STRUCTURI FOLOSITE IN ARHITECTURA. Daca omul ajunge sa cunoasca originea si dezvoltarea lucrurilor, va putea sa abordeze cu success orice subiect (ARISTOTEL, Politice, cartea I, cap.l). Orice arhitectura isi are originea in structura si, prima conditie pe care trebuie sa o indeplineasca este de a pune forma sa aparenta in accord cu aceasta structura. (VIOLET LE DUC, Enretiens sur l'architecture) Structura arhitecturala este 0 anumita maniera de a ordona materia. Aceasta ordonare vizeaza a ajunge la cea mai mare rezistenta cu cea mai Putina materie, a utiliza elementele cele mai potrivite folosirii prevazute , a da acestor elemente si ansamblului_pe care il constituie forma care permite a utiliza optim caracteristicile materialului ales, STRUCTURI SI ANTISTRUCTURI Sisteme constructive si ordine geometrica. Forma — structura - materie. Felul in care se organizeaza si se ordoneaza forma arhitecturala in spatiu este dictata de repartitia eforturilor si distribuirea lor pana la sol, traversand obiectul architectural. Exista 0 corespondenta intre forma si sistem constructiv, intre structura si material. Studiul acestei corespondente poate fi abordat pornind de la trei principii: 1. materialul: lemn, piatra,caramida,........, fiecare cu proprietatile sale particulare. Se pot distinge in acest fel constructii din lemn, piatra, caramida, beton si asa mai departe. ( Wright: “pentru artistul creator fiecare material exprima propriul sau mesaj”). 2. elementele de constructie (structurale): fundatii, pereti, stalpi, plansee, grinzi etc. 3. sistemele structurale, care inglobeaza ansamblul elementelor de constructii si a materialelor, oprindu-se asuora conceptelor structurale si de ordine geometrica. Este principiul cel mai corect si depaseste pragul simplei clasificari.Aceste abordari exclud din campul analizei : a) formele ireductibile geometric si b) structurile ce nu corespund unui sistem constructiv, antistructurile. Forme ireductibile geometric Materialele care prezinta plasticitate la prelucrare precum argila, betonul, masele plastice, se preteaza la forme ireductibile geometric. Aceste forme, comparabile cu scheletele organismelor vii, se perpetueaza de milenii in anumite zone geografice. Exemplu, domurile topologice din Siria reprezentate in reliefurile de la Ninive. Inconvenientele functionale pe care le prezinta aceste structuri sunt: dimensiunile spatiale reduse, neadaptarea la nevoile functionale prin absenta peretilor verticali, dificultatea asamblarii celulelor si a integrarii deschiderilor, dar si imposibilitatea de a fi calculate. Acest ultim aspect a devenit esential la inceputul sec. 19. Calculul structurilor incepe atunci bazandu-se pe rezistenta materialelor, prevede deformatia si ruptura, in functie de forme bine determinate geometric. Posibilitatile de calcul, la origine extrem de reduse, tind din fericire azi sa extinda considerabil campul posibilitatilor formale de natura geometrica datorita unor metode precum calculul tensorial care permite tratarea problemelor panzelor subtiri si teoria retelelor, care aduc mai multa comoditate in conceperea formelor strambe. La acestea , desigur, se adauga facilitatile oferita de calculul computerizat. Anti-structurile Natora si omul organizeaza uneori spatiul plecand de la o reducere a materiei fara a recurge la nici un element de constructie. In cea mai mare parte din cazuri, constructiile rupestre sunt “edificate” plecand de la excavarea naturala care le adapteaza, modeleaza si decoreaza in functie de nevoi: exista in acelasi timp exemple de reducere integrala semanand a sculptura. Cel mai remarcabil este , fara indoiala, templul Kailasa la Ellora, a carui amenajare se intinde pe mai multe niveluri si care face apel la o multime de elemente constructive false: coloane, arhitrave, bolti, dale, fara ca vreounul sa joace rol structural. Se disting trei tehnici principale: - forajul orizontal — plecand de la marginea unei faleze, roca este gaurita orizontal. Aceasta arhitectura este numita PARIETALA, conduce la compozitii majestoase, cu multe niveluri suprapuse.