10

Compressibility of Soil

A stressincreasecausedby thc constructionof foundationsor other loaclscomprcsses

s o i l l a y e r sT
. h e c o m p r e s s i o ni s c a u s e db y ( a ) d e f o r m a t i o no f s o i l p a r t i c l e s (. b ) r e l o c a tions of soil particles,and (c) expulsion of water or air from thc void sperct;s.
In gcneral, the soil settlementcausedby loads may be divided into three brcladcatcgorics:
l. Immediutesettlemcnt(or elasticsettlemcnt).which is causcd by thc elasticdef o r m a t i o n o f d r y s o i l a n d o f m o i s t a n d s a t u r a t e ds o i l sw i t h o u t a n y c h a n g ei n
t h e m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t .I m m c d i a t c s e t t l e m e n tc a l c u l a t i o n sa r e g c n e r a l l yb a s e d
on equations derived from the thcory of elasticity.
2. Primarv consolidationsettlement,which is the result of a volume changein
s a t u r a t e dc o h e s i v es o i l sb e c a u s eo f e x p u l s i o no l ' t h c w a t e r t h a t o c c u p i e st h e
void spaces.
3. Secondury consoliclatkntsettlemanLwhich is observcd in saturatcd cohesive
s o i l sa n d i s t h e r e s u l to f t h e p l a s t i ca d j u s t m e n to f s o i l f a b r i c s .I t i s a n a d d i t i o n a l
form of compressionthat occurs at constant effectivestrcss.
T h i s c h a p t e rp r e s e n t st h e f u n d a m c n t a lp r i n c i p l c sf o r c s t i m a t i n gt h c i m m c d i a t e
and consolidation settlemenlsof soil laycrs under supcrimposedloaclings.
The total settlementof a foundation can then be given as
57:S,+S.+S,
where Sr :
S,.:
,S.:
S,,:

total settlement
primary consolidationsettlement
secondaryconsolidationsettlemcnt
immediate scttlement

When foundations are constructed on very compressibleclays, the consolidation

settlementcan be severaltimes greater than the immediate scttlement.

IMMEDIATE
SETTLEMENT

10.1

Contact Pressureand Settlement Profile

Immediate, or elastic,settlementof foundations (S") occursdirectly after the application of a load, without a changein the moisture content of the soil. The masnitude

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Table 10.1 InfluenceFactorsfor Foundations [Eq. (10.2)]

Iftl

Circle
Rectanglc

1.00
1.12
1.36
1..53
1.78
2.10

I
1.5
2
3
-5
l0
20

2.99
3.57
4.01

-s0
l(x)

l.u

0.79
0.it8
1.0'7
1.21
1.42
1.70
2.10
2.46
3.0

2.0

-). +-l

0.64
0.56
0.68
0.77
0.u9
1.0-5
1.27
1.49

Table 10.1 givesthe influcncefactors for rigid and flexible foundations.Representativevaluesof the modulus of elasticityand Poisson'sratio for different types of
s o i l sa r c g i v e ni n T a b l e s 1 0 . 2a n d 1 0 . 3 .r e s p e c t i v c l y .
N o t e t h a t E q . ( 1 t ) I. ) i s b a s c do n t h e a s s u m p t i o nt h a t t h e p r c s s u r eA o i s a p p l i e d
In practicc, l'oundationsarc placed at a ccrtain depth below
at the ground surl'ercc.
the ground surlarcc.Deepcr foundation embedmcnt tends to reduce the magnitude
o[ tlre foundertionsettlententS,..However, if Eq. (lt). l) is uscd to calculate settlem c n t " i t r e s u l t si n a c o n s e r v a t i v e s t i m a t e .

Valuesol the Modulusol'Elasticityof Soil

Table 10.2 Rcprcsentativc
E,
Soil type
Soft clay
Hard clay
Loclse sand
Dense sand

kN/m2

-3.-5(X)
I ,t3(X)
6,(XD 14,000
r 0.000,28,0(x)
-70,000
35.0(X)

Table 10.3 Reoresentative Values of Poisson'sRatio

Type of soil
Loose sand
Medium sand
Dense sand
Silty sand
Soft clay
Mcdium clay

Poisson'sratio, p,

0.2,0.4
0.25- 0.4
0.3- 0.4-5
0.2-0.4
-0.25
0.1-5
0.2 0.5

lb / in.2

250-500
-2,(XX)
t350
- 4,000
1,-s00
- 10.(xx)
-5.000

10.3 lmproved Relationship for lmmediate Settlement

E x amp l e1 0 .1
Estimatethe immediatesettlementof a columnfooting 1.5m in diameterthat is
constructedon an unsaturatedclay layer,giventhat the total load carriedby the
column footing = 150kN, E. : 7000kN/m2,and p, :0.25. Assumethe footing
to be rigid.
Solution
UsingEq. (10.1),we have
s", - AoB
[,s-:

1J
E

In

(\ -1"s' 0t )
:84.9kN/mr

[o sY
From Table10.1,for a circularrigid foundation,l,,: 0.79,so
Ir *nrslI

s" : (84,9)(1
5)l-

10.3

: 0.013-s
m : L3.5
mm
7000-lto.zo)

Improved Relationship for lmmediate Settlement

M a y n e a n d P o u l o s( 1 9 9 9 )r e c e n t l yp r e s c n t e da n i m p r o v c c lr c l a t i o n s h i pf o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i m m e d i a t es e t t l e m e n to l I ' o u n d a t i o n s' .l ' h i s r e l a t i o n s h i pt a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e l o u n d a t i o n , t h e d c p t h o f c m b e d m e n t o [ t h e l o u n d a t i o n .t h e i n c r e a s ci n t h e m o d u l u so f c l a s t i c i t yo f s o i l w i t h d c p t h , a n d t h e l o c a t i o no l ' r i g i d l a y e r s
a t l i m i t e d d e p t h . I n o r c l e rt o u s e t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i po, n c n e e d st o d c t e r m i n et h e c q u i v a l e n t d i a m e t e ro f a r e c t a n g u l a rf o u n d a t i o n .w h i c h i s

B ,- , i

\l

tiBL
rr

( I { ) . 3 a)

where B - width of foundation

L : length of foundation
For circular foundations,
8,,: B

(10.3b)

where B : diameter of foundation.

Figure 10.3showsa foundation having an equivalentdiameter of 8,. located at
a depth Dlbelow the ground surface.Let the thicknessof the foundation be r and the
modulus of elasticity of the foundation material be Er. A rigid layer is located at a
depth ft below the bottom of the foundation. The modulus of elasticity of the compressiblesoil layer can be given as

E,:

E,,* kz.

( 10.4)

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

R +
AO
l
l
Y
Y
Ilt

t
I

/ '...
A
'

C o m p r e s s i b l seo i l l a y e r
F

"f"' '"'"

I
I

It

' .

I
I
I
v

,: .

R i"'-"
gidlaycr

Figure 70.3 lmprovcd relationship for inrmcdiatescttlcment

hlB,,= 0.2

.,
, Figure 10.4 Yariation of 1.r with B

Eo
kB,,

70.3 rmproved Retationship for rmmediate

setttement

26s

with the preceding parameters dellned. the immediate

settlement can be given as

s,:

LoB*!!t(r pi)

(ro.s)

where 1,; : influence t'actor fbr the variation

of E, with clepth : f (L:,,,k, 8", anc]h)
1e : foundation rigidity correction factor
./o : foundation embedment correction factor
F i g u r e l 0 . 4 s h o w s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f1 . , w i t h
B:
ity correction factor can be expressedas
,
- T
,
t r' . 4 t

E,,lkB,,ancl,hlB,,.Thcfounilationrigid_

4 6 r) (
#t-)w

(10.6)

Similarly, the embedmcnt crtrrection facl.oris

Ir - I -

/u

(10.7)

- 0 . 4 ) l r*, , 0 , , |
3.5 exp(t.22p",

Figures 10.-5
and 10.6showthc variations
ol /0,and 1r.exprcssedb y E q s .( 1 0 . 6a) n d

(r0.7).
1.0

0.9

+ o.t{5

0.lt

r' = ( - + \ / : : \
\ u , ,+*^) \ t )

= F l e x i b i l i t yf : r c r o r

0.1
0.001 2

4 6 80.01

0.I

10.0

I 00.0

Kt..

Figure 10.5 Variation of rigidity correction

f'actor, 1r, with flcxibility

factor, Ko.. [Eq. (rr.r.6)J

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

0.9

-s 0.1t5

0.tt

0.75

t\.1
0

r0

15

!,.,
8,,

Figure 70.6 Vrriation ol'crnbcdmcnt corrcction faclor. /,. IEq. ( l{).7)]

Example10.2
Refer to Figure 10.3.For a shallowfoundationsupportedby a silty clay,the following are given:
Length:L:1.5m
Width: B - 1m
Depth of foundation : D/ : 1 ill
Thicknessof foundation : / : 0.23m
Load per unit area: Ao : 190kN/m2
E r : 1 5 x 1 0 6k N / m 2
The silty claysoil had the followingproperties:
h-2m
&, : 0'3
E = 9000kN/m2
k : 500kN/m2/m
Estimatethe immediatesettlementof the foundation.

