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Properties and Strength of Materials: 1-1 Introduction
Properties and Strength of Materials: 1-1 Introduction
1-1 Introduction:
Those notes are devoted to shed some lights on the mechanical properties of the main
two elements composing reinforced concrete: Steel and Concrete.
.
:
-1 .
-2
.
-3 .
-4
.
-5 .
-6
.
-7
.
1-2 Definitions
1-2-1 Strain
is a dimensionless value, it is the ratio between the change of length to the original
L
L0
length:
=
Where:
L = Change in length,
L0 = Original length.
1-2-2 Stress
Is the intensity of internal forces = Force / Area
Stress units = Force unites / Area Units = Kg./Cm2, lb./in2, T/m2.
1 Kg. = 2.205 lb. and 1 in. = 2.54 cm
Properties of Materials
Tension
Compression
P
A
Where:
P
A
Normal stress
Applied load
Cross sectional area
Q
A
Q
Where:
Q
A
Shear stress
Shearing (tangential) force
Cross-sectional area
Lateral Strain
Longitudinal Strain
The value of for all materials varies over a range of 0.0 0.50 .
Properties of Materials
Stress
= , the Youngs modulus is also called (Modulus of Elasticity), and its units are
Strain
as the same stress units, (because the strain is dimensionless).
E=
dy
=
dx
Deformation
Couple arm
= tan
x
L
then =
Shear Stress ( )
Shear Strain ( )
in stress units
Properties of Materials
=G
Properties of Materials
0.8
0.5
4
Stress
Stress
0.4
Stress
0.6
0.2
-1
0
0
-0.5
6
Time
Time
Time
12
10
)(1
)(2
)(3
:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
1-4-1 Elasticity
Is the ability of the material to return to its original dimensions when the external
applied load is removed.
.
.
) (Elastic Limit Stress
.
1-4-2 Plasticity
Is the property which permits materials to undergo permanent change in shape without
fracture, i.e the material does not return to its original dimensions.
.
Properties of Materials
1-4-3 Ductility
Is the ability of the material to stand large plastic deformation in tension, i.e the
property of the material which enables it to be drawn out to a considerable extent before
failure.
:
-1 =
-2 =
-3 =
L L0
.100
L0
= % Elongation
A A
% Reduction of area = 0
.100
A0
A A
Elongation factor = 0
.100
A
1-4-4 Malleability
Is the property which represents the capacity of the material to withstand plastic
deformation in compression without failure.
.
Properties of Materials
1-4-5 Brittleness
Is the resistance of the material to any applied forces, and is measured in the known
stress units.
This resistance is usually known as the tensile strength if the applied load is tension or
compressive strength if the applied force is compression. The ultimate strength is the
maximum stress which the material is capable to withstand, developed under a slowly axial
applied load.
) (
( Bending) ) (
.
.
1-4-7 Stiffness
Stress
Stress
Is the property of the material to resist any sort of deformation. A stiff material is that
material which withstand high unit stress with relatively small unit deformation. In uni-axial
tension and compression tests, the stiffness is quantitatively measured by the modulus of
elasticity within the elastic limit.
Strain
Strain
Modulus of Elasticity .
Modulus of Elasticity .
.(- )
Properties of Materials
E=
Stress
= = tan
Strain
Pf
Py
Pu
Load
Lf
Elongation
.-
Toughness =
Py + Pu
.L f
Modulus of Toughness =
1-4-9 Resilience
Toughness y + u
=
. f
Volume
2
It is the capacity of the material to store mechanical energy; given in energy units
(kg.m, or lb.in i.e. force.distance). Resilience is measured by the Modulus of Resilience,
which is the maximum amount of mechanical energy that may be stored in a unit volume and
be completely recovered upon the removal of load.
Prepared by Amr A. El-Sayed, Civil Eng. Dept., El-Minia Univ., Eg.
Properties of Materials
.
.
- .
Stress
Load
Resilience
Modulus of Resilience
Strain
Elongation
1-4-10 Hardness
Is the ability of the material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting, or indentation. The
hardness of non-metallic materials such as stones, gravel, and rock is usually measured by its
resistance to abrasion by friction.
.
-1 Indentation Hardness
-2 Rebound Hardness
-3 Scratch Hardness
-4 Wear Hardness
-5 Mechineability Hardness
-
1-4-11 Endurance
Is the ability of the material to withstand repeated application of load. The endurance
limit is the highest repeated stress that can be applied infinite number of times causing failure
to the material.