- forajul vertical — solul este forat in puturi verticale in fundul carora se fac camere subterane. Exemplu : in China , regiunea Tung-Kuan, puturi in suprafata de 500mp., cu o adancime de 7,5 - 9 m., se constituie in patiouri in jurul carora sunt dispuse camere subterane cu © inaltime de 4,5m., boltite. - excavarea — se gaureste solul la adancimea incaperii de realizat, se construieste planseul asezat pe elemente structurale de data aceasta, si sé reacopera prin terase ce se confunda cu solul natural. Accesul se face prin rampe (modelul de la Manissa si Paterna in Spania). Ideea de identificare cu pamantul protector si matern nu este singura ratiune a acestui tip de constructie. Exista si unele avantaje: din ratiuni economice, acestea sunt constructii aproape gratuite; din ratiuni de securitate sunt inaccesibile, invizibile; din ratiuni de exploatare rationala sunt izoterme — racoroase vara, calde iarna. ‘Multe programe contemporane sunt rezolvate prin solutii rupestre: locuinte, uzine strategice, reserve monetare, stat-major politic si militar, centre de comunicatii, armament nuclear. Sistemele structurale Se disting trei structuri fundamentale(masive, schelet si tridimensionale) si, pentru fiecare din ele, un comportament activ la nivelul volumului, a vectorilor, a formei, a suprafetei. Intr-o struetura_masiva completa, toate elementele indeplinese acelasi obiectiv tehnic: a limita si a suporta. Daca sistemul de inchidere este in general putin constrangator, acela de acoperire pune, din contra , probleme grave de stabilitate si de organizare formala. Elementele masive ce lucreaza la incovoiere simpla (dale), au deschideri foarte limitate, ceea ce a condus inca de la inceputul istoriei la doua solutii: 1) bolti ce folosese acelasi material de mici dimensiuni ca si peretele (caramida, piatra) lucrand la compresiune si 2) 0 solutie ce combina sistemul masiv de inchidere si reazam vertical cu acoperirea de tip schelet (grinzi, ferme). Tehnica boltilor masive a cunoscut dupa epoca romana multe dezvoltari; actual , formele boltite sunt cel mai ades “schelet”( de exemplu domuri geodezice) sau cochilii (membrane sau suprafete subtiri din beton armat) care sunt structuri tridimensionale. Sistemele masive integrale (boltile), sunt adesea destul de statice pe plan formal; suprafetele si masele ce le compun sunt ades monotone sinearticulate, ceea ce le face uneori inapte sa raspunda unor sarcini functionale mai complexe; expresia lor plastica este daca nu saraca, cel putin nevariata. Structurile masive au constituit pana in sec. 19 esentialul produsului architectural, imaginatia omului suplinind limitele tehnicii. Astfel ca, spre exemplu, tratamentul “sculptural” al elementelor permite animarea plastica a constructiei (contraforturi, nise,coloane adosate, ancadramente, comnise, jocuri de lumina) Strueturile schelet se definesc prin distinctia dintre elementele de inchidere si compartimentare pe de o parte si cele portante de cealalta parte, individualizare care intareste libertatea formala si usureaza raspunsul la imperativele functionale. Golul participa la sistem , in loc de a fi o simpla perforare care slabeste ansamblul, cum se intampla la structurile masive. Elementele de acoperire, usoare (ferme din lemn sau metal, arce), permit deschideri libere importante. Dupa Konrad Wachsmann, principala constrangere a acestui tip de structura este legatura tehnica intre elemente care, la limita, pot determina stabilitatea ansamblului. Structurile tridimensionale sau autoportante sunt caracterizate prin faptul ca, stabilitatea apare independent de reactiile reazamelor. Aceste structuri sunt indeformabile si automorfe.O alta particularitate este extrema economie de material. Cochilii, panze cutate, retele tridimensionale, anumite structuri suspendate, apartin acestei categorii. Structurile naturale , de origine organica sau minerala, sunt bazate pe aceasta conceptie, Se aminteste in acest sens coaja oului sau arajarea cristalelor. Ultimele prezinta nu numai o extraordinara varietate