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Solutions To Apostol PDF
Solutions To Apostol PDF
ERNEST YEUNG
Fund Science! & Help Ernest finish his Physics Research! : quantum super-A-polynomials - a thesis by Ernest Yeung
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Ernest Yeung is supported by Mr. and Mrs. C.W. Yeung, Prof. Robert A. Rosenstone, Michael Drown, Arvid Kingl, Mr .
and Mrs. Valerie Cheng, and the Foundation for Polish Sciences, Warsaw University.
S OLUTIONS TO VOLUME 1 One-Variable Calculus, with an Introduction to Linear Algebra
I 2.5 Exercises - Introduction to set theory, Notations for designating sets, Subsets, Unions, intersections, complements.
Exercise 10. Distributive laws
Let X = A (B C), Y = (A B) (A C)
Suppose x X
x A and x (B C) = x A and x is in at least B or in C
then x is in at least either (A B) or (A C)
x Y, X Y
Suppose y Y
y is at least in either (A B) or A C
then y A and either in B or C
y X, Y X
X=Y
Let X = A (B C), Y = (A B) (A C)
Suppose x X
then x is at least either in A or in (B C)
if x A, x Y
if x (B C), x Y
x Y, X Y
Suppose y Y
then y is at least in A or in B and y is at least in A or in C
if y A, then y X
if y A B or y A C, y X (various carvings out of A, simply )
if y (B C), y X
y X, Y X
X=Y
1
Suppose b B and b
/ A. b A B but b
/ A. so A A B.
Exercise 13. Let x A , then x is at least in A or in . If x , then x is a null element (not an element at all). Then
= A B C.
Exercise 16.
if C A and C B, then C A B
c C, c A and c B
x A B, x A and x B. Then c C, c A B.
C AB
Exercise 17.
(1)
if A B and B C then
a A, a B.b B, b C.
then since a B, a C, c C such that c
/ B.
a A, a B so a 6= ca. = A C
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Exercise 18. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Suppose x A (B C)
then x A and x
/ B C = x
/ BC
then x is not in even at least one B or C
= x (A B) (A C)
Suppose x (A B) (A C)
then x is at least in (A B) or in (A C) = x is at least in A and not in B or in A and not in C
then consider when one of the cases is true and when both cases are true = x A (B C)
Exercise 19.
Suppose x B
AF
then x B, x
/
AF
x
/
A = x
/ A, A F
AF
since A F, x B, x
/ A, then x
\
AF
(B A)
Suppose x
(B A)
AF
Suppose x B
AF
then x
/
AF
Suppose x
(B A)
AF
AF
Exercise 20.
(2)
If C A,
A (B C) = (A B) C
I 3.3 Exercises - The field axioms. The goal seems to be to abstract these so-called real numbers into just xs and ys that
are purely built upon these axioms.
Exercise 1. Thm. I.5. a(b c) = ab ac.
Let x =
Want: x = by
Now b(1) = b, so ax = b = b(ay) = a(by)
= x = by (by Thm. I.7)
1 1
(ab)x = 1
(ab)1 = x
a(bx) = 1
a1 = bx
b(ax) = 1
b1 ax
a
b
(a)
y=
b
a
x=
b
z=
a = zt
by = u
a
b
b+t=0
a+u=0
+ x = v + x = 0 vb = a
a + (a) = vb + by = b(v + y) = 0
if b 6= 0, v + y = 0, but v + x = 0
by Thm. I.1 , x = y
b + t = 0, then z(b + t) = zb + zt = zb + a = z(0) = 0
a + zb = 0 = a = zb = by
since b 6= 0, z = y so x = y = z
Exercise 10. Since b, d 6= 0, Let
ad bc
bd
a
x=
b
c
t=
d
z=
xb ax = xb 1 > 0 = bx > 1 = by
b > 0 so x > y
Exercise 6.
6
If a = b and b = c, then a = c
If a = b and b < c, then a < c
If a < b and b = c, then a < c
If a < b and b < c, then a < c (by transitivity of the inequality)
= a c
Exercise 7. If a b and b c, then a c. If a = c, then by previous proof, a = b.
Exercise 8. If a b and b c, then a c. If a = c, then by previous proof, a = b.
Exercise 8. If a or b is zero, a2 or b2 = 0. By Thm. I.20, b2 0 or a2 0, respectively.
If a R so y R, such that a y = 0.
Consider y + 1 R (by closure under addition).
a (y + 1) = a y 1 = 0 1 < 0 Contradiction that a y + 1
Exercise 10.
If x = 0, done.
If x > 0, x is a positive real number. Let h =
x
.
2
x
> x Contradiction.
2
I 3.12 Exercises - Integers and rational numbers, Geometric interpretation of real numbers as points on a line,
Upper bound of a set, maximum element, least upper bound (supremum), The least-upper-bound axiom (completeness
axiom), The Archimedean property of the real-number system, Fundamental properties of the suprenum and infimum.
We use Thm I.30, the Archimedean property of real numbers, alot.
=
Theorem 9 (I.30). If x > 0 and if y is an arbitrary real number, there exists a positive integer n such that nx > y.
We will use the least upper-bound axiom (completeness axiom) alot for continuity and differentiation theorems later.
Apostol states it as an axiom; in real analysis, the existence of a sup for nonempty, bounded sets can be shown with an
algorithm to zoom into a sup with monotonically increasing and monotonically decreasing sequence of guesses and showing
its difference is a Cauchy sequence.
Axiom 1 (Least upper-bound axiom). Every nonempty set S of real numbers which is bounded above has a suprenum; that
is, theres a real number B s.t. B = supS.
Exercise 1. 0 < y x.
1
n.
Exercise 4. x is an arbitrary real number. By Thm. I.29 and well-ordering principle, there exists a smallest n + 1 positive
integer such that x < n + 1 (consider the set of all m + 1 > x and so by well-ordering principle, there must be a smallest
element of this specific set of positive integers).
If x = n for some positive integer n, done.
Otherwise, note that if x < n, then n + 1 couldnt have been the smallest element such that m > x. x > n.
Exercise 5. If x = n, done. Otherwise, consider all m > x. By well-ordering principle, there exists a smallest element n such
7
that n > x.
If x + 1 < n, then x < n 1, contradicting the fact that n is the smallest element such that x < n. Thus x + 1 > n.
Exercise 6. y x > 0.
a
b
xy =
Q, y
/ Q.
a by
b
If a by was an integer, say m, then y =
xy =
ay
ay
=
b1
b
If ay was an integer, ay = n, y =
x
y
a mb
b
which is rational. Contradiction.
n
, but y is irrational. = xy is irrational.
a
y is not an integer
Exercise 8. Proof by counterexamples. We want that the sum or product of 2 irrational numbers is not always irrational. If y
k
k
+ x > x. Let z = x + , z irrational .
n
n
Exercise 10.
2(m1 m2 ) = 1
m1 m2 =
(4) If n even, n is even, since for n = 2m, (2m)2 = 4m2 = 2(2m2 ) is even.
a2 = 2b2 . 2(b2 ) even. a2 even, so a even.
If a even a = 2n.a2 = 4n2
If b odd , b2 odd. b has no factors of 2 b2 6= 4n2
Thus b is even.
8
a
b
can be put into a form such that a or b at least is odd by the previous exercise.
However, a2 = 2b2 , so a even, b even, by the previous exercise, part (d) or 4th part. Thus
a
b
cannot be rational.
Exercise 12. The set of rational numbers satisfies the Archimedean property but not the least-upper-bound property.
Since
p
q
Q R, n pq11 >
p2
q2
since if q1 , q2 > 0,
np1 q2
q1 p2
>
q1 q2
q1 q2
np1 q2 > q1 p2
N
X
j=
j=1
N2 + N = 2
N
X
j=1
N
X
j=1
j=
N (N + 1)
2
n
X
j=
j=m
n
X
(n + m j)
j=m
So that
N
X
j=
j=1
N
X
j=m
N
X
j+
j=m
j=
m
X
j=
j=1
N
X
j+
j=m
m(m + 1)
N (N + 1)
=
2
2
N (N + 1) m(m + 1)
(N m)(N + m + 1)
=
2
2
+ (N 2)+
+
3+
2S = (N + 1)N
S=
9
(N 1)+ N
2+
1
N (N + 1)
2
N
1
X
j=1
PN
j=1
N
X
N (N + 1)
(2j 1) = 2
N = N2
2
j=1
N
N
N
X
X
X
N (N + 1)
N = N2
(j 2 (j 1)2 ) =
(j 2 (j 2 2j + 1)) =
(2j 1) = 2
2
j=1
j=1
j=1
N
N
N
X
X
X
3
3
3
3
3
2
(j (j 1) ) = N =
(j (j 3j + 3j 1)) =
(3j 2 3j + 1)
j=1
= 3
N
X
j=1
j 2 = 3
j=1
N
X
j 4 (j 1)4 = N 4 =
=4
j3 6
j=1
j3 =
j=1
N
X
j 4 (j 4 4j 3 + 6j 2 4j + 1) =
j=1
N
X
2N + 2N 3N 3N
N (N + 1)(2N + 1) X 2
N (N + 1)
+ N = N 3 =
=
=
j
2
2
6
j=1
j=1
N
X
j=1
3
N
X
4j 3 6j 2 + 4j 1 =
j=1
N (N + 1)
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
+4
N = N4
6
2
1
1 4
(N + N (N + 1)(2N + 1) 2N (N + 1) + N ) = (N 4 + (2N )N (N + 1) N (N + 1) + N )
4
4
1
1 (N (N + 1))2
1 4
(N + 2N 3 + 2N 2 N 2 N + N ) = N 2 (N 2 + 2N + 1) =
4
4
4
2
1(1 + 1)
2
N
+1
X
j=1
j=
n
X
j+n+1=
j=1
n(n + 1)
n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)
(n + 2)(n + 1)
+n+1=
=
2
2
2
Exercise 6.
(1)
A(k + 1) = A(k) + k + 1 =
1
8k + 8
(2k + 3)2
1
(2k + 1)2 + k + 1 = (4k 2 + 4k + 1) +
=
8
8
8
8
and
n(n 1)
>n
2
n2 n > 2n
n2 > 3n
n>3
Exercise 8.
a2 ca1 , a3 ca2 c2 a1
an+1 can ca1 cn1 = a1 cn
Exercise 9.
n = 1, 1 = 1
p
q
12 + 12 = 2 ( 2)2 + 12 = 3
q
( n)2 + 12 = n + 1
Exercise 10.
1 = qb + r
q = 0, b = 1, r = 1
2 = qb + r, q = 0, r = 2, b = 1, 2 or r = 0, q = 2; q = 1, r = 0
Assume n = qb + r; 0 r < b; b Z+ , b fixed
n + 1 = qb + r + 1 = qb + 1 + r = qb + 1 + b 1 = (q + 1)b + 0
Exercise 11. For n > 1, n = 2, 3 are prime. n = 4 = 2(2), a product of primes.
blue-eyed.
I 4.7 Exercises - Proof of the well-ordering principle, The summation notation. Exercise 1.
P4
(1) n(n+1)
= k=1 k = 10
2
P5
P3
n2
(2)
= n=0 2n = 1 + 14 = 15
n=2 2
P
P3
3
(3) 2 r=0 22r = 2 r=0 4r = 170
P4
j j = 1 + 4 + 27 + 44 = 288
(4)
P5j=1
5(6)
(5)
j=0 (2j + 1) = 2 2 + 6(1)= 36
P 1
Pn
1
1
1
n
(6)
k=1 k k+1 = 1 n+1 = n+1
k(k+1) =
Exercise 9.
n = 1(1)(3) + 5 = 2 = 2n
n = 2(1)(3) + 5 + (1)7 + 9 = 4 = 2n
n
2n
X
(1)k (2k + 1) = 2n
k=1
2(n+1)
n+1
(1)k (2k + 1) =
k=1
2n
X
k=1
= 2n + 2 = 2(n + 1)
Exercise 10.
11
+
+
=
+
+
k m=1
m
n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 2 m=1
m
2(n + 1)
(2n + 1)
n=1
k=n+2
2(n+1)
X (1)m+1
m
m=1
Exercise 13.
1
n = 12( 2 1) < 1 < 2 since > 2 1
2
r
1
n+1+ n
1
n + 1 case ( n + 2 n + 1)( n + 2 + n + 1) = n + 2 (n + 1) = 1
q
1
1
+
1 + n+1
n+2+ n+1
=
>1
2
2 n+1
So then, using the telescoping property,
m
m
X
X
1
<
2( n + 1 n) = 2( m 1) <
2( n n 1) = 2( m 1) < 2 m 1
n n=1
n=1
n=1
n1
X
x
x
if x 0
=
if x 0
x
x
if x 0
if x 0
(3) |x y| (
= |y x| by previous exercise and (1)(x y) = y x (by distributivity)
(x)2
if x 0
(4) |x|2 =
= x2
(x)2 if x 0
(
x
if x 0
2
(5) x =
= |x|
x if x 0
(6) We want to show that |xy| = |x||y|
(
(
xy
if xy 0
xy
if x, y 0 or x, y 0
|xy| =
=
xy if xy 0
xy if x, y 0 or x, y 0
xy
if x, y 0
x|y|
if x 0 xy if x, y 0
|x||y| =
=
x|y| if x 0
xy if x, y 0
xy
if x, y 0
(7) By previous exercise, since
(1
1
= y
y
1
y
x
= |xy 1 | = |x||y 1 |
y
(
1
if y1 0
1
= y1
1
if y 0 |y|
y
12
if
if
1
y
1
y
0
0
|x| |y| |x y|
(10)
(
||x| |y|| =
|x| |y|
|y| |x|
if |x| |y| 0
if |x| |y| 0
If k = 1 . . . n; ak x + bk = 0
!2
!2
n
n
X
X
2
ak (xak )
= x
ak
=
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
a2k
k=1
!
(xak )
k=1
n
X
!
a2k
k=1
n
X
!
b2k
k=1
bk
Proving ak x + bk = 0 means x = , ak 6= 0
ak
n
n
n
n
X
X
X
X
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + + an bn )2 =
a2j b2j +
aj ak bj bk ==
a2j b2j +
a2j b2k
j=1
j=1
j6=q
j6=k
a2j b2k
aj ak bj bk = aj bk (aj bk ak bj ) = 0
bj
if aj , bk 6= 0, aj bk ak bj = 0 = ak
+ bk = 0
aj
=
Exercise 8. The trick of this exercise is the following algebraic trick (multiplication by conjugate) and using telescoping
property of products:
j
(1 x2 )(1 + x2 ) = 1 x2
1
Y
j1
1 + x2
j=1
+2j
= 1 x2
j+1
n
j
1
Y
1 x2
1 x2
=
1x
1 x2j1
j=1
if x = 1, 2n
Exercise 10.
x>1
x2 > x
3
x >x >x
0<x<1
x2 < x
X 3 < x2 < x
Exercise 11. Let S = {n Z+ |2n < n!}.
(1)
1+
k1
Y
1
n
n j
X
n
1
n
=
j=0
k1
Y
n
X
k=0
n!
(n k)!k!
k
1
n
n!
1
nr
=
k
n
n
n
(n
k)!
r=0
r=0
n
k1
X
1
n!
1 Y
r
=
1
k
k! r=0
n
n
(n k)!
1
r
k=1
(2)
n
X
1
(1 + )n = 1 +
n
k=1
!
k1
n
n
X
X
r
1 Y
1
1
=1+
(1 ) < 1 +
<1+
k! r=0
n
k!
2k
k=1
1
2
k=1
1 n+1
2
1
2
n
1
)
= 1 + (1
2
<3
The first inequality obtained from the fact that if 0 < x < 1, xn < x < 1. The second inequality came from the
1
previous exercise, that k!
< 21k .
n k
n1 k
n1 k
1 n X n
1
1 X n
1
1 X n
1
n 1
(1 + ) =
=1+ +
=1+ +
+
> >2
n
k
n
n
k
n
n
k
n
1 n
k=0
k=1
k=2
Exercise 13.
(1)
S=
p1 k
X
b
k=0
p1
X
bk ap1k = ap1
b p
a
ab
k=0
1
b p
a
ab
bp a p
ba
(2)
(3) Given
np <
(n + 1)p+1 np+1
< (n + 1)p
p+1
We want
n1
X
kp <
k=1
X
np+1
<
kp
p+1
k=1
2p+1
n = 21p <
< 1p + 2p
p+1
p=1
1 < 22 /2 = 2.2 < 1 + 2 = 3
p2
1 < 8/3 < 1 + 4 = 5
I 4.10 Miscellaneous exercises involving induction. Exercise 13.
(1)
(2)
(3) Let n = 2.
21
X
k p = 1p = 1,
k=1
2
np+1
2p+1 X p
=
k = 1 + 2p
p+1
p+1
k=1
What makes this exercise hard is that we have to use induction on p itself. Let p = 1.
1<
21+1
= 2 < 1 + 21 = 3
1+2
14
2p+1
p+1
>1
2p+1
= (1 + 2p )(p + 1) > 2p+1
p+1
So
(p + 2)(1 + 2p+1 ) = (p + 2) + ((p + 1) + 1)2p (2) = (p + 2) + 2(p + 1)2p + 2p (2) >
> (p + 2) + 2(2p+1 (p + 1)) + 2p (2) = p + 2p+2 + 2p+1 > 2p+2
So the n = 2 case is true for all p Z+ .
Assume nth case is true. We now prove the n + 1 case.
n
X
kp =
k=1
n+1
X
n1
X
k p + np <
k=1
kp =
k=1
n
X
np+1
(n + 1)p+1 np+1
(n + 1)p+1
np+1
+ np <
+
=
p+1
p+1
p+1
p+1
k p + (n + 1)p >
k=1
(n + 1)p+1 np+1
(n + 1)p+1
np+1
+
=
p+1
p+1
p+1
(n+1)p+1 np+1
p+1
< (n + 1)p .