.
1-4-12 Durability
Is the ability of the material to resist the internal or external destructive conditions
over long period of time.
Properties of Materials
L
P
,=
and
A
L0
P
A = P.L0
E= =
L
A.L
L0
L =
P.L
E. A
. (1-1)
t/m3:
cm2:
. x dx
W
A
: x
Px = W.x.A
ton
W
W x2
L (Total Extension) = .x.dx =
E
E0 2
0
L
L =
W .L2
2.E
W.x.A
dx
E. A
W.L.A
Px .Lx
E. A
. (1-2)
10
Properties of Materials
The load various linearly from 0.0 to w. The load equation is from first degree, so, the
normal force diagrams degree will be 2.0 (2nd degree parabola).
w.L/2
w=0
L/2
w.L/2
L/2
w t/m
dx
Wx
w
The load at any section x:
WX W
=
X
L
WX = W .
X
L
X
0 W . L .dx
N=
W .L W . X 2
2
2.L
1
N .dx
E. A 0
W .L2
3.E. A
W X2
Lo 2
X
W
. X .dx
L 0
W .L
, then
2
c=
W .X 2
+c
2.L
W .L
2
. (1-3)
L
1 W .L W . X 2
E. A 0 2
2 .L
.dx
W X3
1 W .L
.X
.
E. A 0 2
2 .L 3
L
. (1-4)
11
Properties of Materials
Example: Find the total extension of the bar shown in figure. A = 12.50 cm2, E = 2100
t/cm2.
5.0 t
5.0 t
20.0
5.0
15.0 t
10.0
5.0 t
10.0
10.0 t
10.0 t
q = 0.125 t/m
2.50 t
2.5
7.50 t
7.5
10.0 t
5.0 t
10.0
20.0
20.0
10.0 t
5.0 t
5.0
5.0 t
L1 =
P.L1
5.0 * 20.0
=
= 0.004 Cm.
E. A 2100 *12.50
L 2 =
P.L2
10.0 * 10.0
=
= +0.004 Cm
E. A 2100 * 12.50
L31 =
L3 2
10.0 * 20.0
= +0.0076 Cm (due to concentrated load)
2100 *12.50
0.125 * 20.0 2
W .L2
=
=
= 0.001 Cm (due to uniform load)
3.E. A 3 * 2100 *12.50
L41 =
2.50 * 20.0
= 0.0019 Cm (due to concentrated load)
2100 * 12.50
L4 2 =
W .L2
0.125 * 20.0 2
=
= 0.0019 Cm (due to uniform load)
2.E. A 2 * 2100 *12.50
L5 =
5.0 * 10.0
P.L
=
= 0.0019 Cm
E. A 2100 *12.50
12
Properties of Materials
ab
x
=
ac L0
and
ab
x
=
d 0 d1 L0
then
ab =
d 0 d1
.x
2.L0
d0
d 0 d1
.x
L0
= d0 k.x
(strain at section x) =
(d 0 k .x )2
P
4 .P
=
Ax .(d 0 k .x )2
dx
k=
where
cb a
L0
then
e
d
4 .P
1
.
E. (d 0 k .x )2
d`
P
4 .P
dx
x = .dx =
.
E. (d 0 k .x )2
L
4 .P 0
2
. (d 0 k .x ) .dx
L =
E. 0
L0
L =
4.P (d 0 k .x )
.
E.
1 * k
0
L0
4 .P
1
,
.
L =
E. .k (d 0 k .x )
d 0 d1
L0
13
Properties of Materials
L
4.P
1
1
0
L =
.
.
E. d 0 d1
d0 0
d 0 d1
d 0 L .L0
L =
L0 1
4 .P
1
.
.
E. d 0 d1 d1 d 0
L =
L =
4.P.L0
E. .(d 0 d1 )
L0 d 0 d1
4 .P
.
.
E. d 0 d1 d 0 .d 1
. (1-5)
1- S = C
2- Pt = PS + PC
Suppose we have a bar made of two materials steel, and copper.
S =
then
S
ES
S
ES
C =
, and
C
EC
EC
P
and S = S
AS
C =
PC
AC
Steel
Copper
PS
PC
=
E S . AS E C . AC
PS = PC .
E S . AS
,
E C . AC
E .A
P = PC 1 + S S
E C . AC
but
P = PS + PC
14
Properties of Materials
or,
PC = P.
EC . AC
E C . AC + E S . AS
. (1-6)
PS = P.
