ",'ith Prand tl ' .
x.-.
JU1. U
{VI II. a
230
P
2k
( 14)
~ .+ .h
o
Flo . ~ . Slip-line field IUlII plutie regi on in ..
region is compat ible with the rigid -body di8p~e.ce~ent of the ove~
since th e velocity component normal to OB 18 stili constant. It 18 ~
known with certainty for what range of frictional conditio ns thi s eolut i
is appropriate , though similar zones of intense shear , radiating from
edgee of th e plates, have often been observ~.t For t he sl~p.line field
80880Ciated velocity distribution when wflt. IS less than umty see Cba
IX (Sed. 5 (Ui)) .
(iii) DUwman of a blockafter a fi niu rompru 8i<m . I t is obvious that .
present soluti on is valid no matter what the amount of compreesc
since th e overhang remains rigid . As t he compression cont inues, we ~a
to deal, in effect, with a series of blocks of increasing width jhei
ra.tio. No calculation has been made of the distortion of a squ a~
after a finite compreeeion, but only of th e displacements dunng
infinitesimal compression following the yield -point. 1~ is found t
the horizontal component of velocity inerea.ses steadily, over
II s. ..
. F',N~. op . c\ it- P'Nt~;1 PllUtil:ily cha p . 11 (McO.... .mu Boo k Co. 18' 1).
or "",amp e. A .
'
.
228
.
<it
JZ= w'
or
t = ~.
(15)
l VIII.
of the pla.te&, the field is valid. For all ?t.h~r dime~on8 t.be di8C~)Q.ti.
nuitiea terminate on the exit sliplint>8 ; this ie in compet ible WIth the rigid,
body movement of the overhang. The correc t 801ut100 is not kn own;
the situation is enelogoue to t htLt DOted in sheet-drawing (Chap. VU.
Sect. 2 (i)). In particular, when there is no frict ion on the plates,
solut ion !ails unless the widthfheight ratio is integral ; the block th
deforms, momentarily, &8 8. nu mber of independent rigid unite, whi
These equat ions are due to Prandtl.f The slip-linea may be shown to be
cycloids with slopes
23%
= kJ(y ),
a~ -a,
= 2k.J(I -J' ),
Tn<
00, =
Oy
o.
1la' + k f lY) = 0 ,
a.
an d
a. in t he eq
. , ~ - k(az + ej,
wbere e band c are constants. The boundary condi tions are Tn< =
when y:"" '0, and Tn< = mk when y = h, where 0 E;;; m " 1 (m = 1 f
perfe ctly rough plates). Hence a = m!h, b = 0, and
k~ = -c -T+
mx)(
2 1- m'y') ,
7
mx
k=- C- T'
Tn< _
T -
my
A '
(I
1 (mY/A))
) ( I'f (my/A) ,
fa~
dy = - mh:o
sin- 1m
-+"(l-m') .
m
e= -
This requires
(17)
Note that ok would be the valu e of t he pressure on the pla te at the edge
(z = 0) if this solution extended so far ; that is, if the distribution of
external eteeeeee required by (16) were applied over the edge of the
block. Pra.ndtl's solution for m = 1 (c =
is compared with t he
accurate solution in Fig. 64. It will be seen that Prendtl'e solu tion is a
very good approximation , even up to a distance h from t he edge; the
correct pressure distribution oecilletee a bout the Prandtl d istributi on ,
the amplitude preeumably decreeeing steadily. This may be regarded
as the pleetlc analogue of Saint Venant's prin ciple in elaaticity.
If we regard Prendtl 'a field &8 applicable (with negligible error ) in
the central part of a suffi cient ly wide block, the rigid wedge is bounded
by cycloids. The correspondi ng velocity distribution, constructed as ex plained in (ill, has been calculated when m = 1 by Geiringer, t in a region
near the cent re, using the Green 's function method (Cha p. VI , equation
(30)). It might be expected that , at a sufficiently great distance from the
centre (the velocity discontinuity having diminished to negligible pro POrtions), a limiting distribution of velocity would be approached, such
that the strain-ra te is independent of z. This hee not been Investigated,
but t here is a possibl e limiting distribution with Cartesian components
r)
At
i'~\.I
.
Gei.nnpr.
ac4. 56 (1137).
~ .". - ~,
( 18)
[VIII. 6
_ [ u
dy = (w - x )U,
sin - 1 m
0'
(18)
de 1&
1& dl
AI de
hi
o.
Thus, equally spaced horizo ntal lines remain equa lly spaced. Consi
now, the horizontal d isp1&cement of an element for which g/A has
constant value "I' At &Oy moment, let be the distance by which it
in adv eace of t he surface element which was origina lly situated in
same vertical section. Then , from (18),
_ d! =
.!- d! =
dhUdl
Integrat ing:
~ +~ J( l-m"') -~ J(l-m')'
1&
or
1.
sse
(q+dq )h-qh
dq
_p <ix,
-p
dx=""h'
or
It is now assumed (cf. equation (26) ofCha.p. VII) tha.t the yield condi .
may be written approximately as
p -q = 2k.
Eliminating q between these equations :
dp
p.p
dz = '"
or
_ 2"-.
Jl'v- ,
p -
P = _1 p <ix _2kh
_ ("'""_ 1),
10
_ 10
P_ 2k(I +~:).
If the compression plates are n ot ca refully lubricated, the appa
yield stress p may significantl y exceed the true yi eld stress n ,
ticu1a.rly when the block is wide compared with its height. For the co
sponding analysis for a cylind rical compression epecimen.eee Chapter
(Sect. 7).
IX
NON -ST E AD Y MOTION PROBLEMS IN TWO
DIMENSIO NS. II
1. Introduction
W& tum now to tw o-dimensional problems in which, for simplicity,
it is neeessa.ry to restrict th e analysis of the state of etreee to the initial
part of t he loading path, when the total etrain is stil l small. I t will be
assumed , in fact, that aU changes in tk exrernal dimen.rion.t oj 1Mbody are
rugligible, 80 far as the boundary conditions are concerned. Th e plastic
strains being small, it is generally inacc urate, even for a calcu1a.tion of
th e et rese di stribution, to suppose that the material is plastic-rigid ;
however, it will be sh own that in certain cir cumstances the stress is
independent of the value of Young's modulus. We shall therefore carry
out t he analysis for a plastic-elastic material, and eeeu me only that it
haa been pre -stra ined to a degree such that the work-hardening is negli gible in the ra nge of strain under consideration. Wh en such a body is
conti n uously loaded fro m a stress-free state the plas tio and elastic components of the strain are at first com parable. The non -plastic part of
the body constrains the displacement of t he remainder, and the overall
diatortion of t he body is of order l /E xthe mean eteeee. As the leeds
are raised, the plastic regi on expands to a size where t his cons traint
becomes locally ineffecti ve ; large plastic strains are then possi ble, and
the overall distortion increases at a ra te (relatively to t he a pplied loada)
controlled only by t he cha nging shape of the specimen. In a non-hardening material t he loading interval during which this t ransition is effected
ie well defined when there is a sufficient freed om of flow; a curve of load
plotted. against some measure of the overall distortion would then have a
rapid bend corresponding to the transiti on . In a plas tic-rigid body, on
the other hand , no d eformation at a ll is possible until the plastic region
~ttains a certain critical size; th e loed -diato rtion cur ve has a discontinuity
In slope at the load under which distortion begin s. Th e bend, whenever
it is SUffic iently well d efined , will be described &8 the yieldpoint oj tJu
~Y for th e par ticular loading path ; thi s is a te rm already introduced
m the discussion of t he compression of a m&88 between roug h plates
(Chap. VIII , Seer . 5 (i)) . In many problems the yield -point load is
the quantity of greatest interest, and a mai n object. of the analysis will
be to calculate it . In view of the initial eeeumpn on , the yield -point.
(IX. I
'"
load represents the upper limit 00 the range of validi ty of the prese nt
analysis.
0',.
0'.
IX. 2J
'"
+..,.
aaz.+8+zr = 0
hBy'
Ofz +au. = 0
.xBy
(1)
80
1(a.-a..)(6.-a. )+'rz.+rr = O.
(2)
On th e ot her hand, in a plastic element which begins to unload, or in
or
an~ ~I~ment in the elastic region, the atrese -retee satisfy the com.
patlbilityequation
(3)
eI~~ng the co~dition for the existe nce of a cont inuous velocity
satl8:ytng t he elastic stress-st rain eq uations. ACl'088 the existi ng plastic.
elastiC boundary (or, indeed, any curve) the normal and shear components of the stress-rate must be contin uous for equilibrium ; the normal
com~nent acting parallel to the boundary may , however, be dis contrnuoua (this happens, for instance, in a bent or twisted bar). It
y be sho~n ~ithout difficult y t hat equations (I )and (2) are hyperbolic,
th the slip-lines of t he existing state of stress as cherec terietlce. (l )
an~ (2) may:t herefore be tran sformed into relat ions givi ng th e variations
d(p) and d() along the slip-lines in t he loading part of th e plastic reman
~
, ' I
~
,
pnnetp e, t hese relat ions can be integrated by the usual sma ll-arc
prOC~88, sta:ting from values of p and ~ known (or assumed) on the
plastlc-elastlc boundary, or on a plastic section of the surface.
However , the differential form of t he stress equations is best suited..
for general investigations, such as t he discussion of uniqueness (see
below), and it is usually simpler in approximate computation to work
:t
(IX . J
with the equatiOIll in t heir integrated form. For this purpose, let
u" . a TZW now refer to the unknown stresses whose values are required
after a further emell, but finite, change in the external leeds or dieplacements. The equations of equili brium are
:-+?
,o;;+~ =
= 0,
O.
IX.!}
8u,.,+Ov,_ +,Q
2<..
(:>~,+a,)
ax
0.,
az -
o.
az -
c7~
20 '
~_~
8y
20'
20
1 (0
Oy = 20 a,.,- 6.,)
a;; - '~(''-'') - - ~o
(6)
(3
where the subscript zero refers to the moment when unloading bega"l
Coming, now, to the calculation of the increments of dieplecemen
let V z and VII be the components of velocity. The equation of incom
pressibility is
&
ov
a;
(6)
a. -a... = - 2ksin ~ .
azz +
By
6.)'
v. =
0,
= O.
(~I+ ~1)(az+a,-azO-a..) =
ax
By
S401
(1')
F ORMULATION OF TH E PROBLEM
(6
whence
.!.(!(sin'J4
20 at
~ d8..
k
dv+ u ~ = 0
'" d8ft
.-0;
on an e-Hne, }
(7)
on a p-line.
...
[I X . 2
nea r & free plas tic euefece). For approximate computation these eque tiona can be rewritten in terms of smell increments of disp1&oement;
the to tal diapla.cemen t is given by to summation ove r the whole st rr.inpeah, Equations (7) lore solved , in the usual way, by integrating along
the slip-lines from the plastic-elastic boundary or from the surface of
the body, using &8 bound ary conditions the values of u a nd v calculated
in the elastic regi on or prescribed on the surface.
In the elas ti c region and in the unloading part of the plastic region the
streaa-stra in relations (in different ial form) are
4G ~ _
4G ~ ~ -
G(~+ ~) =T...
}
(8)
TIle follow ing di8cu.ion an d t heorema are taken from unpubliahed work of
(1941 ).
! Apan from verify ing that the ra t.e o r plutic work ill p<it ive .
f That th i. it not universally nec- " ) ' CIILl be Men by reference to the c.... \0'
the en t ire body u nload. ; t he .treu.ra"- then ..ti.lf~ the el...t ie eq.uat ion. IIvery whe
uuI .... un iq u.ty determined by them ...hen the appl ied IoadI .... glVen .
",,;ter
IX . 2J
2013
~
(al
(b)
' <4
[I X .
we see that. solut ion of the stress-rate equations , sat isfyi ng all boundary
cond itions, can be eeeocieted with an arbitrary choice of ~ on OD.
Thi ll com pletes t he proof. Now the uniqueness theorem of Chapter 111
ind icates t ha t t he actual distribution of stress-rate is t hat with which
there can be eeeociated solution of t he velocity eq uations. To under.
stand how this requirement im poses res trictions on t he stress -rate, note
fint that there is & unique velocity solu tion in E eeeocieted with &n
distribut ion of stress-rate. By the theorem of Section 6 (ii ) in Chap
VI , the correspondin g velocity components on AD determine
velocity throughout A CD, wh ile the compo nents on BD determine th
velocity throughout BCD . However, there ie no a priori reason why,
these two solutions should lead to the sa me velocity on CD. It. follo
that a eelf-coneietent distribution of velocity can only be found if
valu es of ~ on CD are properly chosen.
It remai ns to mow that the problem it statically d etermined 1I'h
no slip-line cute 1: t wice (still referring to the case where no p
element unloede) . Now, if an a rea of plastic material is comple
contained wit hi n the elastic region , 1: is obviously cut more than on
by any slip-line. Th us, no p roblem where a plastic nucleus arigina
within the body is statica lly determined. Consider , therefore , a p
region compris ing one or more zones intersecting t he su rface S ; Fig. 66
shows a t ypical zone which includes a section AB of S. Since, by h
thesis, any slip-line crossi ng 1: else intersec ts A B , p ' lies within
triangu1a.r area bounded by A B and t he inte rsecting slip-lines thro
A and B. Hence t he prescribed external stress-rates on AB un iqu
de ter mine the etreee -retee t hrough out P . Th e corresponding no
end shea r co m pone nts of the stress-rates act ing across 1:, together wi
the other boundary condi tions for E , then uniq uely define the etrese-ra
di stribu tion in E (t he normal component acting parallel to 1: will th
fore usually be di scontinu ous a cross 1:, as was mentioned previously
Th e pro blem is thus statically determined . Kn owing the etreee-re
in E , we can evaluate the corresponding velociti es uni quely , and .
particular t heir values on 1:. The letter define the velocity distributi
in P, which is d irectly calculable from (7); no inconsistency ca n e me~
eince no slip-line cuts 1: more t ha n once .
(iv) I nfluenu of the value of G. If th e velocit y equetione (7) and (8
are re -writte n with q uantities u ' = Gu and v' = Gv as dependen
variables, no elastic consta.nts a ppear expli citly . It follows that, W
the bounda ry conditi0n8 do not 8~cif!l the absolute value8 oj any d
plaumtnu , t he qua nt ities u' and v a nd the d istributio n of etreee a
IX. 2]
F O RM UL ATI O N O F TH E P R O B L EM
.1.
k = ~1I11'
a ll
0xJ:
.1.
k = ~zZ'
iJJ
O. AIleD.
. V. Sout h_ D. RelGzGll.Qt\ M~
"n.u
k=
or
- iJJzlI ,
PAil. ~.
...
(IX.
(x, y) plan e is subdivided into a square network of ar bit r&ri ly fine mesh
U+..- +..)'+# , ~ I
and
V't sa
(=' + ~lr' =
0,
IX . 3)
'"
modified until, after & process of t riaJ and error, the difference eq ua t i
ci~ .
p . 24G.
,,,
,
,I
~- ------ --
"
------------
IX. 3]
248
ofthe yield-point load when th e shape ofthe notch is such that th e plastic
region spreads directly across th e neck, somewhat as in Fig. 68. For a
given value of rIa we should natu rally expect this to happen when wla
is sufficiently large. It is convenient , for the present purpose, to reintroduce the plastic -rigid material in view of t he precision with which
the yield-point can be located. When the plastic region develops &8
in Fig. 68, a little consideration showlI that t he yield-point corresponds
to the moment when the slip-lines from the points
S, where t he plastic boundary 1: meets t he surface,
fall within 1: and intersect at the geometric centre
of the bar. No extension is previously possible
since, by the theorem of Section 6 (ii) (Chap . VI) , the
whole of the plastic region is rigidly conetre lned.]
