Basic Surveying

Introduction to Surveying
Definition:

Surveying is the science and art of

determining the relative positions of
points above, on, or beneath the
earths surface and locating the points
in the field.

The work of the surveyor

consists of 5 phases:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Decision Making selecting method, equipment

and final point locations.
Fieldwork & Data Collection making
measurements and recording data in the field.
Computing & Data Processing preparing
calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
Mapping or Data Representation plotting data to
produce a map, plat, or chart in the proper form.
Stakeout locating and establishing monuments
or stakes in the proper locations in the field.

2 Categories of Surveying:
Plane Surveying surveying with the reference
base for fieldwork and computations are
assumed to be a flat horizontal surface.

1.

2.

Generally within a 12 mile radius the pull of gravity is

very nearly parallel to that at any other point within
the radius and thus horizontal lines can be
considered straight.

Geodetic Surveying surveying technique to

determine relative positions of widely spaced
points, lengths, and directions which require the
consideration of the size and shape of the earth.
(Takes the earths curvature into account.)

7 Types of Surveys:
1.

2.
3.

4.

Photogrammetry mapping utilizing data

obtained by camera or other sensors carried in
airplanes or satellites.
Boundary Surveying establishing property
corners, boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
Control Surveying establish a network of
horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as
a reference framework for other survey projects.
Engineering Surveying providing points and
elevations for the building Civil Engineering
projects.

7 Types of Surveys:
Topographic Surveying collecting data and
preparing maps showing the locations of
natural man-made features and elevations of
points o the ground for multiple uses.
Route Surveys topographic and other
surveys for long narrow projects associated
with Civil Engineering projects.

5.

6.

Highways, railroads, pipelines, and transmission

lines.

7.

Hydrographic Surveying mapping of

shorelines and the bottom of bodies of water.
5.

Also known as bathymetric surveying.

Brief History of Surveying:

Surveying had its beginning in Egypt about
1400 BC

1.

Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation.

Divisions were washed away by annual floods.
ROPE-STRETCHERS Egyptian surveyors were
created to relocate the land divisions
(measurements were made with ropes having
knots at unit distances).
Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian
monuments

Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and

developed Geometry.

2.

Developed one of the earliest surveying

instruments
Diopter (a form of level).

Brief History of Surveying:

Romans: developed surveying into a science
to create the Roman roads, aqueducts, and
land division systems.

3.

Surveyors held great power, had schools and a

professional organization
Developed several instruments:

Groma cross instrument used to determine lines and right

angles
Libella A frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
Chorobates 20 straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

Middle Ages: land division of Romans

continued in Europe.

4.

Quadrans square brass frame capable of turning

angles up to 90 and has a graduated scale
developed by an Italian named Von Piso.

Brief History of Surveying:

18th & 19th Century in the New World: the
need for mapping and marking land claims
caused extensive surveying, especially by the
English.

5.

1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of

public lands into one mile square sections

30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System

(also called the Rectangular System)

1807: United States Geological Survey founded to

establish an accurate control network and mapping
Famous American Surveyors: George Washington,
Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln
and many more.

Brief History of Surveying:

20th Century and Beyond: As technology
advanced, population increased, and land
value caused development of licensure for
surveyors in all states.

6.

Educational requirements for licensure began in the

early 1990s
Capable of electronic distance measurement,
positioning using global positioning systems,
construction machine control, and lidar (scanning)
mapping
Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and
geographic information systems (GIS)
Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well
into the 21st century

Measurement of Distance

Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying and even

though angles may be read precisely, the length of at least
one line in a tract must be measured to supplement the
angles in locating points.

Methods of measuring a horizontal distance :

Rough Measuring: Pacing, Odometer readings,

Tacheometry (stadia), Taping, EDM, and GPS
Only the last three meet survey accuracy requirements
Distance from stadia: (High wire-Low wire) * 100 = Distance (ft)

More accurate measuring: taping, EDM (1966), GPS

EDM and GPS are most common in todays surveys
In pacing, one establishes the # of paces/100 by counting
the # of paces over a pre-measured 300 line

Measurement of Distance

Taping: applying the known length of a

graduated tape directly to a line a number of
times.

2 Problems exist in Taping:

1.
2.

Measuring the distance between two existing

points
Laying out a known distance with only the
starting point in place

Measurement of Distance
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

6 Steps of Taping
Lining in shortest distance between two points
is a straight line.
Applying tension rear chain is anchor and head
chain applies required tension.
Plumbing horizontal distance requires tape to
be horizontal.
Marking tape lengths each application of the
tape requires marking using chaining pins to
obtain total length.
Reading the tape the graduated tape must be
read correctly.
Recording the distance the total length must
be reported and recorded correctly.