1 + a1 = 1 + a1
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) = 1 + a2 + a1 + a1 a2 1 + a1 + a + 2
Test the n + 1 case
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) . . . (1 + an+1 ) (1 + a1 + a2 + + an )(1 + an+1 ) =
= 1 + a1 + a2 + + an + an+1 + an+1 (a1 + a2 + . . . an )
1 + a1 + a2 + + an + an+1
Note that the last step depended upon the given fact that all the numbers were of the same sign.
For a1 = a2 = = an = x, then we have (1 + x)n 1 + nx.
n
X
n j
n
(1 + x) =
x = 1 + nx
j
j=0
Since x and n are arbitrary, we can compare terms of xj s. Then x = 0.
Exercise 15.
2!
22
1 3!
2 33
2
9
< 1.
(n + 1)n+1
(n + 1)n+1
k
=
n
n+1
n!
nn
1 k
,
2
n k
n k
k k+1
1
1
1
1 1
1
= 1
<
=
2
n+1
2
2 2
2
where in the second to the last step, we had made this important observation:
k
n
1
n+1
1
1
1
= k +
=
<
2
2
2
n+1
2k + 1
2
Exercise 16.
15
n
2.
an+1
1+ 5
a1 = 1 <
2
!2
1+ 5
1+2 5+5
6+2 5
a2 = 2 <
=
=
2
4
4
!n1
!n
!n
1+ 5
1+ 5
2
1+ 5
+
=
1+
= an + an1 <
=
2
2
2
1+ 5
!
!n+1
!n
1+ 5
2(1 5) 4
1+ 5
=
=
+
2
15
4
2
X
a k bk
2
X
P
2
X 2p
( xpk )
n =
(xk )
n
a2k
X
b2k
xpk
2
X
x2p
k
We define Mp as follows:
Pn
k=1
Mp =
xpk
1/p
So then
nMpp =
n
X
xpk
k=1
Pn
k=1
M2p =
2p
nM2p
=
x2p
k
!1/2p
n
n
X
2p
x2p
k = nM2p
x2p
k
(nMpp )2
= nMp2p
n
k=1
2p
M2p
Mp2p = M2p Mp
Exercise 18.
Exercise 19. ak = 1,
Pn
k=1
a4 + b4 + c4
3
1/4
a2 + b2 + c2
3
64
a4 + b4 + c4
3
1/2
=
23/2
since
31/2
1=n
1.7 Exercises - The concept of area as a set function. We will use the following axioms:
Assume a class M of measurable sets (i.e. sets that can be assigned an area), set function a, a : M R.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
If only one c such that a(S) c a(T ), S, T such that they satisfy Eqn. (??)
then Q measurable and a(Q) = c
Exercise 1.
(1) We need to say that we consider a line segment or a point to be a special case of a rectangle allowing h or k (or both)
to be zero.
Let Tl = { line segment containing x0 }, Q = {x0 }.
For Q, only Q
By Axiom 3, let T = S.
a(T S) = a() = a(T ) a(T ) = 0
Q Tl = a() a(Q) a(Tl ) = 0 a(Q) 0
= a(Q) = 0
(2)
N
[
Qj =
j=1
N
X
a(Qj )
j=1
S
N
j=1
Qj = 0
a(A B) =
p
1
1
a2 + b2 d + ab ( ab + a2 + b2 d) = ab
2
2
Exercise 3. Prove that every trapezoid and every parallelogram is measurable and derive the usual formulas for their areas.
A trapezoid is simply a rectangle with a right triangle attached to each end of it. Tr = R + T1 + T2 . T1 , T2 are right
triangles and so by the previous problem, T1 , T2 are measurable. Then Tr is measurable by the Additive property axiom (note
that the triangles and the rectangle dont overlap).
17
whose vertices are lattice points. The area of P is I + 12 B 1, where I denotes the number of lattice points inside the polygon
and B denotes the number on the boundary.
(1) Consider one side of the rectangle lying on a coordinate axis with one end on the origin. If the rectangle side has
length l, then l + 1 lattice points lie on this side (you have to count one more point at the 0 point. Then consider the
same number of lattice points on the opposite side. We have 2(l + 1) lattice points so far, for the boundary.
The other pair of sides will contribute 2(h1) lattice points, the 1 to avoid double counting. Thus 2(l +h) = B.
I = (h 1)(l 1) by simply considering multiplication of (h 1) rows and (l 1) columns of lattice points
inside the rectangle.
I + 21 B 1 = hl h l + 1 + (l + h) 1 = hl = a(R)
(2)
(3)
Exercise 5. Prove that a triangle whose vertices are lattice points cannot be equilateral.
My way: I will take, for granted, that we know an equilateral triangle has angles of /3 for all its angles.
Even if we place two of the vertices on lattice points, so that its length is 2L, and put the midpoint and an intersecting
perpendicular bisector on a coordinate axis (a picture would help), but the ratio of the perpendicular bisector to the third
vertex to half the length of the triangle is cot /3 = 13 . Even if we go down by an integer number L, L steps down, we go
out to the third vertex by an irrational number 3L. Thus, the third vertex cannot lie on a lattice point.
Exercise 6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let M denote the class of all subsets of A. (There are 32 altogether counting A itself
and the empty set ). (My Note: the set of all subsets, in this case, M, is called a power set and is denoted 2A . This is
because the way to get the total number of elements of this power set, |2A |, or the size, think of assigning to each element a
yes, if its in some subset, or no, if its not. This is a great way of accounting for all possible subsets and we correctly
get all possible subsets.) For each set S in M, let n(S) denote the number of distinct elements in S. If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
T = {3, 4, 5},
[
n(S
T) = 5
\
n(S
T) = 2
n(S T ) = n({1, 2}) = 2
n(T S) = n({5}) = 1
n satisfies nonnegativeSproperty
T because by definition, theres
S no such
T thing as a negative number of elements. If S, T are
subsets of A, so are S T , S T since every element in S ST , S T is in S. Thus n could
it, so that its
T be assigned to T
measurable. Since n counts only distinct elements, then n(S T ) = n(S) + a(T ) a(S T ), where a(S T ) ensures
there is no double counting of distinct elements. Thus, the Additive Property Axiom is satisfied.
For S T , then x T S, x T, x
/ S Now S T , so x S, x T . Thus T S is complementary to S with
respect to T . n(S) + n(T S) = n(T ), since n counts up distinct elements.
18
1.11 Exercises - Intervals and ordinate sets, Partitions and step functions, Sum and product of step function. Exercise
4.
(1)
[x + n] = y x + n, y Z; y n x
[x] + n = z + n x + n
If y n < z, then y < z + n x + n. then y wouldnt be the greatest integer less than x + n
= y = z + n
(2)
= y2 x [x] = y2 x y2 1 x
x y1 = [x] = y2 1 = [x] 1; ( and y1 = y2 1 since y2 > x )
If x is an integer [x] = [x]
(3) Let x = q1 + r1 , y = q2 + r2 ; 0 r1 , r2 < 1.
(
= [q1 + q2 + r1 + r2 ] =
[x] + [y] = q1 + q2
q1 + q2
q1 + q2 + 1 if r1 + r2 1
[x] + [y] + 1 = q1 + q2 + 1
(4)
1
If x is an integer , [2x] = 2x = [x] + [x + ] = [x] + [x] = 2x
2
(
q
if r < 12
1
[x] + [x + ] = q +
2
2q + 1 if r > 12
(
2q
if r < 12
[2x] = [2(q + r)] = [2q + 2r] =
2q + 1 if r > 12
(5)
(
q
1
2
[x] + [x + ] + [x + ] = q +
3
3
q + 1 if r >
3q
[3x] = [3(q + r)] = [3q + 3r] = 3q + 1
3q + 2
if r <
2
3
if r < 13
if 13 < r <
if r > 23
2
3
(
+
q
q+1
if r <
if r >
1
3
1
3
3q
= 3q + 1
3q + 2
if r < 31
if 13 < r <
if r > 32
2
3
2
3
nq
[nx] = [n(q + r)] = nq + 1
nq + n 1
if r < n1
if n1 < r <
if r > n1
n
2
n
Exercise 6.
1
a(R) = hk = IR + BR 1
2
b
X
n=a
[f (n)] = g f (n), g Z, so that if f (n) is an integer,g = f (n), and if f (n) is not an integer, g is the largest integer such
that g < f (n), so that all lattice points included and less than g are included.
Exercise 7.
19
(1) Consider a right triangle with lattice points as vertices. Consider b + 1 lattice points as the base with b length.
Start from the vertex and move across the base by increments of 1.
The main insight is that the slope of the hypotenuse of the right triangle is ab so as we move 1 along the base, the
hypotenuse (or the y-value, if you will) goes up by ab . Now
h na i
= number of interior points at x = n and below the hypotenuse line of the right triangle of sides a, b,
(5)
b
including points on the hypotenuse
b1 h
X
na i
n=1
1
ab
+ ((a + 1) + b) 1 =
2
2
ab a b 1
(a 1)(b 1)
=
+
2
2
2 2 2
b1 h
i
X
(a 1)(b 1)
na
=
=
b
2
n=1
Now
(2) a, b Z+
b1 h
X
na i
b1
X
a(b n)
=
b
b
n=1
( P
b1
b1
Xh
n=1 an
a
an i
a
=
Pb1 ban
b
n=1
b a 1
n=1
n=1
n
b
1 cant be!)
b1 h
X
an
b1 h
i
X
an i
a 1 =
a (b 1) =
b
b
n=1
n=1
if an
b a4 is an integer (but a
otherwise
b1 h
X
an i
n=1
+ a(b 1) (b 1)
b1 h
X
na i
n=1
(a 1)(b 1)
2
Exercise 8. Recall that for the step function f = f (x), theres a partition P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] such that f (x) = ck
if x Ik .
1 x S
.
0 x
/S
If x [a, b], then x must only lie in one open subinterval Ij , since real numbers obey transitivity.
Given that s (x) =
n
X
ck Ik (x) = cj for x Ij =
k=1
n
X
k=1
1.15 Exercises - The definition of the integral for step functions, Properties of the integral of a step function, Other
notations for integrals. Exercise 1.
R3
(1) 1 [x]dx = (1) + 1 + (2) = 2
R 7/2
R3
(2) 1 [x + 21 ]dx = 1/2 [x]dx = (1) 12 + (1)(1) + (2)(1) + 12 3 = 4
R3
(3) 1 ([x] + [x + 12 ])dx = 6
R3
(4) 1 2[x]dx = 4
R3
R6
(5) 1 [2x]dx = 12 2 [x]dx = 12 ((2)1 + (1) + (1) + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 6
R3
R 3
R1
(6) 1 [x]dx = 1 [x]dx = 3 [x]dx = 3 + 2 + 1 = 6
Exercise 2.
(
5/2
s=
1
if 0 < x < 2
if 2 < x < 5
20
Exercise 3. [x] = y x so y x.
Z
[x x]dx =
([x] + [x])dx =
a
(1)dx = a b
a
Exercise 4.
(1) n Z+ ,
(2)
Rn
0
[t]dt =
Pn1
t=0
t=
(n1)(n1+1)
2
(n1)n
2
Exercise 5.
R2
R2
(1) 0 [t2 ]dt = 1 [t2 ]dt = 1( 2 1) + 2( 3 2) + 3(2 3) = 5 2 3
R3 2
R3 2
R0 2
R3 2
R0 2
R3 2
(2) 3 [t ]dt = 0 [t ]dt + 3 [t ]dt = 0 [t ]dt + 3 [t ]dt = 2 0 [t ]dt
Z 3
16 5 6 7 8
Z 2
Z 3
2
[t ]dt +
[t2 ]dt = 21 3 2 3 5 6 7 8
0
Exercise 6.
(1)
(2)
Rn
[t]2 dt
R0x 2
[t] dt
0
Rn
P[x1]
[t]2 dt =
j=1
Pn1
j=1
2
j2 =
(n1)n(2n1)
6
j 2 + q r where x = q + r, q Z+ , 0 r < 1.
Z x
q(q 1)(2q 1)
+ q 2 r = 2(x 1) = 2(q + r 1)
[t]2 dt =
6
0
= q(q 1)(2q 1) + 6q 2 r = 12q + 12r 12
= x = 1, x = 5/2
Exercise 7.
(1)
Z
Z 9
[ t]dt =
[ t]dt = 3(1) + 5(2) = 13
1
1
Assume
n2
n(n 1)(4n + 1)
[ t]dt =
6
0
Z (n+1)2
Z n2
Z
[ t]dt =
[ t]dt +
Z
(4)(3)(17)
6
(n+1)2
n(n 1)(4n + 1)
[ t]dt =
+ n((n + 1)2 n2 ) =
6
0
(n2 n)(4n + 1) + 6n(2n + 1)
4n3 + n2 4n2 n + 12n2 + 6n
4n3 + 9n2 + 5n
=
=
=
6
6
6
n2
indeed ,
(n + 1)(n)(4(n + 1) + 1)
(n2 + n)(4n + 5)
4n3 + 5n2 + 4n2 + 5n
=
=
6
6
6
21
Exercise 8.
R b+c
Exercise 9.
R kb
a+c
ka
f (x)dx =
R b+cc
f (x)dx =
1
k
Rb
f (x (c))dx = a f (x + c)dx
R (kb)/k x
Rb
f 1/k dx = k a f (kx)dx
(ka)/k
a+cc
R3
So for f (3) =
Rp
0
s(x)dx.
So then
(
f (p) =
Z
f (p + 1) = f (p) +
(
p
2
p1
2
=
(
=
p
p+1
2 (1)
p1
p+1
2 (1)
p even
since
p even
p+1
n
p+1
s(x)dx = p1
2 (1)
p
(
(
p
p
p even
2
= p1
+
p
p odd
2
(p+1)
2
p
2
p even + (1)p p
=
if p + 1 even
if p + 1 odd
(1)
b
s(x)dx =
a
b
Z
s+
n
X
k=1
n1
X
s=
b
s2k (xk
xk1 ) +
k=1
n2
X
s3k (xk
xk1 ) =
k=n1
Rb
Rb
s+ a
a
Rb
n2
X
s3k (xk
Z
xk1 ) =
Pn3
(s + t) = k=1
(s + t)3k (xk xk1 ) 6=
t
Rb
Pn
(3) a cs = k=1 (cs)3 (xk xk1 ) 6= c a s
(4) Consider these facts that are true, that xk1 < x < xk , s(x) = sk ; x0 = a + c, xn = b + c,
xk1 c < x c < xl c = yk1 < y < yk so then s(y + c) = sk .
(2)
Rab
n
X
k=1
k
X
k=1
n
X
Rb
a
s=
Pn
3
k=1 sk (xk
s(y + c)dy
a
k=1
(5) s < t,
xk1 ).
if 0 < s, s3 < s2 t < st2 < t3
if s < 0t, s3 < and t3 > 0
if s < t < 0, s3 < s2 t, s(st) < t(ts) = t2 s
s(x)dx
a
k=1
ts > t2
t2 s < t 3
Then
Rb
a
s<
Rb
a
t.
Exercise 12.
Rb
Rc
s+ b s
a
Rb
(s+t) =
a
(1)
(2)
Rc
Pn3
Pn2
Pn1
sk (x2k x2k1 ) = a s
sk (x2k x2k1 ) = k=1
sk (x2k x2k1 ) + k=n
= k=1
1
Pn3
Pn3
Pn3
Pn3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
k=1 tk (xk xk1 )
k=1 sk (xk xk1 )+
k=1 (sk +tk )(xk xk1 ) =
k=1 (s+t)k (xk xk1 ) =
since P3 = {xk } is a finer partition than the partition for s, P1 , t, P2 , then consider
2
sk (yj2 yj1
) = sk ((x2k+1 x2k ) + (x2k x2k1 )), so
n3
X
sk (x2k
xk1 )+
k=1
n3
X
tk (x2k
xk1 )=
n1
X
sj (x2j
k=1
(4)
tj (x2j x j 12 ) =
s+
Pn
csk (x2k x2k1 ) = c k=1 sk (x2k x2k1 ) =
Pn
s(x)dx = k=1 sk (x2k x2k1 ) where
cs =
Rab+c
a+c
n2
X
j=1
Rb
xj1 )+
j=1
=
(3)
Pn
k=1
a
Rb
c a
s(y + c)dy =
a
=
=
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
2
sk (yk2 yk1
)=
n
X
k=1
n
X
k=1
sk (x2k x2k1 )
k=1
Rb
Pn
n
X
Rb
(5) Since x2k x2k1 > 0, a sdx = k=1 sk (x2k x2k1 ) < k=1 tk (x2k x2k1 ) = a tdx
Note that we had shown previously that the integral doesnt change under finer partition.
Pn
Exercise 13.
s(x)dx
a
Z
sk (xk xk1 );
t(x)dx =
a
k=1
n2
X
tk (yk yk1 )
k=1
P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }, Q = {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn }
Note that x0 =S
y0 = a; xn = yn2 = b.
Consider P Q = R. R consists of n3 elements, (since n3 n + n2 some elements of P and Q may be the same. R is
another partition on [a, b] (by partition definition) since xk , yk R and since real numbers obey transitivity, {xk , yk } can be
arranged such that a < z1 < z2 < < zn3 2 < b where zk = xk or yk .
(s + t)(x) = s(x) + t(x) = sj + tk if xj1 < x < xj ; yj1 < x < yj
If xj1 yj1 , let zl1 = yj1 , xj1 and
If xj yj , let zl = xj , yj
Let sj = sl ; tk = tl
(s + t)(x) = s(x) + t(x) = sl + tl , if zl1 < x < zl
Z
Z
(s(x) + t(x))dx =
((s + t)(x))dx =
a
n3
X
l=1
n3
X
sl (zl zl1 ) +
l=1
n3
X
tl (zl zl1 )
l=1
In general, it was shown (Apostol I, pp. 66) that any finer partition doesnt change the integral R is a finer partition. So
Z b
Z b
n2
n3
n
n
X
X
X
X
sl (zl zl1 ) +
tl (zl zl1 ) =
sk (xk xk1 ) +
tk (yk yk1 ) =
s(x)dx +
t(x)dx
l=1
l=1
k=1
k=1
23
Z
c1
Z
s(x)dx + c2
t(x)dx = c1
n
X
sk (xk xk1 ) + c2
k=1
n3
X
tk (xk xk1 ) =
k=1
c1 sl (zl zl1 ) +
l=1
Z b
n2
X
n3
X
c2 tl (zl zl1 ) =
l=1
n3
X
l=1
(c1 s + c2 t)(x)dx
a
We relied on the fact that we could define a finer partition from two partitions of the same interval.