E S . AS
EC . AC + E S . AS
. (1-7)
P
PS
PC
S
C
S = C ,
then
ES
C
EC
S = C.
ES
EC
ES
= n = (mod ular ratio)
EC
S = n. C
P = PS + PC
Concrete
= S.AS + C.AC
Steel
P = n. C.AS + C.AC
A
P = C . AC 1 + n. S
AC
AS
=
AC
. (1-8)
15
Properties of Materials
Examples:
AC = CB
RA
A
R A .L AC R B .LCB
=
E. A
E. A
30.0
2
R A = .RB
3
3.RA = 2.RB
but,
RB
RA
RA + RB = 10.0 t
10.0 t
2
.R B + R B = 10.0
3
RB = 6.0 t, and
20.0
RB
RA = 4.0 t
16
Properties of Materials
where:
L
t
-2 :
P.L
= L
= .L.t
E. A
P=.t.E.A
) ( .
:
. t . L -
= .t
.t.L
L
t = .E
t = .t .E
L
17
Properties of Materials
b c
f
d
1- Elastic Stage (0 to a)
2- Yield Stage (b d)
3- Elastic-Plastic Stage (Ductile
Stage).
1 2
Is the maximum stress that the material can withstand, and if that stress is removed,
there will be no permanent deformations.
) (
(Elastic ( Proportional Limit)
( b) .
. Limit)
.(Johanson) ( Elastic Limit)
18
Properties of Materials
and,
El. L
mt = ml 0.50 mt.
1.50 mt = ml.
mt = (2/3) ml
ml = Y/cd
then,
Y
3 .cd
2
= mt
L mm
X
) (Proof load .
Pr oof Load
A0
19
= Pr oof Stress
Properties of Materials
2-3 Stiffness
Stress
E=
Strain
2-4 Resilience
.d ,
Load
( P-)
.()
Stress
.
LP
1
R = P.d = .PP * LP
2
0
Resilience
Modulus of Resilience
and = E.
Elongation
M. of Resiliense =
E. .d
Strain
= 0.5 E. 2P
1- Ultimate Strength u =
kg/cm2
kg/cm2
Where:
PMax.
PFrac.
20
Properties of Materials
2-6 Ductility
:
.100
A0 A
.100
A0
L L0
= % Elongation
1-
= % Reduction of area
2-
= Elongation factor
3-
L0
A0 A
.100
A
2-7 Toughness
Load
Pu
Pf
Py
Lf
Elongation
3- Elongation Equation
:
-1 L0
-2 .A0
:
-1
.
L1 = constant * L0
-2 :A0
L1 L0,
then
L1 = b . L0
A0
L2 = c .
L = L1 + L2
21
Properties of Materials
). (3-1
L = b.L0 + c. A0
L Y L0 .X b,c
.
L
C. A0
L0
) (L , L0 Y c. A0
A
L
= % Elongation = b + c. 0
L0
L0
A0
L0
A0
L0
22
L0 = 11.30 * A0
L0 = 5.65 * A0
Properties of Materials
a- True Stress : equals the applied force at any moment divided by the cross-sectional area at
the same moment.
`=
Pi
Ai
b- True strain:
d1
d2
di
L1
L0
Li
L1
L0
d0
L
L0 L1 L2
True strain (`) =
+
+
+ ........... + i =
L0
L1
L2
Li
` =
Li
dl
Li
L0
L
L
L0
` = log e
Li
L0
. (3-2)
but
Li = L0 + Lt
` = log e
L0 + Lt
L0
` = log e 1 +
Lt
L0
= log e (1 + )
. (3-3)
23
Properties of Materials
A0 * L0 = Ai * Li
Li
A
= 0
L0
Ai
A0
Ai
` = log e
. (3-4)
A0 d 0
=
Ai d i
d
= log e 0
di
`
d
= 2. log e 0
di
. (3-5)
Ai =
` =
A0
Ai
A0
1+
Pi
,
Ai
` =
. (3-6)
but
Pi
is the normal stress ()
A0
` = .(1 + )
. (3-7)
Equation (3-7) represents the relationship between the true stress (`), and the
ordinary stress ().
(` - `) ( mild steel)
:
1- Part I: Elastic Stage
from
` = 0
` = a . `
to
` = `P
(3-8)
24
Properties of Materials
where:
a
` = b . `c
where:
)b, and c are constants (related to each material
b is called Strength coefficient, and c Strain hardening component
3- Part III : Plastic stage
)` (` -
:
`` = k + m.