Types of Chains and Tapes

Before

the ability to make steel rods and bands,

sticks were cut into lengths of 16.5 (Rod) and
they were laid end to end to measure.
Gunters Chain

66 long with 100 link w/each link being 7.92 inches or

66 feet long
Developed by Edmund Gunter in 1600s in England
and made with individual wires with a loop at each
end connected
Chain had between 600-800 wearing surfaces which
with hard use would wear and cause chain to elongate
Measurements were recorded in chains and links
7ch 94.5lk = 7.945 ch = 7.945 X 66/ch = 524.37
1 chain = 4 rods; 80 chains = 1 mile

Types of Chains and Tapes

Engineers Chain
Same construction as Gunters Chain, but each link
is 1.0 long and was used for engineering projects

Surveyors and Engineers Tapes

Made of to 3/8 wide steel tapes in 100; 200;
300 lengths
Multiple types of marking and graduation:
Available

in chains, feet, and metric

Graduated:
Throughout feet and tenths marked the entire length
Extra foot feet marked the length of the tape with additional
foot at the 0 end graduated in tenths and hundreds of the foot

Types of Chains and Tapes

Invar

Tapes

Made of special nickel steel to reduce length variations

due to temperature changes
The tapes are extremely brittle and expensive
Used most of the time for standard comparison of tapes

Cloth,

Fiberglass, and PVC Tapes:

Lower accuracy and stored on reels. Used for

measurement of 0.1 accuracy requirements

Accessories

1.
2.
3.
4.

Chaining Pins set of 11, used to mark the tape lengths

Hand Level used to determine required plumbing height
Plumb Bob used to transfer the mark from the tape to
ground
Tension Handle used to maintain correct tension on tape

Taping (Field Process)

The line to be taped should be marked at both
ends

1.

Keeps measurement on line

Rear chain person should keep the head chain
person on line
1 of line error/100 = 0.01 error in length

Applying Tension

2.

Rear chainman is anchor and should hold 100

mark over point

Tension is applied by head chain person normally 12 to 30

pounds of pull
Tapes are standardized at 12 lbs., but greater is utilized to
compensate for sag

Taping (Field Process)

Plumbing

3.

One end of tape is raised to maintain a horizontal

measuring plane. ONLY one end is elevated

This allows measurements to be made on uneven ground

If a high spot exists in center, break tape by measuring
to the top and then move forward to complete the distance

Slope Measurements:
Generally,

measurements are made

horizontally, but on even, often man-made
slopes the distance can be measured directly
on the slope, but the vertical or zenith angle
must be obtained.
Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle X Slope
Distance
Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle X Slope
Distance

Stationing:
Starting

point is 0+00 and each 100 is

one station 700 from starting point is
Station 7+00
If distance is 857.23 from starting point,
it is expressed as Station 8+57.23

Taping Error:
1.

2.
3.

Instrumental Error a tape may have different length

due to defect in manufacture or repair or as the result
of kinks
Natural Error length of tape varies from normal due
to temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag)
Personal Error tape person may be careless in setting
pins, reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment
Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically,
but personal error can only be corrected by remeasure.
When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or
checked against a standard.
Tapes

standardized at National Bureau of Standards in Maryland

Standardized at 68 degrees F and 12 lbs. tension fully supported.

Tape Error Correction:

1)

Measuring between two existing points:

1) If a tape is long, the distance will be short, thus any
correction must be added
2) If tape is short, the distance will be long, thus any
correction must be subtracted
3) If you are setting or establishing a point, the above
rule is reversed.

Generally can correct for tape length,

temperature, tension, and sag, but tension
and sag are negated by increasing tension
to approximately 25 30 lbs.

Error in Taping:
Tape

Length: Correction per foot = Error in

100/100
If tape was assumed to be 100.00 but when
standardized was found to be 100.02 after distance
measured at 565.75
then: Correction =(100.02-100.00)/100.00 = 0.0002
error/ft
565.75 X .0002/ = 0.11 correction and based upon
rule, must be added, thus true distance = 565.86
If tape had been 99.98 then correction would be
subtracted and true distance would be 565.64

Error in Taping:
Temperature

Tapes in U.S. are standardized at

68F; the temperature difference above or
below that will change the length of the tape

Tapes have a relatively constant coefficient of

expansion of 0.0000065 per unit length per F
CT = 0.0000065(Temp (F)-68) Length
Example: Assume a distance was measured when
temperature was 30F using a 100 tape was 872.54
(68 30) X 0.00000645 X 872.54 = 0.21 error
tape is short, thus distance is long, error must
be subtracted and thus 872.54 0.21 = 872.33
(note: temperature difference is absolute difference)

Surveying Metric Conversion

1

Survey Foot = 1200 / 3937 meters

1 Meter = 3937 / 1200 Survey Feet

Transit

Transit is the most universal of

surveying instruments primary use
is for measurement or layout of
horizontal and vertical angles also
used to determine vertical and
horizontal distance by stadia,
prolonging straight lines, and loworder leveling.

