FULLY DEVELOPED PIPE AND

CHANNEL FLOWS
KUMAR DINKAR ANAND
3rd YEAR, MECHANICAL ENGG.
IIT-KHARAGPUR
GUIDANCE : PROF. S CHAKRABORTY
INDO-GERMAN WINTER ACADEMY-DECEMBER 2006

: THE OUTLINE :

Hydraulically developing flow through pipes and channels and

evaluation of hydraulic entrance length.
Hydraulically fully developed flows through pipes and channels .
Hydraulically fully developed flow through non-circular ducts.
Definition of Thermally fully developed flow and analysis of thermally
fully developed flow through pipe and channels.
Analysis of the problem of Thermal Entrance: The Graetz Problem.

Fully Developed Flows

There are two types of fully developed flows :

1.) Hydraulically Fully Developed Flow
2.) Thermally Fully Developed Flow

Contd

Hydraulically Fully Developed Flow

Definition: As fluid enters any pipe or channel , boundary layers keep on growing
till they meet after some distance downstream from the entrance region. After this
distance velocity profile doesn't change, flow is said to be Fully Developed.

Analysis of fluid flow before it is fully developed:

Velocity in the core of the flow outside the boundary layer increases with
increasing distance from entrance. This is due to the fact that through any cross
section same amount of fluid flows, and boundary layer is growing.
dU dx > 0
This means
dp dx < 0
hence
Where U=Free stream velocity in the core before flow is fully developed

p= Free stream pressure

Contd

Schematic picture of internal flow through a pipe :

Velocity Profile ,

u ( y ) = a + by + cy 2

Using the boundary conditions :

1.) At
2.) At
3.) At
We get the velocity profile as :

y=0
y =
y =

u=0
u =U
du dy = 0

u( y)
= 2( y ) ( y )
U
Contd
2

Where

U =

U=

Free stream velocity of entering fluid

Free stream core velocity inside the tube

U e = Core velocity of fully developed flow

R=

Radius of pipe

y = Rr

Now from the principle of conservation of mass :

U * R 2 =

Hence ,

2urdr + 2Urdr

U
1
=
2
U 1 2 / 3( / R) + 1 / 6( / R)
u
2( y / ) ( y / ) 2
=
2
U 1 2 / 3( / R) + 1 / 6( / R )

Contd

Boundary Layer momentum integral equation:

d
dU
2
w = {U u / U (1 u / U )dy + U
(1 u / U )dy}

dx
dx 0
0
Where, Shear stress at wall,

u
w =
y y =0

From Bernoulli's Equation for free stream flow through core:

dU
1 p
U
=
dx
x
Using Navier-Stokes equation at the wall

p
2u
= 2
x
y y =0
Contd

Solving for boundary layer thickness

( )

Integrate momentum Integral Equation

Using the boundary condition

=0

at

x=0

For determination of Entrance Length ( Le ) :

putting x = Le

at

=R

We get the expression for Entrance Length ( Le ) as:

Le
= 0.03 Re D
D
Contd

Analytical expression for Entrance Length( Le ) :

Le
= 0.06 Re D
D
Hence it can be observed that our expression for Entrance Length differs
from the analytical expression due to the following reasons:
1.) We have assumed parabolic velocity profile in the boundary layer

U
1
u
2
=
= 2( y / ) ( y / )
2
U
1

2
/
3
(

/
R
)
+
1
/
6
(

/
R
)
U

2.)We have not used the Navier-Stokes boundary equation at wall for velocity
profile determination

p
2u
= 2
x
y y =0

3.) We are doing boundary layer analysis which gives approximate results
Contd

Schematic picture of internal flow through a channel:

Velocity Profile

u ( y ) = a + by + cy 2

Using the boundary conditions :

1.) At

y=0

u=0

2.) At

y =

u =U

3.) At

y =

du dy = 0

u
y
(
)
We get the velocity profile as :
= 2( y ) ( y )
Contd
U

Here ,

D=
W=

Distance between the parallel plates of channel

Width of the Channel

U = Free stream velocity of entering fluid

U = Free stream velocity inside channel

U e = Core velocity of fully developed flow

Le =

Entrance Length

DH = Hydraulic

Diameter

AH 4WD
=4
=
= 2D
P
2W
Contd

From the principle of conservation of mass:

( D / 2 )

U * D = 2 udy + 2

Udy

U
1
=
U 1 2 / 3( / D)
u
2( y / ) ( y / ) 2
=
U
1 2 / 3( / D)