). (3-9
` = `f
` = `u
to
from
Where:
:
)
(
. ) (
:
dP = 0
). (3-10
Pi = ` . Ai
A0
Ai
) ). ( Equation (3-4
A0
` e
= Ai
or,
` = loge
A0
`= e
Ai
But,
Then,
Ai )(3-10
A0
). (3-11
` e
) (3-11 ) (Pmax.
.
Pi = `.
25
Properties of Materials
d `
d `
. (3-12)
( `-`) ( 3-12)
.( `)
( `-`)
.`
d `
= b.c. `c1
d `
c 1
c. ` = `
= ` = b . `c
`c
c = c 1 = `cc +1
`
c = `
. (3.(`max.) ( 3-00) `
`max . = b.c c
. (3-
(u)
. (y)
2- Rate of loading
3- Temperature
4- Over straining
5- Cold working
6- Size and shape of test specimen
7- Effect of eccentric loads
8- Alloying elements
9- Heat treatment
26
Properties of Materials
n =
Pn P.(cos )2
=
A`
A
Where
Pn
the normal force to the inclined plane ().
n
the normal stress
Pt = P. sin
q=
Pt P
= . sin . cos
A` A
where:
the tangential (shear) force to the inclined plane ().
the shearing stress
Pt
q
= tan
Where:
. =
P
P
. sin . cos tan . . cos 2
A
A
F is maximum when
dF
= 0, and note that is constant.
d
dF P
= [sin .( sin ) + cos .(cos ) + 2 tan . cos . sin ]
d A
27
Properties of Materials
dF P
= cos 2 sin 2 + 2 tan . cos . sin
d A
but,
dF P
1
cos(2 )
= cot(2 )
sin( 2 )
then,
tan = tan (2-90)
= 2 - 90
90 +
= 45 +
2
2
28
Properties of Materials
Section II
Properties and Strength of Concrete Aggregate
2-1 Introduction
.
2-2 Definitions
) (
W
Vt
= ` = U W
vV
Aggregate
sV
tV
Voids
) (
W
Vs
Where
the volume of solids only
29
Vs
Properties of Materials
.
3- Absolute Specific Gravity:
. )(
.
4- Appearent Specific Gravity:
) ( ) 20
( .
or
1000 Kg/m3.
lb/Ft3.
and
s g = 2.65 t/m3.
5- Voids Ratio:
.
.
Vt
Vv
Vs
Vs
Vt
Vv Vt Vs
=
Vt
Vt
n =1
=n
).(Volume Weight Wa
Wa Wa
/
Vt Vs
Wa Vs
.
Wa Vt
n =1
n =1
but,
Wa
=
Vs
and
Wa
`=
Vt
Specific Gravity
n =1
). (2-1
30
then,
Properties of Materials
=
b- Voids ratio with respect to solid volume (e)
e=
Vv Vt Vs Vt
W W
=
= 1= a / a 1
Vs
Vs
Vs
Vs Vt
e=
1
`
e=
. (2-2)
( Volume Weight)
.
6- Relation Between (e, and n)
n=
Vv
Vv
=
Vt Vs + Vv
1 Vs + Vv Vs
=
= +1
n
Vv
Vv
n=
e
e +1
1 1
e +1
= +1=
n e
e
. (2-3)
31
Properties of Materials
Sand
100
52
25
Gravel
2
14
3
"
16
3
3
"
"
8 16
10
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
20.0
mm
40.0
mm
Specification
British
Egyptian
:
:
Sedimentation by Hydrometer
Clay
Test
Sand
Silt
Fine
Gravel
Coarse Medium
Soil
Type
Fine
No. 200
No. 60
No. 100
No. 40
No. 20
No. 10
No. 4
1/2
3/8
3/4
Sieve
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.005
0.075
0.15
0.25
0.42
0.84
4.75
19.0
12.7
9.52
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
32
100
90
Properties of Materials
) (Logarithmic Base :
and
) log(a ) = b. log(a
) log(a.b ) = log(a ) + log(b
b
) (2 )) (log(2
.
: )) (log(2
:
1- It is required to draw the grading curves for both sand and gravel
100
52
25
14
3
"
16
3
"
8
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
Sieve Size
6
0
24
0
45
0
60
0
81
0
96
3
100
36
100
75
100
96
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
90
nd
a
S
80
70
Gr
av
el
60
50
40
30
20
10
" 1.50
"3/4
"3/8
" 3 / 16
No. 7
No. 14
No. 25
No. 52
Sieve Size
33
No. 100
100
Properties of Materials
2- The sieve analysis test was carried out on two samples of aggregates, the total weight of
gravel sample was (10000 gm), and the total weight of sand sample was (1000 gm).