10.3 lmproved Relationship for lmmediate Settlement

267

Solution
From Eq. (10.3a),the equivalent diameter is

1.38m
Ao : 190kN/m2
E,

9000

-_,,1 1: _
'^^:13.0.1
kB,. (sooxt.38)

h
B"

2
:
1.39

1 4 5

From Figure 10.4,f o r B : 1 3 . 0 4 a n dh / 8 , , : 1 . 4 5 , t h e v a l u eo f 1 r , . : 0 . 7 4 T

. hus,
from Eq. (10.6),

^^."(;T1{#)'

I' r : L4+

: 0.781

r38 l

[0,,t, (f)rr*r]L
From Eq. (10.7),
Ir:

1*
*
3.5 exp(\.22p.,

- It
-

,.r(* + 1 6 )
I

- oof(f
3.5expi(1
.22)(0.3)

= 0.907

+ 1.6)

From Eq. (10.5),

^
'

L,oB,Ir;l1ls,_
E
n
= 0.014 m * 14 mm

jr
(re0)(1.38x0.74X0.787)(0.90f)
r\ -I _ n
" ' "r lz )
9000

268

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

CONSOLIDATIONSETTLEMENT

10.4

Fundamentals of Consolidation
When a saturatedsoil layer is subjectedto a stressincrease.the pore water pressure
is suddenly increased.In szrndysoils that are highly permeable.the drainagecaused
by the increasein the pore water pressure is completed immcdiately. Pore water
drainageis accompaniedby a reduction in thc volumc of thc soil mass,which results
in settlement.Becauseof rapid drainageof thc porc watcr in sandy sclils,immediate
s e t t l e m e n ta n d c o n s o l i d a t i o no c c u r s i m u l t a n c o u s l y .
When a saturatedcompressibleclay lzryeris subjectedto a strcssincrcasc,elastic settlement occurs immcdiately. Becausethe hydraulic conductivity of clay is significzrntlysmaller than that of sand,thc cxcesspore water pressuregeneratedby loadi n g g r a d u a l l yd i s s i p a t c so v e r a l o n g p e r i o d .T h u s . t h e a s s o c i a t e vdo l u m e c h a n g e( t h a t
i s , t h c c o n s o l i d a t i o n )i n t h e c l a y m a y c o n t i n u el o n g a f t e r t h e i m m e d i a t cs c t t l c m e n t .
Thc settlementcauseclby consolidationin clay marybc scvcraltimcs grcater than the
i m m c d i l r l cs e l l l e m c n t .
T h c t i m c - d e p e n d e n td e l i r r m a t i o no f s a t u r a t e dc l a y e ys o i l c a n b c s t b c u n d e r s t o o d b y c o n s i d c r i n ga s i m p l e m o d e l t h a t c i l n s i s t so [ a c y l i n d e r w i t h a s p r i n g a t i t s
'l'he
cylinc e n t e r .L e t t h c i n s i d oa r r :a o f t h e c r o s ss c c t i o no f t h e c y l i n d e rb e e q u a lt o A .
d e r i s f i l l e d w i t h w a t c r a n d h a sa f r i c t i o n l c s sw a t e r t i g h tp i s t o na n d v a l v ea s s h o w ni n
F i g u r c 1 0 . 7 aA
. t t h i s t i m c . i [ ' w e p l a c ea l o a d P o n t h e p i s t o n( F i g u r e 1 0 . 7 b )a n d k e e p
t h c v a l v c c l o s e c lt,h c e n t i r e l o a d w i l l b e t a k e n b y t h e w a t e r i n t h e c y l i n d c r b c c a u s e
watcr is intrtmprassible.The spring will not go through zrnydcf'ornraticln.Thc cxcess
hydrostaticpressureat this tirne can be given as
P

( 10.8)

A
This value can be obscrvcd ir.rthc prcssurcgaugeattachedto the cylinder.
. c c l r nw r i t c
I n g e n c r a lw
P : P,-l P,,

(10.9)

where P, : load carricd by the spring and P,,,- lcladcarried by the water.
From the preceding discussion,we celnsee that when the valve is closed after
the placement of the load I
P, : 0

and

P,,,: P

Now, if the valve is opened, the water will flow outward (Figure 10.7c).This flow will
be accompaniedby a reduction of the excesshydrostaticpressureand an increasein
the compressionof thc spring. So, at this time" Eq. ( lt).9) will hold. However,
P.>0

(that is, L,tt < PIA)

a n d P , ,1, P

After some time, the excesshydrostatic pressurewill become zero and the system
will reach a state of equilibrium, as shown in Figure 10.7d.Now we can write
P,:

and

P,": t)

10.4 Fundamentals of Consolidation

Valve
I closed

:fi{s:s

i:.;

ff'

l #, :

/
Aa=0

Art = aA

(a)

(D)

P
....:

't

Vrlvc
opcn

rit;,i;ir:i;ri:ii:::iri;*:ii:i:lriii:i:
::1: lr:ltlil

ilrlili$i!i

Vrlvc

oPcll
---*-l
I
::t;it!ii:!:ii:ri:$l:j.itit;.*t*lii:i:ilr:{;
SXIljllti
'
.
-.J''
Att---

(e)

Figure 10.7 Spring-cylinclcr

modcl

and
P:P,tP,,,
W i t h t h i s i n m i n d , w e c a n a n a l y z et h e s t r a i no f a s a t u r a t e ccl l a y l a y e r s u b j e c t e d
to a stressincrcase(Figure 10.8a).Consider the casewherc a layer of saturatedclay
o f t h i c k n e s sH t h a t i s c o n f i n e d b e t w e c n t w o l a y e r s o fs a n c il s b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o a n
instantaneousincrease of tolul r'/re.r.r
o[ Ao. This incremental total stress will be
transmitted to the pore water and the soil solids.This meansthat the total stress,Ao,
will be divided in some proportion betwcen effectivcstressand pore water pressure.
The behavior of the cffectivestrcsschangewill be similar to that of the spring in Figure 10'7,and the behavior of the pore water pressurechangewill be similar to that
of the excesshydrostatic pressurc in Figure 10.7.From the principle of effective
stress(Chapter tt). it follows that
Ao:

Ao' * Arl

where Arr' : increasein thc effective stress

Alz : incrcasein the pore water pressure

(10.10)

AO

Depth
(r)

Pore water
Total stressincreasc

plcssure lncrelse-

ElI'ectivc
strossincrerse

i
'fotal

stressincrcasc

I
H

(c)Attime0<r<-

Total stress increase

)<tre wttcr
pressure increase

Eflective
\tressincrease

Depth

Depth
(d)At timet = -

Depth

Figure 10.8 Variation of total stress.pore water pressure, and effective stress in a clay layer
drained at top and bottom as the result of an added stress,A<r

270

10.5 One-DimensionalLaboratory Consolidation Test

271

Becauseclay has a very low hydraulic conductivityand water is incompressible

as compared with the soil skeleton,at time r : 0, the entire incremental
stiess.Ao,
will be carried by water (A,r : A,) at all depths (Figure 10.gb).None
will be carried
by the soil skeleton - that is, incremental effectiveitress (A,ri) : (t.
After the application of incremental stress.-\u. to thc clay layer, the
water in
the void spaceswill start to be squeezeclout anciwill drain in botl directions
into the
sand layers.By this process,the cxcesspore water pressureat any depth
in the clay
layer willgradually decrease.and the stresscarried by the soil solids(eiTective
stress)
will increase.Thus, at time 0 < r < m.

Ao:Arr'*Arr
(Ao'>0
and Arr<Arr)
However' thc magnitudesof Arr' and Arr at various depthswill change(Figurc
1O.gc),
dependingon the minimum disternce
of thc drainagepath to either rhe top 9r bettom
sand layer.
Theoretically' at timc 1 : oo, the entirc excesspore water prcssurewcluld
bc
..
dissipatedby drainage from erllpoints of the clay layer; thus, A4 : 0. Now
the total
stressincreasc,A.', will be carricd by thc soil structurc (Figurc 10.ltcl).
Hcncc,
:
Arr
Arr'
T h i s g r a d u a lp r o c e s so 1 ' d r a i n a g eu n d e r a n a c l d i t i o n a l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n
and the
associatedtransfcr of excesspore water prcssureto efTectiveslresscilusc
thc timed e p e n d e n ts e t t l e m e n ti n t h c c l a y s o i l l a y e r .

10.5

one'Dimensional Laboratory consolidation Test

The one-dimensionalconsolidation lesting procedure was first suggested
by Terzaghi. This test is perlbrmed in a consolidometer (sornctimesrefcrred
to as eln oedometer).The schematicdiagrant of a consolidometeris shown in Figure
10.9a.Figure 10.9b.shows a photograph of a consolidomcter.The soil ,p".i-"n
is placJi
inside a metal ring with two porous stones,onc at the top of the specimen
and an_
o t h e r a t t h e b o t t o m . T h e s p e c i m c n sa r e u s u a l l y6 4 m m ( : 2 . 5 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r
and 2-5
m m . ( : I i n . ) t h i c k . T h e l o a d o n t h e s p c c i m e ni s a p p l i c c lt h r o u g h a l e v e r
arm, and
compressionis mcasured by a micrometer dizrlgauge.Thc spccimcn is
kept unilcr
water during the test. Each load is usually kept for 24 hours. After that,
the load is
usually doublcd, which doubles the pressureon the specimen.and the
compression
measurementis continued.At thc end of the test,the dry weight of the
test spccimen
is determined. Figure 10.9cshowsa consolidationtest in p.o!res, (right-hand
sicle).
The general shapeof the plot of cleformationof the specimenagainst
time for
a given load increment is shown in Figure 10.10.From the piot, we can
observethree
distinct stages,which may be describedas follows:
stage I
stage II

StageIII

Initial compression,which is causedmostry by preloacring.

Primary consoliclation,during which exceir po." water pressureis
gradually transferred into effectivestressbecauseof the expulsion
of pore water.
Secondaryconsolidation,which occursafter completedissipationof
the excesspore water pressure,when some deformation of the specimen takes place becauseof the plastic readjustment of soil fabric.

272

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

l'

:1i*'.:

Sncclnltn

i$ilr.' ,;ng
4:!.:l
M!*si!;
ittritii
:i!g!:ti:i
.:i!it!:t.;tj

Figure 10.9
(a) Schematiccliagramo[ a consolidonrcter;
( b ) p h o t o g r a p ho l a c o n s o l i d o r n c t c r(,c ) a c o n s o l i d a l i o nt c s t i n p r o g r c s s( r i g h t - h a n csl i d c )

10.6 Void Ratio-Pressure Plots

.2
c

I
S e c o n d a r cy o n s o l i d a t i o n

Figure 10.10
Time-deformation plot during
consolidationfor a given load
increment

Time (log scale)

10.6

Void Ratio-Pressure Plots

After the time-dcformation plots for various loadings are obtained in the laboratory, it is necessaryto study the change in the void ratio of the specimenwith pressure. Following is a step-by-stepprocedure for doing so:
1. Calculatc the height of solids,H., in the soil specimen(Figure 10.11)using the
equation
H .' where lV. :
M, :
A :
G, :
7,,,:
p,,,-

w'

Jt4,

AG,7,,,

AG.,P*

(10.11)

dry weight of the specimen

dry massof the specimen
area of the specimen
specificgravity of soil solids
unit weight of water
density of water

2. Calculate the initial height of voids as

H,,: H - H,

(10.12)

whereH : initial heightof the specimen.