Hence when flow is fully developed (

U e = 1.5U

= D / 2)
Contd

From Boundary layer momentum integral equation :

d
dU
2
w = {U u / U (1 u / U )dy + U
(1 u / U )dy}

dx
dx 0
0
Where, Shear stress at wall,

u
w =
y y =0

From Bernoulli's Equation for free stream flow through core:

1 p
dU
U
=
dx
x
Using Navier-Stokes equation at the wall

2u
p
= 2
y y =0
x
Contd

Solving for boundary layer thickness

( ) :

Integrate momentum Integral Equation

Using the boundary condition

=0

at

x=0

For determination of Entrance Length ( Le ) :

putting

x = Le at

=R

We get the expression for Entrance Length ( Le ) as:

Le
= 0.025 Re D
D

OR

Le
= 0.00625 Re DH
DH
Contd

Analytical expression for Entrance Length ( Le ):

Le
= 0.05 Re D
D
Hence it can be observed that our expression for Entrance Length differs
from the analytical expression due to the following reasons:
1.) We have assumed parabolic velocity profile in the boundary layer

u
= 2( y / ) ( y / ) 2
U

U
1
=
U 1 2 / 3( / D)

2.) We have not used the Navier-Stokes boundary equation at wall for
velocity profile determination p
2u

y 2 y =0

3.) We are doing boundary layer analysis which gives approximate results.
Contd

Analysis of fully developed fluid flow:

Fully Developed Flow Through a Pipe:

From Equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates:

u
1
(rur ) +
=0
r r
x

for an incompressible fluid flowing through a pipe

Contd

Here,

ur =

u=
a=

radial velocity
axial velocity
radius of pipe

No fluid property varies with ,

ur = 0 ,at wall of the pipe

hence it is zero everywhere.

Hence Equation of continuity reduces to :

u
= 0, u = u (r )
x

Momentum Equation in radial coordinate:

p
= 0, p = p (x)
r

Contd

Momentum Equation in axial direction :

dp d du
=
(r )
dx r dr dr

Solving above differential equation in (r) using the boundary conditions:

1.) Axial velocity (u) is zero at wall of pipe (r =R)
2.) Velocity is finite at the pipe centerline (r=0).
We get the fully developed velocity profile:
2

a p
r
u=
1
4 x a
2

Contd

Shear Stress Distribution :

Shear stress ,

du
rx = =
dr

Maximum shear stress at wall ,

r p

2 x

a p
0 =
2 x

Hence it can be observed that

Shear stress decreases from
maximum to zero at pipe
centerline and then increases
to maximum again at wall.

Contd

Volume Flow Rate :

a 4 p
Q = 2urdr =

8 x
0
a

volume flow rate ,

Now in a fully developed flow pressure gradient is constant ,

p ( pexit pent )
p
=
=
x
L
L

Hence ,

pa
Q=
8L

Contd

Average Velocity :

Q
Q
a p
= = 2 =

8 x
A a
2

Average velocity , V
Maximum Velocity :

At the point of maximum velocity ,

This corresponds to core of pipe ,

Hence

umax = ur =0

du
=0
dr

r=0

a p
=U =
= 2V
4 x
2

Contd

 Fully Developed Flow through Channel :

a
u v
+
=0
x y

From equation of continuity within the entrance length :

In entrance length boundary layers growing ,
()

u
0
x

v0

It means flow is not parallel to walls in entrance region

Contd

Equation of Continuity for an incompressible fluid in fully developed region :

u
= 0 u = u( y)
x

Momentum equation in y-direction (transverse direction) :

p
=0
y

p = p (x)

Momentum equation in x-direction (along length of channel) :

2u
p
= 2
x
y
Solving above differential equation in y using boundary conditions :
u(y)=0 at y=0 and y=a
Contd

We get the velocity profile :

2

a p y y
u=

2 x a a
2

Shear Stress Distribution :

Shear Stress ,

yx

u
p y 1
=
= a
y
x a 2

Maximum Shear Stress at walls ,

a p
0 =
2 x
Contd

Hence it can be observed that

Shear stress decreases from
maximum to zero at centre
of the channel and increases
to maximum again at wall.