The weight on each sieve for both sand and gravel is displayed in the following table. It is
required to draw the grading curves for both sand and gravel.
Sieve Size
1
1 "
2
3
"
4
3
"
8
3
"
16
14
25
52
100
Pan
weight of sand
weight of gravel
480
5050
3000
20
1250
130
220
100
-
260
-
370
-
110
-
10
-
Solution
Sieve Size
3
"
4
3
"
8
3
"
16
14
25
52
100
Pan
20
150
250
510
880
990
100
480
5530
8530
15
25
51
88
99
100
4.8
55.3
85.3
97.80
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
98
85
75
49
12
95.2
44.7
14.7
2.20
100
90
80
Sa
nd
70
60
50
Gr
av
el
40
30
20
10
1.50 "
3/4"
3/8"
3 / 16 "
No. 7
No. 14
No. 25
No. 52
No. 100
Total weight of
sand
Total weight of
gravel
% retained
sand
%retained
gravel
% passing
sand
% passing
gravel
1
1 "
2
Sieve Size
34
Properties of Materials
Note: Sieve number (25) determines the size of sand according to the percentage passing
through it as follows:
Percentage Passing
Type of Sand
< 34
35 59
60 79
80 - 100
Coarse
Medium
Fine
Very fine
35
Properties of Materials
S n
=
G m
Where:
S
G
A
refers to Sand
refers to Gravel
refers to combined Aggregate
A=
n
m
.S +
.G
n+m
n+m
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
Where:
(n+m)
S
G
A
. (2-
For example, if the mix proportion of Sand to Gravel was 2 : 3, and for sieve size (3 / 8 ) the
percentage passing of sand was 100, and the percentage passing of gravel was 36, then the
percentage passing of the combined aggregate will be:
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
2 * 100 + 3 * 36
= 61.60 %
2+3
36
Properties of Materials
2- Graphical Method
100
100
"3/4
90
70
60
50
40
3/
"
57.3 %
/1
80
3
.7
no
.1
4
25
no
no.
10
0.0
60
50
40
30
30
20
70
no. 52
n. 100
% Passing Sand
% Passing Gravel
80
"8
90
20
10
0.0
-1 ) ( ) (
).(0.0 to 100
-2 (Sand /
) Aggregate ).(Gravel / Aggregate
-3 ) (
)" (3/8
) ( .
) (100% ) (36% ) (100 )(36
.
-4 ) (1 : 2 ) (1:3 = 0.333
) (2:3 = 0.666 ) (0.33
) (3/8 ) (57.33
) (57.33% .
37
Properties of Materials
Example:
1- Given the grading of both fine and coarse aggregate. It is required to obtain the grading
of combined aggregate with the ratio (1 Sand : 2 Gravel).
Solution
-1 :
:
n.S + m.G
n+m
=A
Where:
m=2
100
52
25
14
3
"
16
3
"
8
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
6
0
24
0
45
0
60
0
81
0
96
3
100
36
100
75
100
96
15
20
27
34
57.33
83.33
97.33
n = 1, and
Sieve Size
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
% passing Aggregate
S + 2*G
3
-2 .
3
(5.0 mm or
16
) inch
n.S + m.G
n+m
3
(5.0 mm or
16
=A
).inch
G = 0.0
38
Properties of Materials
A=
n.S
n+m
A
n
=
S n+m
S n+m
m
=
=1+
A
n
n
m S
SA
= 1=
n A
A
n
A
( Mix proportion ) =
m
SA
. (
) (G = 0.0)
.(G 0.0) ((5 mm)
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
100
90
% Passing Sand
80
70
60
50
40
90
no
.7
no
.
80
/1
"
14
no.
3/
70
4"
25
3/
8"
20
0.0
60
50
30
10
100
40
30
% Passing Gravel
Where,
. (
20
no. 52
10
n. 100
0.0
65.6
34.40
39
Properties of Materials
3
-1 (5.0 mm or
16
) inch
.
-2 (5.0 mm or
3
16
) inch .
Example:
Given the grading of a desired combined aggregate, and the grading of both sand and
gravel. It is required to find the ratio of (Sand : Gravel) to satisfy the grading of the desired
combined aggregate.
