Rolling Sphere Tool Guide

I.

I.

Calculate Protection

II.

Calculate Failure Rate

III.

References

Calculate Protection

Test the coverage provided by the lightning shielding system. The tool will provide the
geometric zones of protection. It may be appropriate to trace these protection zones on
plan and section views of the substation to accurately identify protected and unprotected
areas.
In this section the following topics are explained. (Use the links below to navigate to a
specific topic.)
Shielding Configuration
BIL
h(e)
r(c)
h(m)
h(w)
d(max)

d(1), d(2), d(3)

I(s)
Z(s)
S
r
x(1), x(2), x(3)
r(1)

sin
R (triple mast)
R (triple wire)
b
r(2)

Shielding Configuration
Select from one of the standard shielding configurations to test its coverage. Each one
requires different input parameters. Depending on their locations, multiple masts and
wires can provide added coverage beyond their individual contributions. This calculator
can help determine this added coverage when selecting the appropriate configuration. If
the desired configuration is not listed, divide the testing area into configurations that are
listed. Alternatively, use the single mast and wire configurations to determine strike
distances for each individual shielding electrode and determine the protected areas
graphically.

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BIL
Basic Impulse Level, also known as Basic Insulation Level, refers to the rating of the
equipment insulation in kV. It can be used to define the maximum voltage produced by
stroke current an insulator can withstand without flashover. Separate calculations are
required for each BIL used in a station. From 5.3.6 of IEEE 998-1996, use a minimum
stroke current of 2 kA for stations operating below a voltage of 115 kV. This is a
practical recommendation because 99.8% of all lightning strokes exceed 2 kA. Since
stations below 115 kV typically have a BIL of 350 kV or less, choosing this option fixes
I(s) at 2 kA.

h(e)
Height of equipment refers to the equipment or bus needing protection (in feet). As h(e)
increases, the maximum distance from the shielding device (r) must shrink to keep the
equipment under the rolling sphere. Surge impedance (Z(s)) of a conductor is also
affected by h(e). A conductor farther from the ground has greater surge impedance than a
conductor closer to the ground.

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r(c)
Radius of conductor refers to the radius or effective radius (in feet) of the energized bus
needing protection. It is used to calculate the surge impedance. Separate calculations are
required for each type of conductor. The linked reference guide identifies typical values
(in inches) for many conductors as a diameter. Remember to divide by 12 to get a radius
in feet. If there are bundled conductor strands, then input their effective radius (R(0))
given by the following equations from Annex C of IEEE 998-1996:
Two-conductor bundle:

R(0) = r l
Three-conductor bundle:
R (0) = 3 r l 2
Four-conductor bundle:
R(0) = 4

2 r l3

n-conductor bundle:
R (0 ) = 0.5 l 'n n

2 r
l'

where
r
l
l
n

is the radius of the subconductor (in feet)

is the spacing between adjacent conductors (in feet)
is the diameter of the circle on which the subconductors lie (in feet)
is the number of subconductors

h(m)
Height of mast refers to the height of the shielding mast above ground (in feet). A mast
height greater than or equal to the strike distance provides the most protection. For
masts, the value of the coefficient k from Eq 5-1B of IEEE 998-1996 is 1.2. When
calculations require multiple masts, the shortest mast should be used for h(m).

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h(w)
Height of wire refers to the height of the shield wire above ground (in feet). A shield
wire height greater than or equal to the strike distance provides the most protection.
Select the height at mid-span to ensure a conservative approach. For shield wires, the
value of the coefficient k from Eq 5-1B of IEEE 998-1996 is 1. When calculations require
multiple wires, the lowest wire should be used for h(w).

d(max)
Maximum distance refers to the greatest horizontal distance (in feet) two masts or two
wires can be placed from each other and still provide protection for equipment between
them, provided that the equipment does not exceed a height of h(e). If d(1), d(2), or d(3)
exceeds d(max), then the bottom of the sphere penetrates below the equipment height,
even if it rests atop the shielding electrodes. To find d(max) between a wire and mast,
conservatively select the Double Wire configuration. d(max) is calculated according to
the following equation from Exhibit B.5-5 of IEEE 998-1996:
For a mast:
d (max) = 2 S 2 (S h(m) + h(e) )

For a wire:
d (max) = 2 S 2 (S h( w) + h(e) )

where
d
S
h(m)
h(w)
h(e)

is the distance between two adjacent structures (in feet)

is the strike distance (in feet)
is the height of the shield mast (in feet)
is the height of the shield wire (in feet)
is the height of the equipment or bus to be protected (in feet)

d(1), d(2), d(3)

These variables refer to the distances between adjacent masts or shield wire lengths (in
feet), as described by the diagrams. If they exceed d(max), consider reducing the
distance between shielding electrodes. If the electrodes are already in service or cannot
be relocated closer, analyze protection using a simpler shielding configuration such as
single mast or single wire. Perform failure rate calculations for exposed areas.