Exercise 15. Prove Theorem 1.5 (the comparison theorem).
s(x) < t(x) x [a, b]; s(x)(zl zl1 ) < t(x)(zl zl1 ) (zl zl1 > 0)
b
s(x)dx =
a
n
X
sk (xk xk1 ) =
k=1
Z b
n3
X
n3
X
l=1
tl (zl zl1 ) =
l=1
n2
X
tk (yl yk1 ) =
k=1
t(x)dx
a
Z
=
Z
s(x)dx <
t(x)dx
a
Exercise 16. Prove Theorem 1.6 (additivity with respect to the interval).
Use the hint: P1 is a partition of [a, c], P2 is a partition of [c, b], then the points of P1 along with those of P2 form a
partition of [a, b].
Z
Z
s(x)dx +
s(x)dx =
a
n1
X
sl (xk xk1 ) +
n2
X
sk (xk xk1 ) =
Z
sk (xk xk1 ) =
s(x)dx
a
k=1
k=1
k=1
n3
X
P 0 = {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn }; yk = xk + c;
=xk1 + c < y < xk + c
xk1 < y c < xk
yk yk1 = xk + c (xk1 + c) = xk xk1
s(y c) = sk if xk1 < y c < xk , k = 1, 2, . . . n
b
s(x)dx =
a
n
X
sk (xk xk1 ) =
k=1
n
X
yn
y0
k=1
b+c
s(y c)dy =
sk (yk = yk1 ) =
s(x c)dx
a+c
1.26 Exercises - The integral of more general functions, Upper and lower integrals, The area of an ordinate set expressed as an integral, Informal remarks on the theory and technique of integration, Monotonic and piecewise monotonic functions. Definitions and examples, Integrability of bounded monotonic functions, Calculation of the integral
Rb
of a bounded monotonic function, Calculation of the integral 0 xp dx when p is a positive integer, The basic properties
of the integral, Integration of polynomials.
Exercise 16.
R2
0
Z
(x 1)(3x 1)dx =
1
2
(3x2 4x + 1)dx = (x3 2x2 + x)1 = 2
1
4
(1 x)(3x 1)dx = (x3 2x2 + x)1/3 =
27
1/3
Z 1/3
4
(x 1)(3x 1)dx =
27
0
So the final answer for the integral is 62/27.
1/2
R3
R3
R 35/2
Exercise 17. 0 (2x 5)3 dx = 8 0 (x 52 )3 dx = 8 5/2 x3 dx = 8 14 x4 5/2 =
Exercise 18.
R3
3
(x2 3)3 dx =
R3
0
(x2 3)3 +
Rx
(x2 3)3 =
R3
0
(x2 3)2 +
39
2
R3
0
(x2 3)3 = 0
2.4 Exercises - Introduction, The area of a region between two graphs expressed as an integral, Worked examples.
Exercise 15. f = x2 , g = cx3 , c > 0
For 0 < x < 1c , cx < 1 (since c > 0). So cx3 < x2 (since x2 > 0).
1/c
Z
Z
1 3 c 4
1
f g = x2 cx3 =
x x =
3
4
12c3
0
Z
2
1
1
f g = =
; c=
3
12c3
2 2
Exercise 16. f = x(1 x), g = ax.
1a
x x2 ax =
f g =
Exercise 17. = 2
R1
1
1a
1
1
1
(1 a) x2 x3
= (1 a)3 = 9/2 = a = 2
2
3
6
0
1 x2 dx
(1)
Z
Z
p
2
9 x dx = 3
x 2
= 3(3)
1 x2 =
9
2
Now
Z
kb
f
ka
x
dx = k
f dx
a
(2)
Z
0
1
1 x2 dx = 2
4
1 x2 dx =
=
4
2
(3) 2 (x 3) 4 x2 dx
Z 2 p
Z 2
Z 2 p
p
2
2
x 4 x dx = (1)
x 4 x = 2
x 4 x2 = 0
2
2
2
Z 2 r
Z 1p
x 2
3
2 1
dx = (6)(2)
1 x2 = 6
2
2
1
R2
Exercise 18. Consider a circle of radius 1 and a twelve-sided dodecagon inscribed in it. Divide the dodecagon by isosceles
triangle pie slices. The interior angle that is the vertex angle of these triangles is 360/12 = 30 degrees.
Then the length of the bottom side of each triangle is given by the law of cosines:
s
!
3
3
c2 = 1 + 1 2(1)(1) cos 30 = 2 1
= c = 2 1
2
2
25
1 + 23
h = 1 cos 15 =
=
2
2
The area of the dodecagon is given by adding up twelve of those isosceles triangles
s
s
1
3
3
1
2 1
(12) 1 +
=3
2
2
2
2
r
1+
cos 30
So 3 < .
Now consider a dodecagon thats circumscribing the circle of radius 1.
v
u
!
3
u
1
1 t
3
2
(1) = 12 2
2
(12)
>
3
2
2
1+ 2
Exercise 19.
x 2
1
a
Z 1p
Z a r
x 2
= 2ba
2
b 1
1 x2 = ba (2) = ba
a
2
1
a
y=b
Exercise 20. Let f be nonnegative and integrable on [a, b] and let S be its ordinate set.
k1 b
k1 b
g(x)dx =
k1 a
k2 f
k1 a
x
k1
Z
dx = k2 k1
f (x)dx = k2 k1 A
a
2.8 Exercises - The trigonometric functions, Integration formulas for the sine and cosine, A geometric description of
the sine and cosine functions. Exercise 1.
(1) sin = sin 0 = 0. sine is periodic by 2, so by induction, sin n = 0.
sin 2(n + 1) = sin 2n + 2 = sin 2n = 0
sin (2(n + 1) + 1) = sin (2n + 3) = sin ((2n + 1) + 2) = sin (2n + 1) = 0
(2) cos /2 = cos /2 = 0
by induction, cos /2 + 2j = cos /2(1 + 4j)
cos /2 + 2j = cos (4j 1)/2, j Z+
Exercise 2.
sin 3x = sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x = 2 sin x cos2 x + sin x(cos2 x sin2 x) = 3 cos2 x sin x sin3 x =
= 3(1 sin2 x) sin x sin3 x = 3 sin x 4 sin3 x
cos 3x = cos 2x cos x sin 2x sin x = (cos2 x sin2 x) cos x (2 sin x cos x) sin x = cos x 4 sin2 x cos x
cos 3x = 3 cos x + 4 cos3 x
Exercise 5.
(1) This is the most direct solution. Using results from Exercise 4 (and it really helps to choose the cosine relationship,
not the sine relationship),
cos 3x = 4 cos3 x 3 cos x
x = /6
cos 3/6 = 0 = 4 cos3 /6 3 cos /6 = cos /6(4 cos2 /6 3) = 0
Q3 + R2 )1/3
p
T = (R Q3 + R2 )1/3
S = (R +
Exercise 6.
1
cos x cos y
1
cos x cos y
!
=
tan x tan y
1 + tan x tan y
if tan x tan y 6= 1
Similarly,
sin x + y
sin x cos y + sin y cos x
tan x + tan y
=
=
, tan x tan y 6= 1
cos x + y
cos x cos y sin x sin y
1 tan x tan y
cos x + y
cos x cos y sin x sin y
cot x cot y 1
cot x + y =
=
=
sin x + y
sin x cos y + sin y cos x
cot y + cot x
tan x + y =
3
2
cos x) =
3
2
sin x +
3 3
2
cos x
Exercise 8.
If A 6= 0,
B
cos x) == A(sin x + tan cos x)
A
A
A
(cos sin x + sin cos x) =
(sin x + )
=
cos
cos
A
where /2 < < /4, B/A = tan , C = cos
A sin x + B cos x = A(sin x +
C cos = 2, C sin = 2, C = 2 2, = /4
Exercise 11. If A = 0, C = B, = 0. If B = 0, A = C, = /2. Otherwise,
27
A
B
= tan , = , C =
A
B
sin x) =
(cos x cos + sin sin x) = C cos x +
B
cos
B
cos .
Exercise 12.
1 cos2 x = cos x = 1/ 2 = x =
4
Exercise 13.
sin x cos x = 1 =
1 cos2 x = 1 + cos x
cos x y + cos x + y = cos x cos y + sin x sin y + cos x cos y sin x sin y = 2 cos x cos y
cos x y cos x + y = sin x cos y sin y cos x + sin x cos y + sin y cos x = 2 sin x cos y
sin x y + sin x + y = sin x cos y sin y cos x + sin x cos y + sin y cos x = 2 sin x cos y
Exercise 15.
sin x + h sin x
sin (x + h/2) cos h/2 + cos (x + h/2) sin h/2 sin (x + h) cos h/2 cos x + h/2 sin h/2
=
h
h
sin h/2
=
cos (x + h/2)
h/2
cos (x + h/2) cos h/2 sin (x + h/2) sin h/2 (cos (x + h/2) cos h/2 + sin (x + h/2) sin h/2)
cos x + h cos x
=
h
h
sin h/2
=
sin (x + h/2)
h/2
Exercise 16.
(1)
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
if sin 2x = 2 sin x and x 6= 0, x 6= n, cos x = 1 but x 6= n = x = 2n
(2) cos x + y = cos x cos y sin x sin y = cos x + cos y.
p
cos x cos y cos x cos y = sin y 1 cos2 x
Letting A = cos x, B = cos y,
2
A(1 A)
1
(3A2 A3 + 2)1/2
1A
Note that 1 B 1, but for |A| 1.
Solve for the roots of 3A2 A3 + 2, A0 = 1, 1 + 3, 1 3. So suppose cos x = 9/10. Then there is
no real number for y such that cos y would be real and satisfy the above equation.
(3) sin x + y = sin x cos y + sin y cos x = sin x + sin y
=A
(4)
Z
0
Rb
a
2(j + 1)
, 2n
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
23 + 1
22 + 1
1
2
1
2
0 We were integrating over one period, over one positive semicircle and over one negative semicircle.
0 We
hadintegrated over two equal parts, though it only shaded in up to x = 1.
2
2 + 23
R
2
2
Exercise 18. 0 (x + sin x)dx = ( 12 x2 cos x)0 = 2 (1 1) = 2 + 2
Exercise 19.
R /2
Exercise 20.
R /2
/2
(x2 + cos x)dx = ( 13 x3 + sin x)0 = 31 (/2)3 + 1
/2
R /2
Exercise 21.
= 1 (1) = 0
R /4
0
/4
= 2( 2 1)
Exercise 23.
2/3
Z
0
1
( + cos t)dt +
2
2/3
2/3
t
1
t
+ ( + sin t)
( + cos t)dt = ( + sin t)
2
2
2
2/3
0
= 2( +
) = + 3
3
2
2
6
1
( + cos t)dt =
2
1
( + cos t)dt =
2
x
t
+ sin t = sin x
2
2
2
x
If 2/3 x 2/3,
Z 2/3
Z x
1
1
/6
x
( + cos t)dt +
( + cos t)dt =
3/2 + (t/2 + sin t)|2/3
2
+
2/3 2
x
= x/2 + sin x /3 3/2 + 3/2 /6 = + sin x /3
2
If 2/3 x ,
Z x
2/3
3/2 +
(1/2 + cos t)dt = 3/2 + (t/2 + sin t)|x
= /3 + 3 x/2 sin x
2/3
Exercise 25.
R x2
Exercise 26.
R /2
Exercise 27.
R /3
sin 2xdx =
cos (2x)
2
x6 x3
3
+ cos x cos x2
/2
= (1/2)(1 1) = 1
0
/3
= 2 21 = 1
Exercise 28.
29
cos (a + bt)dt =
cos a
x
sin bt sin a( cos bt/b) =
b
0
0
sin a
1
cos a
=
sin bx +
(cos bx 1) = sin a + bx sin a/b
b
b
b
x
Z x
Z x
sin a
cos a
(sin a cos bt + sin bt cos a)dt =
sin (a + bt)dt =
sin bt
cos bt =
b
b
0
0
0
1
= (cos bx + a + cos a)
b
Exercise 29.
(1)
0
x
3 sin t sin 3t
cos 3x 1
3
sin tdt =
dt = cos t + cos 3t/12 = 3/4(cos x 1) +
=
4
4
12
0
0
1 3
1
= cos x + (cos 2x cos x sin 2x sin x) = 2/3 1/3 cos x(2 + sin2 x)
3 4
12
(2)
0
x
1 sin 3t 3
+ sin t =
cos tdt =
4 3
4
0
0
1
3
1
=
(sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x) + sin x =
(2 sin x cos x + sin x(2 cos2 x 1)) =
12
4
12
sin x cos2 x + 2 sin x
=
3
Z
1
(cos 3t + 3 cos t)dt =
4
a+p
r+p
Z
f (x)dx =
r+p
f (x + np)dx =
r
p
Z
f (x p)dx =
Z
f+
Z
f+
r+p
f (x)dx =
Z
f+
f (x)dx =
Z
f=
f
0
Exercise 31.
(1)
2n
1
1
( cos x)
= (1 1) = 0
n
n
0
0
0
2n
Z 2
Z
1
1 2n
cos xdx = sin x
cos nxdx =
=0
n 0
n
0
0
Z
sin nxdx =
1
n
2n
sin xdx =
(2)
Z
Z
sin nx cos mxdx =
0
2
0
2
Z
cos nx cos mxdx =
While
Z
1
(sin (n + m)x + sin (n m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
2
1
(cos (n m)x + cos (n + m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
2
1
(cos (n m)x + cos (n + m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
2
sin2 nxdx =
Z
0
1 cos 2nx
dx =
2
1 + cos 2nx
dx =
2
0
2
cos2 nxdx =
Z
0
30
k=1
n
X
cos kx =
k=1
n
X
sin (2k + 1)
k=1
x
x
x
sin (2k 1) = sin (2n + 1) sin x/2
2
2
2
cos (2k + 1)x/2 cos (2k 1)x/2 = cos kx + x/2 cos kx x/2 =
= cos kx cos x/2 sin kx sin x/2 (cos kx cos x/2 + sin kx sin x/2) =
= 2 sin kx sin x/2
2 sin x/2
n
X
sin kx =
k=1
n
X
(cos (2k + 1)x/2 cos (2k 1)x/2) = cos (2n + 1)x/2 cos x/2 =
k=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
1
sin kx = 2 sin nx/2 sin (n + 1)x
2
sin kx =
k=1
Exercise 34. Using triangle OAP, not the right triangle, if 0 < x < /2
1
x
1
cos x sin x < sin x <
2
2
2
= sin x < x
Now if 0 > x > /2, sin x < 0,
| sin x| = sin x = sin x = sin |x| < |x|
2.17 Exercises - Average value of a function. Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
1
10
x2 + x3 =
Exercise 3.
1
40
x1/2 =
4
3
Exercise 4.
1
81
x1/3 =
45
28
Exercise 5.
1
/20
Exercise 6.
1
/2/2
Exercise 7.
1
/20
sin 2x = 1/(1 1) = 2/
Exercise 8.
1
/40
sin x cos x =
R /2
0
1
ba
7
12
sin x =
cos x = 2/
31
x2 dx = 13 (b2 + ab + a2 )
Exercise 9.
1
/20
Exercise 10.
1
0
sin2 x =
cos2 x =
1
(x
sin 2x/2)0 =
1
2
1
2
Exercise 11.
(1)
(2)
1
a0
1
a0
x2 = a2 /3 = c2 = c = a/ 3
a
R n
an
1
x = a1 n+1
xn+1 = n+1
= cn = c =
R
a
(n+1)1/n
Exercise 12.
Z
Z
Z
A = wf / w
wx2
Z
1
1
x3 = x4 = k x2 ; k =
4
2
Z
1
1
x4 = x5 = k x3 ; k =
5
3
Z
1
1
x5 = x6 = k x4 ; k =
6
4
Z
=k
1
,w = x
2
3
, w = x2
5
2
, w = x3
3
Exercise 13.
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
A(f + g) =
f +g =
f+
g = A(f ) + A(g)
ba
ba
ba
Z
Z
1
1
A(cf ) =
cf = c
f
ba
ba
Z
Z
1
1
A(f ) =
f
g = A(g)
ba
ba
Exercise 14.
R
R
w(c1 f + c2 g)
c1 wf
c2 wg
R
A(c1 f + c2 g) =
= R
+ R
w
w
w
= c1 A(f ) + c2 A(g)
f g w > 0( nonnegative ), = wf wg
Exercise 15.
Aba (f )
1
=
ba
Z
a
1
f=
ba
Z
f+
=
ca
ba
Rc
f
ca
a
Rb
b a (c a) a f
+
ba
bc
a<c<b
ca
Let t =
ca
ba
0<
<1
ba
= Aba (f ) = tAca (f ) + (1 t)Abc (f )
Rb
Rc Rc
Rb
Rc ! Rb
w
wf
w
w
wf
wf
a
a
c
Ra c
Aba (f ) = Ra b
= Rab
+
Rb
Rb
w
w
w a
w
w
a
a
a
c
Rc
Rc
w
w
0 < Rab < 1 since w is a nonnegative function. Let t = Rab
w
w
a
a
= Aba (f ) = tAca (f ) + (1 t)Abc (f )
Exercise 16. Recall that xcm =
R
R x
or rcm =
rdm
M .