100
52
25
14
3
"
16
3
"
8
3
"
4
1
" 1
2
Sieve Size
2
0
1
12
0
5
50
0
18
72
0
25
83
0
30
96
3
35
100
22
49
100
55
70
100
100
100
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
% passing Aggregate
-1 :
n ( A G ) 35 3 32
= 0.525
=
=
=
m (S A) 96 35 61
:
n.S + m.G
n+m
=A
32 * 100 + 61 * 55
= 70.484 %
32 + 61
=A
-2 :
) (35%
3
(5.0 mm or
16
n 34.4
=
= 0.524
m 65.6
40
Properties of Materials
3
(5.0 mm or
16
.
Example:
1- The grading of a combined aggregate is shown in the following table. It is required to
find the mix proportion of (sand : gravel), and the grading of both of them.
Sieve Size (mm)
% passing Aggregate
60
98
40
92
20
56
10
31
5
20
2.5
17
1.25
15
0.63
9
0.31
3
0.16
1
Solution
( 20 %) ( 5 mm)
.(20 %)
S
n
%=
A
n+m
n
20
=
100 n + m
100 * n = 20 * n + 20 * m
80 * n = 20 * m
n 20 1
=
=
m 80 4
n:m=1:4
A=
n.S + m.G
n+m
G=
S = 100 %
A(n + m ) n.S
%
m
41
Properties of Materials
n = 1, m = 4, S = 100
)(A
) .(60 mm to 5 mm
G = 0.0 %
) A(n + m
n
)(A
(5 mm to 0.16 mm
).
42
=S
Properties of Materials
300
200
25 - 30 cm2/gm
50
40
30
100
0.0
20
10
400
0.0
43
Properties of Materials
4 d
. . .N .
3 2
.d 3 .N .
= `W
6
` 6.W
=N
.d 3 .
=
2
d
.N
2
` 6.W
d .
` 6.W
.d 3 .
= 4. .
.d 2 .
=
Where:
Weight of aggregate passing through a specific opening d1, and retained on the
sieve opening d2
Average size of aggregate particles:
d, can be represented by:
`W
d
d1 + d 2
)(Arithmetic mean
2
)d = d1 .d 2 (Geometric mean
) log(d1 ) + log(d 2
= )log (d
2
=d
)(Logarithmic mean
44
Properties of Materials
+
+
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1.
=
Where:
: d1 )(1
) : d2 ) + (1 )( (2
) : d3 ) + (2 ) ( (3
=
Wt
+
+
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1.
If (P1, P2, P3, .) are the percentage passing from sieves (1, 2, 3, ..) respectively,
= then the specific surface area
100
+
+
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1.
Wt
` 6.W1
` 6.W3
` 6.W2
S1
+ S2
+ S3
+ ..............
d 2 .
d 3 .
d1 .
=S
45
Properties of Materials
Example:
1- It is required to determine the specific surface area for the Sand, and Gravel samples
given their grading in the following table. Assume that specific gravity () for both sand
and gravel = 2.65 t/m3, and the form factor = 1.40.
Sieve Size mm
% passing Sand
% passing Gravel
40
100
95
20
100
44.8
10
100
13.4
5
97.5
0.6
2.5
85
-
1.25
75
-
0.625
48
-
0.31
12
-
0.16
1
-
Solution
1- Specific surface area of Sand:
Sieve size
mm
Logarithmic
Mean (d)cm
% passing
P
40
20
10
5
2.5
1.25
0.625
0.31
0.16
2.8284
1.4142
0.7071
0.3536
0.17678
0.0884
0.0442
0.0221
100
100
100
97.5
85
75
48
12
1
P1 P2
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
2.5
12.5
10
27
36
11
8.0051
80.04
128.077
691.5393
1844.348
1127.1
S.
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
11.207
112.056
179.3078
968.155
2582.0872
1577.94
5430.75
Sieve size
mm
40
20
10
5
Logarithmic
Mean (d)cm
% passing
P
2.8284
1.4142
0.7071
95
44.8
13.4
0.60
P1 P2
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
50.20
31.40
12.80
40.185
50.27
40.98
S.
6.( P1 P2 )
d .
56.259
70.378
57.372
184.016
46
Properties of Materials
- : :
:
-1 ) (
-2 ) (
-3 .
:
: .