combinatorie, aranjamente intr-o dezvoltare repetitiva a unui motiv, dar ne arata si cum se adapteaza conditiilor acest motiv , iar la limita cum acesta poate sa modifice intreg aranjamentul care I-a generat. Sistemele tridimensionale cu vectori activi sau cu forma activa ( structuri reticulare plane sau curbe) fac obiectul a numeroase aplicatii ale acestui principiu. Domul geodezic al lui BUCKMINSTER FULLER este prototipul acestei arhitecturi unde inventia si stiinta au la origine sistemele naturale. Ca toate structurile tridimensionale, cochiliile abunda in natura. Citam: cutia craniana, cea mai mare parte a scoicilor, ariciul de mare si in sfarsit oul. Toate aceste coji naturale au in comun doua proprietati fundamentale: curbura si suprafata lor extrm de subtire. Cochilia este structura tridimensionala care se apropie cel mai mult de idealul balonului de sapun; este de asemenea cel mai complex si cel mai dificil de realizat.SISTEME STRUCTURALE Cele ti tpur de struct fundamentale fost in construct din toate impure pot avea, fiecare din ele , comportament activ la nivelul volumului, (rezistenta prin masa), la nivelul formei (rezistenta prin forma), al vectorilor (directionarea eforturilor dupa trasee impuse) si al suprafetei. I STRUCTURILE MASIVE 1. Sisteme eu volumul activ “rezistente prin masa” pereti—masiv + schelet (grinzi, ferme). Compresiune + incovoiere. tara de geuate peret! portant grinzi 2. Sisteme cu forma activa “rezistente prin forma” pereti + bolti. Compresiune. a =a S A Dr SI — AT mt 4 a is & f bara arcu, setine verticala spn ot incrcisate CARACTERISTICT: toate elementele au acelasi obiectiv tehnic, a limita si a suporta, Acoperirea in doua sisteme: 1, schelet (grinzi, ferme) si 2. integral masiv (bolta). IL, STRUCTURILE CU SCHELET (stalpi +elemente de acoperire) 1. Sisteme cu volum activ. Incovoiere. a, Grinzi si cadre2, Sisteme cu forma activa. Compresiune. a. Arce 3. Sisteme vector active, Intindere si compresiune. a. ferme cu zabrele plane CARACTERISTICK: se definese prin disocierea dintre elementele portante si cele de inchidere sau compartimentare, disociere eare se traduce prin cresterea libertatii de compozitie si a celei functionale. IM. STRUCTURULE TRIDIMENSIONALE (spatiale, autoportante) 1. Sisteme vector-active, Intindere si compresiune. a, zabrele spatiale plane (stracturi reticulare plane) 5¢. grinzi spatiale cu zabrele (tuburi reticulare) ODA 4d. cabluri si bare (structuri autointinse sau de tensegritate) 2, Sisteme cu forma activa, Intinse. a, cabluri ( stracturi suspendate, lestate sau cu margini rigide) 63. Sisteme cu suprafata activa a. placi cutate prismatice si piramidate (panze cutate)SXCAVARES elomente Structrale j ( Tor AD OPIZONTAL : : oo ethP CONSTRUCTION ‘Themamerin which materials are ordered. assembled nd united into vhs, 26 frame construction yotems buldng ‘eostractin recess sgh eae retain toe mantactre ct ‘tnaaae us or capone to sped ‘snl anderen faba SO (ed indesteazed bung re rabcsedsectn of lor wa, Caling. ord handedas ange sth thesssonblyaneretona alg sdvich pel — ‘etn pcg ctac ‘eal otter ocean Troster grater Sceniyrentashestgnatnse se Somat stressedatn panel ‘Sentra ped eosig cpio {bongs galore sear dae forrest orwalienter ait o ‘ening ood tgs an eee Srvescet othe woe ‘esting enya te deg src Creag mye acdc Shscroetinindfoep aae ‘iene ase modular design Fanning and dei wing prtacad rode area cordance rode ~ “ Drying sees of standard, rue Inaehagasbe component wedn ssmbing tse 20, ample, orci, smodslar coordination ~~~ sath nt sas of ts compares, So slots pang bss Saad ermnenchaae liftsab construction Aeecingvectcoetrarteg misty bolangets chat harap sb re (ota growed ean when cated ‘sad poston yaa pls prefabricate fbrlee Tatebeateormaetcrue bforehand, _Tecasicbyssemblng rs and cxpinstandandeoduntsorconponets sual standrdead pra. forauck asses eecin, ‘t-up construction ‘Avethodalesiting enoreedecncrte Walpatlsonatein horse postion heating ter op co hel postion contract documents Thee dccamenscorpsings cansrcion contac ncudig sheen ‘catractorsgeonet, cnet