32
RL
xcm = R0L
Z0
Icm =
L
2
r2 dm =
x2 (1) = L3 /3
Icm
L
r2 = R L = L2 /3 = r =
3
1
0
Exercise 17.
R l/2
x+
RL
0
xcm = L
2 +
Z L/2
L/2
2xdx
=
yL2
12
2(L L/2)
Z L
2x2 = 5L3 /8
x2 +
Icm =
L/2
5L3 /8
5L2
5L
r =
=
= r =
3L/2
12
2 3
2
R
1 3 L
x 0
xxdx
2
3
xcm = R
=
L = L
1
2
3
xdx
2x 0
Z
Icm = x2 xdx = L4 /4
r2 =
L4 /4
= L2 /2
L2 /2
L
r=
2
Exercise 19.
L
R
1 3 L/2
+ L2 (x2 /2)L/2
xxdx + x L2 dx
3x 0
R
xcm = R
=
= 11L/18
1 2 L/2
L
xdx + L/2
x
+
(L
L/2)
2
2
0
Z
Z
2
2
4
Icm = x xdx + x L/2dx = L 31/192
31L
r2 = Icm /(L2 3/8) = L2 31/72 r =
6 2
R
R
xcm =
xx2 dx
R
= 3L/4
x2
x2 x2 dx = L5 /5
r
3 2
3
Icm
2
L
r = 1 3 = L r=
5
5
L
3
Icm =
Exercise 21.
R L/2
0
xx2 dx +
xcm = R L/2
0
x2 dx +
r2 =
Icm
L3 /6
2
x L4 dx
L/2
R L L2
dx
L/2 4
= 21L/32
L2
dx = 19L5 /240
4
L/2
L/2 2 2
Icm = int0
RL
x x dx +
x2
Exercise 22. Be flexible about how you can choose a convenient origin to evaluate the center-of-mass from
33
Let = cxn
L
1
Ln+1 c = M
n
+
1
0
(n + 1)M
= c =
Ln+1
Z L
1
n+1
3M L
xxn dx = c
c
Ln+2 =
ML =
n+2
n+2
4
0
R
Z
x
3L
n+1
3
=
= x =
= = n = 2
xcm =
M
4
n+2
4
xn dx =
3M 2
x
L3
Exercise 23.
(1)
1
/2 0
(2)
1
/2 0
Z
3 sin 2t =
1
2
2.19 Exercises - The integral as a function of the upper limit. Indefinite integrals. Exercise 1.
x + 12 x2 + 13 x3
Exercise 2. 2y + 2y 2 + 8y 3 /3
Exercise 3. 2x + 2x2 + 8x3 /3 (1 + 1/2 + 1/3) = 2(x + x2 + 4x3 /3) + 5/6
Exercise 4.
R 1x
Exercise 5.
Rx
Exercise 6.
R x2
1x
(1 2t + 3t2 )dt = (t t2 + t3 )1 = 2x + 2x2 x3
t4 + t2 =
1 5
5t
x
+ 13 t3 2 =
t4 + 2t2 + 1 =
t5
5
x5
5
x3
3
40
3
x2
+ 23 t3 + t = 51 (x10 x5 ) + 23 (x6 x3 ) + x2 x
x
Exercise 7.
x
2 3/2
+ t 1 = 23 (x3/2 1) + (x 1)
3t
Exercise 8.
2 3/2
3t
x2
+ 45 t5/4 x = 23 (x3 x3/2 ) + 45 (x5/2 x5/4 )
x2
+ sin t 0 =
Exercise 10.
t
2
Exercise 11.
1
2t
Exercise 12.
1 3
3u
Exercise 13.
Exercise 14.
x2
2
x2
+ cos t x =
1 3
3v
+ sin x2
x2 x
2
+ cos x2 cos x
x
+ 13 cos 3u 0 =
+
cos 3v
3
1cos 2x
2
x2
=
x
+x=
1
2x
x3
3
x6 x3
3
+ 13 (cos 3x 1)
+
sin 2x
4
1
2
3 (cos 3x
cos 3x)
y
y sin 2y y 2
+ 12 x2 0 =
+
2
4
2
34
Rx
0
(1 + t + t2 )dt =
Exercise 15.
cos 2w
2
Exercise 16.
Rx
Exercise 17.
Rx
(1
2
0
x
(cos 2x 1)
x
+ 2 sin w2 0 =
+ 2 sin
2
2
Rx
1
4
+cos t)2 dt =
(t3 t)dt =
1
3
Rx
1
2
t+
(t3 t)dt +
R 2
1
x
= 3 (x+)+sin x+ 1 sin 2x
4
4
(t t3 )dt
Note that t3 t < 0 for 0 < t 1 and t3 t > 0 for t > 1. t t3 < 0 for t >
R1
sin 2t
2
2.
x
1 4 1 2
1
1 1 2 1 4
1
x x =
t t = x2 x4
4
2
3 2
4
6
12
2
1 4 2 2
= x x = 0 = x = 0, x = 2
3
3
(t3 t)dt cancel each other out.
1
2
1
1
= r = f (x) sincex + 1 = q + 1 + r, [x + 1] = q + 1
2
2
1
x + 1 [x + 1] = r
2
Rx
Rx
(2) P (x) = 0 f (t)dt = 0 (t 12 ) = 12 x2 21 x because given 0 < x 1, then q = 0 for x, so we can use r = t.
To show periodicity,
Z x+1
Z 1
Z x+1
Z x
Z x
P (x + 1) =
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt +
f (t)dt = 0 +
f (t + 1)dt =
f (t)dt = P (x)
0
Z
since
0
1
1 2
f (t)dt = (x x) = 0
2
0
(3) Since P itself is periodic by 1, then we can consider 0 x < 1 only. Now x [x] = r and P (x) = 12 (r2 r). So
P (x) = 12 ((x [x])2 (x [x])).
(4)
Z 1
Z 1
(P (t) + c)dt = 0 =
P (t)dt = c
0
1
0 t 1 so P (t) = (t2 t)
2
1
Z 1
1 1 3 1 2
1 1
1
=
P (t)dt =
t t =
= c =
2 3
2
2 6
12
0
0
(5) Q(x) =
Rx
0
(P (t) + c)dt
Z x+1
(P (t) + c)dt +
(P (t) + c)dt =
0
0
1
Z x
Z x
=0+
(P (t + 1) + c)dt =
(P (t) + c)dt = Q(x)
Z
Q(x + 1) =
x+1
(P (t) + c)dt =
R 2
f (t)dt
Consider
Z
f (t)dt +
0
1
Z
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt +
f (t)dt =
1
1
f (1t)dt =
1
f (t)dt = 0
f+
1
0
R3
R1
R1
Consider that 1 f (t)dt = 1 f (t + 2)dt = 1 f (t)dt = 0. Then, by induction,
Z 2n+1
Z 2n1
Z 2n+1
Z 1
Z
f=
f+
f (t)dt = 0 +
f (t + 2n)dt =
=
2n1
f (t)dt = 0
(1)
1
Z
g(2n) =
2n1
f=
1
1
f+
2n
f+
f+
2n1
Z
f +
f (t)dt =
0
f (t)dt
1
Z
f+
f =0
(2)
x
g(x + 2) =
f (t)dt = g(x)
x+2
Z
f (t)dt =
0
x+2
f+
Z
f (t)dt =
Z
f =
g(x) =
f=
Z
f (t + 2)dt =
f (t)dt = g(x)
0
Exercise 20.
Z
f (t)dt =
g(x) =
0
Z
f (t)dt =
f (t)dt = g(x)
0
Now
x+2
Z
g(x + 2) =
Z
f=
x+2
Z
f+
f = g(2) +
Z
f (t + 2)dt = g(2) +
g(2) =
Z
f=
0
Z 0
Z
f+
Z
f=
f +A=
f (t + 2)dt + A =
1
f (t)dt + A =
1
f (t)dt + A = 2A
1
Z
g(3) = g(2) +
= g(5) = 3A + 2A = 5A
(3) The key observation is to see that g must repeat itself by a change of 2 in the argument. To make g(1) = g(3) = g(5),
theyre different, unless A = 0!
Exercise 21. From the given, we can derive
g(t)dt
0
Z
= f (5) =
g(t)dt = g(0) = 7
0
(1) The key insight I uncovered was, when stuck, one of the things you can do, is to think geometrically and draw
a picture.
g(x) = f (x + 5) = g(x) = f (x 5)
= g(x) = f (x 5)
36
(2)
Z
Z
f (t)dt =
Z
g(t)dt =
f (t + 5)dt =
5
Z
g(t)dt =
Z
g(t)dt =
g(t)dt = f (5) = 7
0
(3)
Z
x5
f (t)dt =
x5
f (t + 5)dt =
5
Z
g(t)dt =
x5
g = f (x 5) +
g+
0
g(t)dt =
0
f (x 5) +
where weve used f (x 5) = g(x) in the second and third to the last step.
3.6 Exercises - Informal description of continuity, The definition of the limit of a function, The definition of continuity
of a function, The basic limit theorems. More examples of continuous functions, Proofs of the basic limit theorems.
Polynomials are continuous.
Exercise 1. limx2
Exercise 2.
1
x2
1
limx2 x2
= 1
Exercise 3. limx2
(x2)(x+2)
(x2)
Exercise 4. limx1
(2x1)(x1)
x1
Exercise 5. limh0
t2 +2th+h2 t2
h
Exercise 6. limx0
(xa)(x+a)
(x+a)2
= 1
Exercise 7. lima0
(xa)(x+a)
(x+a)2
=1
Exercise 8. limxa
(xa)(x+a)
(x+a)2
=0
1
4
=4
=1
= 2t
limt0 sin t
limx0 cos t
0
1
=0
Exercise 10. limt0 (sin 2t + t2 cos 5t) = limt0 sin 2t + limt0 t2 limt0 cos 5t = 0 + 0 = 0
Exercise 11. limx0+
|x|
x
=1
|x|
x
= 1
x2
x
= +1
x2
x
= 1
2 sin x cos x
x
=2
2 sin x cos x
cos 2x sin x
=2
limx0
5 sin 5x
5x
limx0
3 sin 3x
3x
= 1 + limx0
2 sin 2x cos 2x
sin x
= 5 3 = 2 Exercise 19.
37
= 1 + 2 limx0
= 5 Exercise 18.
= lim
x0
x+a
2
xa
sin x+a
2
2
=
x0
xa
!
xa
xa
x+a
x+a
xa
xa
x+a
sin x+a
cos
+
sin
cos
sin
cos
sin
cos
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
xa
lim
sin
xa
2
x+a
2 sin xa
2 cos 2
= cos a
xa
xa
sin x/2
= 12
x/2
= lim
2 sin2 x/2
4(x/2)2
1 1x2
x2
1
2
limx0
1+1x2
2
1+ 1x
= limx0
1(1x2 )
x2 (1+ 1x2 )
1
2
+ =
2 2
| cos x + h cos x| = | cos x cos h sin x sin h cos x| = | cos x(cos h 1) sin x sin h|
| cos x|| cos h 1| + | sin x|| sin h| < + =
2 2
since > 01 , 2 > 0 such that | cos h 1| < 0 ; | sin h| < whenever |h| < min (1 , 2 )
Choose 3 such that if |h| < 3 ; | cos h 1| < ; | sin h| <
2
2
| sin x(cos h 1) + cos x sin h| | sin x|| cos h 1| + | cos h|| sin h| <
Let x =
1
x
A.
1
n .
1
n
1
n, n
(n). Consider 0 =
|1|A||
.
2
Consider
1
n
1
= [n] = n < M (n)
x
1
2 .
1
< 1
2
1
1
= |x x1 | <
+
= 1
2
2
|x x0 | <
1
n,
1
n.
Exercise 33.
(3)
Z
Z
Z
Z b
b
b
b
|x c|dx =
|f (x) f (c)|dx
f (x)dx (b a)f (c) = (f (x) f (c))dx
a
a
a
a
Z b
Z c
1
1
(x c)dx = c(c a) (c a)(c + a) + (b c)(b + c) c(b c) =
(c x)dx +
=
2
2
c
a
1
2
2
= ((c a) + (b c) )
2
Draw a figure for clear, geometric reasoning.
Consider a square of length (b a) and a 45 45 right triangle inside. From the figure, its obvious that right
triangles of c a length and (b c) length lie within the (b a) right triangle.
Compare the trapezoid of c a, b a bases with the b a right triangle.
1
1
1
(b c)(b a + c a) = (b c)(b c + 2(c a)) > (b c)2
2
2
2
Indeed, the trapezoid and c a right triangle equals the b a trapezoid since
1
1
1
1
(b c)(b a + c a) + (c a)2 = (b2 c2 2ab + 2ac + c2 2ca + a2 ) = (b a)2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
= (b a) > (b c) + (c a)
2
2
2
Z b
(b a)2
so then
f (x)dx (b a)f (c)
a
2
3.11 Exercises - Bolzanos theorem for continuous functions, The intermediate-value theorem for continuous functions. These theorems form the foundation for continuity and will be valuable for differentiation later.
Theorem 10 (Bolzanos Theorem).
Let f be cont. at x [a, b].
Assume f (a), f (b) have opposite signs.
Then at least one c (a, b) s.t. f (c) = 0.
Proof. Let f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0.
Want: Fine one value c (a, b) s.t. f (c) = 0
Strategy: find the largest c.
Let S = { all x [a, b] s.t. f (x) 0 }.
S is nonempty since f (a) < 0. S is bounded since all S [a, b].
= S has a suprenum.
Let c = supS.
If f (c) > 0, (c , c + ) s.t. f > 0
c is an upper bound on S
but c is a least upper bound on S. Contradiction.
If f (c) < 0, (c , c + ) s.t. f < 0
c + is an upper bound on S
but c is an upper bound on S. Contradiction.
= f (c) = k
Since limx
ck xk
ck1 xk1
= limx
ck
ck1 x
n1
X
Pn1
k=0
ck M k . So then
ck M k cn
k=0
changed direction.
(1) If P (x) = 3x4 2x3 36x2 + 36x 8, P (4) = 168, P (3) = 143, P (0) = 8, P ( 12 ) = 15
16 , P (1) = 7,
P (3) = 35, P (4) = 200
(2) If P (x) = 2x4 14x2 + 14x 1, P (4) = 231, P (3) = 7, P (0) = 1, P ( 21 ) = 18 , P ( 23 ) = 11
8 , P (2) = 2
3
1
3
(3) If P (x) = x4 + 4x3 + x2 6x + 2, P (3) = 2, P ( 52 ) = 16
, P (2) = 2, P ( 13 ) = 22
,
P
(
)
=
16
, P ( 32 ) =
81
2
14
81 , P (1) = 2.
Exercise 3. . Consider f (x) = x2j+1 a. f (0) = a > 0.
Since 0 f (x) 1 for each x [0, 1], consider g(1) = f (1) 1, so that 1 g(1) 0. Likewise 0 g(0) 1.
If g(1) = 0 or g(0) = 0, were done (g(0) = f (0) 0 = 0. f (0) = 0. Or g(1) = f (1) 1 = 0, f (1) = 1 ).
Otherwise, if 1 g(1) < 0 and 0 < g(0) 1, then by Bolzanos theorem, at least one c such that
g(c) = 0 (g(c) = f (c) c = 0. f (c) = c).
Exercise 6. Given f (a) a, f (b) b,
3.15 Exercises - The process of inversion, Properties of functions preserved by inversion, Inverses of piecewise monotonic functions. Exercise 1. D = R, g(y) = y 1
Exercise 2. D = R, g(y) =
1
2 (y
5)
Exercise 3. D = R, g(y) = 1 y
Exercise 4. D = R, g(y) = y 1/3
Exercise 5. D = R,
g(y) =
y
y 2
if y < 1
if 1 y 16
if y > 16
Exercise 6. f (Mf ) = f (f 1
Exercise 7. f (a1 )
1
n
Pn
i=1
1
n
Pn
i=1 f (ai ) ) =
1
n
Pn
i=1
f (ai )
g preserves monotonicity.
= a1 Mf an
Exercise 8. h(x) = af (x) + b, a 6= 0
!
n
1X
h(ai ) = H
n i=1
Mh = H
The inverse for h is g
hb
a
!
n
1X
(af (ai ) + b) = H
n i=1
!
n
1X
a
f (ai ) + b
n i=1
= H(h) = h1 . So then
Mh = g
!
n
1X
f (ai ) = Mf
n i=1
Rb
f (x)g(x)dx
aR
b
g(x)dx
a
= f (c)
Exercise 1.
1
1
m = ,M = 1
1+x
2
1
Z 1
1 10
1
x9 =
x =
10
10
0
0
Z 1
9
1
x
1
dx
10
1
+
x
10 2
0
Exercise 2.
1 x2
1
2
1 x2 =
.f =
g = (1 x2 ) M = , m = 1
2
2
3
1x
1x
1/2
Z 1/2
1
11
(1 x2 )dx = (x x3 )
=
3
24
0
0
r
Z 1/2 p
11
11
4
1 x2 dx
24
24
3
0
Exercise 3.
42
f=
1
g = 1 x2 + x4
1 + x6
1 x2 + x4 =
a
1
a3
a5
1
x x3 + x5 = a
+
3
5
3
5
0
1
M =1
m=
1 + a6
Z
a
1
a3
1
a3
a5
a5
a
dx a
+
+
2
1 + a6
3
5
3
5
0 1+x
1
3
5
3
5
So if a = 10 , (a a /3 + a /5) = a 0.333 . . . a + 0.2a = 0.099669
Exercise 4. (b) is wrong, since it had chosen g = sin t, but g needed to be nonnegative.
Exercise 5. At worst, we could have utilized the fundamental theorem of calculus.
Z
sin t dt =
=
Exercise 6.
Rb
(f )(1) = f (c)
a
Rb
a
1
2t
1
2 (n+1)
=
(2t sin t )dt =
( cos t ) n
2c
2
1
1
((1)n+1 (1)n ) = (1)n
2c
c
Rb
f
a
ba
integrals.