2.
Following this moment, however, the ends are free to
move apart, and only the plast ic material between 1:
and the slip-lines 08 is held rigidly to the non-plastic
ends. There is eviden tly a discontinuity &CTOll8 08
.J _ FI o . 118.
Qualitative
. I
in th e tangentte
component 0 f ve Iocity ; if t he enlUl
"'P~tation of the
of the bar are drawn outwards wit h unit speed the plastic region at t he
discontinui ty is of amount ../2. The distribution of yield .point o.fa~y_
n otoehed b&r U1 tenaion.
velocity within 808 can be found , if required, from
the known velocity components normal to 08 by t he approximate
integratio n of Geiringer 's equetioee, or analytically by the application
of Riemann's method (Chap. VI , equation (30)).
We see, the n, that at the yield-point th e state of stress with in 8 0S ,
and in particular scroee th e minimum sect ion, is uniquely determined
by the conto ur of th e root (the position of 1: depen ds, of course, on the
notch depth). We can therefore calculate the yield-point load with out
needing to kn ow the distribution of stress thro ughout th e remainder of
the bar. It should be carefully observed how th is poeeibility depends
on the assumption that t he plast ic region spreads directly ecroee the
neck;t we cannot similarly sidetrack detailed calculations of the plastic
boundary in cases where it is impossible, or unsafe, to surmise the
direction of spread. .The distrib ution of longit udina l stress over th e
t I.t will ~ appreciated., afte, the dWcuaion o( Sect. 2 (iv), that the equat iOla (1),
~l~ten WIth u ' an d e', should .trictly have been woed, ra t h er than Geiringer'. equa.
t L _ ,U1 the p roof o( t he theorem. The argument . unaft'eeted. lince the alip .linel are
.... cbaracterinioa in bo th CUM
.t ~ abo on the oircumatanoe that the .t~ and velocity ohwacterilticIJ are
Tha po.ibility would no t n- Uy e xilt if t h.. materiaJ. yielded acoording
MOM '. criterion (_ Chap. XI, Beet . 3).
I Tb.. method IIhouId . . re lia ble whenever t he notoeh illUft\ciently deep. provided the
:l!lOident.
20.
[IX.
L j4ka is, by definition , the oonatraint fader ; this is the factor by which:
the mean axial stress in the minimum section exceeds th e true yiel
stress 2k. The constraint factor rises steadily from the value unity wi
increasing air. If C is the centre of t he circa
contour of th e root , and if 28 is the angulai
s
span of th e arc SS , it follows from the poJ..u:
equation of the slip-lines OS that
~ = e"- l.
RS
OT
= a-r(e" -l).
The axial st ress across the minimum section rises stead ily according
(9) as far as T , but along TO it is constant since OPTP is a reg i~n
uniform stress. By subst ituting x = r(e"-l) in (9), or by a di
applic ation of Hencky 's th eorem , th e constant may be shown to
cu rv a t ure of tho root dOOll not cha n ge aign . T he IIlip.line field near a n olliptical n..
haa been com p uted for va riOUII eccentrici ties by W. W . Sok clc veky , T hwry oj P
p . 123 ( MOllCOW, 19'6), and ..lao by P . S. Symon~lI, J OUffl. App , Ph " . 20 ( 1949 ). I
The me thod ill probab ly 1_ rel iable whe n apphed to a rec tangular notch (R . 11
Min is tr y of Su pply. Annament Re_re h Dept . Th eoretical Reaea!'Ch Rep . 9f 46) j
rea d er IIhould have no d ifficult y in const ruct in g t he field q uali tat Ive ly .
IX . 3J
'61
4",.,o+4k(1 +.)[a_,(,O_I)]
(11)
The constraint factor L!4ka increases stead ily with 0:, and is greatest
when the notch has parallel sides (0: = ',"). The maximum constraint
factor obtainable with a parallel-sided notch corresponds to a vanishingly
small root radius (r!a -+ 0), and its value is 1+,'", or about 2'571. This
agrees, by chance, with the value found experimentally for cylindrical
notched bars of a metal with a sharp yield-point ; t hus, Orowen, Nye,
and Ceima t ha ve observ ed a maximum const raint factor of about 26
for annealed mild steel.
The formulae (10) and (11) do not involve the width of bar. They are
valid, as has been mentioned, only when the notch is sufficient ly deep.
How deep cannot be stated without accurate solutions, but a lower limit
can be set at once. We must obviously have L < 2kw, for, if the load is
greater th an thi s, the implication is that th e bar would already have
yielded in uniform te nsion near its end s. Otherwise expressed, wj 2a
must not be less than th e constraint factor. Taking formul a (10) as an
example, we must hav e
~ > (1+~)I+ + ~) .
When r!a = 1, the least value of w!2a is 2ln 2, or about 1'39. However,
the range of validity of (10) certainly does not exte nd to such a shallow
notch, since we know from Southwell and Allen's solut ion for "ja = 1
and wj 2a = 2 that the plastic region spread s in a way very different from
that contemplated in derivin g t he formul a. Indeed , according t o (10),
the constrai nt factor for rta = 1 is 1,39, whereas the value given by the
numerical solution is 1'22. The same conclusion may also be reached in
0
regard to a 90 wedge-shaped notc h (r = 0, IX = ;'") and w!2a = 2,
Where fur th er calculations of Southwell and Allen suggest that plasti c
Zones spread outwards from t he root s in direct ions parallel to th e longltUdinal a xis, rather like long fingers ; th e mean stress at the yield-point
appears to be a little in excess of 064 x 2k , for the zones th en bend
sharply and rapidly in to th e a xis, which th ey intersect at distances from
the centre somewhat grea ter th an a . For thi s notch, (11) implies a constraint factor of 1,79, as against 128 from th e numerical solution. The
n.!..E. Orow&n, J . F . Nye.
,.,
[IX. a
results are only qualitative since, for this notch , the problem is nev
statically determined at any stage . Using th e same technique Ja.cobet
has found similar plasti c zones for a slit notch (r = 0, a = i 1l').
a, =
-p+ 2k ln ~ ,
0fJ
1 a.J.
F = ;:
0, _
~'
s. A . J -.cobl., P ll il . M G/}. 41
T-
as.p
art '
,.,
P L AS T IC YI E L DI N G R O UND A C AV I T Y
IX.4)
I(1+-pk)''+''In-.a
~ = - -,
ma'
: = rs'
PI '
T
a, _
Ok -
- 'k-
m)).
;,nn Re{f O{I I + ...hll, whe re nand .. are certain rwtet iotul of I ; A . C. Stevenaon. PIlj/,.
t og. 3f p t 431, 706, _
"ho wn ho w thi. m"thod may be 'y.temaUoall y employed in
~IOOI~t~ of p lane pno"a-... in eJa4 ir ity . I . N. ~ ..... l,lon. ib id . . . (1945 1. &2t . b.III Y ind.icat.ed ho w S~'. met hod eaR be adapted to genwate p lut ic "tau. of
-.
,,.
{IX . ,\
""
~
,
(a)
"
<tl
F IG. 70. Sli p-line fioeld IUld pl u t ic reg ion a t the y"'ld _point in the
indent ing o r ..,mi.infinite med ium by flat die , . ha wing (0) the
author', IIOlut ion, ILr'I d (b) Pranrl t l '~ lI()lut ion.
to bring one end of the bar to rest, we obtain the problem of t he indenti
of a medium by a smooth flat die . I t follows that any solution for
notched bar under tension is immediately appli cabl e, with only a chan
in sign , to t he indenting of &. medium similar in ebepe to one half of th
bar. We may therefore take over the discussion a nd reeulta of Section 3.
It ie to be observed that, although indentation by a die is gene
expressibl e only through a velocity boundary conditio n , we ha ve in th'
special C&8e been able to form ulate the probl em entirely in tet'me of et
boundary conditions by considering the medium together with its mi
image ; this Ie clearly only possible when the die is fiat .
(i) Stmiinji nite mulium with a plane mrfocr.. By setting (I. =and r = 0 in (11) the estimated yield-point load for e, plane semi-infini
medium indented by a smooth flat die is
L ~ 4ka(I +I') - 20571 X 4ka ,
( 12)
where 2a Ie the width of the di e.j The probable pla stic boundary at th
yield -point is indi cated by the broken curve 1: in Fig. 70a ; the elip-li
t 'nMl reeiIIti ve p reuure it; unifonnJy diIIt ribut.ed over the die. It. lIhould ~ .
~ to ,........k t.hat tho plutic regi on wou ld be en tirely d ifferent if a PMdil,.
Cr-WIg unifonn preuure were a pplMd o ver a _tion uf .i~t~ 20 l it ~ known
"lutic tb&ory that p .....tic yield.inI first. oeeun along t he ...."' ."'''' ha\,.f1l1: tho ... diam&"""'. at a preuure &qual to f . x U .
I X. 6]
2~
US
[I X. !
w oes, originating at the comers of the die. fuse. end spread directly
t brough the medium. Assuming this, the yield-point is determined ~y
th e condition tha.t slip-linea should connect t he comers R to the midpoint S of th e suppo rting plane. The shepe of these slip-lin,ell must be
chosen so that a. velocity solution can be found such th at (1) the compon ent of velocity nonna.l to RR is constant, and [ii] the normal component of velocity at any point on RS
~ Z a -+is compatible with the sideways displacement of th e st ill-rigid material
These requirements are fulfilled by the
field shown in Fig. 71.t where the sliplines in PQR are radii an d clrculer erce ,
and where PQSQ is defined by the
Q
equal arcs PQ. Since there is no change
in volume the sideway s speed of the
h
rigid ends is equal to Ua/h, where U iI
the speed of the die. We can therefore
construct the velocity solution in the
order PQSQ, PQR, and RPR. Since
the velocity component normal to the
FlO . 71 . 8lip.lino fieldet the y)eld -po~t stra.ight slip-line R Q is constant, the
in the indenting of e block of finite
depth res t ing on e pWlO foun cb.t ion , component normal to R P 18 also constant , by the now fam iliar theorem.
Hence the velocity in R P R is unifor m (and directed downward) an~ .
therefore compatible with t he movement of the rigid die; this velociey,
when calculated, would tum out to be V since the speed V alA hee heeD
eseigned to the rigid ends.
'The relation between the a.ngle P R Q a.n d Ala ill given by Table 1 (
end of book) . The stress distribution is celculeble by Hencky 'e theore
in terms of the mean compressive steese at one point of the field, say P.
This is determined. by the condit ion tha.t the horizontal resultant of tb
stress acting across the vertical section thr ough S should be equal to .
resistance to sliding over the plane foundation . Wh en the ~sistan~
zero the relation! between the yield -point load an d t he ratiO Ala 18
Md . 3 .1 1V:~t::
who did no t ho wever, e u.tnine whetbet' It could be .-oe..ted with .. veloci t y
A 6eW ~ ~blinl t.hilIhu ~ 0.' - ".0<1 ~ mild ateol. et.cbed \0 IIbow ~ JI '
baDt1a. whic b comeide epprosima~Y wltb .up-~; ~~. K ltrbw and E . S ~
Kllw . WWA. 1.... ...../ . 10 (11128). t7; A. Nadal. Pfo"atcity, p . 2"V (MeOraw-BiU
Ooi' ~3:lin
J<;Nnt. 1",," ..,..I S,..z 1.... 156 (I N 'I'I. a l s . A It. aoeurate oa.Iculatioa
.
b y W'. W "kolovakv
TIM-y 0/ PlM4iril, . p . loIS (Me-ow. IHeI
f1ven
~ .
I X .tI]
%.57
shown in Fig. 72; t he theoretical relation when Ala is less tht.n unity is not
kn own . As Ala increases from unity the pressure necessary to begin
indentation rises from 2.1::, t he compressive yield etreee in plane strain,
to 21: (1+111') when Ala """" 876 (angle PRQ """" 77,3) . For values of hia
grea.ter than t his, the inference is that t he pla.stic region develops in suc h
a wa.ythat indentation begins at the loed (12) and proceeds by diapla.cing
...
--L
,
1
...
I
I
i -r
t->
I
I
! ,
!
8
874
10
'7.
material sideways to the free surface; the plastic zone beneat h the die
is still rigidly constrained by the non-plastic matrix (its depth of pen e-
tra.tion naturally depends on Ala). Thus, for a true meas ure of herdneee
by a plen e ind entation test, the thickness of the material should not be
less than about 44 t imes the width of the indenter. This ia somewhat
greater than the minimum thickness of a cold-worked metal recom mended for the Brinell tes t, t where there is greater freedom of 80w.
The effect of a. frictional resistance F over t he foundation plane ia
clea.rly to increase the mea.n compressive stress at every point by the
amount FIA; the yield-po int load ill t herefore
L' ~ L + 2aF,
h
De
(I,)
t O. A. Haokin8 aDd C. W. Aldo.... J~. 1 ...... M-z., H lin,,). ae.
...
(IX. 6
IX. 6J
2611
th;
p = 4LImJ.t = constant ,
'00
[IX.S
p = ej",
(15)
IX .6J
2151
l' - 'Y(i) .
(17)
where Y(E) is the tensile st ress-stra in relation. In effect, for any chosen
value of e, this is a tkjini'ion of i at each etege of th e indentation; the
justification of this procedure liee, of course, in the circumstance t hat
when c is assigned a valu e of about 3, i ia found to be reeeoneble . Con.
eider, for example, the Brinell tes t . Meyert has shown tha.t for many
metals the function/in (16) may be clceely approximated by a power law
for .. die of width D where t is the penetration. 'The funet ione J and ,
Y = BE",
l' ~ n (l +j-o) -
297Y .
(18)
depend mainly on the properties of the ma.terial, and onl y slightly on p..
Now. when the material is pre -strained, the variation of p with dep th
can be neglected after the yield -point, 80 long as d and 'are small compared with D (as is usual ), and we may write p = eY where c is ~
found to be of order 3.t The general conclusion is, therefore, that
quantity measured in a hardness teet , namely the resistance to penetration , is directly proportional to the tensile yield stress when the rna
is heavily pre -strained, and th at the factor of proportionality de
on the shape of the indenter but does not differ greatly from 3 when
lubricant ill ueed a nd the specimen is initially etreee-free. If the epeclm
is initially in a state of residual st eese (for exam ple, when berdn
micro-tes ts are performed ac1'O&8 a section of a rolled sheet or a dre
wire) this affech the shape and size of the impression for a given load
th e reeietive pressure is th erefore not necessarily equal to the hardn
of t he etreee-free material.
We come now to annealed or lightly pre-strained metale . Since t
plast io distortion around the indenter is non-u niform , different elemen
harde n by different amounts and th e hardness is th erefore some ooID
plicated funct ion of t he whole etreee-eteein curve in t he relevant
t R . F . BiJlhop, R . Hi1I.lUld N . F . Mot.t., Prt1c. PlIlI. S oc. , 57 ( 1"6), 1f,7.
S D. TNoI-, op. cit... p. 268.
{l9}
valid for moderate strains, (Chap . I , Sect. f ). Tabor has found that
m -- n, to a very rough a ppro xima tion. Assuming this relation for broad
descriptive purpoeee, and combining (17), (18), and (19), we obtain
,Bi" _ A (d/D )".
or
i - (A /Bc )V"(d/D).
(20)
Thus the mean st rain in & Brinell test is proportional to the impression
diameter. For annealed copper, where A __ 60 kg./mm. I , B __ 45
kg./mm.I , n -- 0'4 , c -- 2'8 , we have (A IBe)l/fl __ 015. Notice that for
a heavily worked metal, where 11. -+ 0, A /Be __ I - An, where A is some
positive constant; hence (A IBe)1/" -+ t-~.