3. Calculatethe initial void ratio,e,r,of the specimen,
usingthe equation
,.

r r t :

V,
V,

H,A
H,A

H,
H,

(10.13)

274

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

tI
I
I

T
I
I

H,=H

Initial
h e i g h to f
speclmen
=H

H,

. --Lu,

II

"'

,lC,y,,

Figure 10.11 C.hangeof height of spccimcn in onc-dimensionalconsolidationtest

4. For the first incremenlal loading,o1 (total load/unit area o[ specimen),which
c a u s e sa d e f o r m a t i o nA H , . c a l c u l a t et h e c h e r n g ien t h e v o i d r a t i o a s
L C I:

LII,
H*

(r 0 . 1 4 )

( A H , i s o b t a i n e df r o m t h c i n i t i a l a n d t h e l l n a l d i a l r e a d i n g sl o r t h e l o a d i n g ) .
It is important to note that. at the end of consolidation,total stressrrl is equal to effective strcssrri.
5. Clalculatethe new void ratio aftcr consoliclationcausedby the pressureincrement as
cr - ae

Ar,

(10.15)

Fcrrthe next loading, o1 (note: o2 cquals thc cumulative load per unit area of
s p e c i m e n ) ,w h i c h c a u s e sa d d i t i o n a ld e f o r m a t i o n A H r , t h e v o i d r a t i o a t t h e e n d o f
consolidation can be calculateclas
(t:

cr -

LI12
H,

(10'16)

At this time. o2 : cffcctive stress,rr!. Proceedingin a similar manner, one can obtain the void ratios at the end of the consolidationfor all load increments.
The efTectivcstrcsso' and the correspondingvoid ratios (c) at the end of consolidation are plotted on semilogarithmicgraph paper. The typical shape of sucha
p l o t i s s h o w ni n F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 2 .

10.7

Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clays

Figure 10.12showsthat the upper part of the e-log a' plot is somewhatcurved with
a flat slope, followed by a linear relationship for the void ratio with log o' having a
steeper slope. This phenomenon can be explained in the following manner:
A soil in the fleld at some depth has been subjected to a certain maximum effective past pressure in its geologic history. This maximum effective past pressure
may be equal to or less than the existing effective overburden pressure at the time of
sampling. The reduction of effective pressure in the field may be caused by natural

10.7 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Clavs

01

o'r

E l l e c t i v c p r c s s u r c .o ' ( l o g s c a l c )

275

Figure 10.12
Typicalplot of c againstlog o'

geologic processesor humernprocesses.During the soil sampling,the existingeffective overburdcn pressureis also released,which resultsin some expansion.When this
specimenis subjectedto etconsolidationtest,a small amount of compression(that is,
a small changein v<tidratio) will occur when thc effectivepressureapplied is lessthan
the maximum cffective overburden prcssure in the field to which lhe soil has been
subjectedin the past. When the effectivepressureon the specimenbecomesgreater
than the merximumefTectivepast pressure,the changein the void ratio is much larger,
and the e-log o' relationship is practically linear with a steeperslope.
This relationship can be verillcd in the laboratory by loading the specimento
exceedthe maximum effectiveoverburdenpressure,and then unloading and reloading again.The e-log '' plot for such casesis shown in Figure 10.13,in which cd representsunloading and dfg representsthe reloading process.

d
.E
!

Elfectivepressurero'(log scale)

Figure 10.13
Plot of e againstlog a' showingloading,
unloading,and reloadingbranches

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

o
'E
!

Prcssurc.
o' (logscalc)
pressure
Figure 10.14 Graphicprocedurcl'ordetelminingpreconsolidation

This leads us to thc two basicdcfinitions of clay basedon stresshistory:

l. Normally utrtsolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is the
maximum pressurethat the soil was subjectedto in the past.
2. Overconsolidaterl,
whose present effectiveoverburden pressureis lessthan
that which the soil experiencedin the past.The maximum effcctivc past pressure is called the preutnsolklatk.tn pressure.
Casagrande(1936) suggesteda simple graphic construction to determine the
preconsolidationpressurerri.from the labclratorye-log o' plot. The procedure is as
f o l l o w s ( s e eF i g u r e 1 0 . 1 4 ) :
By visual observation,establishpoint a, at which the e-log rr' plot has a minimum radius of curvature.
) Draw a horizontal line ob.
3. Draw the line ac tangent at d.
4. Draw thc line ad, which is the bisector of the angle bnc.
5 . Project the straight-lineportion gh of the e-logo' plot back to intersectline ad
at I The abscissaof point./is the preconsolidationpressure,aj..
The overconsolidationratio (OCR) for a soil can now be defined as

OCR: n L
(r'
where oi : preconsolidation pressure of a speclmen
o' : Dresent effective vertical Dressure

(10.17)

10.8 Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio-Pressure Relationship

10.8

277

Effect of Disturbance on Void

Rati o - Pressure ReIati on sh ip
A soil specimenwill be remolded when it is subjectedto some degreeof disturbance.
This remolding will result in some deviation of the e_log o' plot as observedin the
laboratory from the actual behavior in the field. The field e-log a' plot can be reconstructed from the laboratory test results in the manner describedin this section
(Terzaghi and Peck, 1967).
Normally

Consolidated

Clay of Low to Medium

Plasticity (Figure tO.IS)

1. ln Figure 10.l-5,curve 2 is the laboratory e-log o' plot. From this plot, determine the prcconsolidationpressure(rrj) : o',, (that is, the present effective
ovcrburden pressure).Knowing where c', : ol1, draw verticalline ab.
2 . C a l c u l a t et h e v o i d r a t i o i n t h e f i c l d . e , , [ S c c t i o n1 0 . 6 ,E q . ( 1 0 . 1 3 ) ] D
. raw horizontal line c'r1.
3. Calculat.e0.4c, and draw line e.f.(Note:.l'is the point of intersectionof the line
w i t h c u r v e2 . )
4. Join points.f and g. Notc that g is the point of intcrsectionof lines ab and cd.
This is thc virgin cornpressioncurvc.
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t t h t t t i f a s o i l i s c o m p l e t e l yr c m o l d e d ,t h e g e n e r a lp o s i t i o n o f t h e c - l o g r . r 'p l o t w i l l b c a s r e p r c s s n t e db y c u r v e 3 .

I
I

Vtrgtn

--

consolidation

curve; slope= C,

Consolidation
curve for
rernoldedspecimen

Latloratory
consolidation
curve

o'o = o','
Pressure,
o' (logscale)
Figure 10. 15 Consolidation characteristics of normally consolidated clay of low to
medium sensitivity

278

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Laboratory
rebound curve;
slope = C" =

-5

swell index

O.4eq1

6'o

o'.

P r e s s u r eo.' ( l o g s c a l e )
Figure

70. 16 Consolidation characteristics of overconsoliclated clay of low tcr

nredium scnsitivity

Overconsolidated

CIay of Low to Medium

Plasticity (Figure 10.16)

1 . I n F i g u r e 1 0 .1 6 ,c u r v c 2 i s t h c l a b o r a t o r ye - l o g o ' p l o t ( l o a d i n g ) ,a n d c u r v e3 i s
thc laboratory unloading,or rebound, curve. From curve 2, determine the preconsolidationpressurerrj..Draw the vertical line ab.
2. Determine the field effectiveoverburden pressureoi;. Draw vertical line cd.
3. Determine the void ratio in the field. er. Draw the horizontal line fg. The point
of intersectionof lines /! and cd is h.
4. Draw a line hi, which is parallel to curve 3 (which is practically a straight line).
The point of intersectionof lines hi and ab is j.
5. Join points 7 and k. Point k is on curve 2, and its ordinate is 0.4e6.
The field consolidationplot will take a path hjk. The recompressionpath in the
fiefd is hj and is parallel to the laboratory rebound curve (Schmertmann,1953).

Example10.3
Following are the resultsof a laboratory consolidationtest on a soil specimen
obtainedfrom the field: Dry massof specimen= L28g, height of specimenat
the beginningof the test : 2.54 cm, G,:2.75, and areaof the specimen=
30,68cm2.

10.8 Effect of Disturbance on Void Ratio-Pressure Relationshio

Effeetive
pressure,o'
(ton /ft2)

Final height of
specimen at the
end of consolidation
(cm)

(.)
0.5
I
2
4
8
16

2.540
2.488
2.465
2.431
2.389
z,-12+

2.225
2.115

-)L

Make necessary
calculations
and drawan e vs.log o, curve.
Solution
F r o mE q . ( 1 0 . 1 1 )

w,

H ''. :

M,
AC.,p,,

128g

- 1 . 5 2c m
(30.68cmr)(2.75)(1g/cm3)
Now the followingtablecanbe prepared:
AG,T,,

Effective
pressure, rr'
(ton /ft2l

Height at rhe end

of consolidation, H
(cm)

o
0..5
1
2
4
8
l6

2.540
2.488
2.465
2.431
2.389

JL

z--)/+

2.225
2.175

Hn = H - H"
(cml

1.02
0.968
0.94-s
0.911
0.ti69
0.804
0.705
0.595

e = HulH"

0.671
0.637
0.622
0.599
0.572
0.529
0.464
0.390

The e vs.log o' plot is shownin Figure10.17.

r t,..\
!
a

0.3
I
3
l0
30
Ellectivepressure.
o'(ton/ft2)log scale

Figure 10,17
Variationof void ratio with
effective Dressure

280

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Cross-sectionalarea= A {

Votume
A y l

l l
l

i,
H

A)

v.t

A y l

Heighl

1 l

v'r, ulr,
t
l

l l L

v.
i

+
Figure 10.18 Settlementcausedby onc-dimcnsionalconsolidation

10.9

Calculation of Settlement from

One-Dimensional Primary Consolidation
With the knowledgc gaincd from thc analysisof consolidation test results,we can
now proceed to calculatethc probablc scttlement causedby primary consolidation
i n t h e { i e l d ,a s s u m i n go n e - d i m e n s i o n acl o n s o l i d a t i o n .
Let us considera saturatcdclay layer of thicknessH and cross-sectionalarea.4
under an existing averagccfTcctivcoverburden pressureoir. Becauseof ernincrease
of effectivepressurc,Arr', lct the primary settlementbe S,..Thus, the changein volume (Figure 10.1t3)can bc given by
L . V : V 1 1 -V t : H A - ( H - S . ) A : S , A