Exercise 7. f nonnegative. Consider f at a point of continuity c, and suppose f (c) > 0. Then 21 f (c) > 0.
Rb
a
Exercise 8.
Z
Z
g = m g 0 M g g
Z
m 0 M for
g = 1 but also
Z
m 0 M = m 0 M 0 for
g = 1
g
fg M
(1) f 0 = 0, x = 1, 2
(2) f 0 (x) = 2, x = 0, 1
(3) f 0 = 10, x = 4, 3
Exercise 3. f 0 = 2x + 3
Exercise 4. f 0 = 4x3 + cos x
Exercise 5. f 0 = 4x3 sin x + x4 cos x
Exercise 6. f 0 =
1
(x+1)2
Exercise 7. f 0 =
1
(x2 +1)2 (2x)
Exercise 8. f 0 =
x1(x)
(x1)2
1
(x1)2
43
Exercise 9. f 0 =
1
(2+cos x)2 ( sin x)
sin x
(2+cos x)2
Exercise 10.
f0 =
2 cos x 2 sin x + 1
( cos x)(2 cos x) (sin x)(2 sin x)
=
(2 cos x)2
(2 cos x)2
Exercise 12.
f0 =
Exercise 13.
(1)
f (t + h) f (t)
v0 h 32th 16h2
=
= v0 + 32t 16h
h
h
f 0 (t) = v0 32t
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
v0
t = 32
v0
v0
v0
T = 16
, v0 = 16 for 1sec. v0 = 160 for 10sec. 16
for T sec.
00
f = 32
h = 20t2
Exercise 14. V = s3 ,
dV
dS
= 3s2
Exercise 15.
(1)
(2)
dA
dr
dV
dr
= 2r = C
= 4r2 = A
Exercise 16. f 0 =
2 x
Exercise 17. f 0 =
(1+ x)2
Exercise 18. f 0 =
3 1/2
2x
Exercise 19.
2 x
3 5/2
2 x
Exercise 20. f 0 =
1 1/2
2x
1 1/2
(1+x) x
2x
(1+x)2
Exercise 23. f 0 =
(1+ x)x 21
(1+ x)2
1
x
1
2 x(1+x)2
1+ 21 x
2
(1+ x)
Exercise 24.
44
g = f1 f2
g 0 = f10 f2 + f1 f20
f0
f0
g0
= 1+ 2
g
f1
f2
g = f1 f2 . . . fn fn+1
0
g 0 = (f1 f2 . . . fn )0 fn+1 + (f1 f2 . . . fn )fn+1
;
f0
g0
(f1 f2 . . . fn )0
=
+ n+1
g
f1 f2 . . . fn
fn+1
0
0
f0
f
f
f0
= 1 + 2 + + n + n+1
f1
f2
fn
fn+1
Exercise 25.
cos x 0
Exercise 35.
f0 =
Exercise 36.
f 0 = a sin x + (ax + b) cos x + c cos x + (cx + d)( sin x) = ax cos x + (b + c) cos x + (a d) sin x cx sin x
So then a = 1, d = 1, b = d, c = 0.
Exercise 37.
xn+1 1
x1
(1)
(n + 1)xn (x 1) (1)(xn+1 1)
(x 1)2
(n + 1)(xn+1 xn ) xn+1 + 1
nxn+1 (n1 )xn + 1
=
=
2
(x 1)
(x 1)2
nxn+2 (n + 1)xn+1 + x
x(1 + 2x + + nxn1 ) = x + 2x2 + + nxn =
(x 1)2
(1 + x + x2 + + xn )0 = 1 + 2x + + nxn1 =
(2)
(x + 2x2 + + nxn )0 = (1 + 22 x1 + + n2 xn1 ) =
(n(n + 2)xn+1 (n + 1)2 xn + 1)(x 1)2 2(x 1)(nxn+2 (n + 1)xn+1 + x)
(x 1)4
(n(n + 2)xn+2 (n + 1)2 xn+1 + x)(x 1) 2(nxn+3 (n + 1)xn+2 + x2 )
x + 2 2 x2 + + n2 xn =
=
(x 1)3
n2 xn+3 + (2n2 2n + 1)xn+2 + (n + 1)2 xn+1 x2 x
=
(x 1)3
=
45
Exercise 39.
f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h)n xn
=
h
h
n
X
n nj j
(x + h)n =
x
h
j
j=0
Pn
n nj j
n
X
h
(x + h)n xn
n
j=1 j x
=
=
xnj hj1
h
h
j
j=1
n n1
(x + h)n xn
=
x
= nxn1
lim
h0
h
1
4.9 Exercises - Geometric interpretation of the derivative as a slope, Other notations for derivatives. Exercise 6.
(1)
f = x2 + ax + b
f (x1 ) =
f (x2 ) =
x21
x22
+ ax1 + b
+ ax2 + b
x2 x21 + a(x2 x1 )
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
= 2
x2 x1
x2 x1
= x2 + x1 + a
(2)
f 0 = 2x + a
m = x2 + x1 + a = 2x + a x =
x2 + x1
2
f 0 (1) = 2 = y = 2x 2
For the other line,
f 0 (a) = 1 3a2
= y(1) = 0 = (1 3a2 )(1) + b = b = 1 3a2
Now f (a) = a(1 a2 ) = a a3 at this point. The line and the curve must meet at this point.
y(a) = (1 3a2 )a + (1 3a2 ) =
= a 3a3 + 1 3a2 = a a3
1 3
= 2a3 + 1 3a2 = 0 = a3 + a2
2 2
The answer could probably be guessed at, but lets review some tricks for solving cubics.
First, do a translation in the x direction to center the origin on the point of inflection. Find the point of inflection by taking
the second derivative.
1
f 00 = 6a + 3 = a =
2
So
1
a=x
2
1 3 3
1 2 1
3
1
= (x ) + (x ) = x3 = x = 0
2
2
2
2
4
4
46
x2
if x c
ax + b if x > c
(
2x if x c
f 0 (x) =
a
if x > c
f (x) =
a = 2c; b = c2
Exercise 10.
(
f (x) =
1
|x|
if |x| > c
a + bx
if |x| c
f (x) =
x 2
1
x2
So b =
2bx
if x > c
if x < c
if |x| c
1
3
.
,a=
3
2c
2c
Exercise 11.
(
cos x
f =
a
0
12
1+ 2
1A
1+A
f 00 =
f
000
=
=
1 1/2
1
1
1
x
=
; A00 = x3/2 = 3
2
2A
4
4A
A0 (1 + A) A0 (1 A)
2A0
1
=
=
(1 + A)2
(1 + A)2
x(1 + x)2
1
3 x+1
0
2
0
3 A + 4 + 5A
3 (1 + 4 x + 5x)
4
A4 (1 + A4 )
4
x(x + x)4
A=
f0 =
if x c
if a > c
x A0 = a =
Exercise 13.
47
1
A)
P = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
P 0 = 3ax2 + 2bx + c
P 00 (0) = 2b = 10 = b = 5
P 0 (0) = c = 1
P 00 = 6ax + 2b
P (0) = d = 2
P (1) = a + 5 + 1 + 2 = a + 2 = 2 = a = 4
Exercise 14.
f g = 2,
f0
f0
g0
1
=
2
=
4
= 2f = , g = 4
g0
g
g
2
(1)
h0 =
f0
f 0 g g0 f
g0 f
1
15
=
= 4 2( ) =
2
g
g
g g
8
4
(2)
k 0 = f 0 g + f g 0 = 4g 2 + f 2g = 64 + 4 = 68
(3)
1
limx0 g 0 (x)
g 0 (x)
=
=
0
x0 f 0 (x)
limx0 f (x)
2
lim
Exercise 15.
t0
f (a + 2t) f (a)
f (a + 2t) f (a)
= 2 lim
= 2f 0 (a)
2t0
t
2t
False.
(4)
lim
t0
False.
Exercise 16.
(1)
(F + G)2 (f + g)2
(f (x + h) + g(x + h))2 (f (x) + g(x))2
= lim
=
h0
h0
h
h
2F G 2f g
= D f + D g + lim
h0
h
2F G 2f g
(2(F G) 2f G)(F + f ) (2f G 2f g)(G + g)
lim
= lim
+
=
h0
h0
h
(F + f )h
(g + G)h
2g
F2 f2
2f
G2 g 2
= lim
lim
+ lim
lim
=
h0 F + h h0
h0 G + g h0
h
h
g
f
= D f + D g
f
g
D (f + g) = lim
48
=D f +D g D f + D g
f
g
D (f g) = lim
D (f g) = lim
D (f /g) = lim
f 2 (x+h)
g 2 (x+h)
f 2 (x)
g 2 (x)
h0
= lim
f 2 (x+h)f 2 (x)
g 2 (x+h)
f 2 (x)
g 2 (x+h)
f 2 (x)
g 2 (x)
h0
D f
f2
+ 4 (D g) when g(x) 6= 0
2
g
g
(2)
(3)
4.12 Exercises - The chain rule for differentiating composite functions, Applications of the chain rule. Related rates
and implicit differentiation. Exercise 1. 2 sin 2x 2 cos x
Exercise 2.
x
1+x2
f 0 = cos (cos2 x)(2 cos x sin x) cos (sin2 x) + sin (cos2 x) sin (sin2 x)(2 sin x cos x) =
= sin 2x(cos (cos 2x))
Exercise 5.
f0 =
Exercise 8. f 0 =
1
2
sec2
x
2
csc2
x
2
1 + x2 +
x
1+x2
1+2x2
1+x2
4
(4x2 )3/2
Exercise 12.
f0 =
1
3
1 + x3
1 x3
2/3
3x2 (2)
(1 x3 )2
=
2x2
(1 x3 )2
1 + x3
1 x3
2/3
x 1 + x2
=
x 1 + x2
1
1
f (x) =
=
2
2
2
1 + x (x + 1 + x )
1 + x (x + 1 + x2 )
x
x 1 + x2
=1
=
2
1+x
1 + x2
x2
1 + x2 1+x
2
1
0
f =
=
2
1+x
(1 + x2 )3/2
Exercise 14.
1
(x +
2
x+
1
1
x)1/2 (1 + (x + x)1/2 1 + )
2
2 x
Exercise 15.
f =
1
1+
1 2
x
1
x2
1
1
g0 =
=
2
(x + 1)2
1 + f1
1
f2
f0 =
f0
(f + 1)2
(x + 1)2
1
g0 =
2 =
(2x + 1)2
x
x+1 + 1
Exercise 17. h0 = f 0 g 0
x
0
1
2
3
h
f (2) = 0
f (0) = 1
f (3) = 2
f (1) = 3
h0
2(5) = 10
5(1) = 5
4(1) = 4
2(6) = 12
k
k0
g(1) = 0
1(5) = 5
g(3) = 1 6(2) = 12
g(0) = 2 5(2) = 10
g(2) = 3
1(4) = 4
Exercise 18.
g(x) = xf (x2 )
g 0 (x) = f (x2 ) + x(2x)f 0 (x2 ) = f (x2 ) + 2x2 f 0 (x2 )
g 00 (x) = 2xf 0 (x2 ) + 4xf 0 (x2 ) + 2x2 (2x)f 00 (x2 ) = 6xf 0 (x2 ) + 4x3 f 00 (x2 )
x
0
1
2
g(x)
0
1
12
g 0 (x)
0
3
6 + 8(3) = 30
g 00 (x)
0
10
12(3) + 32(0) = 36
Exercise 19.
(1)
g0 =
df (x2 )
2x = 2xf 0
dx2
(2)
g 0 = 2 sin x cos xf 0 2 cos x sin xf 0 = (sin 2x)(f 0 (sin2 x) f 0 (cos2 x))
(3)
g0 =
df (f (x)) 0
f
d(f (x))
(4)
g0 =
dV
dt
= 3s2 ds
dt .
s = 5cm 75cm3 /sec
s = 10cm 300cm3 /sec
s = xcm 3x2 cm3 /sec
Exercise 21.
p
1 dx
dl
= x
x2 + h2
dt
l dt
dx
20 mi 3600sec
l dl
10mi
(4mi/sec) =
=
=
dt
x dt
3 sec
1hr
102 82
l=
Exercise 22.
l2 = x2 + s2
2l
dl
dx dl
x dx
= 2x
=
dt
dt dt
l dt
s
dl
x=
= 20 5
dt
2
dl
(x = s) = 50 2
dt
Exercise 23.
x dx
3
36
dl
=
= 12 =
mi/hr
dt
l dt
5
5
Exercise 24. Given the preliminary information
r
2
1
1
= = , V = r2 h = 2 h3
h
5
3
3
(1)
1
r2 2
(h y hy 2 + y 3 )
h2
3
dV
r2
dy
= 2 (h2 2hy + y 2 )
dt
h
dt
dy
h2
1
dV
102
1
5
= 2
=
5=
2
2
2
2
dt
r
h 2hy + y
dt
4
10 2(10)5 + 25
4
V =
(2)
dV
dh dh
1 dV
5
= 2 h2 ,
=
=
dt
dt dt
2 h2 dt
4
Exercise 25.
r
3
=
h
2
dV
2 2 dh
= h
dt
dt
=
9
c 1 (22 )4 = 36 = c = 36 + 1
4
Exercise 26. The constraint equation, using Pythagorean theorem on the geometry of a bottom hemisphere, is
r2 = R2 (R h)2 = 2Rh h2
So then
dr
dh
= (R h)
dt
dt
Z
dV
2
2
V = r dh =
= r = (2Rh h2 )
dh
dV
=
= (2(10(5) 25)) = 50
dh
r
51
dV
dV dh
dh
dV
1
=
, =
=
dt
dh dt
dt
dt (2Rh h2 )
r
dr
dV
1
=
R h dt
dt (2Rh h2 )
dr
dV
Rh
=
=
dt
dt r(2Rh h2 )
=
10 5
1
= (5 3)
=
3/2
15
(2(10)5 25)
Exercise 27. I suppose the area of the triangle is 0 at t = 0.
Now the point on vertex B moves up along the y axis according to y = 1 + 2t. y 27 = 8.
r
1
36
A=
(y 1) y
2
7
!
r
r
dA
1
36 1
1
36 dy
=
y + (y 1)
=
dt
2
y 2 y1
7
dt
6
66
1
8 + 6 (2) =
=
2 2(7)
7
Exercise 28. From the given information, h = 3r + 3. The volume formula is V =
R2
3 H.
V = /3r2 (3r + 3) = r3 + r2
dr
dV
= r(3r + 2)
dr
dt
With the given information, we get
dr
1
=
dt
(6)(20)
Using this, we can plug this back in for the different case:
dV
= n = (36)(110)/(120) = 33
dt
Exercise 29.
dy
dt
1
1 dy
= 2x dx
dt ; when x = 2 , y = 4 , dt =
(2) t =
6
(1)
dx
dt
Exercise 30.
(1) 3x2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 0 = x2 + y 2 y 0 = 0
(2)
2x + 2yy 02 + y 2 y 00 = 0 = y 2 y 00 = 2(x + yy 02 )
4
xy + yx4
00
= y = 2
= 2xy 5
y6
Exercise 31.
y
1 1
1 0
0
+ y = 0y = < 0
2 x 2 y
x
Exercise 32.
12 3x2
4
52
So then
6x + 8yy 0 = 0 = y 0 =
3x
4y
3 + 4(y 02 + yy 00 ) = 0
9
3
1
00
02
= 3
y = y
4
y
4y
Exercise 33.
y n = xm , y 0 ny n1 = mxm1 ; y 0 =
m xm1
mxm1
=
=
ny n1
n xm(11/n)
m m/n1
x
n
4.15 Exercises - Applications of differentiation to extreme values of functions, The mean-value theorem for derivatives.
Lets recap what was shown in the past two sections:
y0 =
Theorem 15 (Mean-value theorem for Derivatives). Assume f is cont. everywhere on [a, b], f 0 (x) x (a, b).
at least one c (a, b) such that
(6)
Proof.
h(x) = f (x)(b a) x(f (b) f (a))
h(a) = f (a)b f (a)a af (b) + af (a)
h(b) = f (b)(b a) b(f (b) f (a)) = bf (a) af (b) = h(a)
= c (a, b), such that h0 (c) = 0 = f 0 (c)(b a) (f (b) f (a))
Theorem 16 (Cauchys Mean-Value Formula). Let f, g cont. on [a, b], f 0 , g 0
Then c (a, b). x
(7)
x (a, b)
Proof.
h(x) = f (x)(g(b) g(a)) g(x)(f (b) f (a))
h(a) = f (a)(g(b) g(a)) g(a)(f (b) f (a)) = f (a)g(b) g(a)f (b)
h(b) = f (b)(g(b) g(a)) g(b)(f (b) f (a))
= h0 (c) = f 0 (c)(g(b) g(a)) g 0 (c)(f (b) f (a)) = 0
y(a) = Aa2 + Ba + C
y(b) = Ab2 + Bb + C
y(b) y(a)
A(b a)(b + a) + B(b a)
=
= A(b + a) + B
ba
ba
y 0 = 2Ax + B
a+b
= A(a + b) + B
y0
2
Thus the chord joining a and b has the same slope as the tangent line at the midpt.
Exercise 2. The contrapositive of a theorem is always true. So the contrapositive of Rolles Theorem is
x 6= B,
B (1, 1)
g(x) 6= g(B),
so g(x) 6= 0 for x 6= B
3x2
2
if x 1,
f (x) =
1
x
if x 1.
3x2
2
1/x
(
f 0 (x) =
if x 1
if x 1
x; f 0 (1) = 1
1/x2 ; f 0 (1) = 1
for x 1
for x > 1
3a2
2
(a + b)
=
= c
ba
2
0
Note that 1 f 0 for 0 x 1
For 1 a < b 2
a1
1
1
=
= 2 = c = ab
ba
ab
c
Note that 1 f 0 1/4
1
b
For 0 a 1 ,
1b2
1
b
3a2
2
2 (3 a2 )b
1
= c or 2
ba
2b(b a)
c
depending upon if 0 c 1 or 1 c 2, respectively
=
54
f (b)f (a)
ba
= 1/2, so c = 1/2 or c =
Exercise 4.