H.tv o.
~ .r.
&flu
X .I ]
AXIAL S n D I E T R Y
I. Fundamental equat ions
I N an a xially symmetric distribution of stress the non -va.nisbing components a re C1r
and Tn ' referre d to cylindrical coordinates (r , 8, z)
wit h z as t he a xis of sym metry. The non-van ishing velocity components
are u and w, respectively perpe ndicular and pa rallel to the a xis ; 11, the
compo nent in t he circumferential direction, is zero since the flow ia
confined to meridian pla nes. The stress an d velocity are independent
of 9, and are functions only of r, e, and the time . If t here are no body
forces, and inertial etreeeee are negligible, t he equat ions of equilibrium
a,.o.
are
8;,r +~+.ar r a, = o . }
8T"+ 8a,+7 "
ar
'"
(I)
o.
r
The yield criterion of von !.[jses (equation (9) of Chap . II) red uces to
(ar- u,) I +(o,-O'. )I +(a.-a,)I+~ = 61:1.
(2)
0',) ,
(3)
2';,.. =
au
Ow
_a, +-;;:
=
v,
6.\r" .
F U ND A MENT AL EQ UA T I O N S
!G3
(this leads to a third -orde r differe nt ial equation ). H owever, since the
boundary values of the etreseee, and not their de riva ti ves, are specified
in a ph ysical prob lem , the velocity equations have to be resorted to in
any event, to secure uniqueness. In general , therefore , the problem is
not statically dete rmined .
It is easy to show a lso that t he problem of a xial symmetry is not
hypeebolic.t Sup pose t he stress and velocity compo nents are given on a
curve C (in a ny merid ian plane). If the distri bu tion of stress is con.
tinuous, it is evide nt from (3) that in general the velocity gradie nt can
only be discontinuous when .\ is. But, since the velocity must be con.
tin uoue (except possibly when G is a slip-line) it follows from the second
equation in (3) that" itself must be continuous (except , perha ps, when
u = 0). In general, t herefore , the velocity gradi ent is uniqu ely determined by th e given stress a nd velocity on C. Thus the problem cannot
be hyperbolic.t It should be noticed t hat if r is increased indefinitely
the circumferential stra in-rate i, te nds to zero, e nd we recover, in the
limit , t he plane strai n equa tions which are hyperbolic a nd where " may
be discontinuous. This essential difference between ax ial symmetry
and plane strain is direc tly du e to t he fact t hat th e circ umferent ial
strain-rate is finiu and cont inuous in t he former, but is zero in the latter.
Whereas the theory of plane strain is well developed. a nd t he met hod
of solving specific problems is well understood, there is at present
nothing simila r for a xial symmet ry . I t is, for exa mple, not clear bow to
construct, in principle, the solut ion of mixed boundary-va lue problems
sucb & S cone indentation or wire-drawing. The nially symmetric etreee
distri butions deri ved below are either approximate , or are obtained
by inverse methods and afterwards related. to a physical sit uation.
2. Extrusion from a contracting cylIndrical contalner
Consider a metal rod which is held with in a closely fitting cylindrical
sleeve over a pa rt of its length . Su ppose, now, that the sleeve contracts
r~ially, extruding the rod from each end. This hypothetice.l proC688
simulates the swaging of a rod between two diametrically opposed.
rn t tR..;. ~~I!~ _DU~~io". p . 42 (Ca mb ridge. 1945), illllu~ by Min i,try o r Supply Anna .
en .~h EJ t&blilhment , .. Survey 1'4 8.
'
n ;4~ eonel~on baa t-~ ~~ted b! P. S. SrmondJ, QlOOrl . J uv m . App. Math . 6
and I, ~ ..e. H I, ~h?d eOrlll"~ In aho1l'IlIg that (tho .w- a nd voloeit y eomponentA
d thllir .fint dllnva ti VN .,... l Iven on a c urve C. t ho .e<:o nd dllriva t ivN or t he , tfeN
:.. vel.oo,ty.oomponlllltA .... un iq uel y dllfined. Th o eoneluaion ap~ not. to be ...._
ted br thiJ, theorem alone. ainee it ia -.u.n>lld without pl'OOr t hat the f1.Rt derivaLivN
~7"t mUO"..l8 ; rurthermore. in ph,..ae.J probl _ the boundaf')' eond it iorlll trmereJly
-r""1 Y only t he ,we. o r velocity. and. no t thlli, rr-dien tA.
I R. Hill. cop. eit . (p . 184 or reference).
2..
AXIAL S Y MMETRY
[X. 2
0,- 0,
~ = 7=
2;: -c .
}.
2mz
= - + "3 ( 1_ m~l
_l - c
'
a
a
constant. The ends of the rod bein g free from stress,
(S
X. !)
a~ -
th,
where c is &
res ultant &:rial force on a t ra naverse section must balance the frictional
resiat&nee over t he surface. Thus
j2ffU.
tlr =
and
"3m,[l -( I-m')'].
(6)
2U
ar -.,. = -a-'
""3ml
(8)
aw
au
_+ _+ _ ~o
in
IJr
~ -AJ;(i)ooo(ij .
lD
-AJ.(i).in(i).
(9)
- 2mnhu:: ,
c~
80
21
- +-
The radicals in the above equations must all be positive in order that
the ra te of p laatic work is posit ive. It may be shown, by t he met hod
used for Prendel'e solution, t hat an originally plane transverse section
is distorted into an ellipsoid of revolution, with eemi-mejor a xis aIm
and sem i-minor axis 2(a o- a )3/-v3ma l , where a o is th e initi a.l radius of
th e rod.
0,
-
Ie
2M
J;+ J.0=0 ;
J 0+ x
J.(O) ~ I ,
.r,(O) = O.
2%
o r U = li'"+g(r ).
W
%1
z4
z4
Notice th at w = 0 when % = 0, and that u = 0 when t = 0 ; t he die tribU ..Ion of u over t he surface represents the development of a bulge.
of (3) :
Integrating :
alJ
(7
c: +Z'
(10)
[X . 3
A XI AL SY ) DfETR Y
2..
;/m (')
ai = Ji(i) = / 6 ,
a;
0;
"y,
(11)
0,
where and
are , as usual, the red uced stresses. J takes values from
- 2 to infi nity as rjb increases from zero to 3-83, th e approximate argument of th e second zero of J~ .
Now, when Tn = 0, th e yield condition (2) can be alte rnatively ex 0~1 +0'l +(J~2 =
pressed as
But
o~ =
2kl .
- 0;-0;, and 80
08'+0;0:+0:2 =
kl .
Or
20~+oi =
0;-0; =
(12)
0,
dOr
(f, - Or
k(j+2)
0'
= -
d,
(13)
Thu s, J~(rjb) and cos(:lb) must not change sign, and t he radi cal must be
positive since J~ is negative bet ween its first a nd second zeros. If 21
is th e length of the cylinder, th is demands t hat
~ ~~
b ""'" 2 '
X .3]
CO MPRESS ION O F A CY L I N D E R
th is pJaatic state , is
o.
2/ + 1
F = ~( I+f+I')
(/+ 2)
d,
~( I+f+f') "
( I<)
"" - / a
i)r
~ =
r
zr-;:a
' +~ =
21
,.s
O~
0;'
..
X.4J
%ell
AXIAL SY MMETRY
This distribution of stress was derived, in essence, by Nad.ai ,t employing t he Hencky stress-strain relatione. In Nedei'e solution, therefore, u and w denote t he (email) displacements and tIl is replaced by f.,
the total exial etrain. A. ebown in Chapter II (Sect. 6) the respective
solut ions agree only when the stress ratios are constant , that is, when
tllO ia constant (the defonnation being small).
'S -
(I:i~)" ".~
tbere reeulte ..
[ = -
(I+ 41'';;'jl'
_.
kS
'r -
(I
;~)
(I + 41'';;.)1
ra.t:e
5. Tube-siDkingt
Whereaa the eq uations of Section 1 are satisfied exactly in t he three
previ ous problema, the stress d istributions now to be derived only
2k
'
Hence
~ ~ _2 j
, '(1
(16 )
where b is the current external radius. The inte rnal pressure is therefore
la)
(b)
(e)
for the expansion of a cloeed tube, when elastic strains ~re. neglec~.
When 0 = 0, P is zero, t he t ube being extended under uniexiel te nsion,
The distribution of axial stress is
a.
k=
_ (I +f;a
) +cotb-'j(l+~7;).
"')1 -cotb-'j (l+3l"'
41' C'
1 4l2C'
The total axial load and the pressure p are functi ons of tlIO
; inu~:
words, a. definite combination of load and pressure m.ust be p~
produce given relative rate8 of exten.sion and expansl?n. The m~ to
and exte ma.1 r adii
u, a an d b, vary during the deformatIOn ; according
(15) their rates of change are
lb C
La C
6 _ u(b) 21 b
a = u(a) = -21+ ;'
- -+- .
satisfy t hem a pproximately . We consider first the process of tubeBinking, in which a thin-walled t ube is drawn through a. die, as in Fig .
73 a, or is pressed th rough , aa in Fig. 73b. A cup can be similsrly drewn
or pressed , the main difference being that in (4 ) the cup is push ed through
the die by 8. loosely fitting internal ma ndrel, bearing on the base of the
cup but not supporting t he wall during ita passage through t he die.
Apart from end conditions, the process is t he sa me for bot h cup and tube.
The obj ect of th e analysis is to calculate th e load and the cha nge in wall
thickness . I t will be supposed tha t the thickness is init ially uniform,
and that it is smal l in relation to the length of contact with the die . A
steady etete is t hen obtained (if th e tube is sufficiently long ), a.nd it ehcu ld
be a good approximation to neglect th e variation of etreee through the
t
t
27.
(X. 6
AXIAL S Y MME T R Y
th e shea r etreeeea &Cling over the ends of the element being negligible for
normal coefficients of friction. Hence
p~
at cos.
r
d{Qtr6.8) +o(C
~r
sm e
( l ~)
-- .
when
dr
O.
!(rqtl+ot(l + ftCOtll) = O.
(20)
d,
Wh en t he tube or cup is d rawn, and q are both positive, and 80 the yield
crite rion of von Mises can be approximated by the equation
(drawi ng) ,
(21)
(23)
o.
(25 )
'II
q+o = mY
dt
q-o t
dr - q+ 2o;'
i.e ,
dt
8ID II
271
or
T UBE . S I NK I NG
X .G]
[X. IS
AXIAL SY MM E T R Y
,
,, , ,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,,
17
Drilwin
_ _ _ Pru
s,n
Lor.Q...
mY
18
mY
10
,.,f-----+-+ - f.
,,
.."\' ',
," ,
"
,
', ",
,"
,' ,
..
"'
,
0' _0
0'9
O-S 1)-1
(a)
' 'I
01
0-6 % 0,5
, ,,
,
/'
'. .
III
D9
"
~,~~
'.,'
:...::::::
08
-.
'0
01
(b)
'"
0 6%0-5
FlO. 74. (0) Relat ion be tw een the load and the reduction in d iameter. and (b) b:"tweeD
t he eh&ng9 in thiokn_ and t he red ullt ion in d iameter. for drawing and Pre881Il8" (DO
work hardening ).
X. 6J
273
but t he mean etrese through the neck. The true yield etreee beyond t he
point of max imum load can only be determined by this test if t he state of
stress end strain in th e neck is known. Even if the material does not
work-harden, th e stress is likely to vary across the minimum section, by
analogy with th e not ch effect described in Chapter IX (Sect . 3). The
problem of calculating th e stress distribution is much more complicated
th an for th e not ch, since the shape of t he neck is unknown and can only be
deter mined by t racing its gradual development. Also, elements in the
neck ha rden by va.ry ing amounts because ofthe differenti al deformation.
Fortuna tely , a radical simplificat ion is possible if we accept the experimental evidence of Brid gman,t indicating that elements in theminimum
aection are deformed uniformly (at any rate to a first approximation).
These elements must th erefore be in th e same work-hardened sta te ,
with the same yield stress Y ; moreover, th e stra.in corresponding to this
yield stress is kn own dire ct ly from t he measured reduction in area. at
the neck. A further consequence oftmiform radial st rain is that th e radial
velocity is proportional to r; hen ce th e circumferent ial stra in-ra te
'-, (= ufr) is equal to th e radial strain-rate i.~ (= fJul&r) in th e minimum
section. It follows that a~ = a, there, whatever t he (IL, v) relation,
provided th at isotropy is maintained. Inserting this in the first of th e
equilibrium equations (I). we hav e
dq,+OT" __ 0
h
(26)
wen
z=,0
dr oz
the origin being ta ken at t he centre of t he neck. F urthermore , since the
state of stress a t each point in t he minimum section is just en axial tension, with a varying superposed hydrostatic atreaa, th e yield condition is
a. - a, = Y when z = 0,
(27)
provided th e influence of a hydrostatic stress on yielding is neglected .
Combining (26) and (27):
da.
&r" = 0 w h en z = 0.
(28)
-d +r
oz
,
The second equilibrium equation, applied in t he plane e = 0, states t hat
oa.jOz = 0 (Tn being zero from symmetry), and is not useful in the subsequent enelysls.
We now introd uce the change of variable which characterizes Bridgman 's analysist of th e stress distribution. Let.p be the inclination of a
Nt P. W . Bridgman, Rev . M od. PAV . 17 (1945), 3. See . 1ao N. N. Da videnk ov and
. I. Spiridonova. P roc . Am. Soc. T Uf. Mal .. 46 (1946). 1147 .
t P . W. Bridgman, TraM . A m . Soc . M u.a.z.. 3:J ( 1943), lio53.
."
rx. e
A XIA L SY MMETRY
0'1 '
tlr
ex 0 1_
p.
r.
L _
p .
(bl
(a)
Th us
T ...
X . OJ
to the first order of small quantities. Hence, for any point P on OA,
r '+2rp
(~;)..~ Y(i:L.~ ;.
where p is the radius of curvature of a longitud inal line of principel etreee
where it crosses the plane z = O. Substituting in (28):
M'
_+_Y = O \I. 'hen z -_ 0.
d.
p
This equation may alternatively be derived by conside ring the 8treseea
on a small curvilinear element , bounded by prin cipal plenes .j Integrating, and introd ucing t he boundary condition 0", = Yon the surface
(since 0", = 0 th ere), we find
.., ~ 1+
Y
where a
dr ,
jg
(29)
(30)
(3 1)
o.
y-
(a' + 2aR - rJ
l + ln
2aR
).
~ ~ (1 + 2I)I++2~) '
(32)
init j"tiun o f (tu tu... at the eeetee or t he ,..,.,k appee.Z1I 1.0 be o.Iue
1.0 , ....
, tate o(
t r IAxial ~lUion. For an e ..perimeD~ mVNtigatm of the de"ek>pmMIt of & eup _and _
(rac t Unt, _
AXIAL S Y MME T R Y
".
8.
i ~ J(ln(~O)-O"'I,
{X . 6
x. e)
mean
-rL.:_
(33)
where A is th e initial sect ional area and A is the curre nt area. ~f the
rdl
to (33) R is infinite when t he reductIon of
0
"
minimum sect ion. Aero mg
os
J,. l.I-lG
~
Y -- 1 + .!!...
4R '
leads to
u,
,so
A~_ 2pp =
0,
" lIS
e0
dp _
10
measured mean 8~:e88f is_t h::: ~~v:~;i:=~~~~~denkOv and SplriAnot he r form uUIo or a.
donove.j who proposed that
dr - - T '
p = Yet,.{--n'A,
Integrating:
(34,)
P~
[2mpdr
",,'
IJ
(since u,
2)
"" 1+ :::
Y,
= 0).