Components of the Transit

1.
2.
3.

Alidade Upper part

Horizontal limb Middle part
Leveling-head assembly Lower part

Transit
Alidade

(upper part)

Circular cover plate w/2 level vials and is

connected to a solid conical shaft called the
inner spindle.
Contains the vernier for the horizontal circle
Also contains frames that support the
telescope called STANDARDS
Contains the vertical circle and its verniers,
the compass box, the telescope and its level
vial

Transit
Horizontal

Limb (middle part)

This is rigidly connected to a hollow conical

shaft called the outer spindle (which holds
the inner spindle)
Also has the upper clamp, which allows the
alidade to be clamped tight
Also contains the horizontal circle

Transit

Leveling-Head Assembly (lower part)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

4 leveling screws
Bottom plate that screws into tripod
Shifting device that allows transit to move to 3/8
ball that allows transit to tilt when being leveled
The SPIDER 4-arm piece which holds the outer
spindle
6. Lower clamp allows rotation of outer spindle

 Telescope:

but shorter

Similar to that of dumpy level,

Parts objective, internal focusing lens,

focusing wheel, X-hairs, & eyepiece
Scales:

horizontal plate or circle is usually

graduated into 30 or 20 spaces with
graduations from 0 to 360 in both directions
Circles are graduated automatically by machine and
then scanned to ensure accuracy
They are correct to with in 2 of arc

Verniers
Least

count = Lowest # of reading possible

determines accuracy
Least Count = (Value of smallest division on
scale)/(# of divisions on vernier)
Scale Graduation

Vernier Divisions

Least Count

30

30

20

40

30

15

45

20

10

60

10

Verniers

3 Types of Verniers
1. Direct or single vernier reads only in one direction
& must be set with graduations ahead of zero
2. Double vernier can be read clockwise or
counterclockwiseonly is used at a time
3. Folded vernier avoids a ling vernier plate

of the graduations are placed on each side of the index

mark
Use is not justified because it is likely to cause errors

Verniers
The

vernier is always read in the same direction

from zero as the numbering of the circle, i.e.
the direction of the increasing angles
Typical mistakes in reading verniers result from
1.Not using magnifying glass
2.Reading in the wrong direction from zero, or on the
wrong side of a double vernier
3.Failing to determine the least count correctly
4.Omitting 10, 15, 20, 30 when the index is beyond
those marks

Properties of the Transit

1.

Designed to have proper balance between:

Magnification and resolution of the telescope

Least count of the vernier and sensitivity of the plate and
telescope bubbles

2.
3.

Average length of sight of 300 assumed in design

Specifications of typical 1 gun:

Magnification 18 to 28X
Field of view - 1 to 130
Minimum focus 5 to 7
X-hairs usually are + with stadia lines above and below
The transit is a repeating instrument because angles are
measured by repetition and the total is added on the plate
Advantages

of this:

1. Better accuracy obtained through averaging

2. Disclosure of errors by comparing values of the single and multiple
readings

Handling the Transit

Hints

on handling and setting-up the transit

Pick up transit by leveling head and standards

When carrying the transit, have telescope locked in
position perpendicular to the leveling head with
objective lens down
When setting-up, keep tripod head level and bring
plumb bob to within of point to be set over, then
loosen leveling screws enough to enable you to move
transit on plate, then move transit until it is over the
point

Operation of Transit

9 Steps

1. Set up over point B and level it. Loosen both motions

2. Set up the plates to read 0 and tighten the upper
clamp. (Upper and lower plates are locked together)
3. Bring Vernier to exactly 0 using upper tangent screw
and magnifying glass.
4. Sight on point A and set vertical X-hair in center of
point, by rotating transit
5. Tighten the lower clamp and entire transit is locked in
6. Set X-hair exactly on BS point A using the lower
tangent screws. At this point the vernier is on 0 00
and the X-hairs are on BS

Operation of Transit

B
C

7. Loosen the upper clamp, turn instrument to right until

you are near pt. C. Tighten the upper clamp
8. Set vertical X-hair exactly on pt. C using the upper
tangent screw.
9. Read on vernier

If repeating , loosen lower motion and again BS on A (using

only lower motion), and then loosen upper motion to allow
to accumulate.