(10.18)

whcre l/,, and I/1 are the initial and final volumes,rcspectivcly.However, the change
in the total volume is equal to the changein thc volumc of voids, Atr/,,.Hence,
LV : S,A : V,s - V,,,:

LV,,

(10.19)

where /,,1;and V,,, are the initial and linal vclid volumes, rcspectively.From the
definition of void ratio. it follows that

LV,,- L,eV,

( 10.20)

whereAe - changeof void ratio.But

v' .' :

Vu

AH

7te,,

l*er1

:'

( 10.21)

where eo : initial void ratio at volume V,,.Thus, from Eqs (10.18)through (10.21),

L V - S,A= LeV,:

S' , . : H

A.e
Ile,l

,Tr ,,O,

(r0.22)

10.10 Compression lndex (C")and Swell lndex (C")

281

For normally consolidatedclaysthat exhibit a linear e-logo' relationship(see

Figure 10.15).
Ae - C,.[log(o'o+ L,o') - log oi,]
(10.23)
where c. : slope of the e-log o' plot and is defined as the compressionindex. Substitution of Eq. (10.23)into Eq. (10.22)gives

',*#*'"-(4#)

(t0.24)

In overconsolidatcdclays (sce Figure 10.16), for o|, + Ao' < oj , field e-logo,
variation will be along the line hj, the slope of which will be approximately equal to
that for the laboratory rebound curve. The slclpcof the rebound curve C" is referred
to as the swell index; so
Ac : C,!og(ol1+ L,c')
logoi,,)
( lo.2s)
F r o m E q s . ( l t . l 5 ) a n d ( l J . l 8 ) ,w e o b r a i n

s.:#'.r(n#)

(10.26)

l[ tr',, + Ltr' - rrj . thcn

'.:ffi^r#.#r'"-(tn;*)

(10.27)

Howevcr, if the e-log rr' curve is givcn, one can simply pick Ae off the plot for the
appropriate range of pressurcs.This number may be substitutedinto Eq. (I0.22) for
t h e c a l c u l a t i o no f s e t t l e m e n t S
. ..

10.10

Compressron lndex (C") and Swell lndex (C,)

The compressionindex for the calculation of field settlement causedby consolidation can be determined by graphic construction (as shown in Figure 10.15)after one
obtains the laboratory test resultsfor void ratio and pressure.
Skempton (1944) suggestedthe following empirical expressionfor the compressionindex for undisturbed clays:

C":0.009(Ll*10)

(10.28)

where LL : liquid limit.

Several other correlations for the compression index are also available. They
have been developed by tests on various clays. Some of these correlations are given
in Table 10.4.

Chapter l0

Compressibility of Soil

Index.C.*
for Compression
Table 10.4 Correlations
Equation

Regionof applicability

Reference

S k e m p t o n( 1 9 4 4 )
c, - 0.0()'7(LL 7)
C, : 0.01u,,y
C , . : l . 1 5 ( e ,-, 0 . 2 7 ) N i s h i d a( 1 9 5 6 )
Hough (1957)
C , : 0 . 3 0 ( e o- 0 . 2 7 )
C, - 0.01l5r.r.''
c,:0.0046(LL-9)
C,:0.75(co-0.-5)
C..:0.208cr2+0.0083
C, = 0.156c,,+ (.).0107

Remolded clays
Chicago clays
All clays
Inorganic cohesivcsoil: silt, silty clay,clay
Organic soils,peats,organic silt, and clay
Brazilian clays
Soils with low plasticity
Chicago clays
All clays

'kAlter Renclon-Hcrrero
( 1980)
Note:a71-- in siluvoid ratio:toa: in.rilttwatercontcnt.
l a t u r a l c l a y s ,R e n d o n - H e r r e r o( 1 9 8 3 )
O n t h c b a s i so f o b s e r v e l t i o nosn s e v e r a n
gave the rclationship for thc compressionindex in tlre form
. -/ | + c,,\23r1

c. : 0.r4lci'[ q,
)

( r0.29)

l e c o m p r e s s i o ni n d e x a s
N a g a r a ja n d M u r t y ( 1 9 u 5 )c x p r e s s e ct h

ILL(%\l

.1",
c, : 0.23431
,ou

( l0.30)

'Ihc

swell index is apprcciablysmurllerin rnagnitudethan thc compressionindex and

c a n g e n e r a l l vb e d c t c r m i n e d l r o m l a b t t r a t o r vt c s t s .I n m o s t c a s e s ,

C,:lro*c,

( 1 0 .r3)

Thc swell index was cxpressedby Nagaraj and Murty (l9lt5) as

ILL(v"\l
c, _ {).04631
l()() ]c,

(10.32)

E xa mp l e1 0 .4
A soil profile is shownin Figure 10^19.If a uniformly diSributed load, Ao, is applied at the groundsurface,what is the settlementof theplay layercausedby priif
maryconsolidation
a. The clayis normally consolidated
pressure(oL) :190 kN/m2
b. The preconsolidation
c' o',: 170kN/m2
UseC.:IC,.

10.10 Compression lndex (C")and Swell lndex (C,)

a o = 1 0 0k N / m j

{, }
Y,iry= l4 kN/ml
1' Cround water table

..-

Sand
%*r = 18 kN/m3

''','::r".
.'' : l:.: :'.'.iClay"".'.i ; " ".''

Figure 10.19

Solution
a. Theaverage
effective
stressat themiddleof theclaylayeris
ab:2Tarv

* y,o] *
-*
+ 4lTruqsonay
z4
l7sar1"roy;TrrJ

OT

os : (z)Qa)+ 4(18* e.81)+ 2(19- 9.81): 79.1,4

kN/mz
FromEq. (10.24),
* A'')
s', : - c : H r o n ( o b
"\
l*e,,

o6

From Eq. (10.28),

C" : 0.009(Lr * 10) = 0.009(40* I0) :0.27
So
^
r.:

(0.27)(4). / 79.14+ 100\

: rrl3m :2l3mm
log\
I + os
7e.14 )

b. os + Lo' :79.74 + L00= 179.14kN/mz

o',: 190kNlmz
Becausea'6 * A,cr') ol, useEq. (10.26)to get
^

C"H

/ol,*Ao'1

s.:l+eo,"t(?)

i
;

^ c" 0.27
c,:;:;:0.04s
( tg.t++ 100
^ (0.04sX4)
\ =
.ros(
s :
0.036
m : 36mm
il
0*:
,q11 )

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

c.
o'si

ob:79.14 kN/m2
Ao':I79.14kN/m2
o ' , : 1 7 0k N / m 2

Because
vb < oL< (rb + Ao', useEq.(10.27),
C"H

s':

o'-

/ 6',, + L,o'\

C ,H

1*",l"c .b* r +"rloe( 4

/
(
(0.27)(4)
(0.045X4)
(
t7e.14\
t70 \
.
.'"t[
: 0.0468m
+
tos[ffi/

rs

'^ /

: 46.8mm

E xa mp l e1 0 .5
The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay specimen are as follows:
o't : 95kN/m2
et : l.l
oz :

ez: 0.9

4 7 5k N / m z

W h a t w i l l b e t h e v o i d r a t i o f o r a p r e s s u r eo f 6 0 0 k N / m 2 I ( N o t e :o i < 9 . 5k N / m 2 . )

-' E

,175600
,+75
95
P r e s s u r eo,' ( l o g s c a l e () k N / m l )

Figure 10.20

$olution
From Figure L0.20,
1.1- 0.9 ; :
0.286
*
logd? logdl: log
. -475 log$
-:
z : C.(log600 - log 95)

C, =
t-

: t

(t-ez

600
C l o e" =9 5

= 1.1- 0.286
log
S

: o.rt

10.11 Secondary Consolidation Settlement

loJ I

285

Secon dary Con soIi dati o n Settlem ent

Section 10.5showedthat at the end of primary consolidation(that is, after complete
dissipation of excesspore water pressure)some settlement is observedbecauseof
the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. This stage of consolidation is called secondary
consolidation. During secondary consolidation the plot of deformation against the
log of time is practically linear (seeFigure 10.10).The variation of the void ratio, e,
with time t for a given load increment will be similar to that shown in Figure 10.10.
This variation is shown in Figure 10.21.From Figure 10.21,the secondarycompression index can be defined as

co

A,e
log 12- log r,

Ae
l"g(t/,)

( 10.3-1)

where C,, : secondarycompressionindex

Ae : changeof void ratio
/ p ,/ 2 - t i m e
The magnitude of the secondaryconsolidationcan be calculatedas

s" : clH

/t,\
'"r(.
i/

(r0.34)

Time,r (logscale)
Figure 10.21 Yariatton of e with log / under a given load increment and definition of secondary consolidation index

286

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

where

(10'3s)

c'-: Th:

e,, : void ratio at the end of primary consolidation(seeFigure 10.21)

H : thicknessof clay layer
The generalmagnitudesof Ci as observedin various natural depositsare as follows:
.
.
.

Overconsolidatedclays : 0.001or less

Normally consolidatedclays : 0.005to 0.03
Organic soil : 0.04or more

Secondaryconsolidationsettlementis more important than primary consolidation in organicand highly compressibleinorganicsoils.In overconsolidatedinorganic
clays,the secondarycompressionindex is very small and of lesspracticalsignificance.