(C 2) is negative for all x. Then for x 0, g 0 0. Since g(0) = 1 and for x , g , then we could conclude
that g must become zero between 0 and and and 0.
Exercise 6.
f (b) f (a)
= f 0 (c)
ba
b=x+h
ba=h
= f (x + h) f (x) = hf 0 (x + h)
a=x
x < x + h < x + h
2
(1) f (x) = x ,
f = 2x.
(x + h)2 x2 = 2xh + h2 = h(2(x + h))
1
2x + h
x = h = =
2
2
(2) f (x) = x3 ,
so then lim =
h0
1
2
f 0 = 3x2 .
!
3x2 + 3xh + h2
x /h =
(x + h) x = 3x h + 3xh + h = h3(x + h) =
3
q
q
r
2
2 + xh + h2 x
2
2
x
x2 + xh + h3 + x
3x + 3xh + h
x
3
q
=
=
=
2
3h2
h
h
x2 + xh + h3 + x
r
x+
=
x+
h
3
x2 + hx +
h2
3
1
2
Notice the trick of multiplying by the conjugate on top and bottom to get a way to evaluate the limit.
= lim =
h0
(1)
sin x sin y
sin x sin y
= | cos c| 1
= cos c =
xy
xy
= | sin x sin y| |x y|
(2) x y > 0.
f (z) = z n is monotonically increasing for n Z.
By mean-value theorem,
xn y n
= ncn1 for y < c < x
xy
ny n1
f (b)f (a)
ba
x+
xn y n
xy
nxn1 .
bf (a)af (b)
ba
.
h(a) = h(c)
f g =h
h(c) = h(b)
0
g(x) =
(1) g =
1
xa
1
xa f (a).
f (x) f (a)
if x 6= a;
xa
g(a) = f 0 (a)
x (a, b).
1
xa
is cont. on (a, b]. Then g is cont. on (a, b] (remember, you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide cont. functions
to get cont. functions because the rules for taking limits allow so).
(a)
g is cont. at a since limxa g = limxa f (x)f
= f 0 (a).
xa
By mean value theorem,
f (x) f (a)
= f 0 (c) = g(x)
xa
c (a, x)
x (a, b]
Then c [a, b], f 0 (c) ranges from f 0 (a) to g(b) since f 0 (c) = g(x) so whatever g(x) ranges from and to, so does
f 0 (c).
(b)
if x 6= b; h(b) = f 0 (b).
(2) Let h(x) = f (x)f
xb
1
h is cont. on [a, b) since xb
is cont., f (x) is cont.
limxb h = limxb
f (x)f (b)
xb
= f 0 (b) so h is cont. at b.
h is cont. on [a, b] h takes all values from h(a) to f 0 (b) on [a, b] (by intermediate value theorem).
By mean value theorem,
h(x) =
f (b) f (x)
= f 0 (c2 )
bx
for c2 (x, b)
x [a, b]
4.19 Exercises - Applications of the mean-value theorem to geometric properties of functions, Second-derivative test
for extrema, Curve sketching.
Exercise 1. f (x) = x2 3x + 2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
f 0 (x) = 2x 3 x0 = 32 .
f 0 (x) 0 for x 23
f 00 = 2 > 0 for x R
See sketch.
Exercise 2. f (x) = x3 4x
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
f 0 = 3x2 4
xc = 23
f 0 0 when |x| 23
f 00 = 6x f 00 0 when x 0
See sketch.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
f 0 = 3(x 1)(x + 1)
f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 1
0
f when |x| 1
f 00 = 3(2x) = 6x
f 00 0 when x 0
See sketch.
(3) f = 6x 12 = 6(x 2)
(4) See sketch.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
0
f 0 = 2
x3 f (x) = 0 for no x
0
f 0 when x 0
f 00 = x64 > 0
x 6= 0
See sketch.
(1) f 0 = 1 +
(2)
2
x3
f 0 (x) = 0 = 1
2
x3
= xc = 21/3
f 0 (x) > 0 when x < 0, 0 < x < 21/3
f 0 (x) < 0 when x > 21/3
x 6= 0
1
(x1)(x3)
(1) f 0 = (x1)1
2 (x3)2 ((x 3) + x 1) =
0
f (x) = 0 when x = 2
(2) f 0 0 when x 2
(2)(x2)
(x1)2 (x3)2
57
(3)
(x 1)2 (x 3)2 (x 2)(2(x 1)(x 3)2 + 2(x 3)(x 1)2 )
f = (2)
(x 1)4 (x 3)4
2
13
x 4x + 3
= (6)
(x 1)3 (x 3)3
13
x2 4x +
> 0 since 144 4(3)(13) = 144 + 12(13) < 0 so
3
f 00 > 0 if x > 3, x < 1
00
(1)
f0 =
1 x2
(1 + x2 ) x(2x)
=
2
2
(1 + x )
(1 + x2 )2
f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 1
(2) f 0 0 when |x| 1
(3)
f 00 =
(1)
f0 =
f 0 (0) = 0
(2) f 0 0 when x 0,
(3)
10x
2x(x2 9) (x2 4)(2x)
= 2
(x2 9)2
(x 9)2
x 6= 3
f 00 = (10)
= (30)
(x2 + 3)
(x2 9)3
f 00 0 when |x| 3
(4) See the sketch.
Exercise 11. f (x) = sin2 x
2n
2
f 0 > 0 when
n < x < + n
2
0
f < 0 when + n < x < (n + 1)
2
0<x<
(3)
+ n < x < + n
4
4
3
00
f < 0 when + n < x <
+ n
4
4
f 00 > 0 when
f 00 = 2 cos 2x
(4) See sketch.
58
=
(1) f 0 = 1 cos x
(2) f 0 > 0 if x 6= 2n
(3)
f 0 = 0 when x = 2n
f 00 > 0 when 2n < x < 2n +
f 00 = sin x
(1) f 0 = 1 sin x
x=
(2) f 0 > 0 if x 6= 2 + 2n
(3)
f 0 (x) = 0
+ 2n
+ 2n < x < + 2n
2
2
3
00
f < 0 when + 2n < x <
+ 2n
2
2
f 00 > 0 when
00
f = cos x
(4) See sketch.
Exercise 14. f (x) =
1 2
6x
1
12
cos 2x
2x
f 0 (0) = 0
(1) f 0 = 31 x + sin
6
0
(2) f 0 when x 0
2x
(3) f 00 = 13 cos32x = 1cos
3
00
x = n for f = 0. Otherwise f 00 > 0 for x 6= n
(4) See sketch.
A = xy
P = 2(x + y) = 2(x +
A
)
x
A
)=0
2
x
x= A
4A
P 00 = 3 > 0 for x > 0 so x = A minimizes P
x
P 0 = 2(1
Exercise 2.
A = xy
L = 2x + y
dA
L
= L 4x = 0 when x =
dx
4
L
00
A = 4 so x = maximizes A
4
y=
L
2
Exercise 3.
A = xy
dL
A
A
= 2 + 2 = 0 when x =
dx
x
2
r
2A
A
L00 = 3 > 0 for x =
so x minimizes L
x
2
L = 2x + y = 2x +
A
x
Exercise 4. f = x2 + y 2 = x2 + (S x)2
f 0 = 2x + 2(S x)(1) = 2S + 4x
f 00 = 4 > 0 so x = S2 minimizes f
= x =
S
2
Exercise 5. x2 + y 2 = R > 0
59
y=
2 A
f =x+y
f 0 = 1 + y0 = 0 = 1 +
f 00 = y 00 =
Note that
x
=0
y
= y = x
1 y 02
for y > 0, f 00 < 0 so that f is max. when y = x
y
2x + 2yy 0 = 0
x
y0 =
1 + y 02 + yy 00 = 0 = yy 00 = 1 y 02
y
x + yy 0 = 0
Exercise 6.
L
L 2
l(x = ) =
2
2
Exercise 7.
p
L2 x2 )2 = A
p
x
L
A0 = 2(x + L2 x2 )(1 +
) = 0 when L2 x2 = x2 or x =
2
L2 x2
r
L
L2
2L
so then the side of the circumscribing and area-maximized square is + L2
=
2
2
2
(x +
Exercise 8.
p
p
A = (2x)(2 R2 x2 ) = 4x R2 x2
2
p
x2
R 2x2
R
A0 = 4( R2 x2 +
)=4
= x =
2
R 2 x2
R 2 x2
R
R
since A0 0 when x , so A is maximized at x =
2
2
2x =
2R
;
2
2 R 2 x2 =
2R
Exercise 9. Prove that among all rectangles of a given area, the square has the smallest circumscribed circle.
We could argue that we had found a minimum because at the infinity boundaries, the circumscribing circle would be
infinitely large.
Exercise 10. Given a sphere of radius R, find the radius r and altitude h of the right circular cylinder with the largest lateral
60
2
h
+ r2
2
p
4(R2 r2 ) = 4r R2 r2
2
p
R 2r2
dA
r2
R
= 4
= r =
R2 r 2 +
= 4
dr
2
R2 r 2
R2 r 2
= h = 2R
A = 2rh = 2r
Exercise 11. Among all right circular cylinders of given lateral surface area, prove that the smallest circumscribed sphere has
radius
2
A0
2
dr
A0
H
dr
= 2R +
=
= 0 = R = =
=R
2r
2
3
dR
16
R
dR
2
2
r2 = R2 + R2 = 2R2 = r = 2R
Exercise 12. Given a right circular cone with radius R and altitude H. Find the radius and altitude of the right circular cylinder
h=
H
2
dA
R
0 when r ,
dr
2
r=
R
maximizes lateral surface area
2
Exercise 13. Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a right circular
2
p
dV
r
(r)
(2R R2 r2 + 2R2 3r2 )
2
2
=
2rR + 2r R r +
= r
=0
dr
3
3
R2 r 2
R2 r 2
2 2R
4R
= r =
; h=
3
3
V =
61
2 2R
3
must maximize
Exercise 15. Find the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in a semicircle, the lower base being on the diameter.
A=
A0 =
R 2 x2 +
R 2 x2 x
x2
R
= 0 = x = ;
2
2
2
R x
R
h=
2
Exercise 16. Find the trapezoid of largest area that can be inscribed in a semicircle, the lower base being on the diameter.
p
1
h(2 R2 h2 + 2R)
2
dA p 2
h
= R h2 + R + h
dh
R2 h2
3R
dA
= 0 = h =
dh
2
r
p
5 3R2
3
R
2
2
= A =
R h = 2 R2 R2 = 2 = R
8
4
2
A=
Exercise 17. An open box is made from a rectangular piece of material by removing equal squares at each corner and turning
up the sides. Find the dimensions of the box of largest volume that can be made in this manner if the material has sides (a)
10 and 10; (b) 12 and 18
(1)
(x 2r)(Y 2r)r = (xy 2rx 2ry + 4r2 )r = xyr 2r2 x 2r2 y + 4r3 = V
dV
= xy 4rx 4ry + 12r2 = 0
dr
p
p
4(x + y) 16(x + y)2 4(12)xy
(x + y) x2 + y 2 xy
= r =
=
2(12)
6
2
d V
= 4x 4y + 24r = 4(x + y) + 24r
dr2
We can plug in our expression for r into the second derivative of V , the volume of the box, to find out that we want
to pick the negative root from r, in order to maximize the box volume.
20
Then for x = 10; y = 10, we have r = 53 , so that the box dimensions are 53 20
3 3 .
(2) 12 and 18
= 5 7 2 + 2 7 8 + 2 7
Exercise 18. If a and b are the legs of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is 1, find the largest value of 2a + b.
p
a 2
2
L = 2a + b = 2a + 1 a2
L0 = 0 =
= 1 a2 = a =
2
5
a
L0 = 2 +
2
1a
!
a
1 a2 1a
a
2
1
2
00
L = (1)
=
(1)
< 0 (so a = maximizes L )
2
2
3/2
1a
(1 a )
5
Exercise 19. 2 +
x2
600
l0
x
2K
x
Kx
600
D
x
r
dC
K
2K
D
2K + D
dC
dx =0
+
= l0
2 = 0 x =
10 6
2
dx
x
600 x
K
2
2(2K + D)
d2 C
=
l
(2K
D)
=
l
>0
0
0
dx2
x3
x3
r
2K + D
Thus, C is minimized if x =
10 6
K
2K + D K
K 2K + D10 6
= Cmin = (300)
= 3 2 6 + 10D
+
600
10 6
Remember that there is a speed limit of 60 mi/hr.
(1) D = 0,
x = 203
C = 6 3 10.39
(2) D = 1,
x = 40 2
C = 12 2 16.97
(3) D = 2,
x = 60 (because of the speed limit)
(4) D = 3,
(5) D = 4,
Exercise 20. y =
x = 60
x = 60
x
x2 +1
C = 300
2K
60
K(60)
600
D
60
= 5(2.4 + D) = 22.00
C = 27.00
C = 32.00
Suppose the rectangle starts at x0 on the x axis. Then its y coordinate intersecting the curve, and thus
x0
x20 +1
s
1
1
1
= x0 =
2y0
(2y0 )2
s
1
x2 x1 =
4
y02
where x2 x1 is going to be the base of the rectangle. The volume of the cylinder, V , which is obtained from revolving the
rectangle about the x axis, is going to be
s
!
q
1
V = y02 (x2 x1 ) = y02
4 = y0 1 4y02
2
y0
!
!
q
y0
1 8y02
1
dV
2
(8y0 ) = p
= y0 =
=
1 4y0 + p
2
2
dy0
2 2
2 1 4y0
1 4y0
We could argue that V is maximized, since the infinite boundaries would yield a volume of 0 (imagine stretching and
squeezing the rectangle inside the curve).
Then Vmax = 18 2 =
4
Exercise 21. Draw a good diagram. Note how the right triangle that you folded is now reflected backwards , so that this
So, isolating l, the length of the crease, and then taking the derivative,
w0
w0
=
csc () sec2 ()
2 sin () cos2
2
cot csc sec2 + csc 2 sec sec tan =
1
S
C 1
1
1
w0
1
2
+
2
=
+
S
S
C2
S
C2
C
2 S2C
C3
l=
dl
w0
=
d
2
w0
=
2
dl
1
1
d =0
sin = or tan =
3
2
where is the angle of the crease. The corresponding minimum length of the crease will be
l=
w0
2
1
1 2
33
9 3
2
Exercise 22.
(1) Consider the center of the circle O, the apex of the isosceles triangle that makes an angle 2, A, and one of its other
vertices, B. Draw a line segment from O to B and simply consider the two triangles making up one half of the
isosceles triangle. Find all the angles.
Angle AOB is 2 by the geometry or i.e. inspection of the figure. The complement of that angle is 2.
Beforehand, we can get the length of the isosceles triangle leg from the law of cosines.
cos ( 2) = cos (2)
2
(8)
So then
= P = 3 3R
P = 3 3 is a max because
Look at the boundary conditions imposed on P by the physical-geometry. = 0, triangle is completely flattened,
= , triangle completely disappears.
(2) I had originally thought to Reuse the constraint equation, Eqn. ( ??). This is wrong!
Think about the problem directly and for what it actually is; less wishful thinking.
Consider a fixed perimeter L and imagine L to be a string that can be stretched into an isoceles triangle. A trivial
isoceles triangle is a collapsed triangle with two sides of length L/2 only. Then the radius of the disk needs to be L/4.
Consider a general isosceles triangle with 2 as the vertex angle and isosceles sides of h. The perimeter for this
triangle, P , is then
P = 2h + 2h sin = 2h(1 + sin )
P
= h =
2(1 + sin )
h
= R cos
2
64
dR
1
2
= 0 = cos (2) = sin = sin =
cos =
d
3
3
3P
R=
4 2( 3 + 1)
However, this is the minimized R, minimized radius for the smallest circle fitting a particular isosceles triangle of a
fixed perimeter. We want to smallest circle with a radius big enough to fit all the possible triangles. Thus R = L4
Exercise 23. The constraint equation on perimeter is
P = 2h + W +
W
2
= 2h + W (1 +
)
2
I = Wh +
2
W
2
2
3 2
1
Wp W2
W
=
2
2
2
16
So then
P
3
P
dI
=
W
W = 0 = W =
dW
2
8
2 + 3
4
The height of the rectangle is
P
h=
P
2+ 3
4
(1 + 2 )
=P
4+
16 + 6
Exercise 24. A log 12 feet long has the shape of a frustum of a right circular cone with diameters 4 feet and (4 + h) feet at its
ends, where h 0. Determine, as a function of h, the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that can be cut from the
log, if its axis coincides with that of the log.
Remember to label your diagram carefully.
xh
h
h/2 2l
y
y
h/2
0
2
=
=
=
x
l0 x
l0
l0 x
xh 2
2
V = (H + y) (l0 x) = (H +
) (l0 x)
2l0
Note that V (x = 0) = H 2 l0 = 4(12)
dV
hx h
xh 2
= (2(H +
) (l0 x) + (H +
) (1)) =
dV
(h H)2l0
dx
2l0 2l0
2l0
dx =0
x =
hx
3xh
3h
= (H +
)(h H
)
2l0
2l0
2
(h H)2l0
(h H)2l0
h (h H)2l0
(h + 2H)3
V (x =
) = l0
H+
= l0
3h
3h
2l0
3h
27h
where H = 2, l0 = 12
Exercise 25.
S=
n
X
X
dS
=
2(x ak ) = 0
dx
k=1
k=1
Pn
n
X
ak
= nx =
ak = x = k=1
n
(x ak )2 =
k=1
Since limx S = +, x =
Pn
k=1
ak
minimizes S.
Exercise 26. Hint: draw a picture . Then observe that for f (x) 24, A must be greater than 0 (well show that explicitly
5x7 +A
x5 .
Consider x =
f (x =
A1/7
61/7
> 0.