If an instrument is in adjustment, leveled, exactly

centered, and operated by an experienced observer
under suitable conditions, there are only 2 sources for
error.
1.
2.

Pointing the telescope

Reading the plates

Transit Field Notes

1d

Mean

0-90

(4d)4

90-180

(4d + 360) 4

180-270

(4d + 720) 4

270-360

(4d + 1080) 4

Use longest side for backsite

TOTAL STATIONS

TOTAL STATION SET UP

WHEN TOTAL STATION IS MOVED OR

TRANSPORTED, IT MUST BE IN THE
CASE!!!!!!!!

1.

ESTABLISH TRIPOD OVER THE POINT.

OPEN THE CASE AND REMOVE TOTAL STATION, PLACING IT ON THE
HEAD OF THE TRIPOD AND ATTACH SECURELY WITH CENTER SCREW.
CLOSE THE CASE.
GRASP TWO TRIPOD LEGS AND LOOK THROUGH THE OPTICAL PLUMB,
ADJUST THE LEGS SO THAT BULLSEYE IS OVER THE POINT (KEEP THE
TRIPOD HEAD AS LEVEL AS POSSIBLE).
UTILIZING THE TRIPOD LEG ADJUSTMENTS, LEVEL THE TOTAL
STATION USING THE FISH-EYE BUBBLE.
LOOSEN THE CENTER SCREW TO ADJUST THE TOTAL STATION
EXACTLY OVER THE POINT IF NEEDED.
COMPLETE LEVELING THE TOTAL STATION USING THE LEVEL VIAL.
CHECK TO MAKE SURE YOU ARE STILL ON THE POINT.

2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.

TURNING ANGLES WITH TOTAL STATION

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

SIGHT ON THE BACKSIGHT UTILIZING THE HORIZONTAL ADJUSTMENT

SCREW.
ZERO SET THE INSTRUMENT (THIS PROVIDES AN INNITIAL READING OF
0 SECONDS.
LOOSEN TANGENT SCREW AND ROTATE INSTRUMENT TO FORESIGHT.
TIGHTEN TANGENT SCREW AND BRING CROSS HAIR EXACT ON TARGET
WITH ADJUSTMENT SCREW.
READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.

TO CLOSE THE HORIZON:

1.
SIGHT ON FORESIGHT POINT FROM ABOVE AND ZERO SET INSTRUMENT.
2.
ROTATE TO FORMER BACKSIGHT AND ADJUST INSTRUMENT TO EXACT.
3.
READ AND RECORD ANGLE AS DISPLAYED.
ANGLE FROM DIRECT AND INDIRECT SHOULD EQUAL 360 DEGREES.

TOTAL STATION DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

1.
2.

POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT A PRISM (WHICH IS VERTICAL

OVER THE POINT.
PUSH THE MEASURE BUTTON AND RECORD THE DISTANCE.

YOU CAN MEASURE THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE OR THE SLOPE

DISTANCE, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT YOU NOTE WHICH IS
BEING COLLECTED.
1.
IF YOU ARE MEASURING THE SLOPE DISTANCE, THE ZENITH
ANGLE MUST BE RECORDED TO ALLOW THE HORIZONTAL
DISTANCE TO BE COMPUTED.
2.
IF YOU ARE COLLECTING TOPOGRAPHIC DATA WITH
ELEVATIONS, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE HEIGHT OF THE
INSTRUMENT AND THE HEIGHT OF THE PRISM BE
COLLECTED AND RECORDED.
THIS CAN ALSO BE SOLVED BY SETTING THE PRISM HEIGHT THE
SAME AS THE INSTRUMENT HEIGHT.

TOTAL STATION RULES

1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

NEVER POINT THE INSTRUMENT AT THE SUN, THIS CAN

DAMAGE THE COMPONENTS OF THE INSTRUMENT AS WELL
AS CAUSE IMMEDIATE BLINDNESS.
NEVER MOVE OR TRANSPORT THE TOTAL STATION UNLESS
IT IS IN THE CASE PROVIDED.
DO NOT ATTEMPT TO ROTATE THE INSTRUMENT UNLESS
THE TANGENT SCREW IS LOOSE.
AVOID GETTING THE INSTRUMENT WET, IF IT DOES GET
WET, WIPE IT DOWN AND ALLOW TO DRY IN A SAFE AREA
BEFORE STORAGE.
BATTERIES OF THE TOTAL STATION ARE NICAD AND THUS
MUST BE CHARGED REGULARLY. AT LEAST ONCE PER
MONTH, THE BATTERY SHOULD BE CYCLED.
CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN AT ALL TIMES, THESE UNITS ARE
EXPENSIVE ($8,000 - $45,000)