Example10.6
For a normally consolidatedclaylayerin the field, the followingvaluesare given:
r
.
r
o
r
r

thicknessof claylayer : 8.5ft

Void ratio (es) : 0.8
Compressionindex (C.) : 0.2S
Averageeffectivepressureon the claylayer (ob) :2650lblf9
Atr' :970lblft2
Secondarycompressionindex (C") : 0,42

What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay layer five years after the
completion of primary consolidationsettlement?(Note: Time for completion of

= 1.5years.)
primarysettlement

Solution
FromEq.(10.35),
C'* =

co
1* e,

The valueof eocanbe calculatedas

.

ep :

Aepri_ury

10.12 TimeRateof Consolidation

287

CombiningEqs.( 10.22)
and (10.23).
we findrhat"

ob *
26s9,1,e70
L e: C
- , ,-rcn(
"o\
,oo' ) : o.r
)
" . - ' . ,"r" on(
\
os

2650

: 0.038
Primary
consolidatior,
s"' : ++
7*eo

(0'03qx8'lJ( 12)
: 2.15in.
l+0.8

It is givenlhat es - 0.8,and thus,

eo*0.8*0.038:0.762
Hence,

c-a- :

o9-2,,:o.o1r
| + 0.162

From Eq. (10.34),

s, : c"H'"r(f) = (0.011)(8.s
x 12)ros(*) = o.rn,n
Total consolidationsettlement: primary consolidation(S.) + secondarysettlement (S").So
total consolidation
settlement:2.15 + 0.59: 2.74in.

10.12

Time Rate of Consolidation

The total settlement causedby primary consolidationresulting from an increasein
the stresson a soil laycr can be calculatedby the use of one of the three equations(10.24),(10.26),or (10.27) givcn in Section 10.9.However,they do nor provide any
information regarding the ratc of primary consolidation.Terzaghi (1925) proposed
the first theory to consider the rate of one-dimensionalconsolidation for saturated
clay soils.The mathematicalderivationsare basedon the following six assumptions
(also see Taylor, 1948):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The clay-water systemis homogeneous.

Saturation is complete.
Compressibilityof water is negligible.
Compressibilityof soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
The flow of water is in one direction only (that is,in the direction of compression).
Darcy's law is valid.

Figure 10.22ashows a layer of clay of thickness 2H,,,thatis located between two

highly permeable sand layers.If the clay layer is subjectedto an increasedpressure
of Aa, the pore water pressure at any point,4 in the clay layer will increase.For onedimensionalconsolidation,water will be squeezedout in the vertical direction toward
the sand laver.

288

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

:"i
1
r

dz.) d,r d)'

rj.

...

,
l
t)

Figure 10.22
(a) Claylayerundergoing
consolidation;(b) flow
of water at -4 during
consolidation

u|

dr

(b)

Figure I022b showsthe flow of water through a prismatic element at,4. For
the soil elementshown,
Rate of outflow
of water

Rate of inflow
o[ water

Rate of
volume change

Thus,
6u. \
/
lu.+:dz. l
\
3
2
/

dxdy-D.dxdy:-

av
dt

r
10.12 Time Rate of Consolidation

289

where V : volume of the soil element

velocitv of flow in z direction
or

oa,
av
dx dl 'lz ;t7
7

(10.36)

Using Darcy's law, wc have

, dh
l'; -- Kt - -*
;,r.--

k itrr
y,,.i

(10.37)

where u : excesspore water pressurecausedby the increascof stress.

F r o m E q s . ( 1 0 . 3 6 )a n d ( 1 0 . 3 7 ) ,

l a v
:
y,,.or.t ax ly az at
K

d-u.

( 10.38)

Duringconsolidation,
the raLeof changein the volumeof the soilelementis equal
to the rateof changcin the volurneof voids.Thus.

dv : ilv, : !Uti:y)
at

al

!lv' + V' .aYt + , d V

At
at

i)t

(r0.3e)

w h e r c / , : v o l u m e o f ' s < l isl o l i d s

7,, - volume ctl'voicls
B u t ( a s s u m i n gt h a t s o i l s o l i d sa r c i n c o m p r e s s i b l e )

!!r: u
dt

and

V,

dx dv dz.

lla,,

l+e,,,

Substitutionfor itV.littand V, in Eq. ( 10.39)

yiclds
aV _ dx dy dz ;te
at

lle6

at

( 10.40)

whcre co : initialvoid ratio.

C o m b i n i n g E q s . ( 1 0 . 3 8 )a n d ( 1 0 . 4 0 )g i v e s
K

(t-Ll

y,, oz2

(le

| + eo at

(10.41)

The change in the void ratio is causedby the increaseof effectivestress(i.e.,

a decreaseof excesspore water pressure).Assuming that they are linearly related,
we have
-o,1u
i)e - tr,.O(L,o,
(r0.42)
) :
whered(Aa')
o,,

change in effective pressure

coefficient of compressibility(a,.can be considered
constantfor a narrow range of pressureincrease)

290

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

givcs
CombiningEqs.(10.a1)and(10.42)
k

0,,

i)2Lt

y,,d*:

ilu

i)tt

l+q,i:-n''

dt

where
r.t,,: coefficient of volumc compressibility a,,l(l + e7)

( 10.43)

or.

,):l :

(l- ll

dt

o1.

( 10.44)

wht:re
c , , : c c r e l l i c i c not l ' c o n s o l i d a t i o n: k l ( y , , , m , . )

(ro.4s)

Thus.

f,,tn,

( 10.46)

u,

Y"\r+c;/

E q . ( l { ) . a a )i s t h c b a s i cd i l l ' er c n t i a l c q u a t i o no f ' T c r z a g h i ' cs o n s o l i d a t i o nt h e o r y

a n d c a n b c s o l v e dw i t l - rt h e f o l l o w i n gb o u n d a r yc o n d i t i o n s :

z-0. rr-0
7 , : 2 1 t , 1 ,u, : 0
L t : u 1 1

/ : 0 ,

1'hc solution yiclcls

,-'TlT""(#,)1'
-M?t,

( 10.47)

wherem:anintegcr
M:Qrl2)(2m+t)
pore watel prcssure
Ilo : initial excess

r .' : : + :

Hit,

t i m ef a c l o r

(r0.48)

The time factor is a nondimensionalnumber.

Becauseconsolidationprogressesby thc dissipationof excesspore water pressure. the desree of consolidationat a distancez at anv time r is
Llrt

u- " -

' - l -

Ll-

Llo

where u: : excesspore water pressureat time 1.

Ll-

uo

(10.4e)

10.12 Time Rate of Consolidation

().I

O.2

0.3

291

0.'t
0.5
0.(r
O.1
I)egrec
of consolidalion.
t/-

Figure 10.23 Yariation of U- with 7',.and z./l!,1,

E q u a t i o n s( l 1 . 4 l ) a n d ( 1 0 . 4 9 )c a n b e c o m b i n e d t o o b t a i n t h e d c g r e eo f c o n s o l i d a t i o na t a n y d e p t h z . T h i s i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 0 . 2 3 .
The averagedcgree of consolidation for the entire depth of thc clay laycr at
a n y t i m e / c a n b e w r i t t e n f r o n t E q . ( 1 0 . 4 9 )a s

U : ?_ 1

/ r \ ftn,,,
u,dz
l.- ll
\zHd,/ Jo
ur)

( r0.s0)

where IJ : averagedegree of consolidation

: settlementof the layer at timc t
S,1,y
S,.: ultimate settlementof the layer from primary consolidation
Substitution of the expression for excess pore water pressure a_ given in
Eq. (10.47)into Eq. (10.50)gives

,-|

'f 2-",,,
,7:r,M'

(10.-5
r)

The variation in the averagedegree of consolidationwith the nondimensionaltime

factor, I,,, is given in Figure 10.24,which represents the casewhere r.r.,is the same for
the entire depth of the consolidatinglayer.

292

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

b\

;20
'E

>
i:

o l
bol

r E l
.=

;,
A

=
e40

H ,

Ot,

1'., :
!

:'
l
6

ill

F F I

8180

H,r,

0..1
0.6
Tinrelactor,7',.

I
I
V

O ! Y

0.8

Di f}'erenttypcs of' drainage

with &., constilnt
Figure

10.24 Yariation

of avcrage degrcc of consolidation

with time factor, 7',, (r2,, constant

with depth)

The valuesof thc time ferctorand their corrcspondingaveragedegreesof consolidation for the casepresented in Figure 10.24may also be approximated by the
following simple rclationship:

/ ttot^\2

F o r U : 0 t o 6 0 % ,' 7 , . : + ( = )
4\100/
ForIJ 7 60o/o,T, * 1.78I* 0.933log(100* U"/.)

(10.s2)
(10.s3)

Table 10.5givesthe variation of ?',,with U on the basisof Eqs. (10.52) and (10.53).

10.13

Coefficient of Consolidatio n
The coef{icientof consolidation cu generally decreasesas the liquid limit of soil increases.The range of variation of cufor a given liquid limit of soil is wide.
For a given load increment on a specimen,two graphical methods are commonly
used for determining cu from laboratory one-dimensionalconsolidation tests.The
first is the logarithm-of-time methodproposed by Casagrandeand Fadum (1940), and
the other is the square-root-of-time method given by Taylor (1942). More recently, at
least two other methods were proposed. They are the hyperbola method (Sridharan
and Prakash, 1985) and the early stagelog-t method (Robinson and Allam, 1996).The
general procedures for obtaininB cu by these methods are described in this section.

10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation

293

Table 10.5 Variation of f,, with U

u (%l

0
I

2
3
1
5
6
7
6

9
l0
lt
t2
l3
l4
l-5
l6
l7
Iti
I9
20
2l
22
L-)

24
25
26
27

2u
29
30
3t
-)z

33

r"
0
0.00008
0.0003
0.00071
0.(n126
0 . 0 09I 6
0.00283
0.003u.5
0.00-502
0.00636
0.007ft.5
0.(x)9-5
0 . 0 1l 3
0 . 0 I3 3
0.01-54
0.0t77
0.0201
0.0227
0.02.54
0.02rJ3
0.03I4
0.0346
0.03t30
0.041.5
0.0452
0.0491
0.053I
0.0572
0.06l-s
0.0660
0.07('t7
0.0754
0.01103
0.08-5-5

U lo/"1
-)+

3-5
--to

37
3tt
39
40
4l
A')

43
41
4.5
46
41
4u
49

-s0
5t
)t

53
-54

-s5
56
57
5f,i
.59
60
6l
62
63
64
6.5
66

67

Tu

u(%l

T,

0.0907
0.0962
0 . 10 2
0 . 10 7
0.1l3
0 . 1l 9
0.126
0.132
0 . 13 8
0.145
0.1.52
0.t -59
0 . 16 6
0.173
0 .t t 3 l
0.I8[t
0.t97
0.204
0.212
0.221
0.230
0.239
0.24tt
0.257
0.261
0.276
0.2u6
0.291
0.307
0.3r8
0.329
0.304
0.3-52
0.364

68
69
70
7l
72

0.377
0.390
0.403
0.411
0.431
0.446
0.461
0.477
0.493
0.-51
I
0.529
0.547
0..s67
0.5t3u
0.6I0
0.633
0.65u
0.61J4
0.712
0.742
0.174
0.u09
0.t348
0.139I
0.93u
0.993
1.055
|.129
t.219
1.336
1.500
I.7ul

74
75
76
71
7t3
l()

u0
ul
82
lJ3

n4
|.i.5

u6
ti7
utt
llc)

90
9l
92
93
94

9-s
96
o?