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I(s)
Stroke current refers to the maximum allowable current the station bus and insulation can
withstand before experiencing flashover in kA. It is calculated according to Eq 5-2A and
section 5.3.6 of IEEE 998-1996:
Stroke current:
I (s) =

2.2 BIL
Zs

for BIL > 350 kV

I ( s ) = 2kA

for BIL 350 kV

where
BIL is the Basic Impulse Level rating of the insulation in kV
Z(s) is the surge impedance of the conductor in

Z(s)
Surge impedance refers to the impedance of the conductor that the lightning surge is
passing through in . There is no input for this in the tool because it is approximated
from the EPRI Red Book by Eq 12.5.5.
Surge impedance:
Z ( s ) = 60 ln(2h(e) / r (c))
where
h(e) is the height of the equipment or bus above ground (in feet)
r(c) is the radius or effective radius of the conductor (in feet)

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S
Strike distance refers to the length of the last stepped leader (in feet), and therefore
defines the radius of the rolling sphere which rolls over the ground and shielding
electrodes. Any equipment that exists in the path of this rolling sphere is considered
unprotected. It is calculated according to Eq 5-1B of IEEE 998-1996:
Strike distance:
S = 26.25kI ( s ) 0.65
where
k
Is

is a coefficient to account for different striking distances for masts

and wires. It is 1.2 for strikes to masts and 1 for strikes to wires
is the stroke current in kA

r
Radius of protection refers to the distance (in feet) from the shielding electrode to the
edge of protection for a given equipment height. It is calculated according to the
following equations from Camden:
For a mast:

r = S 2 ( S h(m)) 2 S 2 ( S h(e)) 2

for h(m) < S

r = S S 2 ( S h(e))2

for h(m) S

For a wire:
r = S 2 ( S h( w)) 2 S 2 ( S h(e)) 2
where
S
h(m)
h(w)
h(e)

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is the strike distance (in feet)

is the height of the shield mast (in feet)
is the height of the shield wire (in feet)
is the height of the equipment or bus to be protected (in feet)

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x(1), x(2), x(3)
These variables refer to the distance (in feet) from the midpoint of adjacent masts (or
shield wire supports), perpendicular to the center of the unprotected area with radius r1 as
described in the diagrams. They are calculated according to the following equations from
Camden:
For a mast:
x = S 2 (d ) 2 ( S h(m)) 2
2
For a wire:
x = S 2 (d ) 2 ( S h( w)) 2
2
where
d
S
h(m)
h(w)

is the distance between two adjacent structures (in feet)

is the strike distance (in feet)
is the height of the shield mast (in feet)
is the height of the shield wire (in feet)

r(1)
r1 is the radius (in feet) of the curvature of the unprotected area originating a distance of x
from the midpoint of two structures, as defined above. r1 is calculated according to the
following equation from Camden:
Radius:
r (1) = S 2 ( S h(e)) 2

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sin
Sine of angle alpha () refers to the sine of the angle opposite side d(1). This is from the
Law of Sines and is calculated according to the following equation from Camden:
Sine of angle alpha:
sin =

2
a(a d (1))(a d (2))(a d (3))
d (2)d (3)

where
a = 12 (d (1) + d (2) + d (3))
d(1), d(2), and d(3) are distances between masts as described in the
diagram

R (triple mast)
R for the triple mast calculation describes the horizontal distance (in feet) from the masts
to the center of the rolling sphere resting on top of the three masts. From the triangle
formed by the three masts, a circumscribed circle of radius R can be created. The center
of the rolling sphere is directly above this point. This is also from the Law of Sines and
is calculated for masts according to the following equation from Camden:
Triple mast calculation:
R=

d (1)
2 sin

where
d(1) is the distance between masts 1 and 2 (in feet)
sin is the sine of the angle opposite d(1)
Note: If triple mast (R) is greater than the strike distance (S), then the masts are too far
apart for the rolling sphere to rest on top of them and the double mast calculation should
be used. If triple mast (R) is less than the strike distance (S), then the rolling sphere can
sit on the three masts without touching the ground. It is further necessary to determine if
the sphere reaches the equipment (see calculation for b).

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R (triple wire)
R for the triple wire calculation describes the horizontal distance (in feet) from the wires
to the center of the rolling sphere that rests on top of the three wires. This is found by
inscribing a circle inside the triangle created by the three masts. The circle has a radius,
R. The center of the rolling sphere is directly above this point. R is calculated according
to the following equation from Camden:
Triple wire calculation:
R=

a(a d (1))(a d (2))(a d (3))

a

where
a = 12 (d (1) + d (2) + d (3))
d(1), d(2), and d(3) are the distances between supports as described in the
diagram
Note: If the triple wire (R) is greater than the strike distance (S), then the shield wires are
too far apart for the rolling sphere to rest on top of them and the double wire calculation
should be used. If the triple wire (R) is less than the strike distance (S), then the rolling
sphere can sit on the three shield wires without touching the ground. It is further
necessary to determine if the sphere reaches the equipment (see the following calculation
for b).