Angles and Determination of

Direction

Angle difference in direction of 2 lines

Another way of explaining is the amount of rotation about a

central point
3 kinds of Horizontal angles: Exterior ( to right); Interior;
Deflection
To turn an angle you need
A

reference line
Direction of turning
Angular distance

Angular Units
Degrees,

minutes, seconds (sexagesimal system)

Circle divided into 360 degrees

Each degree divided by 60 minutes
Each minute divided into 60 seconds

Radians

1 radian = 1/2 of a circle = 0.1592*360 = 571744. 8

Grads

(Centesimal System) now called Gon

1/400 of a circle or 05400 (100 gon = 90)

Angles and Determination of

Direction

Angles turned in field must be accurate: 3X least

count is max. error
Check #1 Close horizon when turning
If traverse closes: sum of the interior angles should
equal the sum of
(N-2)X180, N = Number of sides
angles = (3-2) 180 = 180
4 angles = (4-2) 180 = 360
8 angles = (8-2) 180 = 1080
25 angles = (25-2) 180 = 4140
3

If an exterior angle exists, subtract it from 360 to obtain the

interior
Angular closure should be checked before leaving the field

Angles and Determination of

Direction
If angular adjustment does not divide out equally:

1.
2.
3.

Do not go to decimal unless instrument reads to decimal

Observe field notes for angles with poor closure or where
problems turning angles existed. Apply excess to these
angles evenly.
If unable to view field notes or no apparent source, generally
apply excess to angles with shortest sides

Bearings/Azimuths

Bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between a

reference meridian (North and South) and a line
Azimuth of a line is the horizontal angle measured from the
North meridian clockwise to the line

Example
M

Angles and Determination of

Direction
4 Point Comparison
Bearing

Azimuth

1. Numeric Value

0-90

0-360

2. Method of Expressing

2 letters & number

Number only

Clockwise & counterclockwise

Clockwise

North and South

North

3. Direction
4. Position of 0 point

It is always very important to have your

field sketch properly oriented

Angles and Determination of

Direction
Rectangular Coordinates

Totally based on computation of right triangle

North South Movement = Latitude = D X cos
A
East West Movement = Departure = D X sin
A
Latitude running North are +, South are
Departure running East are +, West are

Angles and Determination of

Direction

Basic Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Determine Latitude and Departure

Sum Lat. and Departure to calc. closure
Obtain balanced Lat. and Dept. (Compass Rule)
Determine coordinates
Once rectangular coordinates are known on point,
their exact location is known with respect to all
other points in the network

Example

33
9. 00
27 42032

9939421 30
.97
A

26
45 -16
2. -30
66

-00
236-27

886.04

392.28
188-27-30

00
8
-2 2
7
4 3.5
48

Angles and Determination of

Direction

Balancing Methods
1.

Compass Rule: (Bowditch) Used when accuracy of and length

measurement is equal

2.

Transit Rule: Used if angles are more accurate than distances

(more accurate direction)

3.

4.

(Error Lat./Perimeter length) X Distance = Latitude Correction

(Error Dept./Perimeter length) X Distance = Departure Correction

Correction Latitude (Side) = (Lat. Side/Sum all Lat.) X Lat. error

Correction Departure (Side) = (Dept. Side/Sum all Dept.) X Dept. error

Crandall Method: Used when larger random error exists in linear

measurements that angular. Directional adjustments from
balancing are held fixed and distances are balanced by a
weighted least squares procedure
Least Squares: Based on the theory of probability. Angular and
linear adjustments are made simultaneously. Hand methods are
long and complex not often done. Computer adjustment
through existing software make it feasible, which is why it is often
used today

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Once rectangular coordinates are established

on all points, the relationship to all other
points is known. You can:
1. Determine area of all or any portion
2. Determine length and direction between any 2
points
3. Locate new points by intersection

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Area:

Method is area by cross multiplication

Using example from traverse lecture:

NA
X EB + NB X EC + NC X ED + ND X EE + NE X EF + NF X EA = Sum N
EA X NB + EB X NC + EC X ND + ED X NE + EE X NF + EF X NA = Sum
E

Difference in Sums/2 = Square feet

Square
feet/43560
= Acres
10000.0000
5000.0000

10326.7981

5356.3614

9938.7277

5298.7122

9448.9156

4560.3990

9854.7405

4760.8417

10070.8565

4583.9559

10000.0000

5000.0000

Sum N = 294,119,678.8
Sum E = 293,663,353.6
456,325.2 / 2 = 228,162.6 ft2 = 5.24
Ac

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Example: Determine Area of A, D, E, F, A
A

10000.0000 5000.0000

9448.9156

4560.3990

9854.7405

4760.8417

10070.8565

4583.9559

10000.0000

5000.0000

N = 186,116,759.8
E = 185,971,439.3
145,320.5 / 2 = 72,660.25 ft2 = 1.67 Ac

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Inverse: With known coordinates of any two points on a

system, you find the distance and direction between the two
C 9938.7277 5298.7122
D 9448.9156 4560.3990
489.8121
738.3132

To find the Inverse between 2 Points

1. Find difference in N & E of coordinates
2. Plot

3.
4.
5.
6.