-1 :
n. As + m. Ag
n+m
= Aa
Where:
Specific surface area of combined aggregate
Specific surface area of sand
Specific surface area of gravel
Mix proportion of sand : gravel
) m.( Aa Ag ) = n.( As Aa
Aa
As
Ag
n,m
n. Aa + m. Aa = n. As + m. Ag
( .
) n (Aa Ag
=
) m ( As Aa
-2 :
-1 ) ( ) (
.
-2 (Sand /
) Aggregate ).(Gravel / Aggregate
-3 ) ( )
(.
n
-4 %
n+m
m
.
%
n+m
-5 ) (4 ) (3
.
47
50
50
40
40
30
30
22.8
20
20
10
10
0.0
0.0
Properties of Materials
:
30-25)
( ) (/2
./2 25
Examples:
1- In the previous example, if the percentage of sand and gravel in the mixed aggregate was
40.0 %, and 60.0 % respectively, find the specific surface area of the resulted aggregate.
Solution
1- Mathematical method:
n : m = 40 : 60 = 2 : 3
Aa =
n. As + m. Ag
n+m
2 * 54.3 + 3 * 1.84
= 22.82 cm2/gr.
2+3
2- Graphical method:
Sand : Aggregate = 2 : 5 = 40 %,
48
Properties of Materials
2- two samples of sand, the first is coarse, and its specific surface area equals to 50 cm2/gm,
and the second is fine with specific surface area of 80 cm2/gm. There is also a sample of
gravel with 5.0 cm2/gm specific surface area.
Determine the mix proportion of both the two samples of sand with the sample of gravel to
obtain a sample of aggregate with 25.0 cm2/gm specific surface area in each case. It is also
required to find the resulted specific surface area of the aggregate if each type of sand is
mixed with gravel by (1:1), and (1 : 4). Use both mathematical and graphical methods.
Solution
1- Mathematical method:
a- for sand with 50.0 cm2/gm specific surface area:
n Aa Ag
=
m As Aa
n:m=4:5
n 25 5
20 4
=
=
=
m 50 25 25 5
= 1 : 1.25
n Aa Ag
=
m As Aa
n 25 5
20 4
=
=
=
m 80 25 55 11
n : m = 4 : 11 = 1 : 2.75
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0.0
44.4
26.7
0.0
2- Graphical method:
49
Properties of Materials
Aa =
n. As + m. Ag
n+m
Aa =
1 * 50 + 1 * 5
= 27.50 cm2/gm
2
Aa =
1 * 50 + 4 * 5
= 14.0 cm2/gm
5
Aa =
1 * 80 + 1 * 5
= 42.50 cm2/gm
2
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
42.5
40
30 27.5
20 20.0
14.0
30
0.0
0.0
20
10
1 * 80 + 4 * 5
= 20.0 cm2/gm
5
Aa =
50
Properties of Materials
Section III
Cement
3-1 Introduction
Soundness of Cement
.
) (Soundness
) (Strength and Durability
.
:
1- Free Lime
) "" (
) (:
) ( + +.
2 Ca O + 2 H2 O 2 Ca (OH)2 + Heat
(Free
) lime
.
) (.
2- The presence of too high Magnesia
% 5
3- The presence of excess of Sulphate
) (S O3 .% 2
) (Cement Unsoundness :
-1 ) (
) (Clay .
51
Properties of Materials
-2
.
:
)
(.
52
Properties of Materials
Section IV
Tests applied on aggregate and Cement
1- Volume weight
:
.
:
) 3( ) 15 (
50 16 .
:
-1 .W1
-2 25
25 25
.
-3 ) ( .W2
W2 W1
-4 =
Volume of cylinder
2- Specific weight
:
.
:
100 1000 .
:
:
-1 110-100
.W
-2 V1
.
-3 ) +( .V2
-4 = ).(V2 V1
53
Properties of Materials
W
-5 =
V2 V1
:
.
3- Voids ratio
:
.
:
.
:
-1 123 .
-2
.
-3 .V
V
-4 =
Volume of cylinder
:
=
54
WL
WC
Properties of Materials
S (Angularity Factor) =
WL
WC
5- Strength of aggregate
7- Hardness of aggregate
8- Toughness of aggregate
55
Properties of Materials
56
Properties of Materials
Section V
Solved Problems
1- In a tension steel member of 2.0 m long the elongation was found to be 2.0 mm
corresponding to a force of 4000 Kg. Calculate the area of the member cross section, and
the applied normal stress if the modulus of elasticity of this type of material is 2100 t/cm2.