(35)
to th e first order in p.. The measured mean st ress must be divided by the
factor I + 2p.a{3A to give t he t rue yield stress ; th e correction is likely to be
less good when th ere is appreciable bulging . Thelinearrelation between p
and alA, which is predicted by(35)for specimens in tM8afRt WOf'k -laardaud
Iltalt , has been observed e xperimentally for copper by Cook and Larke~
t E . Siebel. StaAl .."", EiHoo., 4 3 ( 111%3). 12115.
N . Cook Uld E . C. Luke. J ov ..... 1_. M d4l4.71 ( IH 5), 377, partieularly Fig_ II .
~ &leo W. Schroeder and D . A. W ebtltet . JOVnl . A pp. Mee4 . 16 (111411), 2811. loteom~_
u..
tiYe data lor thin diM. (_{Ae z Wnding up too 60 ); it.. w,", &leo ho..
theory lI1uA be
lriclioaal etn. ~ equal \0 lbe yield etn. iD . . . ..
1Zlodified .- bONa
"'.11
u..
'"
over
[X. '1
A XIAL SYMMETR Y
p. between 02 and
X .8]
where aj04"" and ~/04, denote epece derivatives along the slip.lines, their
mutual sense being such that they form a right -handed pair. R a nd S
are t he (algebraic) radii of curvature of t he slip-linea, defined by
1
R = 0..'
8=
..
auClv
&p
&,
+2, +(a+p) a, _~ ~( rr ) =
R
Olf..
r 81f~
0, }
&,
(31
f" & ..
(~
- A(a+ p ),
uv
&p
- A(a+ p ),
= 2>.(o+p).
0., -8 ~
81f.-
(39)
04,
&..
(38)
C08 r/J =_ .
-.
iJu
0,.
""
""
. Y', =
SID
a;- - R =
expressed in &. more symmet rical Corm which ia useful for certain purposes. Th e maximum shea r st ress in a meridian plane is denoted by or
and the mean compressive stress - i(ur+ a. ) in this plane by p . The
principal stresses are th en -PT, 0. where 0 is written for the circume
ferential streee
The yield criterion (2) becomes
l
'T i + (0 + p )l j3 = k = ylj3.
(36
-a.,.
278
6.\,.,
du-v~+(u+vcotr/J)dr
2, =
o.
0 a long an (X-line . ]
(41)
&8
~wo of three mdepend ent reletiona which can be derived by elimina ting
~m ~40).
00;
O.
AXIAL SYMMETRY
280
Now u
[X. I
d(,q') ~ -
d,
('2 )
v+ p
along th e flow-lines at & given moment. On m ultiplying the eq uations
(37) t hrough by th.. and MI l respectively , we obtain
dp +2T ~+(a+p_TCot~)dr = 8T cUI:< along an c-line , }
r
8all
('3)
pline.
These ere not 80 simple as the relations for the velociti es, owin g to th e
deriv atives of T on t he right-hand side.
If, however, we ad opt Treece'ecriterion instead of (36), then, teAm .
if tJu inltnMdiaU principal 8tTtu , T = iY a nd the equations become
dp + 2T ~+ (o+P-T cot4
d: =
a ,B-line.
("
NgcA~.
281
These differ from the H encky plan e strain equations only in the te
in r. H owever, this does not mean that the slip-lines are cberecteristi
here also, nor that axially-symmetric problems can be solved by
tec hniques of the t heory of plan e strain. The three velocity relati
impose certain cont inuity restrictions on the etreeederi veti vee, and m
be resorted to in orde r to determi ne the circumferential stress o.
Some writers ha ve adopted an artificial and unreal yield conditi
originally suggested by Heer a nd von Karmant (1909), in order
complete the analogy with the plan e strain equations. This condi .
does not allo w t he stress poi nt freedom to traverse a yield locus,
st ipula tes that it shall be fixed in th e position corres ponding either
uniaxial ten sion or to uniaxial compression. When applied to t
problem of n ial symmetry, it states that (/ is eq ual to one of t he 0
two principel etreeeee, 80 that (/+p = i Y and .,. = iY. Thus a can
once be elimina ted from (44), and the slip-lines become cherecte ri .
for t he stresses. However. if the stress distribution is determined
this manner, it will not generally be possible to find an aS8OOi&
( 19011 ). 204.
0 along an c -line, }
X.8)
A. thlineky .
PrUlcd1\tJ14
DEE P .DRAWING
XI. I)
'"
regarded. Let U r and 17, be th e radial and circumferent ial stress componente in th e a nnulus at radius r (Fig. 78 b). The equation of equilibrium
Xl
MISCELLANEOUS TOP ICS
1. D eep draw ln~
&8
ctr
= 2k ln - .
r
where b is th e external radius of th e blank a t the moment und er cons ideration. The condit ion of plan e st rain can only be maintained by th e blenkholder if ct. is compressive. This requires t hat
t1.
(b)
(a )
Fl O. 78. Dee p .drawing of a circu lar bt.nk into a cylin dric al cup, &howing (ell ) l ide "..",
-.nd (oj plan.
the die.
8o.
.,
= i(ur +t1,) =
2k(ln~-~) :s:;; 0
for a
~ r ~ b.
where a is the radius of the die aperture. This is true for aU b provided
that In(bola) ~ I. or bola s; .Jr -- H m , where b" is the initial rad ius of
the blank . If bola is greater th an this, th e blank thins near the lip of the
die, and the t heory must be modified. The circumferential stress is
numerically greatest on t he rim, where it is a compression of a mount 2k .
The radial tension where the blank is a bout to be drawn over t he lip of
the die is 2kln(b/a ); thia is greatest when drawing begins,
To investigate th e influence of work-hardening we must find the
atrain in t he annulus at any radius r. Let IJ be t he initial radius of an
element which has moved to th e radius r when the external radius of the
blank is b. Then
(I )
a. _ 2 j IH+b:;.b~)d;.
[XI . r
T= 2
(aD
~ 2[/(0)_ f 2bJ'(O) d
'] .
aliI".".
bo
,a
1'(0)= /(O)/(~: - l) .
~
Hence
o=
XI . I]
:,(ha,)
1_,1
In(8M
H(1o;)
(2)
i; -
iN/Or
20, -0,
(I,+ H
(3)
iN
Xu + Or+ ;: =
0,
where Db =: ab+vOr'
dhla = _(H-2o.)d'
2H -0,
~ -~H(ln;) .
(f )
v = I. along th e edge r = b;
0, = O.
o, =H(O)ln ~,
~=I .
V = '(I_~10~) -4.
initially.
17 o~er. t~at th e blank does not neck a.t the lip before it is completely
p een c, It IS necessary that the radial tensil e stress should not exceed
~(O) ; this is ensured if th e drawing ratio is leas than e (2'718...). It is
und tha.t th e variation of thickness &C1'088 the blank a.t any instant
can be neglected in the equation of equilibrium wit h at most a 5 per
oente
' (I, for
ma.ximum error in
the . ~r 10
or d rawing ratios leas tha.n 2. The
Li position of any particle occurs locally neer the lip and is of order
In 3,000, while that in the thickness is about I in 500. For most purpoeea, then, it is sufficient to write
~=
_;H(ln;).
(2')
".
txr. I
MI S CE LL ANE OU S T OPICS
e&8yintegration , leada to
V= (: t = i(l - ~ In~rl;
r = 6when b = 1.
XI. I ]
D E E P.DRA W ING
'"
r-
08
07
0'
' 0
whi ch is correct to 1 in 1,000 ove r t he relevant range . Now t he incompress ibilit y equatio n can be writte n &8
lit dr = 11,8 tU (b constant) .
Combined with t he pre vious form ula this gives
!!. =
lIu
'Vb(l- Inbl' ).
r
In II.
iIl ~ . 7'" 1
IIHI).
;nation b- r -
ss
(XI. %
WIBCELLANEO US TOPI CS
to begin with, tha.t the bending ieenforced by couples applied aJong opposite edges and that there &ft'I no other exte rnal forces. For greater clarity
in describing the me.in features of the process it is assumed that elestie
strains can be neg lected a nd that the material d oes not work-harden .
(i) TM diltribtdion. oj Btrt.U . It is to be expected t b.t, in t he part of
t he sheet well away from the region of application of the coupl es, t he
stress and strain are the eeme at.ll pointe alon g eac h longitudinal fibre.
This part of t he sheet deform s in such a way that its t hic kness remains
...2"... _ -_ _
XI. I]
...
after using the fact that til' is zero on both surfaces. Since. for equilibrium,
must be continuous a.crosa the neutral surfa.oe, we must ha ve
tI,
2~ 1n-
2~ 1n - .
(7)
a. = 2~( l - ln(blr)}
a. _ - 2~{ 1 + In (rla)}
(8)
a,
'~b
du.
-dr'
a,-a, =
= - r- ' .
21: (e ~ r ~ b),
= 2k (G ~ , ~ c).
Substituting (6) in the eq uilibrium equation, and integrating:
a, = _ U ln blr (, .;;; r .;;; b),
til' = -2i lnr/a (a ~ , =s;. c),
(')
fir-a,
(.
f:,
(,tll') d,
= [,ftl'! = o.
G=
f a,rdr.
!!.=
2i
a,-ft
Let t be the radius of fibres which, in a further infinitesi mally small strain,
undergo no change of length; t he cylindrical eurfece containing these
fibres is called the neutral ~'Jace. F ibres outeide this surfece are
mot7Wttarily extended and those inside compressed . Since the bending iJ
aeeumed to take place under conditions of plane strain the yield
criterion is
d,
uniform and ita plane surfaces become cylindrical; we m all verify thia
a pO&teriori. Let a end b be the internal an d external radii of curvat ure
&1 any moment, and let l be the thickness (F ig. 80) . I t follows from t he
symmet ry of the defonnation that the principal st resses in the planes of
bending act in the radial and circ umfere ntial di rections. If ft, is the
circumferential etreee and ftr is t he radial eteeee, the equat ion of equi-
librium is
til
ah
~
2~ ~ 1(6-a )' =
1t'
(9)
(ti) The ckJormalion in bending. Le t u da be the i nward radiaJ component, and 11 da the circumferential component, of the displacement
of an element during a further small strain in which the angle of bending
IX (per u",i, original ltngth) increaaee by da. Since we are neglecting
elasti c compreeai.bility, the componente of displacement must be such
~t there is no change in volume. Furthermore, they must be conIl8tent with the stl"e6ll distribution (6) and (8); this demands that the
68e0ciat.ed strain it a circumferential extension of elemente outside the
MI SCELLAN E O US T O PI CS
[XI. I
u =
..!..(T+~'\'
v = rD ,
iJ
2ca
U=
-d~, = (1_~)~,
c' , ,, =
-2,.
0;
dYr6 =
(ii)
r
u = 2ca '
"I
GLa = 2k ~~
(10)
4(a+bJ"
o.
(11)
ca
where 8 is the angle between a radius and the plane of symmetry. The
corres pondin g stram-incre ment has compo nents
cU, =
XI . 2J
v= -r8 .
Th ia ia
(13)
l+ m
rS-a l
I-m = b' - rS'
0'
, ~
TO
.JWa'+b'l+!(b' - a'lmj.
(14)
',-_ J (a'+b'\
-2-r
~ fibre is, of co.urse, nearer to t he convex surface in its final posi tio n
(Fig . 81). By eet ttng T = e in (14) it is found that the initial position of
the fibre finally coincidin g with the neutral surface ie such that
m
-(:+:).
Now the neutral eurfece initi&1Jy colncidee with the cent ra l plane a nd
and so
, can therefore be trea ted. &8 a constant henceforward , and it followt
from (9) that the coup le G is ind ependent of t he am ount of plastio
bending, a result which is t rue only for non -hardening material. The
relation betw een the internal radius end the an gle of bending ie found
by eq uating the initial and final &reas ; if L ie the origi nal length of
sheet then
2
Lt = !(b'-al)Lca, 0;1 = - .
(12)
a+b
or
c<
<j((J'~bl)
the ove rtaken by the neutralsurfa.ceat some intermediate stage, and are
fl refoTe first compressed and afterwards extended (the Ba uschin ger
~a eet w?uld thu8. be operative in practice). A fraction t/4a of the width
pp roXlmately) 18 t ra versed. by the neutral surface.
t ll!
(XI. J
At each etege of the bending there is one fibre which baa un dergone
equ al amounts of compressio n and extension, end whose ruultam cha.nge
in length is zero. The radius of this fibre is, fro m (12),
, =
!=
I_
l (+ b).
XI. ! ]
'
Ntulr<1' surf.x:t
hed
nSUttc
~~
-~(:+:).
m eet.
oed
(iv) Bending under leMion. 8D P~ . now, that the bending is ~
out while the aheet is stressed by tensions T (per unit width) applied to
the ends. The line ofaction ofeech tension isa.ssumed to be normal to the
terminal radial section (that is, in the circ umferentia.l direction). The
tensions have an inward resultant which is assumed to be balanced b~.
uniform pressurep applied over the inner surface of the sheet. For equilibrium it is evid ent that
T = ap .
(1&)
The stress components are
- 2t ln-b, ,
a =
_ p_2tln a_.
a,
_p_2k(I +ln;)
= ~-pflk.
!!..
=
2k
(16)
H+b.-2obe- ....)- Tb
4k
t:h
(17)
e
that which coincides, at the moment under considera tion, with
ceeteal eurfece oftbe sheet. The initial position, according to (14),11
a =
u.
..d ..
m -
&CJ'068
CS
Thus, the fibre which hee undergone no resu ltant change in length i.e
. . I ' .O''1,'11.
"I rt 3 Cln",""
(.+be--)
(18)
:r
p
xl
2J; = 2m = jj"
(0 ~ z ~ 1).
l.rt from
dI
zI'
u':
2a s'
(19)
...
[XI . 2
MI S CELLANE OUS T O PI CS
from t he neu tral surface is 2kyla since gla is the resultant strain. The
mean work per unit volume of th e whole bar is th erefore
2k [i (I+.l'~
at
Y dy +
j( J-Z)I ]
kt
y dy = (1+,r') 2a'
,
to order (i '
(20)
If the sheet is re-strai ghtened under th e same te nsion th ere is & further
t hinning of equal amount. Th us the total work done per unit volume in
producing a thinning ofamount xl/a is k ( I + xl )tla. Since the work needed
to produce th e same thinning by uniform ex te nsion is 2b:tla, t he efficiency of bending and re-ateeighte ning under tensio n &8 a means of
XI.3J
where
p = -1 (0'1+0'1),
(21)
T.
is t he (algebra ic)
reducing thickness is 22:/(1 + %' ). The efficiency is higher the grea ter the
tension, and becomes unity (to the present approximation only) when
t he applied te nsion is equal to the yield stress (x = 1).
Swiftt has shown how these resu lts can be a pplied with suitable
modification s to the calculation of thinning produced in a st rip bent
under tension by pu lling it round a roller (like a rope over a pulley).
A part of th e t hinning takes place during t he bending oftbe strip immedia tely before passing over th e roller, an d the remainde r &8 the strip is
re-etreightened on leaving th e roller . Since th is is a cont inuous steadymotion process, in which th ere is a variation of thi ckness alon g t he strip
where it is being bent , the deformation and state of stress are st rictly
not identical with th at conte mplated in the abov e analysis. However.
the differen ce is proba bly negligible when Ifa is small, and in fact Swift
has found good agreement with t he observed t hinning when strainhardening is suitably allowed for (strain-ha rdening acta to red uce the
amount of thinning when the applied tensi on is large).
296
hOCUS refe~red to coordinate axes 1(0'1 +0'1)' l(UI-UI) (Fig. 82). If a pure
T=,.
(O'+p) dp = T. dT....
aF
er
Or...
.
e dp + -
dT = 0
(22)
,,.