9u
99

r(x)

Lo ga rith m -of-Ti me M eth od

For a given incremental loading of the laboratory test, the specimen deformation
against log-of-time plot is shown in Figure 10.2-5.
The following consrrucrlonsare
needed to determine c,,:
1. Extend the straight-lineportions of primary and secondaryconsolidationsto
intersectat ,4. The ordinate of ,4 is representedby d,uu- that is, the deformation at the end of 100% primary consoliclation.
2. The initial curved portion of the plot of deformation versus log r is approximated to be a parabola on the natural scale.Selecttimes /, and /, on the curved
portion such that t2: 4t1.Let the differenceof specimendeformation durins
time (1, - r1)be equal to x.

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

a
a

E
,a

tI

t)

I5t)

-l'irne
(logscalc)

Figure 10.25 Logztrilhrn-of-tirncmethod lirr dctcrmining coeflicicntol'consolidation

Draw a horizontal line DE such thal the verticirl distancc BD is equal tor. The
d e f o r m a t i o nc o r r c s p o n d i n gt o t h e l i n c D E i s r / , ,( t h a t i s , d c f o r m a t i o na t 0 %
consolidation
).
The clrdinatcof point f on thc consoliclationcurvc rcpresentsthe deformation
at 50% primary consolidation,and its abscissarcprcsentsthe corresponding
time (rr,,).
For -50'/oaverageclegreeof consolidation,I,, : 0.191(seeTable 10.5),so,

,,,,:E

()r
4.,, :

o.telH:t,

( 10.54)

,,

: avcragclongestdrainagepath during consolidation.

where 11,1,.
For specimensdraincd at both top and bottom, H,1,equals one-half the average height of the specimenduring consolidation.For specimensdrained on only one
side, H,,, equirlsthe avcrageheight of the specimenduring consolidation.
Squ a re-Ro ot-of -Ti m e M eth od
In the square-root-of-timemethod, a plot of deformation againstthe squareroot of
time is made for the incremental loading (Figure 10.26).Other graphic constructions
required are as follows:
1. Draw aline AB through the early po419n of the curve.
2. Draw aline AC such that OC : 1.1508. The abscissaof point D, which is the
intersectionof AC and the consolidationcurve, givesthe squareroot of time
f o r 9 0 o / oc o n s o l i d a t i o n1 f , 4 , ) .

10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation

295

B C
'tr-\ I iltt(t /

Figure 10.26
Scluare-root-ol-time
fittingmethod

3. For 907o consolidation, f,rn: 0.1't4U

(sce Table 10.-5),
so

!+
7i,,: {).t{4tt:

fI ,,,

0.848H?t,
tgl

( 10.ss)

H,1,in Eq. ( I0.-5-5)

is detcrmincd in a manncr sintilar to that i n t h e l o g a r i t h m of-time method.
Hyperbola Method
ln the hyperbola method, thc following procedure is recommencledfor the determinationof c,,:
l. obtain the time l and the specimendeformation (AH) from the laboratory
c o n s o l i d a t i o tne s t .
2. Plot the graph of tlL,H against/ as shown in Figure 10.27.

{
D

Figure 10.27
Hyperbolamethodfor determinationof c.,

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

3. Identify the straight-lineportion hc and project it back to point d. Determine
the intercept D.
4. Determine the slope m of the line bc.
5. Calculatec,,as
. ^/ mII),\

(10s6)

c,,:03(;J

Note that becausethe unit of D is time/length and the unit of m is (time/length)/

time - 1i length. thc unit of c,,is

(# *)""ngth) 2

(length)2
time

/ time \
\ l e n g t h/

The hyperbola method is fairly simple to use.and it givesgood resultsfor U =

60"/" to 90"/".
Early Stage log-t Method
The early stagelog-r method, an extcnsionof the logarithm-of-timemethod, is based
on specimcndeformation againstlog-of-time plot as shown in Figure 10.2U.According to this methocl,follow steps2 and 3 describcdfor the logarithm-of-time method
to determinc r1,,.Draw a horizontal line DE through d,,.Thcn draw a tangent through
thc point of inflection, f, The tangent intersectsline DE at point Ci. Determine the
time 1correspondingto G, which is the time at U - 22.14"/". Sct
c,, :

o.038sH:1,

( Io.-s7)

t22Jq

ln most cases,for a given soil and pressurerange, the magnitude of c,.determined

by using the logarithm-o,f-timemethod provides ktwest value.The highest value is ob'
tained frcrm the early stogelctg-tntethod. The primary reason is becausethe early stage
log-/ method usesthe earlier part of the consolidationcurve,whereasthe logarithmof-time method uscs the lower portion of the consolidation curve. When the lower

EI
; l

E I
E I

l
o

Time, t (log scale)

Figure 10.28
Early stagelog-rmethod

10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation

297

portion of the consolidation curve is taken into account, the effect of secondary consolidation plays a role in the magnitude of c,,.This fact is demonstrated for several
soils in Table 10.6.
Several investigators have also reported that the c,, value obtained from the
field is substantiallyhigher than that obtained from laboratory tests conducted by
using conventional testing methods (that is, logarithm-of-time and square-root-oftime methods). Hence, the early stage log-/ method may provide a more realistic
value of fieldwork.
Tahle 10.6 Comparisonof c,.Obtaincdfrom VariousMethods*
cu x 104 cm2/sec

Rangeof
pressureo'
(kN/m'zl
Red earth

Brown soil

Black cotton soil

lllite

Bentonite

Chicago clay
(Taylor, 1948)

25-50
-50 t(x)
t(x)-200
200- 400
400-800
25-50
50-100
100-20t)
200- 400
4(X)-U00
2-5--50
50-100
100-2(x)
200- 4(x)
400- 800
25-50
.50 I(X)
l(n-200
200-'100
400- 80t)
2-s-.50
50-100
100-200
200- 400
4(X) 800
r2.5-25
25-50
50-100
100-20t)
200-400
400- 800
800-1 600

Logarithmof-time
method

4.63
6.43
t 3 .41
u .I 0
3.13
t
3.02
2.86
2.09
1.30
5.07
3.06
2.00
l.l5
0.-56
1.66
1.34
2.20
3 .l 5
4.l-5
0.063
0.046
0.044
0.021
0.01-5
25.10
20.70
t3;70
3.18
4.56

6.0.s

'7.09

Square-rootEarly stage
of-time
method
log t method

.5.4-5
1.98
9.99
10.90
I 1.99
4.45
3.77
3.4t)
2.21
1.4-s
6.-5-5
3.69
2.50
1.57
0.64
2.25
3 .l 3
3 .l 8
,1.59
5.82
0.130
0.100
0.052
0.022
0.017
45.50
23.90
17.40
4.71
4.40
6.44
8.62

6.12
9.00
I 1.43
t2.56
t 2.ttO
).41

3.n0
3.52
2.74
t.36
9;73
4.78
-i.4)

2.03
0;79
2.50
-).)

3.6-5
5.14
6.45
0.t62
0.130
0.081
0.040
0.()22
46.00
31.-50
20.20
4.97
4.91
7.41
9.09

* After a table from "Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation from Early Stage of

Log r Plot," by R. G. Robinson and M. M. Allam, L996,Geotechnical TestingJournal, 19(3)
pp. 3 16-320. Copyright O 1996 American Society for Testing and Materials. Reprinted with
permission.

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Example10.7
The time requiredfor 50% consolidationof a 25-mm-thickclaylayer (drainedat
both top and bottom) in the laboratoryis 2 min. 20 sec.How long (in days)will it
take for a 3-m-thickclay layer of the sameclay in the field under the samepressure incrementto reach50% consolidation?In the field, there is a rock layer at
the bottomof the clay.
Solution
('rlti.l,l

L',./loh
')rr

LJz
r r dr(lal')

flrb

u2
r, ,/rltield)

'ficld

I"l?n(,,,tu\

HtarQort)

140sec

/fi"r,r

(3 rn)t
7on2s;T:
t _ l

t
'field

8,064,000
sec : 93.33days

*-

Exa mp l e1 0 .8
Refer to Example10.7.How long (in days)will it take in the field for 30% primary
consolidationto occur?Use Eq. (10.52).
Solution
From Eq. (10.52),
crJii.t,t
:T",xlJ2
H'artlah)

So
t x(Jz

\:

t2

93.33days
T^

Ui
Ui

502
302

/e * 33.6days

10.13 Coefficient of Consolidation

2gg

Example10.9
A 3-in.-thicklayer (doubledrainage)of saturatedclayunder a surcharge
loading
underwent90% primary consolidationin 75 days.Find the coefficient
of consoli_
dation of clay for the pressurerange.
$olution
:
Tun
.,

c
"t!'
H

rd,

Ha,: 3 m/2 = 1.5m. Also. Z*, =

P:"1u1"the claylayerhastwo-waydrainage,
0.848(seeTable10.5).
So
c"(75x 24 x 6o x 6o)
0.848(1.sx 100)2

:
= 0.00294cm2/sec
",, s1lli?lrioo
75 x 24 x 60 x OO

Example10.10
For a normally consolidatecl
laboratoryclayspecimendrainedon both sides,the
fbllowing are given:
ni2:30001b/ft2
= e 7 1 -l . l .
o'r,* Ao' : 60001b/ft2 e : 0.g
Thicknessof clay specimen: 1 in.
Time for 50% consolidation: 2 min
a. Determinethe hydraulicconductivity(frlmin) of the clayfor the loading
range.
b. How long (in days)will it take for a 6-ft claylayerin the field (drained
on
one side)to reach60% consolidation?
Solution
Part A
The coefficientof compressibilityis
Q,,
tn..: "
7*eo.,,

/ A u \
\ G'/
1,+er,

A e = L . 1- 0 . 9 : 0 . 2

Ac' = 6000- 3000: 30001b/ft,

1 . 1+ 0 . 9

err:*_;-x1.0

:
)

300

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

So
0.2
3000
m,:
ffi:

3 . 3 3x 1 0 5 f t 2 / l b

Z, : 0.197;thus,
FromTable10.5,for U : 504/",

(0.1e?)
(r*)'
cu:

: 1.71x l0 4fr2lmin

x 10-sft?lb)(6z.4lbltf)
k: c.m,y,,,-(l.i\ x 10-1ft2/min)(3.33
: 3.55x l0 7ftlmin
PartB
'f
lAtr

--

, -*
t60

L- t '^rl na ,

H!,,
TnuHl,,
c.,.