Volume Flow Rate :

1 p 3
Volume flow rate per unit width of channel, Q = udy =
a
12 x
0
a

Contd

Average Velocity :
Average Velocity ,

Q
1 p 2

V = =
a
a
12 x

Maximum Velocity:

At the point of maximum velocity ,

u
=0
y

This corresponds to centre of channel ,

Hence ,

u = umax

a
y=
2

1 p 2 3
=
a = V
8 x
2
Contd

Fully Developed Flow Through Non-Circular Ducts :

() Elliptical Cross Section :

y2 z2
2 + 2 = 1
a b
As flow is fully developed in the elliptical section pipe :

u y = uz = 0

From equation of continuity for incompressible flow :

u x
u x u y u z
+
+
= 0,
=0
x
y
z
x

u x = u x ( y, z )

Contd

Momentum Equation in x-direction :

2u x 2u x
p
= 2 + 2
z
x
y
2
2

y
z
u x = 0 on 2 + 2 = 1
a b

Boundary condition :

Solution Procedure :

u x ( y, z ) = u x ( y, z ) + c1 y + c2 z

Use ,

Such that non zero constants

1.)
2.)

c1 and c2 to be determined using :

2u x ( y , z ) = 0

u x ( y, z )

is constant on the wall .

Contd

Using the assumed velocity profile and solving the momentum

equation using two stated conditions:

u x ( y, z ) = c1a 2

, along the wall

Using Laplace maximum criteria ( Maximum and minimum of a function

satisfying Laplace equation lies on the boundary) :

u x ( y, z ) = c1a 2 = const.

over entire domain

We get our velocity profile as :

1 p a 2b 2 y 2 z 2
1 2 2
u x ( y, z ) =
2
2
2 x a + b a
b
Contd

Volumetric Flow Rate :

Volume flow rate ,

1 p a 2b 2 y 2 z 2
1 2 2 dA
Q = u x ( y, z )dA = 2
2
2 x a + b a
b
sec tion
sec tion

p a b
Q=
2
4 x a + b 2
3 3

Contd

Thermally Fully Developed Flows :

()

Thermally fully developed flow through a pipe :

Contd

 When fluid enters the tube with tube walls at a different temperature
from the fluid temperature , thermal boundary layer starts growing.
After some distance downstream (thermal entry length) thermally fully
developed condition is eventually reached :
Thermally fully developed condition is different from Hydraulic
fully developed condition .

u
= 0,
x

for hydraulic fully developed flow

T
0, at any radial location for thermally fully developed
x
flow as convection heat transfer is occurring.
Contd

Condition for Thermally Fully Developed Flow :

Because of convective heat transfer , T (r ) continuously changes
with axial coordinate x .
Condition for fully developed thermal flow is defined as :

Ts ( x) T (r , x)

=0
x Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
This means although temperature profile T (r ) changes with x
But the relative temperature profile does not change with x.
Contd

Here ,

Ts (x) = Surface Temperature of the pipe

Tm (x) = Mean Temperature

uc TdA
v

Mean Temperature ( Tm (x) ) is defined as:

Tm =

Ac

m& cv

Thermal Energy transported by the fluid as it moves past any

cross section ,

E& t = ucvTdAc = m& cvTm

Ac

From Newtons Law of Cooling :

qs = h(Ts Tm )

dTm
0
Since there is continuous heat transfer between fluid and walls :
dx
Contd

From the definition of thermally fully developed flow :

Ts ( x) T (r , x)

=0
x Ts ( x) Tm ( x)
Ts ( x) T (r , x)
Hence ,

r Ts ( x) Tm ( x) r = r

T
r r = r0
=
f ( x)
Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

Here (r0 ) is radius of the pipe .

From Fouriers heat conduction law at the wall and Newton's law of cooling:

T
T
qs = k
= k
= h[Ts ( x) Tm ( x)]
r r = r0
y y = y0

Hence ,
Here ,

h
f (x)
k

h = Local convection heat transfer coefficient

k = Coefficient of thermal conduction (fluid)

Hence, h is infinite in the

Beginning (boundary layers

just building up), then decays
exponentially to a constant
value when flow is fully

h fd

developed (thermally )and

thereafter remains constant.

x fd ,t
Contd

Competition between Thermal and Velocity boundary Layers :

This competition is judged by a dimensionless number , called

Prandtl number Pr =

Where , =
= Kinematic friction coefficient (momentum diffusivity)

k
= Thermal diffusivity
=
c p

Pr n
t

Where ,

= Velocity boundary layer thickness

t = Thermal boundary layer thickness

n = Positive exponent

Contd

If ,

Pr1

It means Velocity Boundary Layer grows faster than Thermal

boundary layer. Hence flow first hydraulically developed and
then thermally developed.
If ,

Pr1

It means Thermal Boundary Layer grows faster than Velocity

boundary layer. Hence flow first thermally developed and then
hydraulically developed.

()

Hence if,

Pr1

and flow is said to be thermally developed it means

Flow is already hydraulically developed.