(XI. 3
MI SCELLANEOU S TOP I CS
H ence
a+p
-;:- = -
aFjaF _ dT.
ap
fh ... -
(23)
dp'
The elimination of p and T ... between (21), (22), and (23) furnishes the
(a,T) equatio n of the envelope. If the inclination of the ~n~ent ~ E
is denoted by !/J (regarded &8 positive where ITId ecreeeea WIth m~reaatng
tension a ), and the inclination of the tangent to F by x. equation (23)
expreeeee the fa.et that at corresponding points on E and F
sin t/J = tan x.
(24)
Thus, only when -I'll' ~ X :s;;: 1" is there rea l contact between a atreM
circle for & plast ic state and t he envelope E. This possi bility was eeemingly not reoognized by Mohr, who proposed '[ a criterion of yielding to
the effect that permanent deformation occurred only when .. 8treee
circle touched a certain curve in the (a. T) plane. Since there are possible
pleetic states corresponding to circles lying entirely in side the envelope
(e.g., the sma.ll circle in Fig. 82) the locus F ,.and not E, m~lIt be regarded
as the fund amental quantity to be determined by experi ment.f
I t will now be shown that the stress equetione are hyperbolic or elliptic
accordi ng aa the contact wit h the envelope is real or imaginary. respect ively. Suppose , following the method of Chapter VI (Sect. ~) '.that ~me
curve C is give n along which the stresses are known. and t hat It III required
to find whether the stress derivatives nonnal to this curve are uniquely
determined. Consider any poin t P on C. and take Cartesian axes (z ,Y)
parallel respectively to the normal and tangent at P. The equilibrium
equati ons limit the only possible discontinuity to &III/ax. H owever.
this derivative can be found from
_~ :(~: +~;)+:,"~{Haz-Oll)(~:-~)+T~~:}.
(26)
XI. 3]
297
1:-;,T+-
--)...
(26)
.
"
nteot
t In eoil mechanic. E ill often a pproximated b y two oblique "talght linN. the co Id
then bei ng alwaye real. Tho p~nt modifiee.tion or Mo~'e ,latement or the ~
e riterion dON not _ m to be widely known to wo rk,1W ID. that field. who ~n ~
I"elf&rd the . heat' .box ..... t ... giv ing a di reet meaeUl'OJ of point.- on the.envelope. Bmoe It.
de ronnation iA .... r Ollllt ra ined All to be e"eetively a Iirnple , heat' In a ,n&n'Ow ~
_ me t hat the telt I'NIlly gi VM a d iteet ~Ul'OJ. not. or E. ~ut. o r F, for Irth.' material
.1I10t.rop"l
. ' h e d ,tee ,~
r .._6
~. _
- . im um Ihear .t...- and maxunum . hear .t.ra ln .rate m u-"
ooiM ide .
t J.
298
[XI.a
a;;"'n~~ =
O.
(27
OT
--=r =
(I"..
OT
T %
dR -2Qdw
~
aQ
~, - t.
oo::~~(w~i"'l.,,:"') gp dh
on an a-curve, }
l"'- I ~) dh
P
d R+2Q dw -- co, ~co,(wcos (w+ I.'.
.,.- IfT ) gp on a -curve,
Hence, at P,
where c is the so -ca lled cohesion , and t/J is constant . Bya slight exte nsion
of th e precedin g theory to allow for body forces, it may be shown that
along an cx-chara.cteriBti
. ./.OT%1/
= O.
( R -P)~ + (I" .. = o.
~ ~ ~(fd~_ +
the equ ations (30) and (30') can be written more symmetrically as
>'-w = conl'ltant along an e-curve, )
(
>'+w = constant along a p curve.
2U9
>. is a known fun ct ion of 1/1, calculab le fro m the envelope E. Equations
(32) were derived by Mandel. t
In so il mechani cs the env elope E is often approximated by two oblique
straight lines:
c- Q = R tAn t/J.
(33)
w.
U"k
JOO
[XI. I
when they are identi caJ. (Chap. III, Sect. 2 (ii), and &g&in for the plane
problem in Chap. IX , Sect. 2 (ill). where th e coincidence of 8treea and
velocity chara.cteriaticaeeem8 to be a necessary pro perty for uniqueneee).
a
a
a.
(ha.l+ ily (hTn ) ~ 0,
8
8
a.
(hTn ) +ily (ha,) ~ 0,
u.
(36)
where Ul and
are th e principal etreeeee in th e plane of the plate, and
I: = Y/.J3. Equation (35), considered &8 a locus in the (uI, u.) plane ,
represents an ellipse (Fig . 84) ; it is in fact th e section of th e :MieM
cylinder in (uI' UI' U.) space by th e plane u. = O. Referred to its principal
axes, th e equation of the ellipse is
F(p,T.) '"
where
p = - I (UI+ UI)'
301
(37)
Now it W&8 proved in Section 3 th at the .trell8 equations are hyperbolic
when t he i~clination X of th e locus F to th e gaxis is numerically le88
th an 111'; thlll correspo nds to th e th ickened arcs of the ellipse in Fig. 84.
Over the remainder of the ellipse, where both lUll and ju ! are greater
than k (or, equiva.lently, where th e ma.ximum shear st res: in the plan e
,,
,,
', - 0
,
,,
i,-o
(3')
The averaged etreeeee may be inserted in th e yield crite rion, with only a
small error. Von Mises ' crite rion reduces to
U:-uz u.+U:+MSqo =
XI. ' 1
(36)
= I (UI-ul)'
(,I'~
d( Rh)
8h
(38)
8,.
R in terms
(39)
[XI.
302
Hence
R ~ 2P =
2J(k' -
tan~ =
Q').
2P
./(k' -Q' )
4 slO'P
- _sin6
. .,
4
= J (I+ 3. in"/i) - ,3
'
Q _ _ CQ.~ _
r-
"I( 1+3oin'~)
(40
= "I( I- I.in'9),
where the positi ve radi cal is to be taken. T he prin cipal st resses O'llUl
as
~(~s~!"_t=tlJ .
are
J( J+ 3.in '~ )
3 8in ~
Thus
or
2ksin(ei)'
>
(41
as'
= Sin-I (:3 8in 8)- i sin-l (~3 tan e) (-lw :<.\ ~rr). (
where t he inverse sine and tange nt denote an gles in the range (-111',
.\ is tabulated es a funct ion of l/J or (J in Table 2 at the end of.the
In serting in (38) the val ues of P , Q, and R from (40) we ebtain,
.I. dh
d(ph) + 2kh d+
d(ph)-2kh d+
o.~
(2/.J3)sin 8 dla _
i sec 8 Oh d.J...on a n o.curve' 1
J(1- I . in'9 )-k - - "I(I I .in'8) a,~ h
(0 ';;
Ipl .;; k) .
(46)
In the seco nd C&Be there is only a single characte ristic, which coincides
with t he di rection of the numerically lesser principal stress . Returning
to equation (25) we find that
~= o,
aince Tqo = 0 at the point P . Thus, at the point P, the equef iona of
equilib rium (34) reduce to
8Tqo
a,.
= 2k.
The envelope E coincides with F for stress states such that 10'1- 0'11 = 2k,
but for ell other states it degenerates in to the pair of pointa (2k.O).
In the first ca.se the equetione are hyperbolic , with the slip-lines &8
charac te ristics. Setting Q = 1:, P = R = -p, d?.. = d?p = d?1jI = O.
we have from (38):
d(A- w) +
30.
in terms of the angle through which the principal axes rot&te.t The
field of characteristics corres pondin g to various boundtory condi tions i.e
----"2Q- -
From (39):
XI. 01]
Now,
"zw =
ay
R &1a
= - -. _ ,
h ""
i(P-R)sin 2w,
0'" =
i(P+R)-I(P-R)cos 2w,
304
IXI . '
direction which is also th e cha ra cterist ic. Subst itu t ing these expressions
in the equilibrium equations, and inserting veluea at P after differentiat ion , we find
"'" R ah
(P - R) ay ~ h ax'
(l _ I~I) dw = _~:da,
_(l_lfl)h
""',
2k
an
cntz
(47)
Y = XtaDw+ F(wl,
where F(w) is a fun ction determined by t he stress boun dary condi ti
prescribed along some eurve.t I t is not difficult to show t hat the curv
ture of the other principal stress trajectories is
(hi.
(iPl)
a(IPI)
1-
2f
SokolovBky :t
IP I
1- 2f =
G(w)
where G(w) is a funct ion to be determined from the boundary val ues of.
(il) The vdotily equation.s. Let the (x , y ) components of velOCI
t IL d implicitly ...urnN I.ha' ' M 1IIope. vary. Ir \he l~nN are par*llel , he .~
\Lll.ifonD ' t.m. _
i8 no' ind uded in 'he followinjj: general U1~.
.
: w. W.So1r.olovsky. C_ peu R,rwI.... (DoUlod~ ,.51 ( ItU). UI ; TIw>rr oj P
p . 111111_.... I Hf).
ay
(49)
a;
Now
2a,-al
i,
sinJ/l =
~I+~' =
(1-('
IPI
""
+811..
ay az
2az a.. = 2o..- az = 6TZJI
and eo
1
X BeCw+ coswF'(wf
~z
811 11
""
"'"
Since only the deri vative of w occurs, we may measure w relat ive to a ny
fixed axis, and wri te
IP1) ~
!a. (h2k
XI. ]
!(al+a,\ .
3 al-aJ
(51)
'" is therefore real, and the equations hyperbolic, when Ipl ~ 311'..1.
When von Mises' yield criterion is ueed , the characteristics for the
Btressea coincide with those for t he velocities. This is clea.ron comparing
(42) and (51) , when it will be seen t hat they define t he sa me value of ",.
a~ternatively, it is evident from (40) that th e stress characteristi cs an:
directions of zero exte nsion since P is equal to i R, and is th erefore th e
mean of th e other two nor mal stress components. Th e statement may
~lso be dem onstrated directly by reca lling tha t t he funct ionf(az ' a ll , 1'ZJI )
In von Miaea' yield cri terion (35) is identical wit h t he plaatio potential
....hen a. = O. Thus (50) implies t ha t
a/
-=0.
a.,
306
[XI . '
direction are known. The equilibrium equations then give 8uz !8z and
3T ,I8z, while ao,fikl is uniquely determined from
z
z!L "'""
8f _ 8f /la. + 8f /la, +
at - Baz ax &. ar
ih'zv a:r
" /"- o this however , is eleo t he conditio
n that C __
should
be a
, ~ .. - . .
.
..I
un!es8 (lJ
....eristic
If
the
Uvy-Mi8ea
relations
are
Ul:II:'U In con",
chare
1
~ooy
~.
.
' ~
" e tiIon WIith Tre8ca.'s criterion , t he stress and velocity charectene....ce
Jun
are in general distinct.
.
Let (at tI) be th e velocity components along the (01,,8) velocity c~ar&C.
teriBtics. Then , if an OI-ehal"&cleristic is regarded a.s the curve C. simple
colUlidera t ions of the perellelogrem of velocities show t hat
v, ~ [v C08~.+usin(~.+~)j/C08 ~"
On substituting in (50), and setting
derive
du _(v +;:~n"')dcf>/I
+.. =
= 0
on an a-curve.
we
(52)
on
n:o
80, + a., + ~ Dh ~ O. }
Oz
or
&y
h D.
(63)
,.,
Pa'
- --,:s '
O'B =
Pa'
--,:s '
30.
(XI. t
for von Miaea' criterion an d to Yj2 for Tresca'a. If the pressure is now
raised further t he materi&l round t he hole becomes plasti c within some
rediue c. The stresses in the non -plastic material a re
0,
a,
kc'
= - -,
ke'
= t
(c ~ r},
XI . ]
309
the edge of the hole. The pressure required j ust to ad van ce th e plasti c
region to the radius pa is equ al to U; th e circumferential stress at t he
edge is then a compression of amount k. If a still greater intemalload
is applied , th e pla.stic boundary continues to expand an d th e inne r radius
of the rigid annulus of plastic ma te rial is sti ll th e constant fracti on
IIp (- 0571) of th e rsdiua of the whole plastic region (Fig. 85). Th e
ma terial inside th e radius Oli71e is not constrained to rem ain rigid by
the material farther out, and a thickening becomes possible. That such a
f /.utie
namely 45. Thus the rigid part of the plasti c region muet extend over
finite annulus, its inner boundary being t he circle where t he velocitJ:
characte ristics are coincident. In the rigid plastic annulus, then,
thickness is uneltered and the equation of eq uilibri um is simply
rLur
a'-Ur
dr = - r - '
= 2.1:sin(jn+B),
ar
.= -
c'_
Integrating :
r'
= e- "l8 coaB.
(54
thickenin g dou occur is due to the fact that the plasti c material cannot
euetaln a greater stress than 2k , the pressure already a pplied ; hen ce, if
the load is increased, the plate must thicken to support it , and the
pressure can be expected to fall.
Turning, now, to t he corres ponding analysis for Tre eca 'a criterion,
we have
o,-ar. = 2k
p = 2ksin( r - B"l,
ar
e"
p = tie"" ")). -
1751.
-k(I + 2 1n ~),
0, =
k(I- 2 ln~).
= .Je -- 1649.
(67)
The applicat ion of a. greater load causes a. t hickening, an d the rigid
annulua of plastic mate ria.l is confined between t he radii O607e and e.
p
hal .lI
310
[XI. 4.
That the velocity equations ere hyperbolic in t his annulus may be seen
from (51), since the angle
~ = -8in-l (~ln;)
is real (-sin-II ~ t/J ~ 0) when cl../e < r ~ c. When a greater load is
appli ed 0 8 becomes negative on the edge of th e hole, end the yield
cri terion cha.nges to
_ - 2k
0" _
XI. 4]
T H E O R Y OF P L A N E P LASTIC STR E SS
ill. they ate functions ofthe single parameter rIc. In particular t he eteeee
distribution around a hole expanded from some finite radius ~ identical
with that in the correspondin g annulus in a plate in which a hole hae
been enlarged from zero radius and in which, therefore. the distribution
~f st~ remains geometric~y eimiler.j The lat te r problem has been
mvcstigated by Ta.ylor,: uemg Treece's criterion. Let
e = ric, U = -09/2.1:
and put Ur = - 2.1: in (68). Then
a
hv
8c+ a.,(hvl+ ,
!)
Oh'
T= o- I,
1a' v
,
( v- 0) X +j+v = 0,
VI
- 0,
U .::;;;
I d
811,
(0 .::;;;
Or =c dS'
a.,
3lJ
(59)
tI
= 2-u _
2a- lO '
(58)
20',,-0' t'
Or - 2a,
0tJ
op'"
where v denotes t he radial velocity wit h the param eter C &8 the timeecele.t For both Tresca.'s and von Mises' criteria oUr/Or is zero (&:I,lar
being finite), and U' - U r is equal to k, just within t he inner boundary of
the rigid annulus. It follows fro m t he equation of equi libriu m th&t
olalOr is equ al to -AopJ2e just within the radius clp; thus. t he slope of
the surface changes discontinuously . I t may be shown from the UivyMieee equation that OU9/iJr has the value - 3kpl2c just within the radiua
clp. and from the incompressibility equation that 8TJliJr has t he value
-1 /2< (ohl8c ~ (- l /p)ohla., at this point).
