March 12, 2016

Group 4
Vector Literature Review
For our disease, we predicted that the main vector is Amblyomma americanum because it
was the most prevalent tick that we identified based on the traps that we used to trap our vector.
Amblyomma americanum are ticks that have four pairs of legs, long, piercing mouthparts, and
females have a silvery-white spot on the center of their scutum, which is generally the way that
these ticks are identified. Amblyomma americanum, or the Lone Star Tick is distributed across
the southeastern, eastern, and Midwestern regions of the United States, as well as South and
Central America (Childs and Paddock 2003). They are a three host tick, which means that they
feed on different hosts during the larval, nymphal, and adult stages. They are mainly found in
areas where there is white-tailed deer, which is one of the hosts of the Lone Star Tick. Some of
these areas include woodlands with dense undergrowth and around areas where animals rest.
Lone Star Ticks feed with their piercing-sucking mouthparts that have chelicerae that
pierce through the skin of the host. They use a glue-like substance to attach to the host until their
feeding is complete (Adams et al. 2003). After they feed, they remove their mouthparts from the
host and fall to the ground where they molt or oviposit. Adult female ticks take about seven to
ten days to engorge. The engorged females deposit about 5,000 eggs during the spring, summer,
and autumn in an area that they find to have high humidity, which would be best suited for laying
eggs. After an incubation period ranging from 31 to 60 or more days, the larvae hatch from the
eggs and then go through a resting period before questing for a host. The larvae are about 0.5 to
1.0 mm long and have six legs. They bury themselves in leaf litter to find any host and are active
during the months of July through September. They can survive as long as six months in this
environment, but usually do not because they are able to find a suitable host (Troughton and
Levin 2007). After finding a host, the larvae feed for about 4-9 days, then drop to the ground
once again to digest its meal and then in about three to four weeks, they molt into a nymph.
Nymphs are 1.5 to 2.5 mm in length, have eight legs, and are active between May and August
and seek larger animals, such as deer, raccoons, squirrels, turkeys, birds, dogs, and humans. They
also are able to survive up to six months without feeding. One way they attack hosts is in swarms
by clumping together. They feed for about 5-6 days before dropping off, once again, and about
five to six weeks later molt into their last stage of life cycle, the adult stage (Troughton and
Levin 2007). Adult Lone Star ticks are usually 3 to 4 mm in length and have eight legs. They are
most active between May and August and can survive eight months to two years without feeding
on a host if the environment is ideal. Adult Lone Star ticks usually feed on larger animals, such
as coyotes, deer, cattle, dogs, and humans. Since the male tick has to feed in order to produce
spermatophores for reproduction and the female tick has to feed in order to produce eggs, the
mating of Amblyomma americanum occurs on the host (Troughton and Levin 2007). While
feeding on the host, the female tick releases pheromones, which regulate their mating behavior,
that stimulates the male tick to detach and find the female and mate with her (Sonenshine 2004).
After the female mates, she feeds on blood for several days until she gets engorged and then
leaves the host to seek a location to lay her eggs. After the female tick lays her eggs, she dies.
The Lone Star tick is an aggressive tick and not host-specific. Depending on their life
stages, some might seek specific hosts, but they are mainly non-specific. The Lone Star tick can
be found on humans, domestic animals, birds, and small and large wild mammals (Cooley and
Kohls 1944, Bishopp and Trembley 1945, Kollars et al. 2000). Larvae are usually found on birds

and mammals, but not on small rodents, while nymphs are found on all three of these (Barnard et
al. 1988, Kollars, et al. 2000). Adults usually feed on large- or medium-sized mammals, but are
primarily found on small rodents and wild turkeys.
Lastly, Amblyomma americanum is the most common tick that is reported to bite humans
in the southeastern and southcentral United States (Masters et al. 2008). There are many ways to
try to manage the Lone Star ticks in certain areas. Some of the most common ways to manage
them is by using tick insecticides, vegetative management, and host exclusion. Vegetative
management, or controlled burning or mechanical removal of under-story brush and other plants,
has been attempted in wooded areas and have reduced the lone star tick populations. However,
since the life cycle of these ticks is 2 to 3 years in nature, this may not be apparent for some time
(Davidson et al. 1994). Another way that reduces the amount of Lone Star ticks is by attracting
deer with corn at a 4-poster feeder station that allows the deer to come in contact with
acaricide-treated paint rollers. With the acaricide on the deer, the adult ticks then do not feed on
the deer and then dont reproduce because they need to be feeding in order to mate with each
other. The only downfall of these feeder stations is that they are expensive, so many people do
not use this method of management. The most effective integrated management system is using
all three approaches together. To prevent tick bites, it is best to spray repellent or insecticide
correctly on clothing; as accordance to the CDC (2012). Some steps to preventing tick bites are
to wear light colored clothing (to be able to identify ticks if on the items of clothing), and
inspecting the clothing, pets, and any gear used. Full body tick checks should be conducted, as
well as showering immediately after being outdoors.
According to the tests we conducted to find the vectors of our disease, we found that
although Amblyomma americanum was the most prevalent, it is possible that it also could have
been acquired by another tick species. However, based on the majority of the ticks that were
identified and prevalent, it seems the Lone Star tick is the primary vector of this disease.

Works Cited
Adams DR, Anderson BE, Ammirati CT, Helm KF. 2003. Identification and diseases of common
U.S. ticks. The Internet Journal of Dermatology 2:1. DOI: 10.5580/1189.
Barnard DR, Mount GA, Koch HG, Haile DG, Garris GI. 1988. Management of the lone star tick
in recreation areas. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 682. 33pp. Agriculture
Research Service.
CDC. (2012a). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Avoiding Ticks. (10 June 2013).
Childs JE, Paddock CD. 2003. The ascendancy of Amblyomma americanum as a vector of
pathogens affecting humans in the United States. Annual Review of Entomology
48:
307-337.
Cooley RA, Kohls GM. 1944. The genus Amblyomma (Ixodidae) in the United States. Journal of
Parasitology 30: 77-111.
Davidson WR, Siefken DA, Creekmore LH. 1994. Influence of annual and biennial prescribed
burning during March on the abundance of Amblyomma americanum (Acari:
Ixodidae) in central Georgia. Journal of Medical Entomology 31: 72-81.
Kollars Jr, TM, Oliver Jr, JH, Durden LA, Kollars PG. 2000. Host associations and seasonal
activity of Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) in Missouri. The Journal of
Parasitology 86: 1156-1159.
Masters EJ, Grigery CN, Masters RW. 2008. STARI or Masters Disease: Lone star tick-vectored
Lyme-like illness. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 22: 361-376.
Sonenshine DE. 2004. Pheromones and other semiochemicals of ticks and their use in tick
control. Parasitology 129: S405-S425.
Troughton DR, Levin, ML. 2007. Life cycles of seven ixodid tick species (Acari: Ixodidae)
under standardized laboratory conditions. Journal of Medical Entomology 44:
732-740.