ofthe atract andthe cons ration draleas nd opecieston forthe poet cag ‘Miadends, noatestins ondary ther ies tpt tig Spey ‘ada construction documents “hecantrcton cravings ond spectcston seg frtin detalt regareners forte consirctn os meet ‘specications ‘hepartt te contest docorents cansting a etal deserve the Cecil ate ofthe stor, Standards and qualsyteaton othe ‘orca pacolundes cores uniform stem ‘Nonstdevclopedy the Costractin ‘Speceaton neta orcorainstig sfeceatons, fro seccal at nd odurlteature aed consraction cost ‘courting oryoced a8 ass based onan terlanstp of mater ‘rade orfcton Aste Masterforat. ii! Genera Rauneente Diisin2 Steno Drs 3 Conrete Prison Macy Deion Mele Drain Wend Poste vison? —ThamalMattre Protector Drison Doors indone Dusen Fishes Drisin O- Speciies Drison it Equipment Dri Farchinys Drie S Space Construction Dri 4 Comeig Systems Drislont5 Mechanical Prison 6 etre pecs ta tpdstesbora Parelaeconpnn ort et Fetomitat eg ereas abe Unpjed tostine tars descriptive apectiation \Npucheaton het tps isonet funleandgiskes strobe ‘iste edt hy are oe asswtod acannon eterencespcistion ‘spcatn ta rlrsoa standard Spots onda Ears ates camper ode teteds sng regres to ‘Bbstariate he ectarance ot pods. proprctary spcticstion Kopecfeaton at spss thou? ‘pote poeta tens epost: Witot prose rssicon 50TENSILE AND INFLATABLE ‘STRUCTURES “The construction of awnings and tone roofs is becoming nore widespread, These constructions vary from simple Sluninga and roots, to technically very complicated tensile Structures of the most diverse types. evil: ati fore material (polyester) is used 95 the bate fabric with corrosion resistant and weather proot grt 00-1200 Permeability to. hgh: from “epermeable’ up 10 50% perrsenaiy ‘Te 15-20 years; all popular colour shades; qood colour fastnase Viorkabiliy: menutactured in ells; widths 1-37 usully ‘usm omgth op to 2000 runing mets; cut shape to suit frucuees can be. Joined by stitching, welding, with Schesives, combinations of thas, or by clamp connectors. ‘Add-on standard systems Standard unis. allow the structure 10 be extended indefinitely. often ‘on all sides. They ombrace. most Planforme! equare, rectangular, tang POnnedre, Appcaton: connecting pateageWoyS, rest 3c pavilions, shade awnings, et Framed structures ‘Rupporing frome # made from wood, sto or aluminigm, Seer which the membrane is statched 38. protective Covering, Application” exhibition halls, storage and indus areas. structures - @ fd adit {air matress). Maximum wicth is 45m, with length Unlined. Application: exibition, storage, industrial 2nd SBort halls also. a6 rosting over swimming poo's and ‘Tensloned structures ‘The membranes suppor abies and ast, and Improve thermo insulation the structure may be provided saith eddifonal membranes. Span can be up to more than Yo0m, Application: exhibiion, instil and sports alls, ‘meeting and sports ares, phantor roots. a ACH DS. @®Ole ed seem one ras Goes CABLE NET STRUCTURES Coble net structures offer the poss pavilion at the World Exhibition In Eonstrucod in thi fashion (+ the O ‘Skunish, 1972 .@-@ andthe ee rinkin the Olympic Prk iM +49. An interesting examples also provided bythe design forthe students club forthe University and ology in Dortmund ~ @. ‘constructional slaments testes! pylons, ble networks, steel or wooden gids, and roof ogee nerlc glass oF Wanslucort, plastic reinforced ables are fastaned into the edgas ofthe steel network, tne eaves, etc, ond ate iid ever pinjoinied and sully (el supports and then anchored. Supporting able to reduce the cable cross-sections. “Pao trensor of load ofthe tension cables usualy takes place vie cast components ~ bot fixings, housings. able ‘ings, et. The eable fixings ean be soured by sel iocking ute or by the use of pressure lamps. virgen O Seo @© settoros sero SUSPENDED AND TENSIONED STRUCTURES ‘The suspension o¢ support of load-bearing. structures provides a means of reducing the cross-sections of the Eructural members, tus enabling daleate and fgree Sesigns to be developed. As» rule, this is only