Since it is clearly immaterial whether the p ressure at any radius ia
applied by an external agency or through the displacement of an inner
annulus of the pla te , t he stress and velocity in an element depend only
on what happens beyond this radi us. Sin ce the plate is in finite they ere
funct ions only of the relative d istance from the plastic boundary; that
t Thill i r-tem o f equatio... ill hyperbolic ..-ith tk _ 0 lind d r - fl tk _ 0 .. ehanlcter
iltio direct iON in the (r, c) plane. tr t he I y.tem it conlidered by i t.elf, and no t . . .
llpe'Cia lir.atio n of the general (~, y ) eq ua t ion t he fun d&mental I'M.&OD for the e:dlt.enOf
of a rigid an nul ue of ple.et ic m a terial i . l...rgely c beeueed . . SimillU'ly , th e in ne~ bound uy
o f the rigid annu lue no longe r appean: &II the locu. of pomu where the , "loc,ty chane '
teriatict coi.Deide, but n>erely .. the circle whero 2.., - .., - O.
' _ (2-.)(.-1 )
v - 2(u l
Eliminating v:
(2a- l)(. - I)
0=
u+ I)'
0 + 1)
2(ul
(60)
(0 1
u+l )
(01-0+1)"
In/~)
\P8
3 I- u
when S = IIp:
(u l
u,
(61)
p= -l+i
+ OV3- '5183;
.-2-769.
(62)
dilI_ t.
Mme
(63)
MI SCE L LA NE O US T OPI CS
[Xl. 4
a,
(64)
Equations (60), (61) and (63) give" and A/lao as functions of 8 = rIc.
parametrically in terms of a. The total displaceme nt u{r,c} satisfies
the equation
Du =
(! + t1 ~)u =
De
'"
XI. ")
313
,.,
If
e.
'"
v(',c) = cF(B ),
au =
Hen ce
'"
F' ,
(e- B)F'+ F = e;
end
~=
F
..!!.
F -8F' ,
0 when B ~ l ip,
(M)
where
p'
= c' _ (r _ u)' =
pi
2c1
f"
ao
.
r
'r
..
h, 4
laS de.
ho
(66)
u,
When 8 ie leee than l /p' , that is when r is less than 0'361<:, becomes
positi ve again and th e yield criterion reverts to
= 2k. The
corresponding modifica t ion of (59) is such that an a naly tic 80luti
appears to be impossible and the equetione must be integrated numeri
celly. The theory can only be regarded as approximate neer the edge
the hole, where t he slope of the su rface becomes infinite and the core
is knife-edged. The res ults are shown in Fig. 86; they ha ve been
calculated'[ since Taylor's method of integration was insufficient!
accurate. At t he edge ofthe hole (8 = 0'2805) hlho has the value 3'
(a pprox.) ; the elmcet. exact agreement with the value for hl!o fo
ex perim entally by Tayl or is certainly fortuitous. T he hole W &8 ex pand
by p iercing a lead sheet with a lubri ca ted cone of very small taper
The experimenta indicate that the mode of deform ation contempla
in this analysis may be unstable ; once t he hole reached a critical size
t R . H ill, PAil. M og. 40 (19"9) . 971.
a,-a,
0/
= -.l: 8y'
T .. -
0'
.I:%z.
(67)
l is zero on the contour of the section sin ce no eJ:ternaJ fol'Oe8 are applied
314
MI BCE LL AN E OU S T OPICS
[XI,IS
(68)
a/ /3y, and where the radicals are
~
_ ! A(x'+" )- !Cx+Dy%,
&y
(69)
~ _ ! B(Y'+,' )- ! Cy- Dn ,
a;.
ax =
-!I,
a;.
'*
315
JJ (1- 1: - / : )l dxdy,
G. = If (XT.. -YT..) dzdy ~ - 2k If I dzdy ,
and a bending couple with components
G
JJ - 1: - / : )1 tlxdy, G" JJ -1: - /:)1dxdy .
Z = , 3k
a twisting couple
= _
XI. Gl
= -/3k
y( 1
=f x( 1
= -/3k
In th e above equati ons eith er t he upper or the lower sign must be taken
thro ughout in any one element . The correct sign is decided by th e consideration t hat the ra te of work must be positive. Th us
(auI!% + aw)+...(""
+ aw)+aw
ilx
I!% &y
I!%
0 <; . ..
,)(I- / l-I:)
fro m (71).
(71)
.,{3(Ax+ By+C)/ .
&y ~ x '1(1 I l I l ) .
Hence, combining (69) and (70), possible velocities for a completely
pleetde sta te are
u ~ lA(y'- x' - 2,' )-!Bxy-!Cx +Dy"
}
(72)
= _ !Axy+ 1B(x'-y'-2" )- !Cy -Dn,
where the integral is taken over t he ends of the bar. This expression
must be made a maximum for varying ateeeeee satisfying (67) a nd (68),
and for given surface values of u, v, w, tentatively assumed to satisfy (69).
In th e integral, term s not involving % cancel out at opposite ends of th e
bar , while t he remaining terms lead to
0,
(73)
+(AI.+BI.)(I -/l-/I)~(I-J:-/l)1 = o.
(73')
ilx
The solution of this (ellipti o) equation for given ratios AID, BID, aiD,
and subject to th e boundary condition 1 = 0, determin es th e stress
functionj and th ereby the , tress distributio n. When A .,. B = 0 = O.
W=
II'
kL
~ ';3
d.nly-
- D
(xl.+YI.) d'tdyH L
318
MISCELLANEOUS T OPICS
(XI.6
where L is the length of the bar. On the right-hand side the third term
is zero since I = 0 on the contour, while th e second term can be tJ'anaformed to give
r:
XII
PLAS T IC ANISO T RO PY
TaERE are certain important and striking phenomena which ca.nnot be
described by t he theory constructed in Chapter II. The eeeumpdoa th &t
every ma te rial element remains isotropic is an approximation t hat
beccmea less good &8 the deformation continues. Individual crystal
grains are elongated in the direction of th e greatest tensile strain and th e
texture of the specimen appears fibrous. Now it is a consequence of th e
glide proceee that a single crystal rotates during th e straining 80 that it
approaches an orientatio n characteristic of the particula.r stra in-pa th.
For example, when hexagonal single crystals are st retc hed in tension,
th e basal planes gradually tum towards positions partJIel to the direction
of the applied load. Simila.rly, the grains of a polycrystal tend to rotate
towards some limiting orientation (not neoeasarily equivalent to tha t in
a single crysta.l, owing to the mutual constra ints between the grains);
thus, in face-centred cubic metala compressed.between lubricated plates,
face diagonals tend to align parallel to the direction of compress ion.
By this mechanism a meta.l in which th e grains are initially oriented at
random, and which is therefore isotropic, is rendered eniectrople during
pleetlc deformation. The distribution of orientations between the grains
(meeeured, for exa mple, on a percentage baais}"then h~ one or more
maxima.. ITsuch a maximum is well defined it is referred to &8. preferred
orienta.tion. IT the orientatioD8 of the individual crystals are not fan domly distributed, the yield stress and the macroeoopio st ress. stnJ.n
relationa vary with direc tion. For example, in hea.viIy cold -rolled breee,
the te D8iIe yield stress transverse to the direction of rolling may be &8
much &8 10 per cent. greater than that parallel to the rolling direction. t
Greater variations may be obta.ined by a crit ical sequence of mechanical
and heat treatments which produces a final recrystallization texture
approaching that of a single crystal (for example, rolled. copper sheet
can be prepared 80 that varying proportions of the grains have their
cubic axes parallel to the edges of th e sheett).
We now consider how the theoretical fram ework may be broadened.
to include ani80tropy. A8 usual , we neglect the effecte: of thoee internal
318
PLAST IC AN ISOTRO PY
[XU. 1
XII. I]
...
static stress does not influence yielding. I t must be remembered that the
yield criterion only hea th is form when t he principal axes of anisotrop y
are th e axes of reference; otherwise th e form changes in a way that
ca n be found hy transforming th e stress components.
If X, Y, Z are the tensile yield stresses in the principal directions of
anisotropy . it is easily shown that
1
XI = O +H ,
I
y s =H +F ,
I
zs =F +G,
2F
= y s+ z'- XI'
20 = z s+xs-ys'
(2)
2H = X' +yl-Zs'
~ I.
Let oth er axes (r' ,y', z') be taken so t hat t he z'-axis coincides with th e
e-exis, while th e r '-e xla is inclined at a clockwise a ngle 8 to th e e-s xle.
The equa tions of transformation (Appendix IV) are
O'~
0",
(]~,
".
[XII .
P LASTI C AN I SOTROPY
321
N ~ F + 2H ~ 0 + 2H,
L = M.
If there ie complete epbericalsymmetry, or isotropy,
L = M ~ N = 3F _ 30 - 3H,
The atrain in each transverse direction ia a cont rac tion unleee t he yield
etreesee differ so much that one of 0 or H .is negative. The cont racti on
in th e y direction is the larger if H > 0 , that is, if Z > Yj the strain is
therefore less in th e direction of the greater yield stress. Similarly .
tension teats in the y and z directions furnish the ratios FIH and G/F.
In prin ciple, this allows an immediate teat of the theory in view of th e
id entity (H IO) X (OIF) X (F IH) ~ I. Klingle r a nd Sache,t using rolled
aluminium sheet Ii inches thick, m easured th e strains in te nsile epecimens cut at va rious orientations in , and obliquely to, th e plane of th e
sheet. When the specimen was normal to the plane of rolling, the two
transverse strain components were equal within experimental error ;
if % ia the rolling direction and y the tran sverse direction in the plane of
rolling, this implies that F __ O. It was aOO observed that one prin cipal
st rain was always in a direction parallel to th e rolling plane. Where t he
th eory is applicable, meeeureme nta of th e stra in ratios in tensi on
specimens cut in th e z and y directions provide an indirect meth od for
dete rmining th e ratios of t he t hree tensile yield stresses, with the U86 of
equation (2 ); this is preferable to t he direct method if the yielding is not
sufficiently sharp a nd well defined . It is a particularly convenient mean s
of determining th e through-thickness yield stress when the material
is in th e form of a th in sheet . On th e other hand, independent measurementa of the st rain ratios and t he yield st resses provid e further tests
of the valid ity of the th eory.
(' )
and the expreeeion (1) reduces to von Misee' cri terion wh en 2F ia equeted
to IJYs (Cha.p. II, equation (9).
= d)J{T
dyzr = d>.NT~.
dr a
g ,
}
(5)
dil'J_,
3!Z
(XII. :I
XII. 3)
3!3
where a ia the ten sile yield etre se. Sub stitution in (6) gives
or
(7)
Values of F , 0 , H, and N (but not L or M ) can be ded uced from the observed dependence of the yield stress on the orientation. It may be
shown that t he ma xima and minima of 0' occur along the anisotropic
exee, and also in directions 0: such that
tan10: = N -0-2H
2Ho
If N > F + 2H and 0+2H the yield stress bee maximum (uneq ual)
values in the z and y directions and minimum (equal) valu es in the 0:
directions . Cook,t and Palmer a nd Smith,t hav e observed variatiODi
of this kind in bresa, after various rolling and annealing treatments.
Klingler and Sa.chs found that for aluminium alloy sheet the yield
stress had a mini mum near the 450 positions, a nd that F __ O. If
N < F +2H an d 0+2H , t he yield stress has minim um (uneq ual)
va lues in t he x and y directions and ma ximum (equal) va lues in the 0:
directions . If N is inte rmediate to F + 2H and 0 + 2H, t here is no real
va lue of 0:, and the yield stress has a maximum in the x direction And a
minimum in t he y direction when F > G,II and vice versa when F < O.
It is evident from this that the relation of N to the quantities F +2H
and G+2H baa a definite physical significance (cf. also equa tion (. ));
this will be further exemplified later.
(il ) S train rotio& in a tmrik 6pteil7Un. The equations for the components of the strain-increment correspond ing to a uniaxial te nsion a
at an angle a. to the e -axie are
df z = ((O + H )cosla - H si n ICl]O'd~ , }
df ll = [( F +H )sinto:-H coete] d~,
df. =
-( Fsinto:+Gcosto: )ad~,
(9
E . W . p ..lmer and C. S . S mith, T ro.... A .... 1.... M i". Md . EJlf. 147 (1942). 184.
I L . J . K lintfler I.Ild O. Sac.... op. e it . p . 3 18.
I Thi.e kind o r v....iatton hM '-> ot--ved in .. Iu minium .aheet pre"tr.. ine<I 12 ~
"....t . in teMOon ( t he direcUon o r thill p re tr...i n ill taken to be t he .rnUl I. See 1- J
Kli ng ler .... d O . Sac .... J _ no. A ..... Sci. IS C I ~ 8). 1$1.
(10)
This expressio n is in good. agreem ent with the experi mental data of
Baldwin , Howald , and Ross'[ for copper with a cubic recrystallization
~ xt u re of 50 per cent . or less ; in th is material F = G, by symmetry ,
Since the cubic ax es in the preferred orientation a re parallel to the edges
of the sheet. Values of N IF a nd H I F can be deduced by fitting (10) to
their results ; it is found, for exa mple, that N IF = 20 and HIF = 0 '8
for a 50 per cent . cubic texture, while for copper whic h had been rolled
to a final reduction of 80 per cent., and was then annealed at 81So C.,
NIF = 48 and F = G = H . I n general, when F = 0 , t he r(a) relation
is conca ve upward when N < F + 2H, and concave downward when
N > F + 2H. The latter type of relation wee obtained in aluminium
by Klingler a nd Sachs;t this ia consiste nt with their measured yield
stresees (see (i) above).
.(iii) N~lcing in knaion. When thin strips are pulled in te nsion (t heir
Width being at least five t imes t heir thickness), it is observed that the
n~k does not form dire ctl y ACross the speci men, but at an oblique angle
which depe nds on the state of anisotropy. Necking begins, after some
preliminary uni form exte nsion, at a point where there is a slight non uniformity, either geometrical or structural. Theore t ically, th e line of
t he neck should coincide with a characteristi c, in view of the property of
sberecte rietice &8 curves along which small disturba nces propagate.
We must therefore begin an analysis of necking by determining the
characteristics in a state of plane litress. Proceeding &8 in Cha pte r VI
t w, M. Ihldwi n. J r. T . 8 . H o......Id, and A. W . R_ . M - u To\~. Tech . Pub.
18OS11 94 .5). See &lAo L . Douma I.l\d R . Hill. Ph il.. ''' ''fI . 41 119.50). 6 " .
t 1- J. Klingler u>d O . !W'boo. J - . .. A ero. sa. 15 11&48) .5t1l.
I K. mn, op . en., p. J1 8.
PLASTI C ANISOTROPY
(XU . 3
(Sect. 3), with u. , a" T. , as the stress components referred to the tangent.
end normal to the curve C, we find t.hat.ell etreeaderivatives are uniquely
determined unless 8f/M, = 0, where f (u. ,a" T q ) = 0 is the yield cri terion. Since J is also the plastic potential, lU, = (af /&7,) cD. = 0 when
8f /&7, = O. Th us C is a characteristic for the stresses if it coincides at.
every point. with a direction of zero extension. There are t hus two
characteristics through 8. point, namely the directions of zero extension.
It may be shown simila.rly t hat t hese are also t he characteristics for th e
velocities. Th e characteristics are not generally orthogonal because of
. S eII
(ltJlJing d;rrdion)
th e strain normal to the sheet, nor are th ey always real (cf. Chap . XI,
Sect . 4). Th e slopes dy /dx of t he charecteristioa sat isfy t he equation
dzdx2 +2dYz~dxdy +dlIdy2 = 0 ,
or
[(G+Hla.- Ha,l dz' +2NT., dzdy +[(F+ H)a, - Ha.l dy' ~ O. (11)
In the present. prob lem t he cbe rec te riet ice are straight since th e eteeeeit
uniform. Let 6 be th e inclination of a poeeible neck, measured away
from th e rolling direction (Fig. 87), so that dy/dz = tan(8+ (I). Inserting
this in (II ), with U z = U OO8 I (1 , etc., we obtain
a tan18 +2btan8- c = 0,
where
( 12)
XII.3J
:t15
un.1I
no
PLASTI C AN I S OT RO P Y
(X U
XII. " ]
321
r,
I, 1
/ - [ = y.