Use point you are going from 1st

Plot longest side 1st

Determine length using Pythagorean (a2 + b2 = c2)

Determine reference direction
Determine local using tan A = a/b
Determine line direction

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Example:

Determine direction and distance D-A

D
A

9448.9156
10000.0000
551.0844

4560.3990
5000.0000
439.6010

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Intersection: Determination of unknown point

location with directions from two points known

1.

Determine difference in coordinates

Plot points and line projections
Set up dual formulas (as Latitude and Departure)
Solve for length
Compute coordinate as sideshot

2.
3.
4.
5.

C
D

9938.7277 5298.7122
9448.9156 4560.3990
489.8121 738.3132

Area, Inverse, Intersection

Example:

What are the coordinates of the point

of intersection of line C-F and D-A.
Azimuth D-A = 383446.
Coordinates of D: N = 9448.9156, E =
4560.3990
C
9938.7277
5298.7122
F
10070.8565
4583.9559
132.1288
714.7563

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Horizontal curves are the basis for most Right of Ways:

Go through formulas
Angle at PC and PT are always 90
Given any 2 elements T, L, C, R, D; the remainder can be
completed

Example: Horizontal curve, PC STA 201+00

D = 361500
R = 1200.00
T=
L=
C=
Seg =
PI STA =
PT STA =

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Vertical Curves Two major methods used to calculate
vertical curves: Tangent offset and Equation of
Parabola
Information needed:

1.
2.
3.

Grade or slope on each side of curve

Elevation and station of PVI
Curve length (Horizontal distance PVC PVT)

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Tangent Offset Method
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Compute the elevation of the PVC and PVT

Compute the elevation of Chord midpoint
Compute offset to curve at midpoint
Determine total number of stations covered
Determine tangent elevations at stations
Compute curve offset at stations
Combine data and determine vertical curve
elevations

Horizontal and Vertical Curves

Equation of Parabola Method
Equation: r = g2 - g1 / L

g1 = initial grade
r = change in grade/sta.
g2 = final grade
L = length of curve in stations

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.

Compute PVC and PVT elevations

Calculate total change in grade/station
Insert data to chart and compute final curve elevations

To find the elevation at the high point or low point,

find the station at which it fall and include that
-g1
station in the elevation computations
xpt =

The equation gives the distance from the PVC in stations

Leveling

Leveling is the determination of the elevation of a

point or difference between points referenced to some
datum

Terms:
1. Datum any level surface to which elevations are referenced
2. Mean Sea Level (MSL) the average height of the surface of
the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19 year period at 26
tide stations along Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf
3. National Geodetic Vertical Datum nationwide reference
surface for elevations throughout the U.S. made available by
National Geodetic Survey (NGS), based on 1929 adjustment.
4. Benchmark relatively permanent object bearing a marked
point whose elevation above or below an adopted datum.

Leveling
Most

often Mean Sea Level is used

MSL varies along the coasts

Pacific is almost 2 higher than Atlantic and Gulf
U.S.

System: National Geodetic Vertical Datum

of 1929
Has been used as reference for extensive network of
BMs
BMs are periodically adjusted as to elevation
Best

to check with USGS or NGS for current elevation of a

BM and also best to check between two known BMs to verify
elevation difference.

Leveling

The level surface parallels the curvature of the earth a

level line is a curved line, normal ( ) at all points to
plumbline
Line of sight is only normal at point of instrument
A line with a sight distance of 1 mile using the earths radius as
3959 mile, curvature change is 0.667 feet.

Refraction of line of sight of level is downward by a small amount

The combined curvature & refraction amounts for short distances
(normal sight dist. for levels) are:

100 = 0.0002
200 = 0.0008
300 = 0.0019
500 = 0.0052

Value is small for most instances

can be neglected

Leveling
Most common leveling instrument today is the
Automatic or Self-leveling level has an internal
compensator that automatically provides a horizontal
line of sight and maintains this through gravity
(prism hanging on pendulum)
Differential Leveling: (Spirit Leveling) Most common
type today

Determine the difference in elevation using a horizontal line

of sight and readings on graduated rod
Circuit must be closed on BM of origin or on BM of equal
accuracy
Process:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Reading on point of known elevation (BS)

BS reading + BM elevation = HI
Reading on point of unknown elevation (FS)
HI FS = elevation of new point

Leveling

1.
2.