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b
b refers to the distance (in feet) from the center of a rolling sphere resting on top of three
masts (or shield wires) down to the equipment height. It is calculated according to the
following equations from Camden:
For a mast:
b = S 2 R 2 + h ( m ) h (e )
For a wire:
b = S 2 R 2 + h( w) h(e)
where
horizontal distance from the masts (or shield wires) to the center of
the rolling sphere that rests on top of the three masts (in feet)
S
is the strike distance (in feet)
h(m) is the height of the shield mast (in feet)
h(w) is the height of the shield wire (in feet)
h(e) is the height of the equipment or bus to be protected (in feet)
R

Note: If b is larger than the strike distance (S), then the sphere is entirely above the
equipment, otherwise the circular cross section of the sphere at h(e) (the equipment
height), must be determined (see calculation for r(2)).

r(2)
r(2) refers to the radius (in feet) of the unprotected area created by a sphere resting on top
of three shielding electrodes penetrating below the equipment height. r(2) is the circular
cross section of the sphere at the equipment height and is calculated according to the
following equation from Camden:
Radius of the unprotected area:
r ( 2) = S 2 b 2
r (2) = 0 ft

for S > b
for S b

where
S
b

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is the strike distance (in feet)

is the distance from the center of the sphere to the equipment height
(in feet)
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II.

Failure Rate

If a lightning shielding system does not provide complete coverage of a substation, a

statistical method can be used to predict the probability that the unprotected equipment
will be damaged by lightning. The statistical method takes into account the size of the
unprotected area, the BIL of the equipment, and the isokeraunic level at the substation
site.
In this section the following topics are explained. (Use the links below to navigate to a
specific topic.)
d(u)
T
A

S(m)
I(sm)
P(f)

P(I)
N
F

d(u)
The distance to unprotected equipment (in feet) from a shielding electrode refers to the
minimum desired value for radius of protection, r, necessary to obtain total shielding of
all energized equipment. It is determined graphically by measuring the distance between
the insufficient shielding electrode and the furthest point of unprotected equipment. This
should be greater than the actual value of r, otherwise there is no need to calculate failure
probability; a negative value of F will result.

T
The average annual isokeraunic level (T) refers to the average number of thunderstormdays in a year. A thunderstorm-day is a day where thunder was heard at least once. The
linked map shows the average isokeraunic level for the U.S. as recorded by the National
Weather Service.

A
A refers to the area (in square feet) of the unprotected region which can be calculated
graphically by the user.

S(m)
S(m) refers to the strike distance required to produce d(u). In other words, it is the
minimum desired value for strike distance that would have protected all energized
equipment. S(m) is calculated using the same equations from Camden used to calculate
the radius of protection, r, substituting the values of d(u) for r and S(m) for S. It then
solves for S(m).

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I(sm)
I(sm) refers to the minimum stroke current required to produce S(m). In other words, it is
the minimum desired value for stroke current that would have protected all energized
equipment. I(sm) is calculated using the same equation used to calculate the strike
distance, S (Eq 5-1B of IEEE 998-1996), substituting the values of S(m) for S and I(sm)
for I(s). It then solves for I(s).

P(f)
P(f) refers to the probability that a lightning stroke inside the unprotected area will cause
insulation failure. It is calculated according to the following equation from Camden:
Probability of failure:
P ( f ) = P(< I sm ) P (< I s )
where
I(sm) is the minimum stroke current in kA required to produce S(m)
I(s) is the stroke current in kA
P(<I(sm)) [or 1-P(I(sm))] is the probability that a stroke is less than I(sm)
P(<I(s)) [or 1-P(I(s))] is the probability that a stroke is less than I(s).
Note: P(I(sm)) and P(I(s)) are calculated by the tool according to Eq 2-2B of
IEEE 998-1996 (see calculation for P(I)).

P(I)
P(I) refers to the probability that the peak current in any stroke will exceed a given
current, I. It is calculated according to Eq 2-2B of IEEE 998-1996:
Probability that peak current exceeds I:
P( I ) =

1
I
1+
24

2.6

where
I is the specified crest current of the stroke (in kiloamperes)

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N
N refers to the expected number of lightning strokes inside the unprotected region per
year. Eq 2-3B of IEEE 998-1996 calculates the number of strokes per square mile per
year. This formula is then adjusted to square feet and multiplied by A, the area of the
unprotected region. The resulting formula is given by Camden as:
Number of strokes to earth within the unprotected area per year:
N = 1.112 10 8 (T )( A)
where
T is the average annual isokeraunic level (in days per yr)
A is the area of the non protected region (in square feet)

F
Failure rate of insulation within the unprotected area describes the number of years
between failures. It is up to the user to decide upon an acceptable failure rate for a
specific substation. F is calculated according to the following equation from Camden:
Failure rate:
F=

1
P( f ) N

where
P(f) is the probability of failure from a stroke
N is the number of strokes in the unprotected area per year

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III.

References

IEEE Std 998-1996.

Camden, Jeff. The Rolling Sphere Method of Lightning Protection for Substations: a
Practical Application, presented to Missouri Valley Electric Association, Engineering
Conference, April 19, 1990.
Sen, P.K. Understanding Direct Lightning Stroke Shielding of Substations, presented to
Power Systems Engineering Research Center, PSERC Seminar, November 6, 2001.
Transmission Line Reference Book-345 kV and Above (EPRI Red Book). Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 1975.

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