A
A1/7
= 5 <0
1/7
6x
6
Thus, A > 0.
df
= 10x 5Ax6 = 5
dx
1/7
A
x=
2
d2 f
= 10 + 30Ax7 = 10 + 3 A
dx2
Thus x =
A 1/7
2
2x7 A
x6
=0
2
= 70 > 0
A
A
2 +A
A 5/7
2
24
7
= 24
7/2
1
1
f (0) = 0, f (1) = + t2 = f (1) 0 if t2
3
3
f 0 (x) = x2 + t2 = 0
= x2 = t2 but x 0, so x = |t|
2
1
f (x2 = t2 ) = t2 (x) + t2 x = t2 x > 0 for 1 x 0
3
3
So the minimum isnt in the interior of [0, 1]. Its on the end points.
m(t) = 0 for |t| >
1
1
1
m(t) =
+ t2 for |t| <
3
3
3
Exercise 28.
(1)
E(x, t) =
|t x|
x
|t x|
as x = a x = b
x
(
tx
if t x
|t x|
x
= xt
x
if t < x
x
( t
2 if t x
d |t x|
= tx
dt
x
if t < x
x2
M (t) = max
|tx|
x
(2)
(
M (t) =
Since
dM
dt
ta
a
bt
b
0 when t
if
if
2ab
a+b ,
ta
a
bt
b
>
>
bt
b
ta
a
i.e. t
b+a
ab
M is minimized for t =
> 2 dM
dt
(1
=
a
1
b
ab
if t > 2a+b
if t <
ab
a+b
2ab
a+b
x
.
x2 +y 2
fx = p
x2 + y 2
xy
fy = 2
(x + y 2 )3/2
fxy
y2
x2
=
(x2 + y 2 )3/2
(x2 + y 2 )3/2
fyy
3y 2 x
(x2 + y 2 )5/2
2
x 2y 2
= (x)
(x2 + y 2 )5/2
fxx =
!
=
fyx =
(x2
2y
3y 2 y
(y)(2x2 + y 2 )
+ 2
=
2
3/2
2
5/2
+y )
(x + y )
(x2 + y 2 )5/2
Exercise 9.
(1)
z = (x 2y)2
zx = 2(x 2y) = 2 z
zy = 2(x 2y)(2) = 4 z
(2)
z = (x4 + y 4 )1/2
1
zx = 2x3
z
2y 3
zy =
z
Exercise 10.
f=
xy
y
4x2 y
y 3 3x2 y
,
f
=
+
=
x
(x2 + y 2 )2
(x2 + y 2 )2
(x2 + y 2 )3
(x2 + y 2 )3
So
6xy(x2 + y 2 )3 3(x2 + y 2 )2 (2x)(y 3 3x2 y)
=
(x2 + y 2 )6
12xy(x2 y 2 )
=
(x2 + y 2 )4
fxx =
By label symmetry,
fxx + fyy =
12xy(x2 y 2 ) 12yx(y 2 x2 )
+
=0
(x2 + y 2 )4
(x2 + y 2 )4
67
5.5 Exercises - The derivative of an indefinite integral. The first fundamental theorem of calculus, The zero-derivative
theorem, Primitive functions and the second fundamental theorem of calculus, Properties of a function deduced from
properties of its derivatve.
Review the fundamental theorems of calculus, Thm. 5.1 and Thm. 5.3. Note the differences between the two.
Theorem 17 (First fundamental theorem of calculus).
Let f be integrable on [a, x] x [a, b]
Let c [a, b] and
Z
(9)
A(x) =
if a x b
f (t)dt
(10)
P (x) = P (c) +
(11)
f (t)dt
c
Exercise 6.
Rb
a
f=
2 23 x3/2 +
1 2 3/2
2 3x
2x3/2
2(b3/2 a3/2 )
3 4/3
2x
32 x2/3 ;
Exercise 9. P = 3 cos x +
Exercise 10. P =
3 7/3
7x
x>0
x6
3
5 sin x
1
x
f=
f0 =
X
k=
ak xk
kak xk1 =
k=
1
x
(R x
R0x
0
|t|dt =
0
tdt
tdt
if x 0
=
if x < 0
1 2
2x
1 2
2 x
if x 0
1
= x|x|
2
if x < 0
Exercise 13.
x
2
(R x
(t + |t|) dt =
0
(2t)2 dt
0 if x < 0
0
if x 0
(
=
4 3
3x
if x 0
2x2
=
(x + |x|)
3
if x < 0
0
0
A (x) = f (x)
= 2 + 2 cos 2x 4x sin 2x
Rx
c
f (t)dt = cos x
1
2
f (x) = sin x
c = 6 .
t sin t t =
x
1
1
t cos t + sin t t2 = sin x x cos x x2
2
2
0
So c = 0.
Exercise 17. For f (x) = x2 f (x) + 2x1 5 + 2x1 7 (found by taking the derivative of
Rx
0
f =
R1
x
t2 f +
x16
8
x18
9
a=3
Continuing on,
1 + sin x
;
2 + x2
1
f 0 (0) = = b
2
f0 =
f 00 =
Exercise 19.
Z
Z
1 x
1 x 2
(x t)2 g(t)dt =
(x 2xt + t2 )g(t)dt =
2 0
2 0
Z x
Z x
Z x
1
=
x2
g 2x
tg +
t2 g
2
0
0
0
Z x
Z x
2
x
1
f0 = x
g + g(x)
tg x(xg(x)) + x2 g(x) =
2
2
0
Z0 x
Z x
=x
g
tg
0
Z x0
Z x
00
f =
g + xg xg =
g f 00 (1) = 2
f (x) =
000
=g
0
000
f (1) = 5
Exercise 20.
Rx
(1 + t2 )3 dt)0 = (1 + x2 )3
R0x2
2x
(2) ( 0 (1 + t2 )3 dt)0 = (1 + x4 )3 (2x) = (1+x
4 )3
R x2
2 3
0
4 3
(3) ( x3 (1 + t ) dt) = (1 + x ) (2x) (1 + x6 )3 (3x2 ) =
(1) (
69
2x
(1+x4 )3
3x2
(1+x6 )3
+ C,)
Exercise 21.
f 0 (x) =
x2
x3
!0
t6
x12
x1 8
dt =
(2x)
3x2
1 + t4
1 + x8
1 + x12
Exercise 22.
(1)
f (x) = 2x(1 + x) + x2 = 2x + 3x2
(2)
d
dx
f (2) = 16
b(x)
f (t)dt = f (b)b0 f (a)a0
a(x)
R
3 2
f (2) = 1 +
2
(3)
R f (x)
0
t2 dt = x2 (1 + x)
2x + 3x2 = (f (x))2 f 0 (x)
= f 3 (2) = 3(4)(3) = 9(4) = 36
f (2) = 361/3
(4)
d
dx
x2 (1+x)
!
f (t)dt
= 1 = f (x2 (1 + x))(2x(1 + x) + x2 )
x=1
(f (2))(5) = 1 = f (2) =
1
5
Exercise 23.
a3 2a cos a + (2 a2 ) sin a =
f 2 (t)dt
f (x) = x 3 cos x
f (a) = a 3 cos a
Exercise 24. f (t) =
t2
2
+ 2t sin t
(1)
f 0 = 2t + 2 sin t + 2t cos t
f 0 () = 2 2 = 0
(2)
f 00 = 2 + 2 cos t + 2 cos t + 2t sin t = 2 + 4 cos t 2t sin t
f 00
=2
2
(3) f 00 3
2 = 0
2
(4) f 5
= 25
2
8 + 5
2
(5) f () = 2
Exercise 25.
70
(1)
df
1 + 2 sin t cos t
= v(t)
=
dt
1 + t2
2(cos (2t))(1 + t2 ) 2t(sin (2t))
a(t) =
(1 + t2 )2
4
a(t = 2) = a(t = 1) =
=
4
(2) v(t = 1) 21
(3) v(t) = (t 1) + 12 ; t > 1
(4)
2
t
Z t
Z t
1
t2
t
1
t
1
(t 1) + =
v(t)dt =
f (t) f (1) =
t + t =
+ t + +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
Exercise 26.
(1)
f 00 (x) > 0 x
f 0 (0) = 1; f 0 (1) = 0
R1
0
f 00 (t)dt > 0
(2)
1
x
x 1
sin
dx = 3x + cos
=31=2
2
2
2 0
3x2
2
x
f (x) =
+ sin
+C
2
f 0 (x) = ex ;
b a = 21 .
Z
a
f 0 (0) = 1
f (x) = ex
x < 0, ex < 1
f 0 (0) = 0
1
f 00 = f 0 (b) f 0 (a) 6(b a) = 3 since b a =
2
Z a
f 00 = f 0 (a) f 0 (0) = f 0 (a) 6(a 0) = 6a
0
If a =
1 0
, f (1/2) 3
2
Then by intermediate value theorem, with f being continuous and f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (1/2) 3, f 0 must take on the value of 3
somewhere between 0 and 3. Thus there is an interval [a, b] of length 1/2 where f 0 3.
71
5.8 Exercises
for primitives, Integration by substitution.
R - The Leibniz1 notation3/2
2x + 1dx = 3 (2x + 1) .
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
R
x 1 + 3x =
2x
9 (1
4
+ 3x)3/2 + 135
(1 + 3x)5/2
Exercise 3.
2x2 (x + 1)3/2
8x(x + 1)5/2
16(x + 1)7/2
x2 x + 1 =
+
3
15
105
since
2
3/2 0
2x (x + 1)
4x(x + 1)3/2
= x2 (x + 1)1/2 +
3
3
5/2 0
4
8x(x + 1)
8(x + 1)5/2
= x(x + 1)3/2 +
15
3
15
0
16(x + 1)7/2
8(x + 1)5/2
=
105
15
Exercise 4.
Z
Z
1/3
2/3
xdx
2x(2 3x)1/2
4(2 3x)3/2
=
+
3
27
2 3x
xdx
= 2/9 4/27 (8/9 32/27) = 2/27
2 3x
Exercise 5.
(x + 1)dx
((x + 1)2 + 1)2
=
((x + 1)2 + 1)3
4
Exercise 6.
sin3 x =
1
cos3 x
3
Exercise 7.
Exercise 8.
sin2 x
2
Exercise 9.
/4
(4sin 2x)3/2
3
0
x1/3 (1 + x) =
3
3
3 4/3 3 7/3
x + x
= (z 1)4/3 + (z 1)7/3
4
7
4
7
33/2 8
3
8
x + 13 = 2(cos 3 cos 2)
(1x6 )1/2
3
Exercise 15.
Exercise 16.
t(1 + t)1/4 dt =
(x2 + 1)3/2 dx =?
(x 1)x1/4 dx =
x
x2 + 1
0
=
4 9/4 4 5/4
4
4
x x
= (1 + t)9/4 (1 + t)5/4
9
5
9
5
x2 + 1 x2 / x2 + 1
1
= 2
x2 + 1
(x + 1)3/2
Exercise 17.
72
(8x3 + 27)5/3
Exercise 18.
3
2 (sin x
3
1
1
=
(8x3 + 27)5/3
5
24
40
cos x)2/3
Exercise 19.
xdx
p
=
1 + x2 + (1 + x2 )3/2
1
2 du
=
u + u3/2
Z
1
du
=
= 2(1 + u1/2 )1/2 =
2
u 1 + u1/2
p
= 2(1 + 1 + x2 )1/2 + C
Exercise 20.
Z
(x 1)2/5
dx = (x 1)3/5 dx = 5/2(x 1)2/5
x1
Rb
R b+c
Exercise 21. Thm. 1.18. invariance under translation. a f (x)dx = a+c f (x c)dx.
(x2 2x + 1)1/5 dx
=
1x
f (x)dx =
dy = kdx
1
k
kb
f
ka
y
k
dy
Exercise 22.
x
a
x/a
,1 =
0
t
a
dt
du =
a
u=
up
du
2
(u + 12 )q
1Z x
(t/a)p dt
q =
,1 =
a
a 0
t 2
2
+
1
a
Z x
tp
= ap1+2q
dt = ap1+2q F (x, a)
2
2 q
0 (t + 1 )
x
Exercise 23.
Z xx
1
1/x
Z
1
dt
= F (1) F (x)
1 + t2
dt
= F (x) F (1)
1 + t2
dt
1
=F
F (1)
2
1+t
x
1
t
1
1
du = 2 dt, 2 du = dt
t
u
Z 1/x
dt
du
=
=
2
2
1+t
u 1 + u12
1
Z 1/x
Z 1
du
dt
=
=
2+1
2+1
u
t
1/x
1
u=
Z
1
Exercise 24.
Z
0
xm (1 x)n dx =
Z
0
Exercise 25.
73
(1 x)m xn dx using
u=1x
x=1u
m
sin 2x
= 2m sinm 2x
2
Z
Z /2
Z
1
m
m
m
m
m
m
m1
sin 2xdx = 2
cos x sin xdx = 2
sinm xdx =
sin xdx = 2
0 2
0
0
Z /2
Z /2
Z /2
sinm
cosm xdx
= 2m1
cosm xdx = 2m
x dx = 2m1
2
/2
0
/2
cosm x sinm x =
Exercise 26.
(1)
Z
( u)f (sin ( u))(du) =
( u)f (sin u)du =
0
Z
Z
xf (sin x)dx
f (sin x)dx
=
Z 0
Z 0
xf (sin x)dx =
=
f (sin x)dx
2 0
0
Z
xf (sin x)dx =
u=x
x=u
(2)
Z
u = cos x
Z
Z
sin x
x sin x
sin x
=
dx =
2
2 dx = 2
2
1
+
cos2 x
2
sin
x
2
sin
x
0
0
0
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
du
du
dx
=
=
=
2 1 1 + u2
2 1 1 + u2
1
+
x2
1
x sin x
dx =
1 + cos2 x
du = sin xdx
Exercise 27.
x = sin u
2 n 21
(1 x )
dx = cos u
/2
2
dx =
(cos u)
n 12
Z
cos udu =
/2
cos2n udu
5.10 Exercises
- Integration by Parts.
R
x sin x = x cos x + sin x
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
Exercise 3.
Exercise 4.
Exercise 5.
Exercise 6.
Exercise 7.
sin2 x =
sin2 xdx =
1
4
x
2
2x
sin 2x = x cos
+
4
sin 2x +
sin 2x
8
cos2 x
x
2
Exercise 8.
(n 1) sinn2 x cos2 x
u = sinn1 x
dv = sin xdx
Exercise 9.
74
(1)
Z
1
1
1
1
1=
sin x cos x +
sin x cos x + x
2
2
2
2
Z /2
sin2 xdx =
4
0
R
R /2 4
/2
/2
3
(2) 0 sin x = 1
+ 34 0 sin2 x = 3
4 sin x cos x 0
16
R /2 6
R
5
4
5 /2
(3) 0 sin x = 6 0 sin x =
32
Z
sin2 x =
Exercise 10.
(1)
1
2
sin2 x cos x +
3
3
1
3
3
cos x +
cos 3x =
cos x +
4
12
4
3
= cos x +
4
Z
sin3 xdx =
1
2
3
1
sin x = sin 2x cos x cos x =
cos x +
cos 3x
6
3
4
12
since
1
(cos x cos 2x sin 2x sin x) =
12
1
2
1
(cos x(1 2 sin2 x) + 2 sin2 x cos x) =
cos x sin2 x cos x
12
3
3
(2)
Z
Z
3
1
3 x sin 2x
1
3x 3 sin 2x
1
sin3 x cos x +
sin2 x =
sin3 x cos x + (
)=
sin3 x cos x +
4
4
4
4 2
4
4
8
16
1
1
1
sin
2x
1
Now
sin 4x =
(2 sin 2x cos 2x) = (sin x cos x(1 2 sin2 x) =
sin3 x cos x
32
32
8
16
4
3x 3 sin 2x
3x 1
1
1
3
sin x cos x +
=
sin 2x +
sin 4x
=
4
8
16
8
4
32
sin4 xdx =
(3)
sin5 xdx =
Z
sin4 x sin xdx = cos x sin4 x + cos2 x4 sin3 x =
Z
Z
Z
Z
= cos x sin4 x + 4( sin3 x sin5 x) = cos x sin4 x + 4 sin3 x 4 sin5 x
Z
Z
5
4
5 sin dx = cos x sin x + 4 sin3 x
3
1
cos x +
cos 3x)
4
12
1
= cos x(1 2 cos2 x + cos4 x) + 3 cos x + cos 3x
3
1
= cos x + 2 cos3 x cos5 x 3 cos x + (cos x cos 2x sin x sin 2x) =
3
1
10 cos3 x
= 4 cos x + 2 cos3 x cos5 x + (4 cos3 x 3 cos x) = 5 cos x +
cos5 x
3
3
Z
2 cos 3x 1
sin5 xdx = cos x +
cos5 x
3
5
My solution to the last part of this exercise conflicts with whats stated in the book.
Exercise 11.
(1)
Z
2
Z
Z
x2
x sin 2x
x
cos 2x
x sin2 xdx = ( sin2 x)x (sin2 t) =
+
=
2
4
4
8
x2
x sin 2x cos 2x
=
8
4
Z8
x sin 2x
we had used
sin2 x =
2
4
75
(2)
Z
3x
cos x +
4
3x
=
cos x +
4Z
Z
x
3
1
cos 3x cos x +
cos 3x =
12
4
12
x
3
sin 3x
cos 3x + sin x +
12
4
36
3
1
sin3 x =
cos x +
cos 3x
4
12
x sin3 x =
(3)
Z
Z
Z
x sin 2x
x sin 2x
x3
x2 sin 2x 1 3
x sin 2x
x sin xdx = x
2x
x +
=
2
4
2
4
2
4
3
2
x3
x2 sin 2x 1 x cos 2x sin 2x
=
+
+
=
6
4
2
2
4
2
x3
x2 sin 2x x cos 2x sin 2x
+
6
4
4
8
Exercise 12.
cos xdx =
cos
n1
n1
Exercise 13.