Systematic Error in Leveling

Inclination of line of sight due to curvature of earth and
refraction generally very minimal due to short sights
Inclination due to maladjustment of instrument

3.

Changes in scale of rod due to temperature

4.

Both can be alleviated by equalizing length of BS and FS legs

Usually ignored except in very precise work
Would use same process as tape correction

Rod not held plumb

Minimized by carefully plumbing the rod or more commonly

known as Rocking the Rod and taking the lowest reading

Leveling

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Peg Test
Set 2 marks at 300 apart, also mark center point in a
relatively flat area
Set level at midpoint and take readings at each end
Determine difference in readings (difference in
elevation)
Move level to one end and setup so that level is just in
front of rod on point
Read rod by looking backward through scope (X-hair
not visible), hold pencil on rod to determine reading
Read rod at other end in normal manner
Difference in readings should equal #3
If values are not equal, there is error
Most instruments have adjustment screws
Adjust and repeat test as a check

Seven Basic Rules of

Differential Leveling
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Balance length of BS and FS (300 max)

Make sure gun is level and pendulum free
Turn through all BMs
Give complete description of BMs and TBMs
Have rod rocked
Make sure turning points are solid
Close all circuits on BM of same degree of
accuracy

Other Random Errors

1.
2.
3.

Incorrect rod reading most common viewing

foot number above and recording it
Parallax having the X-hair not properly
focused
Heat Waves limit shot lengths

Field Notes
STA

Sum

BS

HI

FS

BS Sum FS = Difference of
Elevation

ELEV

Closure Error
Difference

in measured elevation and know

elevation
Correction factor = closure / # turns
Error = 0.09
Turns = 12
If

Correction = 0.0075 / turn

TBMs set, break circuit into sections

Figure correction factor the same
Figure correction by taking CF X # turns in
section

Precise Leveling

Precise Leveling Accuracy obtained by quality of

instruments and care taken in the field
High quality automatic levels are utilized
Level rods are equipped with rod level, rod shoe (to allow
better setting on BMs); scale (on rod) is made of invar
steel (not affected by temp generally called Invar Rod)
Reading either taken by optical micrometer or a process
called 3-wire leveling is used (all 3 wire are read and
averaged)
Optical micrometer: line of sight deflected by turning micrometer
screw to read subdivision on rod.
Rod

division is read as normal & then fractional reading taken from

micrometer screw, thus on normal rod readings to 0.0001 are
possible

Topographic Surveying
Topographic

surveying is the process of

determining the positions, on the earths
surface, of the natural, and artificial features of
a given locality and of determining the
configuration of the terrain.
Planimetry location of features
Topography configuration of the ground
Both

produce a topographic map which shows the true

distance between objects & their elevations above a given
datum
Topos can be done by field methods, or by photogrammetric
methods. (Photo also requires some field work)
Topo map is 1st step in a construction project

Topographic Surveying
Scale

and accuracy: Both depend on what used for

Method of Representing:
Most common is Contour Line Imaginary line on
surface of the earth passing through points that have
equal elevation
Contour Interval Vertical distance between lines
Topo map with contour lines shows elevation of points on
ground & shapes of topographic features (hills, etc.)
USGS Topo 10 or 20 contour intercal
Subdivision 2 or 4

Index Contour every 5th contour drawn heavier on

maps
Slopes & X-sections can be obtained from contours

Topographic Surveying
Interpolating can find elevation of any point or find
contour line with known elevation of point
Contour lines that close represent either a hill or
depression and can be represented as:

Marks

are called hatchures (used most in depressions)

Characteristics of Contours
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Each contour must close upon itself with within

a map or outside its borders a contour line
cannot end on a map except at the edge
Contours do not cross or meet except in caves,
cliffs & vertical walls where they can meet
Contour lines crossing streams form Vs
pointing upstream
Contour lines crossing a ridge form Us
pointing down the ridge
Contour lines tend to parallel streams

Characteristics of Contours
6.
7.
8.
9.