possi the structure Th eables support tensile forces only ‘Suopanded structures have the purpose of reducing the ‘span of supporting beams of eliminating cantovered Srucures Tonsioned structures, iNewiee, raves the span ff beams and, nonce also the section modulus which hes to be considered n determining thei crass section» 2. In Similar fashion to cable networtstuctures, aerial supports fare required on trussed structures. They ave to accopt Buckling (oompressive) stesso. ‘Signifeant contributions to tho architecture. of suspended structures have been made by Gunter Bohristh D Rogers =(6)-Dand basing in Swindon, by Norman Foster, consist of arched steel supports which fe suspended from round, pre-treasod holow stool masts inthe upper quar ofthe gable »()-@. The ied the ground aroa to be extended by ly 67%. The suspended construction llers Connection pointe which make It possible to execute the onstruction work without interfering with other work. “Fhe new Feetquad factory in Quimper, fran automobile concern in the USA, had tobe designed for changing raqurements and operations. For this, Richard Rogers chose {suspended construction £010 ap the inside foe of any Supporting stucture « ® The seme design idoas form Hopkins = @- @. An airport sdminateat (proposed design for Paderborn ippstact)~ (and aconcort Fall (propose desiga fr the Dortmund Fae) = 69 mey aso ‘be bu in hi fasion @® narra sein, Statin, Cotman90 @ anoint cenertone —@) Mtanguns of maore ©®@ 9 @ ppe @x{o_] @ Parl scion trough he ty a i an SPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION “The MERO space freme developed by Mengeringhausen insists of joints and members. »c)~@. The underlying principle le that joints and members aro selected from the Fame systems a ae approprate forth loads which are to be carried. Io. the MERO. structural elements, the Joiotimember inks da nat acta “ideal pin joints, but are ble to transmit exurel moments in addon tothe normal forces in the mombers.» @)~ @. This thee-dimensional format permite 8 free selection ofa basic grid uni. then, ‘wih the factors 2 and v3 to szo the fngths of fexpreased in the fect that curved possibe, Tha Globe Arena in Stockholm ~ the largest hemispheric uliding in the world. The ents of prefaoriction, rift method, Al the components are hot corrosion protction As f consequence of the high level of static redundancy of Space frames, the fire of single member as result of fre wil ot load tothe ofthe sracre. Starting fiom spherical joins, that allow 18 diferent pe {tachment for tubular mombers, 2 large varety of ater Joint systems. between oder and members have been ovelopad so ae to optimise the solution to load-bearing fn spanning requirements»). = © Fcc © meeraceam cnSPACE FRAMES: APPLICATION “The Krupp-Monta space ramo was developed by E. Ruler Denine Horde. The members re bolted ro the forged corr suena wth baits insie the tubes. The Bons have ‘Totagonat recesses in their heads and are mserted into 2 Manas tobe through a fale in the tubing ofthe structural ies on in general, al mombers are hot galvanised: A Coloured coating may pied to thom. On the ‘upp: Monta System, the bolts ean be examined wethout Lee recess fom the frame membors if require, 1 is Pee to replace framework members without destroying Feetamowors The Krupp-Montle System slustrated i Dg. wh pains of eal in > @- @ Poa REBA tobe and joint connection has been designed for tha tranerision of tenale and compressive frees. ‘Goes not require bolts and con be dmantied without seebiems s @- &. The KEBA joint consists of the jaw Flare the iteriocking flange, the tapered wedge and the tnging ing with tocking in "Ina ‘Seana space fame has been developed by Kei -rnomaon Bots provid tia maans of connection, ich a Tretned nthe ends ofthe members using a specia method re tnen rerewed into the threeded bores of the Spherical joint fitings 48-0 "ering caus of all space fame, 99 unsupported span of at east 80-100m Is possible. © sooereeam mantars ——@ Diagn mentee © memo @ temonetc ant tects (= @ Soma rmneniem Henne