From Table 10.5,for U : 60o/oand 76u= 0.2t16,

teo:

10.14

{0.286)(6)l
:60.211min :41.8days
,r, *ffi

Calculation of Consolidation
Settlement under a Foundation
Chapter 9 showed that the increasein the vertical stressin soil causedby a load applied ovcr a limited area decreaseswith depth z measuredfrom the ground surface
downward. Hence to estimate the one-dimensionalsettlement of a foundation. we
can use Eq. ( lU.2a),( 10.26),or ( 10.27).However,the increaseof effectivestress,Aa',
in theseequationsshould be the averageincreasein the pressurebelow the centerof
the foundation. The valuescan be determined by using the procedure describedin
Chapter 9.
Assuming that the pressureincreasevariesparabolically,using Simpson'srule,
we can estimate the value of Aoj,,.as

LrvLu

A,rr',+4Acr'^* Ltr'6

( 10.s8)

where L,o',, Lrr',,,and Aoi, represent the increase in the effective pressure at the top,
middle, and bottom of the layer, respectively.

10.14 Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation

Ex amp l e1 0 .1 1
Calculatethe settlementof the 10-ft-thickclay layer (Figure 1A.29)that will result
from the load carried by a S-ft-squarefooting. Tire ciay-isnormaliy consolidated.
use the weightedaveragemethod [Eq. (10.5s)]to ca]culaterhe averageincrease
of effectivepressurein the clay layer.

ilr
, I+
_
DrY sand

+ '+

ydry=loopct

l
5 {t

,on

r l
eootins size

srrxiti

-*-1----

-------v-g':T1itiyy1

Sand
%at= 120 Pcf

Figure 1A.29
$olution
For normally consolidatedclay,from Eq. (70.24),
tn" :

C,,H

l+eorrg

o'0 + L,o'ou

ob

where
C. = 0.009(Lr - 10) = 0.009(40- 1.0)= g.y1
11:10X12:120in.

it

eo: 1.0
ob:

rf
$

- 62.4]+
loft x ydry(sand)
+ l0ftl7,o,1,u"d)
fgly,u,i.ruy
)- 62.4]

: l 0 x 1 0 0+ 1 0 ( t 2 0- 6 2 . 4 )+ 5 ( l t 0 - 6 2 . 4 )
: 1814lblft2

302

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

From Eq. (f0.58),

Lo',*4Lo'^*

Lr'L,

Lo'6

A{r',,L.o'^,andAaibelow the centerofthefootingcanbe obtainedfromEq. (9.33).

Now we canpreparethe followingtable (note:LIB = 5/5 = 1):
fttl

b= Bl2

(ft)

(ft)

t
1

0
25

2
2

.
.
2.5

ht = zlb

8
10

cl
{kip/ft'?}

200
5 x 5
8
8

L,c' = qlt
{kip/lt'?l

t1

0.051

0.408- Aol

0.o29
0.019

0.232= Lo'^
0.152= LoL

So
LoL,:

+ 0.152
0.408+ (4)(0.232)
:

0.248kip/ft2:24Blblft2

Hence,

o.ein
t.- q1+P,o*s1r*1#:
10.15

Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

In many instances,santl drains and prefubricated verticul drains are used in the field
to acceleratcconsolidationsettlementin soft, normally consolidatedclay layersand
to achievc precompressionbefore the construction of a desired foundation. Sand
drains are constructedby drilling holes through the clay layer(s)in the field at regular intervals.The holes are then backfilledwith sand.This can be achievedby several
means,such as (a) rotary drilling and then backfilling with sand; (b) drilling by continuous flight auger with hollow stem and backfilling with sand (through the hollow
stem); and (c) driving hollow steelpiles.The soil inside the pile is then jetted out, and
the hole is backfilled with sand. Figure 10.30shows a schematic diagram of sand
drains.After back{illingthe drill holeswith sand,a surchargeis applied at the ground
surface.This surchargewill increasethe pore water pressurein the clay.The excess
pore water pressurein the clay will be dissipatedby drainage-both vertically and
radially to the sand drains - which acceleratessettlementof the clay layer.In Figure
10.30a,note that the radius of the sand drains is r,,,.Figure 10.30bshowsthe plan of
the layout of the sand drains. The effective zone from which the radial drainage will
be directed toward a given sand drain is approximately cylindrical, with a diameter
of d". The surcharge that needs to be applied at the ground surface and the length of
time it has to be maintained to achieve the desired degree of consolidation will be a
function of r,,,,d", and other soil parameters.Figure 10.31showsa sand drain installation in progress.

10.15 Methods for Accelerating Consolidation Settlement

Surcharge

tt

I I

t
t

t
t

brouno
-g-I|aleltlble**

'j..:".t.':.".
"'

|*t'
llqa
l

I Clav

I tuv.t

.1..

- : ,i : V , :. . - .

. . ' - , - ., '. . . :

i Sand drain;
I radius = r,n.

Hc

.t:'nu

verilcxr dralnage

Radial
drainage

:
:

Radial
(rrarnage

II
I

t
, ,Ver1!9q!.dra!ng9
Santl
(a) Scction

(b) l'lan

Figure 70.30 Sanddrains

Figure 10.31
Sanddraininstallation
irr
progress(courtesyof E. C. Shin,
Universityof Inchon,
SouthKorea)

304

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Polypropylenc
core

<jru
S;;;1J1:;J
g;j:j;;;1:g:;r

:-jj:tt;Sr:,:i
j::.:r:s:t

Ceotextile
litbric

Figure 10.32 Prctabricatedvertical drain (PVD)

Figure 10.33
I n t a l l a t i o no 1 ' P V D si n
progrcss(courtesyof E. C.
S h i n . l . l n i v e r s i t yo [ I n c h o n ,
SouthKorea)

prelabricatcd vertical drains (PVDs). which are also referred to as wlck or strip
tlruins, were originally developedas etsubstitutefor thc commonly used sand drain'
With the advent of msterials scicnce,these drains are manufacturedfrom synthetic
polymcrs such as polypropylene anclhigh-densitypolyethylene.PVDs are normally
manufactured with a corrugated or chernneledsyntheticcore enclosedby a geotextile filter, as shown schematicallyin Figure 10.32.lnstallation rates reported in the
literature are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s, excluding equipment mobilization and
setup time. PVDs have been used extensivelyin the past for expedientconsolidation
of low permeability soilsunder surfacesurcharge.The main advantageof PVDs over
sand diains is that they do not require drilling and, thus, installation is much faster.
Figure 10.33showsthe installation of PVDs in the field.

10.16

Summary and General Comments

In this chapter we discussedthe fundamental concepts and theories for estimating
elasticand consolidation (primary and secondary)settlement.Elastic settlementof
a foundation is primarily a function of the size and rigidity of the foundation, the
modulus of elasiicity, the Poisson'sratio of the soil, and the intensity of load on the
foundation.
Consolidation is a time-dependent process of settlement of saturated clay laybelow the ground water table by extrusion of excesswater pressure genlocated
ers

erated by application of load on the foundation. Total consolidationsettlemerr.

clay fbundation is a function of compressionindex (C.), swell index (C"), initial voratio, (e,,) and the average stressincrease in the clay layer. The degree of consolidation for a given soil layer at a certain time after the load application depends on its
coefficient of consolidation (c,,) and also on the length of the minimum drainage
path. Installation of sand drains and wick drains helps reduce the time for accomplishing the desired degree of consolidationfor a given constructionproject.
There are severalcasehistoriesin the literature for which the fundamentalprinciples of soil compressibilityhave been used to predict and compare the actual total
settlement and the time ratc of settlementof soil profiles under superimposedloading. In some cases.the actual and predictedmaximum settlementsagreeremarkably;
in many others, the predicted settlementsdeviate to a large extent from the actual
settlementsobserved.The disagreementin the latter casesmay have severalcauses:
1. Improper evaluation of soil properties
2. Nonhomogeneity and irrcgularity of soil profiles
3 . E r r o r i n t h c e v a l u a t i o no f t h c n c t s t r e s si n c r e a s ew i t h d e n t h .w h i c h i n d u c e s
settlement
The variation betwcen the predictcd and clbservedtimc rate o1 settlementmav
also be due tcr
a . I m p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o no f c , .( s e eS e c t i o n1 0 .l 3 )
b. Presenceof irrcgular sandy seamswithin the clay laycr, which reducesthe
length of the maximum drerinagepath, H,1,.

Problems
l0.l

ll).2

Estimate the immcdiate settlemcnt of a column footing 4.-5it in diameter

that is constructedon an unsaturatedclay layer.The column carries a load of
2 0 t o n s ,a n d i t i s g i v e nt h a t E , : 1 5 0 0l b / i n . 2a n d g . , : 0 . 2 5 .A s s u m et h e f o o t ing to be rigid. [Use Eq. ( 10.1).]
Refer to Figure 10.3.For a square foundation measuring3 m X 3 m in plan
supported by a layer of sand and givcn thal D, - 1.5m, t : 0.25 tn, E,, :
1 6 , 0 0 0k N / m 2 ,k : 4 0 0k N / m 2 / m ,/ r , : 0 . . 1n, - Z 0 m . E r : 1 5 x 1 0 6k N / m 2 ,
a n d A o : 1 0 0k N / m 2 .c i t l c u l a t et h e i m m e d i a t es e t t l e m e n t .