()

Similarly if,

Pr1 and flow is said to be hydraulically developed it

Means flow is already thermally developed.

Contd

()

Usually surface conditions of pipe fixed by imposing conditions :

1.) Surface temperature of pipe is made constant , Ts = const.

2.) Uniform surface heat flux ,

qs = const.

Constant Surface Heat Flux :

From the definition of fully developed thermal flow:

Ts ( x) T (r , x)
=0

x Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

T dTs Ts T dTs Ts T dTm

+
x
dx Ts Tm dx Ts Tm dx
Contd

qs = h(Ts Tm )

From Newtons Law of cooling :

As,

qs = const.

hence,

dTs dTm
=
dx
dx

Hence using definition of thermally fully developed flow

and Newtons Law:

Ts

qs

T dTs dTm
=
=
= const.
x
dx
dx

Tm

qs = const.
Contd

Neglecting viscous dissipation, energy equation :

T
T T
+v
=
u

r r r r
x
Assuming the flow to be both hydraulically and thermally developed :

u
= 0,
x

v = 0,

r 2
u = 2u m 1 ,
r0

u m = V ,

T dTm
=
x
dx

Hence energy equation reduces to :

2

r
1 T 2um dTm

=
r r r dx r0

Contd

Integrating energy equation using boundary conditions :

1.) Temperature ,

T (r , x) is finite at centre , r = 0

Tr = r0 = Ts ( x)

2.) Temperature ,
We get Temperature profile :

T (r , x) = Ts ( x)

2u m r 0

4
2

dTm 3 1 r 1 r

+
dx 16 16 r0 4 r0

uc TdA
v

From definition of mean temperature ,

Tm =

Ac

m& cv

11 um r0 dTm

48 dx
2

Tm ( x) = Ts ( x)

Contd

From the principle of energy conservation :

specific
volume, v =

P = D
D 2

Perimeter,

m& = um
4
For an ideal gas,

m&

dqconv = qs Pdx
Tm + dTm

Tm

( pv) + d ( pv)

( pv)

dx

dqconv = m& d (cvTm + pv)

pv = RTm

c p = cv + R

dqconv = m& c p dTm = qs Pdx

dTm qs P Ph
(Ts Tm )
=
=
dx
m& c p m& c p
Contd

Hence combining the equations obtained by integration of energy

equation in boundary layer and conservation of energy equation :
2

11 um r0 dTm
11 qs D
Tm ( x) Ts ( x) =

=
48 dx
48 k

11 hD
(Tm ( x) Ts ( x) )
Tm ( x) Ts ( x) =
48 k

hD 48
Nu D =
=
= 4.36
11
k

()Hence Nusselt number for fully developed flow through a circular pipe

exposed to uniform heat flux on its surface is a constant ,independent of

axial location ,Reynolds number and Prandtl number .
Contd

Constant Surface Temperature :

From the definition of fully developed thermal flow :

Ts ( x) T (r , x)
=0

x Ts ( x) Tm ( x)

T dTs Ts T dTs Ts T dTm

+
dx Ts Tm dx Ts Tm dx
x
Constant surface temperature ,

dTs
=0
dx

T Ts T dTm
=

x Ts Tm dx
Contd

 Hence it can be seen that , T

x

depends on radial coordinate.

Fully developed temperature profile for constant wall temperature

hence differs from constant surface heat flux condition.

Ts = const.

Tm

qs

Contd

Neglecting viscous dissipation, energy equation :

T
T T
+v
=
u

r r r r
x
Assuming the flow to be both hydraulically and thermally developed :

u
= 0,
x

v = 0,

u m = V ,

r 2
u = 2u m 1 ,
r0

T Ts T dTm
=

x Ts Tm dx
Contd

Hence boundary layer energy equation becomes :

2

r Ts T
1 T 2um dTm
1

r r r dx r0 Ts Tm

Above equation is solved using iterative procedure :

Nu D = 3.66

Contd

Fully developed thermal flow through a channel :

()

Channel walls subjected to constant heat flux :

Here we consider a channel with :

a = Depth of channel

qs =

, W = Width of channel

Heat flux at the walls

T (r , x) =

Temperature of fluid flowing through channel

Ts = Temperature at the wall

Tm = Mean Temperature or Bulk Temperature
Contd

P = 2W = perimeter
4 A 4aW
DH =
=
= 2a = Hydraulic diameter
P
2W
Neglecting viscous dissipation , energy equation :