(13)
--~.~
y
P'
~/ ../>
Axis or
~'
tub~
-to
I
r'
!I
(0)
O;r~dion
~ or twist
or.
emai l elemon l in
~.
Hence
a~
and
T -
- 0, =
- Tsin 2t/>,
( 14)
'28
PLA ST I C AN ISOTRO P Y
[XII. fo
dyztl =
d.
dy
(16)
2N )sin'~
The denominator is al w8.yt1 posi t ive. being equal to llTI by (14). The sign
of the n umera tor thus determines whethe r t he tube lengthen s or ehortene.
th /dy is initially zero when th e tube is isot ropic, but for small ang les of
t wist , when'; is a little larger th an In, df has the sign of (F -G) or of
(X- f). Since tP approaches 171' with progressive twist, rk is 60&11y
positive if N > 0+ 2H . The ma nne r in which t he an isotropic par~"?~ten
vary d uring torsion is not yet known , but Swift t bae found that InitIally
isotropic specimens of aluminium, copper, braae, mild steel, 05 per
cent . carbon stool, etainless steel , a nd cupro-n ickel kngtheA cont inuoueJy
by varying a mounts, the extension being of the orde r of 5- 10 per ce~t .
for a sheaf of 3. E xcept ionally , a lead specimen shortens. The &Xlal
strain cannot be attributed solely to the development of the internal
stresses due to the differential orientationeofthe greine since on reversing
the couple the ensuing ax ia.l etrai n-increme nt was also reversed (eee
p. 31).
When a cup is deep-drawn from a circular blank cut fro~ rolled .sheet.
it is often found tha t the height of th e rim ab ove th e base 18 not un iform,
as would be expected in a symmetrical operation on an i~tropio. blank.
Instead it ie observed th at 'ears' form in poeitioneeymmet ncaUy 81tua~
with respect to th e direct ion of rolling in the origina l sheet . Ge~erall~
four eara are found , eit her at th e ends of the two diamete rs makin 0g.5
with t he rolling direct ion, or at the ends of the diameten making 0 and
900 with the rolling direction. The poeiticne an d height of t he
t H . W . S....m. E "fi_ring. rea (leu). "3.
XU . 5]
'28
330
P LAST IC A NI SOTR O PY
[X II. IS
xu. a]
331
8/
8az
= d>..
dt, = tV.: =
dYq =
tV.:!
~ iAj.llrajz -la!TA:
1/ ZI/'
where the factor I is introduced in th e last equation since T" and T"
must be treated &8 distinct in the differentiation. In uni&:li~ tensi:~
a at an angl e Q: to the e -exis,
a Z = acosllX,
a, = a sin'Q:,
T"q
= a sinQ:C08 a:.
The principal aICS of stress and strai n -incremen t coin cide in d irectio ns
,i where
a~ -a,
tkz-tk,
2 T".qo
UY.qo ,
or
C08~,i - sinl,i = ~ A j.lJi(C08 ,i)2I-+-A: -'(sin ,i)Ii-+-c_ j(cos ,i)'j -+-lc(sin li)l/-+-lc-lj
28m,i cos,i
kA ,jlr(cos li)lj-+-Ir-I(sin ,i)I.I-+-A:-1
This reduces to
.!
~ A'jlc(C06 ,i)" -+-l -l(sin ,i)' /+Ir -1((2j + k)cosI,i_ (2i +k)sinlli] = O.
(16)
~ Ajllra~ a~~"
Since k is .even there mu st be a fac tor ofsin,i and cos ,i in every term , 80
that possibl e eolutlons are 0 and 90". Including these, there are eltoge~her 4n roots in th e range 0 ~ a < 2n, sym metrically disposed in
relation to the axes of anisotropy. Th e posit ions of the ears and hollows
are 0, 90, and 90"- ,i; if aU the roots are real the n umber of ee ra is 2n
For certain values of the parameters Aj.lA: IIOme of the roots will not be
real (cf. pla ne stress with n = 2 and N inte rm ediate to F+2H a nd
~~2H). Thus th e observed nu mber of eera only ena bles us to set a lower
hmlt to the degree of the pleetic potentia l.
It is interesting to notice that, whatever the yield criterion, the ea rs
and hollows form where the tangents to the rim are in the directions of
s~.a.tiona.ry yi eld steeee.t These d irecti ons are given by dajda. = 0 or,
" 000 <kId = - (cflc.)f(cfl""), by
where t he powers i,i , A: are pos itive integers or zero (i + j +k ~ A), and
k must be even when the x,g directions are the principal a xes of snleo-
t w, M. o..l d _ in. Jr. T . 8. Ho....a ld, I\nrl A. W . ae-, M rJah TAtlOlogy, Tet'h . Pub.
180S (19 4 :1 ). See a].-.o L. Uo um" and R . Hill . P llil .'l ltf/. 41 ( 19:1O), &71.
l H . L . 8 urghoff a nd 1':. C. Bo hle n, Tra ..... A m. h Al. .\1 i.. . M rt. Eng. In ( 10"2). IU.
Where
t1z = a cosllll,
a, =
aainlQ:,
T"qo
DO'
WUl.
'"
(XII. tI
Th is is
or
d W = aiJdfil = afl
2a [ -
aaz
Ca"
iJ'Tz II
O.
8/
"'...
'2
Go
(18)
- J3
h
'2 + +
cU = 2/ cU = cU,
8/
a=
fJ/
au"
US
L [F(F~~G~~~F)' +2<11;']
= (<1>.)' I [F(a,- a,)' +2Lr:'1 =(<1>.)'.
Th is suggests the following definition of an equivalent strain-increment
for a nisotropic ma teria l:
000
(19)
dW
df = vi(~ + G.+ H.)LA '
an d
d W = ii rh.
(20)
Thus, jf there is a fun cti onal relation bet ween ii and W (thi8 has yet to
be demonstrated ), there must also be one between ii and
This js
the analogue of the eq uivalent streee-etrsln curve for isotropic material,
the are a under th e curve being aga in eq ual to the work per unit volume
.
In uninial tension X parallel to the z.axia,
fd;.
Ho)t
]1
(17)
Fo+Go+ Ho
_J3
( F,+G, -'I
2
)' -
}.'o+Go+ HJ
{J ~ J~(
H.+F, \I
[XII . e
are given by
the strain rati os in tensile teats in the x and y directions . lfthe material
i8 in the form of a thin shoot the stress-strain curve for the z direction
(through the t hickne ss) can convenient ly be obtained by t he ap plication
of balan ced biaxial te nsion in the plane of the sheet; this is equivalent to
a uniaxial compression normal to the sheet, toge ther with an equal
hydrostatic tension. Such & bia xial state of stress may be approxima tely
realized in the bulge test where a circular sheet, clamped at the circum ference, is plastically deformed by pressure applied to one aide. t
o1 which
(I ,
(
For
re&8Ol18
0,
)'+2N' - I
T7:JI -
XII. 71
(23)
-,
a, =
asinl6.
in (23). leading to
a =
It is evident that
0"
2T(I
I- c
)1
(24)
csin l28 .
9,
11. - 9),
(22)
N _ F + 2H - 0+2H
(3).
_ I _ ~N( F + O)
(
I)
2(FO+OH+ HF) - oo <c < .
'""
~here T is th e yield stress in shear with respect to the Z -, y-ax es, defined.
In
c_
_
-
(F "" H ).
'"
fJy
T ilz
(25)
-.
(I-c}tan 2.,6.
(26)
P L AS T IC AN ISOT ROP Y
[XII. 7
'"
to deformation, and c, which specifies t he state of an isotropy in th e
tics for th e etreeeee a.nd velocities are the same, and th a t th ey are the
slip-linea, or directions of maxi mum shear strain-rate; t hese are not ,
in general , maximum ehear-atresa directions. If t he slip-lines at some
point P are taken &8 (E. "}) axes of reference, we find (by t he met hod.
leading to equation (9) of Chap. VI) that
00/ _ 0 ~
8E
XII. 71
PLANE ST RA IN F OH A NI S OT R O P IC METALS
if ~ ( 1 -,oin~)I.
(27)
8,
~C) [ (a..-
+ (a.- a,) ~ o.
H
ence
a. - -p-lT'"
.."
a, ~ - p+!T,,'
.."
To1 ~ Th ,
(31)
A(~) = ( l -cein'~}I.
where ~o is th e value of ~ at th e point P under consideration. Substituting in (27), and using (3 1), we obtain
(29 )
(30)
a'l
(28)
2.p] = O.
!....-
where
51
'"
-.or
Hence
(~t+ (I T~~+2Th)(~t~ 0 ,
#_#.
0,
o.
#-#.
4T',
i'T+ g=
constant on an c- line , )
(32)
...
where
PLASTI C A NI SOTR O PY
g(+) =
la (~),
where
xu. 7)
',",,'2+)' + I E(u, k ),
1.
(33)
k' = c.
f'.
(1-k',;0'8)1 dfJ.
" ..
3311
dlstributlon.
so(u, k) is the Jacobian elliptic fun ction with modulus k: (which takes
complex values when c is negative), and E (K, k) is the sta ndard elliptic
integral of t he second kind :t
E (u , k) ~
tc 8in~ C08~
g(+) = - (1
[xu. 7
, .!
~ ./
""~~-~~----------~""
(34)
p'
'"
, ~ ~pec ve y .
e e te 0 stress ID each of these regions is a uniform compreeeicn
parallel to the surface, Let y (0 ~ y ~ t IT) be the angle between th e
surface and the z-uis of anisotropy (in th e eenee indieated i Fi 90)
and let anglea POQ and 0 ' P'Q' be denoted by 8, Then ~r:cJ~g ..;
&88 U
Po =
T(l
~:'2y)i,
8=
(35)
IXU . ?
P L ASTI C A N I SOT R O P Y
O'Q' , are radii and concentric circular ares. The positions of OR and
0 ' R' are determined by th e condition t hat t he surface of th e die is
{p =
h _~ :~2 i.y) t +E .
(36)
-;.,-..).
(38)
Tables for E &8 a funct ion of c or k' are eveilable[ for th e calculat ion of
P for finite degrees of anisot ropy . If c is posit ive, P is less than
2T( 1+j_) ;
if c is negative, P is greater th an 2T( I+ t 1l'). Furtherm ore, P and t he
slip-line field are th e same for orienta t ions y and
of th e exee of
anisot ropy ;t his is due to the symmetry of th e an isotro py about dtrect ioea
making 45 with the axes of anisot ropy .
The position of th e point S , hitherto not specified, depends upon the
state of stress in th e non-plasti c material, for it is this th at cont rols the
development of the plastic zone. As in th e leotroplo th eory t he flow
st reamlin es coincide with t he slip-lines parallel to PQR S and P'Q' H' S,
respective ly, a nd t he plastic material below th ese boundaries is const rained to remain rigid. The velocity is of magn itude V see 3 in
0 ' P'Q ' R' S, and of magnitude r cosec 3 inO PQRS, where Vis th e downward speed of the die.
r -Y
APPENDIX I
taken ov er t he vel uee i = 1,2,3, the 8UIRIIl&tion aign is omitted and the whole
e:lpresaion ia \IF!'i tt.en llimply CI'". Th ill is the l ummation co nven t ion, accord ing to
which a rec:urr ing kUer flUffis: indicat.eflthat the aum JDuat be formed of all t6nnII
obtaina ble by &IIIIigning to tho auffix the values I, 2, and 3. T he conven tion d0e8
not apply to n umerical auffixee. Similarly . in a q uanti ty containing tw o repeeted
lIuffixes. such All crll tUlI' the aummatio n mUllt be carried ou t for aU values 1, 2, 3
of both i and j . Thus,
Cl'll tk ll -
(o u + oll +aU)1
4 -~ + ~ + ~
Summat ion m ust be carried out wide a bracket before any other opera tion ill
performed..
In an equa t ion auch ae
Pu 9Jt = " ;.1
the free IlUffixe- (i and 1:) rouat be the same on bo th aides, &I:Id th e eq uation ill to be
understood to hold for all valUN o r the free .uftizN . The a bo ve eJ:prMBion atanda
therefore {or nine equatiotw of the type
t E . J ,.hnk. and F . Emde. l'.. ~;_/d,., 2nd edition , p. 160 (Teubnor, Le ipaia:,
183 3).
where the aymmeu 'e prope rty cril ." Cl'/ j, dt"jJ "" cUJi' ha.a been used. Bepeeted
letter auffixee are called ' d ummy' auffixes, and non -repeated onea ' Cree ' !JUffixN .
For example in
"" . 11
(i -
(i -
I , I: - I ).
2, 1 _ 3).
APPEND IX I
&:1
;}x l
component with reepeee to the directiolUl (.\.'.~;.I'" and ("", ~", .."). Thus the nine
co mponentB ofstres8 (and sim ilarly of at ra in- incremens ] eolUltit ute a tensce which.
moreover, is aymmete-ical since C11i = I1J' (and tUu = /kid. In this notation
eq uations (2 ) are of th e t y pe
'\" +,.1+,,1 =
8:e1
8:1:1
8:1:1
axl
axl
W 'j _ 0
can be written as
& j -
o!IPp) _
Cpu
= 0
'
since
'*"
x,
p'
a""
Here
(k = 1. 2, 3) are the dtrectlon -cceinee of the x;.axis with respec t to the:r
aet of a xeB; the direction -cosines of the xi-axis with respec t to t he e ' 86t are therefore
(k = 1,2,3). The direction- cosin es IIIIotisfy the well-known geometrical
rela tionB
a",a,. = 81i ,
(2)
a . ,o., = 811,
Equations ( I ) are precisely the eq uc tjona of transfonnation be t ween st rees
com ponentB referred to d iffere nt lltltB of IIoxes . In th e u8ual notation these are
a.,
=0
where
!L
_
OpH ~ - Cpll ott aj/>
= ~. Ost Pu.
-,.
h =~ Ost ~
.
and the t hoorcm 18 pr oved .
= ~ ~~,
(v) Invarianu of a teMor. A func t ion of tenso r compone ntB wh ich re tains the
same form wh en any o t her a xes of re fercnce are taken ill known as an in variant.
Thus a functionf/pij ) is in varian t if
f/pu ) = / (a aUPkI) -
I /Pu)
'*"
T=
O.
It may be proved t ha t tenaora of the kind conside red here have only three
au,
and tw o ot her similar pairs obtained by cyc lic pennutat ion of t he lIUffu:es. Th ese
componen te can be wr itten aBl1u -ll1t.t when i = j and 108 C1jj wh en i
i, Of, Itill
more shortly and un ifonnly. aBl1lS - 181SC1u'
(iv ) T en,ot6. A Cartesian teneor of the kind occurring in this boo k is 110 quantity
comprising nine compo nents Plj (i,j = 1, 2,3). It is implied that th ere existe
some rule (depending on the particular field of a pplication) whereby definite
componen ts may be aBlIOCiated with any given set of three-d imensional Cartesian
n es through the po in t unde r co nsideration. The three components eeecc leeed
with th e ith axis are PIS (j = 1,2,3). The nine componente can be visualized aa
a 3 x 3 array in whi ch p ij ill the element in the i t h row an d j t h column. A tensor is
eald to be symmetrical when P u = Pi" The defining property of 110 tensor is tha,t
ita componenta P u and
correspond ing to any t wo diff erent eete of aXel x, and Xl'
are related by the squarlons
(I )
Pu =0 0Uai.Pll'
P.,
!L iIp.
,ij
~e
H ere l ummation is over t he dummy suffi.Ij . and the equation holds for all vel uee
I, 2. 3 of the free suffix i.