Contour lines are uniformly spaced on uniform

slopes
Horizontal spacing between contour lines
indicated steepness of slope on ground
Contours are generally perpendicular to
direction of maximum slope
Contours can never branch into 2 contours of
the same elevation

Field Methods of Topos

Factors That Influence Method
1. Scale of map
2. Contour interval
3. Type of terrain
4. Nature of project
5. Equipment available
6. Required accuracy
7. Existing control
8. Extent of area to be mapped

Field Methods of Topos

Methods:
1. Cross section railroad of highway
2. Trace contour drainage or impoundments
3. Grid small areas
4. Controlling point large area, plane table
5. Theodolite & EDM - radial

Field Methods of Topos

Cross Section Method (Plus Offset):
Equipment used: Transit, tape, and level
1. Establish horizontal control traverse between
control points stakes set at cross section
intervals
2. Run profile of traverse line
3. Take cross section
4. Locate planimetric features from traverse line

Field Methods of Topos

Trace Contour:
1. Contour is by traverse
2. Establish elevation of each station
3. Contour elevation established and is then
followed by rodperson
4. Contour elevation is marked, then tied to
traverse line by plus-offset

Most accurate and expensive work

Elevation of reservoir water line
2 transit use

Field Methods of Topos

Grid Method:
1. Establish baselines
2. Estimate grid of uniform size smaller grid =
more accurate
3. Number grid
4. Shoot elevation at each point
5. Tie existing objects to grid points

Field Methods of Topos

Controlling Point Method: (old and sketched in
field)
1. Determine position & elevation of pre-selected
control points
2. Depends greatly on experience & judgment of
people doing work
3. Required traverse of area (CPs)
4. Locations are made & elevations obtained along
control points then intermittent topo sketched
in

Field Methods of Topos

Theodolite & EDM (Radial)
Replaces tacheometry (stadia)
1. Establish

control points (horizontal and

elevation)
2. Shoot locations and turn vertical angles
3. Used for large areas

Field Methods of Topos

Common mistakes in topo surveys:
1. Improper selection of contour interval
2. Unsatisfactory equipment or field method for
the particular survey and terrain conditions
3. Insufficient horizontal and vertical control of
suitable precision
4. Omission of some topographic details

Mine Surveying

Points are on roof of mine

Reasons needed

1.

Location in respect to boundaries

Location in respect to other shafts
Accurate maps (above and below ground)
Quantities

2.
3.
4.

Equipment and Terms

Spad Beams that you hold plumb bob from

Bracket Mounting instrument from timber supports
Trivet Tripod thats about 1 tall
Gyroscope Locate north
Laser vertical collimator located point at top of vertical shaft
platform
Plumb shaft Using piano wire then wiggle in at bottom

Global Positioning Systems

(GPS)

Developed in early 1980 s (Dept. of Defense)

Made up of 26 satellites (24 functioning & 2 spares)
Each satellite is 20,000 km high (off Earths surface)
Each satellite is in a fixed position
Minimum of 3 satellites needed, but 4-5 preferred
Need satellites at least 15 above horizon
Locate positions on Earth by distance-distance
intersection
Need 2-3 receivers ($80-$100K per system)
Most accurate with double occupancy (no other checks)
Differential GPS one receiver on known point, other
receiver on unknowns

Global Positioning Systems

(GPS)
Biggest advantage
Distance and direction in-between 2 points
without being seen
Downfalls/Limitations of GPS
Multipath bouncing off of walls of buildings
Blocked signals clouds, trees, etc.
Sunspot defraction from atmosphere
DOP (Delusion of Position) bad satellite position
Set up error not set up exactly over point
(human error most common)

Global Positioning Systems

(GPS)
Methods
Static observation time is at least an hour
Ideally set points in triangular fashion
Accuracy 1/10 million
RTK

(Real Time Kinematic) stand for 30-60

seconds minimum
Base receivers transmission, does corrections, sends
corrections to receivers
Limitations limitation of transmitter signal

Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)
GIS

are computer programs that allow users to

store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and display
spatial data
Spatial Data (Geographic data) any data that
represents information about the Earth
GIS components
Recent definitions of GIS suggest that is consists of:
Geographic/Spatial
1.Hardware (computer
and operating system)
2.Software
Non-Geographic/Aspatial/Attribute
3.Data
4.Human Operators and Institutional Infrastructure

GIS Data Structures

Vector Made up of points, lines, and polygons

GIS Data Structures

Raster

screen

(Grids) Made up of pixels of computer

GIS Data Structures

DEM

(Digital Elevation Model) Digital terrain

representation technique, where elevation
values are stored in raster cells

Future of Surveying
Major

advances in future

Remote Sensing (Government and Military)

Arial Photographs
Design

Professions

Every 10 years, must justify to Legislature that need

for our license exists
Surveyor have ULTIMATE liability
Standards Laws
Continuing Education Enough points every 2 years