Solution
Data:
L0 = 200.0 cm
L = 2.0 mm = 0.20 cm
P = 4000.0 kg. = 4.0 tons
E = 2100.0 t/cm2.
Required:
P.L0
E. A
Then, A =
P.L0
4 .0 * 2 .0
=
= 0.02 cm2.
E.L 2100.0 * 0.2
P 4.0
=
= 210.0 t/cm2.
A 0.02
2- A load of 2.0 t is hanged down from a vertical round steel rod of 2.1*106 kg/cm2 modulus
of elasticity. If the stress in the rod was 1500.0 kg/cm2, find:
a- Diameter of the rod.
b- Length of rod corresponding to an elongation of 0.3 mm.
c- The change in the rod diameter if the Poissons ratio equals to 0.30
Solution
a- =
P
A
then, 1500.0 =
2000.0
.d 2
4
d = 1.30294 cm.
57
Properties of Materials
b- L =
2000.0 * L0
0.30
=
10
2.1 * 10 6 * 1.333
P.L0
E. A
L0 = 42.0 cm
c- =
Lateral Strain
Longitudinal Strain
A
0.30 =
A0
1.333 A1
=
0.03
L0
1.3333
42.0
3- For the beam shown, calculate the magnitude of the normal stresses in the different
parts as well as the value of the resulted deformation at the free end. The beam cross
sectional area is 10.0 cm2, and its modulus of elasticity equals to 2.0*106 kg/cm2.
(neglect the own weight of the beam).
Solution
1- for part no. (1)
L =
P.L0
E. A
P 6000
= 600.0 kg/cm2 (tensile)
=
A
10
L =
6000.0 * 200.0
= +0.060 cm
2 *10 6 * 10.0
P 3000
= 300.0 kg/cm2 (compressive)
=
A
10
58
Properties of Materials
L =
3000.0 * 200.0
= -0.03 cm
2 *10 6 *10.0
4- Calculate the value of the tension force P which causes total elongation of 0.55 mm in
the shown combined rod. The upper part is cast iron of 7.50 cm diameter, and the lower
part is of mild steel and 5.0 cm diameter.
Modulus of elasticity of cast iron and mild steel is 1.2*106 kg/cm2, and 2.10*106 kg/cm2
respectively.
Solution
L =
P.Li
P.Ls
+
E i . Ai E s . As
L = P
+
= 0.055
6
6
1.20 *10 * 44.18 2.10 * 10 *19.635
P = 75.6 tons
5- A steel rod, circular in section, tapers from 3.0 cm diameter to 1.50 cm diameter in a
length of 60.0 cm. Find how much this length will increase under a pull of 2.0 tons if E =
2.10*106 kg/cm2.
Solution
L =
4.P.L0
E. .(d 0 d1 )
P = 2.0 t
d0 = 3.0 cm
L =
L0 = 60.0 cm
d1 = 1.50 cm
E = 2.10*106 kg/cm2
4 * 2000.0 * 60
= 0.0485 cm
2.10 *10 6. .(3.0 1.50)
59
Properties of Materials
Problems:
1- A tension test was carried out on a high tensile steel specimen of 2.20 Cms diameter and
11.0 Cms gauge length. The load (P) in tons and the extension (L) in mms were recorded as
follows:
0.0
0.0
P (Tons)
L (mm)
2.0
6.0
12.0 14.0
0.032 0.096 0.192 0.225
16.0
0.38
17.0
1.20
18.0
2.50
19.0
7.30
19.2
11.50
Solution
20
P Tons
15
10
0
0
10
12
L mm
1- The bar AB is considered to be absolutely rigid, and a load of 18000 kg is applied as shown
in figure (1). The connection at A is a pin, and AB is supported by the steel rod EB and the
copper rod CD. The cross sectional area of CD is 5.0 cm2, and that of EB is 3.0 cm2.
Determine the stress in each bar.
Es = 2.10 * 106 kg/cm2
Ec = 1.0 * 105 kg/cm2
2- The sieve analysis test was carried out on samples of aggregates, the percentage passing
from each sieve was as follows:
Sieve Size
Sand
Gravel
Aggregate
40
0.0
77
85.2
20
0.0
30
51.0
10
0.0
7
39.5
5
98
0.0
29.4
2.5
77
0.0
26.9
1.25
64
0.0
25.4
0.63
47
0.0
16.4
0.31
9
0.0
5.7
0.16
3
0.0
1.20
60