T
T
2T
u
+v
= 2
x
y
y
Assuming the flow to be both Hydraulically and thermally developed :

T dTm
u
=
= const.
= 0, v = 0,
x
dx
x
2
2

a p y
y
y
y
u=
= 6u m
2 x a a
a a
2

Contd

Here,

um = Mean velocity

udA

um =

Ac

Ac

, is defined as :

a p
=
12 x
2

Now solving for boundary layer energy equation :

4
3

um dTm y
y
T = 6
+ c1 y + c 2

2
dx 12a 6a

Constants of integration obtained using :

1.)

a
dT
= 0, at y =
2
dy

( as temperature profile is
symmetric hence has extreme
value at centre.)
Contd

2.) at the wall ,

y = 0& y = a

T = Ts

c2 = Ts
Hence we obtain the temperature profile :

u m dTm
T Ts = 6
dx

y4
y 3 ay

2
6a 12
12a

uc TdA
v

From the definition of mean temperature,

Tm =

17 um a dTm
Tm Ts =

140 dx

Ac

m& cv

Contd

From conservation of energy method ( similar to case of pipe):

dTm qs P Ph
(Ts Tm )
=
=
dx
m& c p m& c p
Hence combining temperature profile and conservation of energy :
2
u
a
Ph
17 m
(Tm Ts )
Tm Ts =
140 m& c p

Using ,

k
m& = um (aW ), P = 2W , =
, & DH = 2a
c p

Nu DH

h(2a ) 140
=
=
k
17

Contd

Thermal Entrance : The Graetz Problem

T0

Tw
r0

T0

0
0

T
Tw

Problem Statement:
Fluid initially at a uniform temperature
enters into a pipe at a surface temperature different than
the fluid. Flow assumed to be Hydraulically developed .
Contd...

 Prandtl number of fluid is high , hence thermal entrance starts far

downstream.

Flow already hydraulically developed.

Here ,

T0 = Uniform temperature of fluid before thermal entrance

Tw = Uniform surface temperature of walls

T ( x, r ) = Fluid temperature in thermal entrance region

r 2
As the flow is hydraulically fully developed : u = 2u 1 ,
m
r0

Neglecting viscous dissipation, boundary layer energy equation :

T T
u
=

x r r r

Contd

Boundary Conditions :
1.) at

x 0,

2.) at

x 0,

T = T0
T (r0 , x) = Tw

Solution :
Solution done with the help of non dimensional variables.

Tw T
x
r
*
*
T =
, r = , x =
Tw T0
d 0 Re Pr
r0
*

Here ,

Re =

d 0u m

c p
, Pr = =

Hence energy equation reduces to :

T *
* T *
2
r

=
2
*
*
*
*
*
x
r 1 r r r

Contd

Boundary condition in terms of non-dimensional variables :

T (r ,0) = 1, T (1, x ) = 0
*

Solving the energy equation using variable separation method :

Using ,the particular solution

T (r * , x* ) = f (r * ) g ( x* )

in energy equation
We obtain :

g
r * f + f
2

=
=

= const.
2
*
*
g r 1 r f

g = C exp 2 x

Hence ,

2 *

r f + f + r 1 r
*

2 *

*2

)f = 0
Contd

Hence the particular solution will be :

Tn (r , x ) = Cn exp(2n x ) f n (r )
*

2 *

From the principle of linearity and superposition :

T (r , x ) = n =0 Cn exp(2n x ) f n (r )
*

n =

2 *

f n (0) = 1 , for simplicity

f n (1) = 0 , using the boundary condition T * (1, x* ) = 0
Using the other condition , T * ( r * ,0)

Cn ,

= 1 = n = 0 C n f n ( r * )
n =

To be determined using theory of orthogonal

functions.

Contd

Using theory of orthogonal functions :

1

*
r
(
1

r
)
f
dr
n

*2

Cn =

0
1

*
r
(
1

r
)
f
dr
n

*2

Now the rest of the problem is numerically solved for Nusselt Number :

Nu x

C f

=
2 C
n

(1) exp 2n x

2
2 *
f n (1) exp 2n x
n
n

2 *

)
contd

: KEY QUESTIONS :

IF FLOW THROUGH A PIPE OR CHANNEL IS SAID TO BE

HYDRAULICALLY FULLY DEVELOPED DOES THIS IMPLY
THERMALLY FULLY DEVELOPED AND VICE-VERSA ????
IF TWO PLATES IN THE CHANNEL ARE MAINTAINED AT
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES THEN WHAT WILL BE THE
CRITEREA FOR THERMALLY FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW ????

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

THE END