10.3 Following
arethe-'J,;jdjonsolidation test:
1.1
1.085
1.055
1.01
0.94
0.'79
0.63

0.2-5
0..5
l.t)
2.0
4.0
8.0
16.0

a. Plot the e-log o' curve.

b. Using Casagrande'smethod, determine the preconsolidationpressure.
c. Calculate the compression index C. from the laboratory e-log a' curve.

306

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

10.4 Repeat Problem 10.3.using the following values:
Pressure,a'
(kN/m2)

25
50
100
200
400
500

r.2l
1.195
1.1-5
1.06
0.98
0.925

10.5 A soil profile is shown in Figure 10.34.Thc uniformly distributed load on the
ground surfaceis Arr. Estimate the primary settlementof the normally consolidatedclay layer, given that
Hr:4tt,H,:6ft,H.-411
For sand,c - 0.-58,G, - 2.67
F o r c l a y ,c : l . l , G , : 2 . 1 2 .L L : 4 5
Aa - lft(X)lh/ltr
using thc following data:
10.6 Repeat Problem 10.-5,
I 11 : 2 ' 5 m ' H z : 2 ' 5 m ' H 1 : 3 r n
F o r s a n d ,a : 0 . 6 4 .G , - 2 . 6 5
F o r c l a y ,c - 0 . 9 ,G , - 2 . 7 5 ,L L : 5 5
A t r - 1 0 0k N i m r
using the l'ollowingdata:
10.7 Repeat Problem 10.-5,
A r r - 9 ( )k N / n r r
I I ' : 2 m ' I 1 2: 2 m ' I I l : l " 5 m
F o r s a n d . 7 , 1 ,-u 1 4 . 6k N / m r , y , , , r : 1 7 . 3k N / m l
F o r c l a y , 7 , u ,: 1 9 . - k1N / m r . L L : 3 8 , e - 0 ' 1 5

t
t

:!:]:;:;ill:.]:il;ni::i..-

A o r
I

II
I

Sand

Figure 10.34

Problems

1 1 1
: : : 1 : : : :: [ : '

Dry sand
e=0.6
C,=2.65

l0 fr
I
""- -f "t

y Croundwater tabfe

Sand
e=0.6

I
l0 ft

Figure 10.35
10.8 A soil profile is shown in Figure 10.35.The preconsolidationpressureof the
clay is 3400 lb/ft2. Estimate the primary consolidationsettlementthat will
take place as the result of a surchargeequal to2200 lb/ft2. Assume C. : JC,.
10.9 Refer to Problem 10.6.Given that c,, : 2.8 X 10 6 m2/min,how long will it
take for 60% primary consolidationto take place'?
10.10 The coordinatesof two points on a virgin compressioncurve are as follows:
er : l.lt2
u ' t - 2 0 0k N / m 2
c;
1.54
o'2 = 400 kN/m2
a. Determine the coefficientof volume compressibilityfor the pressure
range stated above.
b. Given that c,, : ().003cmr/sec,determine k in cm/seccorrespondingto the
averagevoid ratio.
10.11 For the virgin curve stated in Problem 10.10,what would be the effective
pressureo' correspondingto e : 7.7?
10.12 For the virgin curve stated in Problem 10.10,what would be the void ratio
corresponding to an effective pressure o' that is equal to 500 kN/m2?
10.13 Following are the relationships of e and o' for a clay soil:
e

r' (ton/ft2l

1.0
0.9'7
0.8-5
o.'75

0.2
0.5
1.8
3.2

For this clay soil in the field, the following values are given: H : 4.5 ft, o'u :
0.1 tonlft2,ando6 * Ao' :2tonlft2. Calculatethe expectedsettlement
caused by primary consolidation.
10.14 During a laboratory consolidation test, the time and dial gauge readings obtained from an increase in pressure on the specimen from 50 to 100 kN/m2
are given in the following table:

308

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Time
(min)

0
0.10
0.25
0.60
1.0
2.0
4.0
8.0

Dial gauge
reading
(mm)

3.98
4.08
4.10
4.13
4.r7
/ 1 1

4.30
4.42

Time
(min)

16.t)
30.0
60.0
120.0
240.0
480.0
960.0
t440.0

Dial gauge
reading
(mm)

4.57
4.74
4.92
5.08
-s.2I
5.28
5.33
5.39

a. Find the time for 50% primary consolidation (rr,,)using the logarithm-oftime method.
b. Find the time for 90% primary consolidation (rr,,)using the square-rootof-time method.
c. If the averageheight of the specimenduring consolidationcausedby this
incremental loading was22 mm and it was drained at both the top and the
bottom, calculatethe coefficientof consolidation using /r,,and /r,,obtained
from parts (a) and (b).
10.15 Refer to the laboratory tcst rcsults givcn in Problem 10.14. Using the hyperbola method, determine r:,..The averageheight of the spccimenduring consolidation was22 mm, and it was drained at the top and bottom.
10.16 The time for 50% consolidationof a 2-5-mm-thickclay layer (drained at top
and bottom) in the laboratory is l-50sec.How long (in days) will it take for a
3-m-thick laycr of thc samc clay in the field under the same pressureincrement to reach 50% consolidation'lThere is a rock layer at the bottom of the
clay in the field.
10.17 For a normally consolidatedclay,the following valuesare given:
( - (.- l.2l
o',t:2 ttln/ftr
6',,1 L.rr' 4 trln/l't2 r, - 0.96
The hydraulic conductivity k of the clay for the precedingloading range is
1 . 8 x 1 0 - 4f t l d a y .
a. How long (in days) will it take for a 9-ft-thick clay layer (drained on one
side) in the held to reach 60% consolidation'?
b. What is the settlementat that time (i.e.,at 60"/"consolidation)?
10.18 A 1O-ft-thicklayer (two-way drainage) of saturatedclay under a surcharge
loading underwent 90% primary consolidationin 100 days.
a. Find the coefficient of consolidation of clay for the pressure range.
b. For a 1-in-thick undisturbedclay specimen,how long will it take to
undergo 90% consolidationin the laboratory for a similar consolidation
pressure range? The laboratory tests'sspecimen will have two-way
drainage.
L0.19 Laboratory tests on a 25-mm-thick clay specimen drained at the top only
show 50% consolidationtakes place in 11 min.
a. How long will it take for a similar clay layer in the field, 4 m thick and
drained at the top and bottom, to undergo 50% consolidation?
b. Find the time required for the clay layer in the field, as described in part
(a), to reach 10"/" consolidation.

References

309

Load = 0

I
I
V
!r.

:.'

Sand
%at' l8 kf{/lu3

Sand

10.20 For a laboratory consolidationtest on a clay specimen(drained on both

sides),the following resultswere obtained:
Thicknessof the clay soil - 2-5mm
r r i : ' 5 1k1N / m )
t ' 1- 0 ' 9 2
tr'2 l20 kN/m:
c2- {).713
Time for -507oconsolidation : 2.5 min
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the clay fbr the loading range.
10.21 Refer to Figure 10.36.Given that B : 1.5 m, L - 2.5 m, and O : 120 kN,
calculatethc primary consolidationsettlementof the foundation.
1 0 . 2 2 R e d o P r o b l e m 1 0 . 2 1w i t h B : I m , L : 3 m , a n d Q : 1 1 0k N .

References
Cnsecn'rNoe, A. (1936). "Determination of the PreconsolidationLoad and Its Practical
Significance." Proceedings,1st International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,Cambridge, Mass.,Vol. 3, 60-64.
casac;naNoE, A. and Faouv, R. E. (1940). "Notes on Soil resting for Engineering purposes," Harvard University Graduate School of Engineering publication No. 8.
Houcs, B. K. (19-57).Basic SctilsEngineering, Ronald Press,New york.
MavNE, P. w., and Pour-os, H. G. (1999). "Approximate Displacement Influence Factors for
Elastic Shallow Foundations," Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,ASCE, Vol. 125,No. 6, 453-460.

310

Chapter 10 Compressibility of Soil

Na.canar, T., and MuRrv, B. R. S. (1985)."Prediction of the PreconsolidationPressureand
Recompression Index of Soils," Geotechnical TestingJournal, Vol. 8, No. 4, 199-202.
Ntsstoe, Y. (1956). "A Brief Note on Compression Index of Soils," Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol. 82, No. SM3, 1027-1-1027-I4.
RENooN-HEnneno, O. (1983)."Universal CompressionIndex Equation," Drscusslon,Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 109, No. 10, 1349.
ReNpoN-HERRe,no, O. (1980). "Universal Compression Index Equation," Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering D ivision, ASCE, Vol. 106, No. GT1 1, 1779-1200.
RoerNSON,R. G., and Ar.t-err, M. M. (1996)."Determination of Coefflcientof Consolidation
from Early Stage of log r Plot," Geotechnical TestingJournal, ASTM. Vol. 19, No. 3,

316-320.
S c n r E t c r s p R , F . ( 1 9 2 6 ) . " Z u r T h e o r i e d e s B a u g r u n d e s ,B" u u i n g , e n i e u r , Y o l . T . 9 3 l - 9 3 5 , 9 4 9 952.
ScHvEnrnrnNN, J. H. (1953). "Undisturbed Consolidation Behavior of Clay," Transactions,
A S C E , V o l . 1 2 0 ,1 2 0 1 .
Sre naproN, A. W ( 1944). "Notes on the Comprcssibility of Clays." Quarterly Jotrrnal of the
Geological Society o.f'London, Vol. 100, I 19-13-5.
SRIosa.RaN,A., and PnRrnsu, K. (1985). "Improved Rcctangular Hyperbola Method for
the Determination of Cocfficient of Consolidalion," Geotechnical Testing Journal,
ASTM. Vol.8, No. 1,37-40.
'frryr-on,
D. W. (1942)."Research on Consolid:rtionof Clays," Serial No.82, Department of
Civil and Sanitary Engincering, Massachusettslnstitute of Technology, Cambridge,
Mass.
TnyLon, D. W. ( l94u). Fundamentals of Soil Mechanlcl, Wiley, New York.
TI-:Rz-I.<;tl, K. (192-5). Erdbattmechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlager, Deuticke,
Vienn:r.
T'enz-ncur, K., and Pr,.crc,R. B. (1967). Soil Mechanicsin EnginaeringPructice,2ndcd., Wiley, New York.