(iii ) T Ju tkka tymbol. It is oeeaalonally advantageoUl to use a symbol 8u wh ich.
j . F or example,
by definition, is equal to unity wh en i = j , and to zero when i
t he devia to rio or red uced stre8B, wh ich is the part of the stresa au remaining after
the hydrostatic tension f(an +all +au ) bee been removed, has componente
all-l(all + a ll + au ),
9'
I,
The followin g th eorem on tensors is drawn on in Cha ptel'3 II and Ill. If the
9Ca la r quanti t y f(p'i) le a func tion of t he eomponenee of a tensof PjJ. then the
M8Cmbly of deriva tives g'J = iJf/OpjJ constitute a teneor, itll compo nents referTed
to another set ofaxee xi being formed according to the rule
= iJf /Pu)/OplJ. Now
= 0
;}x 1
343
(.\., ~, ,, )
an d
ia th e . h N t
Pu . PUPi"P"PJ. P. "
or an y scalar multiplee of them . Taking the8e in t um. t he proofs of invariance
are 108 fcllcwe. From (2) we have
PU = a,l:a l/PH = 8.t1Pll = Pu = P.,.
by tbe de finition of t he delta . ymhal and the interchangeability ofdummy IlUffi.sCl!l.
Similarly,
p u pj, = (aj.OJ,P H)(OJ.O P...) = (au a p.w}(llJ,Oj.P...)
= (8.....Pll)(o\,.P ) = P..,1'l .. "2 PUPJj;
( 3 .~)
APPENDIX II
CH ARACT E R I ST ICS
being
dill~garded)
are
&,
Or
0,
roe
oz
wbere 0 ,.. 0" 0 " '" ""' "" are the 8treM componentll referred to t heee coo rdin&teoJ.
The oomponentll of the 8tn.in rate tenllOr a.re
.
f,
Co
= Or'
t tl = '2 0: +; 88
.. .
P ax +Q iJy =R,
( I)
where z is t he unknown d ependent va ria ble and x. y a re the independent va r i&b lell.
and where P , Q. R are cc n t inu cua alngt e .velued fun ctions ofx, s. z. The variation
of z in the direc ti on dyJtk in the (:r, y) plane is
..
"
( 2)
dy
(')
=- '0'
one, and onl y on e. of which p888EIlI through e very point (except JKlllIIib ly a 8ingu.
larity of z). The variatton o f z along a curve of thie famity
" +Q iJy
" ) '"
cU = ( P a:z
P = R
pdz.
tk
P
dy
cU
""' Q- 1i'
I"
Theee equations, a 8tat&nent of the variation of: al ong t he family of curvee (3).
are oomp letely equivalent to the original d ifferen tial equation ( I) . The eurvee
(3) are known 88 characUriMiu.
Hthevalueof ... is given at one point 0 in the (z,y) p lane, itl values are uniquely
d etermined a t al l plintl along the character. t ic through O. In ...numerical solu tio n
we 8imply replace (') by the finite di ffere nce relatior18
Az
.6y
ol1.l
-rr -Q - 7i '
0",.
T,.,
where 11'
0 " "''''''
are t he 8t reM eo mponentll re felTtld to t hese coo rdiDatell.
The componf'ntll of the 8tl'lloin rat.e t.el18Or IIU'e
.
Co
e. ... Cr'
i , ...
r.~
I
(
"'"
..)
"" 2r sin6
8in 6 06 -wc086 +~
~~ +U).
wh ere Az .6y. ol1.l are IImaII. incremeata between t wo n eigh bouring pointl on the
eharKteristic and P. Q. k are mean. values over the in terval. IC P and Q d o n ot
involve .... t he characterilltio through 0 can be calculated tint and the values of ...
afterwards; if ... ~nte rs into the funct iora P and Q the calculations of z and the
characteris t ic have to be ca rried out together. I n the tint _
t he shape of th e
characterist ic does not depend on the given val ue of ... a t 0; in t he 8000nd C886 it
does. Similarly, if va lues of .zare 888igned a lon g a sec t ion J K of some curve 1:,
wh ich ill not 6 cha racter ist ic. the values of ... a re uniquely determined at all poin te
w ithin t hel!ltl'ip of t he (z .y) plane cov ered by cham.cteristiCIJ ou t t ing JK. (I t ill
ev ident that JK m ust be eueh that n o charac te r ist io c ute it twice sin ce the value
o f z can only be arbitrarily assigned a t on e po in t of a char&cterilltic ; for eJ:&mple.
there is no IIOlution of (I) taking arbitrvy values on a ejceed eceve.) In particul.....
if the blunduy values in the ne igh bo urhood of . point 0 on J K are sl igh tl y
altered. the IIOlution ill only affected in the conesponding n eighbourhood of th e
ch&r&oterisUc through 0 ; we m8y _ y therefore that amall dilIturt>a.nce. are
prope.gated &1oag c harao:teriaUc..
The boundary val. - of % OD J K need not n ~y be co ntinuoUli. unl_ t h ia
".
CH A R ACT E R IS T ICS
APPENDIX III
I~ ~ I
vanish es , t he eq uationa do not have a u nique so lu tion and th e d eri vatives cannot.
be eval ua ted without addit ional informat ion; this may bo euch t hat t he derivat ives
are d i8eont inuOUlJ acroes O. TIle d eterminant vaniBhee at all po inte of the curve
when C ill one o f t he family (3), w h ich are therefore. b y d efinit ion. the characteriet te.. The cond ition for the com pati bility of ( 1) and ( 2) if! t hen
I~
~ I = o.
P: +Q: +R: + 8 : _ T, }
P'~
+ Q' ~
+R' az
Cv+S,Cv
... T',
&'
&y
i!y
I')
are kn own on O. The first d eri vatives are uniquely determined by the above four
eq ua tiorul a t any point on C u nl_
Odzdy _ O.
r Q R S
P' Q' R' S '
Thill illl a quad rat ic form in dz and dy. ha\' ing two roo n dy/dz ,
O
. -. ...-...
Ott
(ru
Ott
i)u
of wh ich the eh aract.erilltte. are d'yI- lizl = O. that is, the lines z y "'"' oonst&nt.
Along the family 2:+Y _ oonat&nt .
....
(..
o.)
az- ..)
iJy _ liz (..
&- & '
o.o.
(o.o.) (o. ..)
azdx + ayd'y -dx az-ay _ d'z &- az '
dU _ ~ + aydy _liz
d" -
d'u + d'1)
whence
=>
0,
Thull. u + " ill COIl8tant alon g eech line z +y = COD8tant . and 1IO u + v = 2/(z+y).
MY. where/ ill an a rbitrary fun ction to be d etermined by th e bound ary co nd itio na.
Similarly. u - v = 2g(z -y), and the finaJ IIOlu tio n;'
:} _ /(2:+ y ) g(z- r )
In th is example the (2:, r l equat ioR8 of the characten.tic8 could be e..pi u !il
explic itl y. bu t this, of ooone, it not UBUa1ly pceeib te,
. If the roo" of(8) a.reoomple:ll: tbeequationa (6) are ...id to be ellipric . An exarnple
au
as
0.
iIv
& -
& - Cy'
Since
&ry
i)u
-ay '
and
&yl
u and " are re lated 8OIutionl of Laplace's equat ion. I t will be realized from this
where P, P ' eee. are fun cti on. of ;1:, y, U , v. SUPJ>086 t ha t u and v a re g iven al ong
IIOme cu rve 0 , 80 that the diff ere n tial.
ilu
em
8v
av
dU -= (lzdz + &ydy ,
dl) = (lz dx+ ay dY,
dxd y
'"
U the roo ts are real and d illtinct. there are t wo famil_ of characterietic8
memOOr' of eeeh family puaing through any point. The eq uatio R8are then 8&id to
( 6)
th~t ~he bo undary-value p robl ema and m ethode of 8Olut ion of hyperbolic and
elhp t lc equa t iolUl are com plotely different (in th e real plane).
If the roo te of (6) a re ('qual at a ll points t he eq uerlcna ( 6) a re ...id to be parabolic.
An example is
i)u
av
az - '"
oz "'"' u ,
curv.
".
AP PE NDIX II I
( k ill
~ = COJUlt an t, 80 th at iJu/&/J and ""/~ are a lso knOlll'n on thg cu rv e. Eq uatioJUI (5)
can therefore be .... rit te n in t he fonn:
APPEND I X I V
The derivativlllli &u/a.; and ~/&j.. and hence t he d erivatives in any direction, are
uniquely determined unless
pC4>+QC4>
ax Cy
_ o.
p"ax +Q'C4>
(7)
Cy
e&Il
or
ill:
al ;
0 1;
"
in).
ra,)
ill:
\ai = &xl dz +OrOy dy ,
(JIll'
a':
(")
d i)y == ~ dz
OIZ
+ey'
dy.
are therefore kn own along :E. The three eq uations are suffic ien t to determ ine the
eecond derivatives iJ'zlcr, OSzjcxiJy. (JIz!er un iq uely unl_
dx
o
A
0'
dy
rl:c
28
0
dy
C
= 0
Th -
11~
(')
The equa tio n is th erefore hyperbolic (wit h tw o fa milies of cha racterist iCll) if the
roota of the q uad ratic arc real and d istinct ( 8 " > A C ). ellipt ic if t h..y a re co mplex
( 8' < A C). and parabolic if th ey are equal (HI '- AC).
O'~ -
~ttl1;c.Uw . T~, be the eompone nts of IItteslilin the (z .y) plane. Let (E. 'I) beanother
pau- of&J:ee In th e 8ame plane. and le t 8 be the inclination of t heE .a ll:is to t he z '&J:i.ll
mees ured antic1ock wise. T hen th e U. '1) components of IItrellll are related to th~
(z, y) co mpo nents acco rding to th e equationll
<""l
THE following Table gives t he Certeeien coordinates of nodal pointe in
8. slip-line field, with a I SO mesh, defined by t wo intersec ting equal
circular a rcs of unit radius (Fig. 30). The ccordine tea are referred. to
rectangular axes (z', y') pesaing through 0 and directed along, and
perpen dlculer to, the a xis ofsymmet ry , and such that
."f2z' = z + V,
.J2y = y-z,
IX
and
fJ at
000&1
- m X 15,
If' = n X 15,
ard refer to a particular point by a pair of positi ve integ ers (m, n) .
This is the convention adopted in t he Table. The computa tion was
carried out for 8. 5 mesh and it is thought that the error nowhere exceeds
11
one uni t in the third figure; t he accuracy is likely to be least good in x'
for large va lues of m and a ,
(m. ,,)
(I, I )
( I, 2)
(1, 3)
(1, 41
(1.51
(1. 6)
( 2, 2 )
(2, 3)
( 2, 4 )
(2, 6)
(2. 8)
..
0 428
0 &"
0 7112
0-84 5
0-7811
0-6 17
1-0 18
13 33
1652
1834
1-64:1
TABLE 1
"
c-e..
,-
0 83 9
. ....
(3. ! )
(3 )
(3. $)
(3, 6)
H 64
'880
....
(f , ' )
{ f . 51
(01. 6)
IH 13
1' 671
U 68
(6. 61
(5, 6)
(6,6)
"
0-815
U 73
'804
!-4J4
..
3-J :J(fo}
,'U7
,-00
...
8 17
""'
radio...,
,.,.
10
so
,...
""
eo
0 176
0 3019
0 ,624
0 698
0 873
1041
122 2
H Il6
15 71
radio...,
0
0252
OfM
0 &95
0 686
0 73 7
0 -76 6
0 780
0-78 01
078.~
"
18111
2-338
14%9
0 1137
, .ees
0
H 53
0
degr~u
rodion'
,adio,,'
10
0 )7 5
0 349
0 ,524
0 81l8
0 873
I -Of7
0
0 161
0 300
0 447
0 583
0706
0786
2.
:JO
..
so
AUTHO R I NDE X
A..ahor,'
Joa.-d &., IM ~' oj f>d9" "" ""'ie4 poprr' or boob ,... ~ ,
",,"",;0Md. W.vr. ..-.tioll, d ;6Ii1td pm.. (lJ IM ..... _ , . . . poWd ", diJIrrrrtf J>d9".
gil pagt ,... ~ _
I} 1M _
rJIGkrial i6 f"OWd - . &.11_ _
oW pagt
.Mere iI }r. _
, i6 ,,_,
,i_.
no-.
"'it
E illbeiD, W . 186 .
Elam, C. F ., f. 14.
E mat, H . 2<l6. 207.
Galin, L . A. 262.
Dana. A. W . 3301.
Devidenkov , N . N . 273.
DaviN , R . M. 258 .
Davit. E . A. 22, 32 , 016 , 172.
Da vit. H. E., 32.
Dehlinge r. U . 23.
Dok.., S . J ., 172.
Dom . J . E., If, 32. 320. 33 3.
D""cker . D. C., n .
J acUo.D. K . L. . 287 .
Jacluon, L . R. . 30. 320, 333.
J acoba. J . A . 252 .
Eddy. R . P . 116.
f'..o.I warWo. S. H., 22.
E ichinpr. A %3. 29. 32. 111.
119,
215.
268.
323 .
AUTHOR I N D E X
3~:!
s;
McAdAm, D . J .,
15,
MacGregor , C. W ., 12, 22, 1".
Mac Lellan , G. D . S., 176, 111.
Malaval , M. P., 29 .
Mandel, J .. 291, 299.
Ma rin , J ., 22.
Mark ov, A. A., 68.
Muon , W ., 23.
Mall well , J . Clerk, 20.
)le ba , R. W ., 15.
Melan, E ., 34, 5 7.
Merchant , M. E., 207, 208.
Me yer, O. E. , 26 1.
Miller , C. P., 22.
MiaN , R . von , 20, 21, 38, sr. 141.
Mohr, 0 ., 296.
Mor kovin , D ., 23.
Mom.on, J . L. M., 13. 72, 94, 123, 124.
Mot t , N. r ., HM. 127, 218.
Nadai, A., 20, 32, 41, 4,s, 46, 76, M. 81, 93.
94, 111, 122, I ~ , 192, 191, 211, 230,
234, 253, 2505, 256. 269. 308.
Nye, J . r ., 14, 228, 251.
Odq uiat , r , K. 0 ., 30.
Orowan, E ., 14, 189, 192. 201, 202, 2,sL
Oagood . W. R., 32.
Palm, J . H ., 13.
Palmer, E . W ., 322.
Paraeyuk, O. B., 253.
Parke r, E . R., 32.
Peanon . C. E . 185.
Pea f&On, K ., 38.
P hi lipp id i A. H., 67.
Piisp&nen , V. 208.
Polany' . M., 16.
Pope, J . A., 23.
~ . W., 33, 41, U , 48, 49, M , es. 72,
88.93. 136. 139, 142, 161, 1&8.
Prand t l, L., 39, 41, 86, 233, U 5, %:15. 2.56,
"".
W., 206.
Ro., A. W., 323, 330.
~h.;n ,
s.. .
A UTH O R I N D E X
Uadwwood, L. R., 19.5, 197.
Vooe, E ., 13.
c., 14,
29. 30.
'"
S UBJE CT I N D E X
SUBJECT I NDE X
AnilIotropy. 29, 44, 45, Chap. XII.
Annealing, 6.
Autofrettaged t u be, ax ial eI~lUUlion of,
121-2 ; a:xial 8t . - diHtributlon in, 116,
120 ; under p lane at Ta in, 1l ~ 1 8 ; with
elceed e nds , 118-24; with open ends,
124.
BaWlChinger effect. 8, 16. U, 30, 72, 121.
Bending, of a eheer, 79-81, 287-92; of 1ft,
beam,8 1-4.
- WIder ttlnsion, 292-4.
'"