R
(1) cos2 x =
R
(2) cos3 x =
sin 2x
+ 12 x
5
2
cos x sin x
+ 23
3
sin x =
3
4
sin x +
1
12
sin 3x since
1
1
1
1
sin 3x =
(sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x) = sin x cos2 x +
sin x(2 cos2 x 1) =
12
12
6
12
1
1
= sin x cos2 x
sin x
3
12
(3)
Z
cos4 xdx =
cos3 x sin x 3
+
4
4
1
1
x + sin 2x
2
4
=
3
3
cos3 x sin x
x+
sin 2x +
8
16
4
sin 4x = 2 sin 2x cos 2x = 4 sin x cos x(2 cos2 x 1) = 8 sin x cos3 x 2 sin 2x
Z
3
1
1
cos4 xdx = x + sin 2x +
sin 4x
8
4
32
Exercise 14.
Z p
Z
p
x2
2
2
1 x dx = x 1 x +
dx
1 x2
Z
Z
Z
p
x2
x2 +1
1
dx =
=
1 x2 +
2
2
1x
1x +11
1 x2
2
2
x =x 1+1
Z
Z p
1 p
1
1
2
2
=
1 x dx = x 1 x +
2
2
1 x2
Exercise 15.
76
then
(1)
Z
Z
Z
(a2 x2 )n dx = x(a2 x2 )n n(a2 x2 )n1 (2x)xdx = x(a2 x2 )n + 2n x2 (a2 x2 )n1 dx
Z
Z
Z
2 2
2 n1
2
2
2
2
2 n1
x (a x )
dx = ((x a ) + a )(a x )
dx = (a2 x2 )n + a2 (a2 x2 )n1 dx
Z
Z
x(a2 x2 )n
2a2 n
2
2 n
= (a x ) dx =
+
(a2 x2 )n1 dx
2n + 1
2n + 1
(2)
x3
x(a2 x2 ) 2a2
+
x=
+ a2 x
3
3
3
Z
Z
a2 5
x(a2 x2 )5/2
2
2 5/2
(a2 x2 )3/2 dx
+
(a x ) dx =
6
6
Z
Z
x(a2 x2 )3/2
3a2
2
2 3/2
(a x ) dx =
+
(a2 x2 )1/2 dx
4
4
Z
Z r
x 2
1
dx = a2 cos2 d =
=a
a
!
r
Z
x 2
sin 2
1 + cos 2
x 1x
2
2
2
1
=a
=a
+
= a arcsin +
2
2
4
a 2a
a
Z ap
a2
a2 x2 = a2
0 =
2
2
0
2
Z a
2
3a
a
3a4
(a2 x2 )3/2 dx =
=
4
2
8
0
Z a
5
5a2 3a4
=
a6
(a2 x2 )5/2 dx =
6
8
16
0
Z
(a2 x2 )1/2
Rx
0
(a2 x2 )dx =
x
a
dx
cos d =
a
sin =
tn (t2 + a2 )1/2 dt
(1)
Z n2 2
t
(t + a2 )
(n 1)tn2 (t2 + a2 )1/2 = tn1 (t2 + a2 )1/2 (n 1)
2
(t + a2 )1/2
Z
p
tn2
n1
=
x
x2 + a2 (n 1)a2 In2
(n)In = xn1 (x2 + a2 )1/2 a2 (n 1)
(t2 + a2 )1/2
(2) n = 5; x = 2; a = 5.
Z 2
2
I1 (2) =
x(x2 + 5)1/2 dx = (x2 + 5)1/2 = 3 5
In (x) = (t2 + a2 )1/2 tn1
1
10 5
168 40 5
I5 (2) = (48 20(6 +
)) =
5
3
5
3
5I5 (2) =
Exercise 17.
Z
t2(c + t3 )1/2
2(c + t3 )1/2
t (c + t )
dt =
3
3
Z 3
Z
3
t2(4 + t3 )1/2
2 3
2 3 2
3
3 1/2
3 1/2
t (4 + t )
dt =
(4 + t )
= 2 31 +
(11.35)
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
Z
3 1/2
Exercise 18.
77
Z
Z
sinn+1 x
sin x
sinn x
n sinn1 x
n
dx
=
sin
x
dx
=
m+1
n+1
m
cos
x
cos
x
m cos x
m cosm1 x
Z
Z
sinn+1 x
sinn x
n
sinn1 x
=
dx
=
cosm+1 x
m cosm x m
cosm1 x
Exercise 19.
cosm+1 x
dx =
sinn+1 x
Z
cos xdx
1
m cosm1 x
m
cos x
= cos x
=
n
n+1
n sin x
n sinm x
sin
x
Z
m
cosm1 x
cosm x
+
=
n
n sin x
n
sinn1 x
Z
Z
Z
1 cos1 x 1
cos1+1 x
cot2 x =
=
dx = cot x x
1 sin1 x
1
sin1+1 x
Z
Z
Z
1
cos3+1 x
1 cos3 x
cos31 x
1
4
cot3 x ( cot x x) =
cot3 x + cot x + x
cot xdx =
=
=
3+1
3
31
3
3
3
sin
x
sin x
sin
x
Z
Exercise 20.
(1)
Z
00
tf 00 (2t)dt
tf (t)dt = 2
0
n=2
(2)
Z
xf 00 (2x)dx =
1
2
tf 00 (t)dt =
1
2
tf 0 (t)|0
Z
0
1
f 0 (t)dt = (2f 0 (2) (f (2) f (0))) = 4
2
Exercise 21.
(1) Recall Theorem 5.5, the second mean-value theorem for integrals:
Z b
Z c
Z
f (x)g(x)dx = f (a)
g(x)dx + f (b)
a
sin (t)
0 (t)
0 (t)
(2) (t) = t2 ;
g(x)dx
Z c
Z b
1
1
0
(t)
sin
(t)
+
0 (t) sin (t) =
0 (a) a
0 (b) a
1
1
4
c
= 0
cos (t)|a + 0 (cos (b) cos (a))
(a)
(b)
m
0 (t) = 2t > 2a if t > a
Z x
4
2
sin t dt
= 2a
2a
dt =
where
1
1
0
m
(t)
t [a, b]
f (0) = 1
Ph
g 0 (0) = 0 especially if n Z+ (just note that if negative integer values are included,
j
n!
nk jk
f
(x)
k=0 k (nk)! x
g (x) =
n
X
j
k=0
g (0) =
n!
xnk f (jk) (x)
k (n k)!
j!
f (jn) (0)
(j n)!
78
If j = n, g n (0) = n!
Exercise 2.
P (x) =
5
X
aj xj
j=0
0
P (x) =
5
X
P (0) = 1 = a0
jaj x
P 0 (0) = 0 = a1
j1
P 00 (x) =
5
X
a1 = a2 = 0
00
j=1
P (0) = 0 = 2(1)a2
j(j 1)aj xj2
j=2
P (x) = a5 x5 + a4 x4 + a3 x3 + 1
0
P (1) = a5 + a4 + a3 + 1 = 2
P 0 (1) = 5a5 + 4a4 + 3a3 = 0
P 00 (1) = 20a5 + 12a4 + 6a3 = 0
1 0 15
a5
5 4 3 0
5
4 3
0
20 12 6 0 =
20 12 6 a4 = 0
0 1 10
1 0 0 6
1 1 1 1
1
1 1
1
a3
= a5 = 6
a4 = 15
a3 = 10
Exercise 3. If f (x) = cos x and g(x) = sin x, Prove that f (n) = cos (x +
n
2 )
(
sin x(1)j+1 if n = 2j + 1
cos x(1)j
if n = 2j
(
cos x(1)j if n = 2j + 1
n
)=
g (n) (x) = sin (x +
2
sin x(1)j if n = 2j
n
f (n) (x) = cos (x +
)=
2
f (x) = cos x
f 0 (x) = sin x
f 00 (x) = cos x
f 000 (x) = sin x
f 0000 (x) = cos x
g(x) = sin x
0
g (x) = cos x
g 00 (x) = sin x
g 000 (x) = cos x
g 0000 (x) = sin x
Exercise 4.
79
n
2 )
h0 (x) = f 0 g + f g 0
h(n+1)
n
X
n (k) (nk)
=
f g
k
(n)
h
h00 (x) = f 00 g + 2f 0 g 0 + f g 00
k=0
n
X
n
=
f (k+1) g (nk) + f (k) g (nk+1) =
k
k=0
n1
X n
(1) (n)
(n+1)
= f g + fg
+
f (k+1) g (nk) + f (k) g (nk+1) + f (n+1) g + f (n) g (1)
k
k=1
=f
(1) (n)
+ fg
(n+1)
n
X
k=2
n!
(n k + 1)!(k 1)!
(k) (nk+1)
n1
X
k=1
n!
f (k) g (nk+1)
(n k)!k!
k=0
(1)
f 2 + g 2 = f (g 0 ) + gf 0
Y 0 = 2f f 0 + 2gg 0 = 2(gf + 2g(f )) = 0 = Y = C
Y = f 2 + g2
Y = C = f 2 + g2
f (0) = 0;
g(0) = 1 = C = 1
(2)
h = (F f )2 + (G g)2
= f 0 (x) = g(x),
0
g 0 (x) = f (x);
f (0) = 0;
g(0) = 1
0
so C = 0
= F = f ; G = g
Exercise 6.
u = x2
Exercise 7.
df
du 2x
f 0 (4) =
= 3x2
3x
2
u = 4; x = 2
dg
du
= u3/2 ;
g(u) = 52 u5/2
64
5
g(4) = 25 25 =
Exercise 8.
Z
0
sin t
1
dt =
t+1
0+1
sin tdt +
0
1
x+1
sin tdt =
c
1
1
x
cos t|c = cos c + 1 +
(cos x cos c) =
x+1
x+1
x cos c + x cos c + 1 cos x + cos c
x(1 cos c) + (1 cos c)
=
=
>0
x+1
x+1
c
= cos t|0 +
1 2
2x
c
2
(kx x ) +
c
1
1
(x2 x2 ) = b3
P : (b, b2 )
2
6
Assume C2 is of the form kx2
(k 1) 3
1
(b x ) =
c + b2 (b c) + (b3 c3 )
3
3
2
(b2 c2 )c
b3
c3
2b3
+ b3 cb2
+
=
3
3
3
3
Now A(A) = A(B)
1
2 2
= b (b c) = b3 = b =
3
6
16 2
so then kx2 =
x
9
kc2 = b2
k=
b2
c2
2 2
2
cb = b2 (b c)
3
3
4
c
3
Exercise 10.
(1) |Q(h) 0| = f (h)
h =
h2
|h|
if x is rational
.
0
if x is irrational
For now, consider 0 < h < ; let (; h = 0) =
(
f (h)
= h
|Q(h) 0| =
h
0
if x is rational
<
if x is irrational
(2)
f (h) f (0)
0 = = f 0 (0) = 0
h
Exercise 11.
Exercise 12.
4
3 (1
Exercise 13.
(x2 1)10
20
2
5
cos 5x + 3x
5 cos 5x +
3
25
sin 5x
+ x2 )3/2
1
2
310
20
Exercise 14.
1
3
6x + 7 + 2
1
dx =
(6x + 7)3
3
=
Exercise 15.
1
(6x + 7)1
(6x + 7)2
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
=
= 3 13
6
6
6
42 (6)132
(6)49
0
37
8281
x4 (1 + x5 )5 dx =
(1+x5 )6
30
Exercise 16.
u=1x
x4 (1 x)20 dx =
x=1u
Z
=
1
(1 u)4 u20 du =
(1 u)4 u20 du =
121
412 2 6123
4124
125
=
+
+
+
+
=
21
22
23
24
25
1
=
265650
Make sure to check your arithmetic.
Exercise 17.
R2
1
2
x2 sin x1 dx = cos x1 1 = cos 12 cos 1
81
Exercise 18.
sin (x 1)1/4 dx
Z
Z
Z
u = (x 1)1/4
1/4
3
= sin (x 1) dx = (sin u)4u du = 4 u3 sin udu
1
1 1
du = (x 1)3/4 dx =
dx
4
4 u3
Z
Exercise 19.
Exercise 20.
du
u1/2 3
=
2u3/2
9
2
(1 + 3 cos2 x)3/2 ,
9
u = 1 + 3 cos x
Exercise 21.
R2
0
u = x2 + 1
du = 2xdx
Z
(u2 2u + 1)
375 5
1
2
1
du
=
du
3+ 4 =
u4
2 1
u2
u
u
1
5
1
1
375 1
= 64 = 26
+ 2+
=
3
2
u
u
3u 1
375
375
du(u 1)2 u4 =
2
2
(u 1)2 = x4
Exercise 22.
Since
R1
0
du
= 2 cos x sin xdx
3
1
x2 +3x+2
1
=
0
1
6
1
2
3
2
= 23 ,
then if a = 9/2, b = 27
2 , well obtain 3/2
R1
Exercise 23. In = 0 (1 x2 )n dx
1
2 n
(1 x ) dx = x(1
In =
0
Z
=2
1
x2 ) n 0
x2 n(1 x2 )n1 dx = 2n
= In =
2n
2n + 1
= 2nIn1 2nIn
Z 1
Z
I2 =
(1 x2 )2 dx =
0
I3 =
6 8 16
7 15 35
I4 =
8
128
I3 =
9
315
I5 =
10
256
I4 =
11
693
Rx
tm (1 + t)n dt;
1
2
dx(1 2x + x ) =
m > 0,
n>0
82
1
1 5
8
2x3
+ x =
x
3
5
15
0
In1
x Z x m+1
t
tm+1
xm+1 (1 + x)n
n
n
F (m, n) =
(1 + t)
n(1 + t)n1 dt =
F (m + 1, n 1)
m+1
m+1
m+1
0 m+1
0
(m + 1)F (m, n) + nF (m + 1, n 1) = xm+1 (1 + x)n
12
x
Z x
Z x
t
x12
t13
x13
11
1
1
12
F (11, 1) =
t (1 + t) dt =
t 1+t =
=
+
+
12
13 0
12
13
0
0
12
x
x13
11F (10, 2) + 2
+
= x11 (1 + x)2
12
13
F (10, 2) =
Exercise 25. f (n) =
R /4
0
x13
x12
x11
+
+
13
6
11
tann xdx
(1)
b
Z
a
/4
f (n + 1) =
g + f (a)
c
/4
n
tan x tan x =
0
f g = f (b)
g
a
/4
tann x = f (n)
tan x <
c
(2)
Z
/4
f (n + 2) + f (n) =
tann x tan2 x +
/4
tann x =
/4
tann x(sec2 x) =
/4
tann+1 x
1
=
=
n + 1 0
n+1
(3)
1
< f (n + 1) + f (n) < 2f (n)
n+1
f (n + 2) + f (n) =
f () = 2
Z
1
= f (n 2) + f (n) > f (n 1) + f (n) > 2f (n)
n1
1
1
< 2f (n) <
=
n+1
n1
R
(f (x) + f 00 (x)) sin xdx = 5
0
00
Z
0
Exercise 27.
Z
0
/2
Z
Z
sin 2x
1 sin x
1 cos x
cos x
dx =
dx =
=
2x + 2
2 0 x+2
2
x+2
(x + 2)2
0
1
1
4+
A
1
+ A =
=
2 +2 2
4( + 2)
2
sin x cos x
dx =
x+1
/2
Exercise 28.
Z
dx
2 a + bx 2
a + bx
=
+
bx
b
x2
x a + bx
Z
Z 2
Z
2
a
3/2
3/2
a + bx
2
2
a
b
3b (a + bx)
3b (a + bx)
=
+
=
a + bx
+b +
a + bx
+
x
x
x2
3b
x
3b
x2
x
Z
Z
a + bx
dx
=
=a
+ 2 a + bx
x
x a + bx
Z
83
Exercise 29.
xn
Z
Z
3a
3a
3a
3a
Z
Z
n
2nb
2x (ax + b) ax + b 2n
xn ax + b
xn1 ax + b
=
3a
3
3a
Z
Z
2
3
n
n
3/2
n1
x ax + bdx =
x (ax + b) nb x
ax + b + C
n 6=
(2n + 3)a
2
(ax + b)dx =
Exercise 30.
Z
xm
2xm (a + bx)1/2
mxm1 2(a + bx)1/2
dx =
b
b
a + bx
Z m1
Z
Z
2
2ma
2
2m
x
(a + bx)
xm1
xm
= xm (a + bx)1/2 2m
= xm (a + bx)1/2
b
b
b
b
a + bx
a + bx
a + bx
Z
Z
2 m
2ma
xm
1
xm1
x (a + bx)1/2
dx =
2m + 1 b
b(2m + 1)
a + bx
a + bx
Exercise 31.
Z
Z
dx
ax + b
n2 ax + b ax + b
2 ax + b 2n
ax + b
=
2
=
+
=
+
n
n+1
n
n
n+1
ax
ax
ax + b
ax
a
x ax + b
x
ax + b
Z
Z
2 ax + b
1
1
2nb
=
+
2n
+
n
n
n+1
ax
a
x ax + b
x
ax + b
Z
Z
b 2n
dx
2 ax + b
a
= (1 2n)
=
axn
xn ax + b
xn+1 ax + b
Z
Z
ax + b
(2n 3)a
1
1
(n 1)bxn1
(2n 2)b
xn ax + b
xn1 ax + b
Exercise 32. I derived the formulas for this and Exercise 33 by doing the following trick.
C m S 2n
n1
n1
Exercise 33.
(C m1 S 1n )0 = (m 1)C m2 (S 2n ) + (1 n)C m S n
= (m 1)C m2 (S n )(1 C 2 ) + (1 n)C m S n =
= (m 1)C m2 S n + (m 1)C m S n + (1 n)C m S n
Z
Z
m1 1n
m2 n
C
S
= (m 1) C
S + (m n) C m S n
Z
Z
C m1 S 1n
m1
m2 n
C
S +
= C m S n
mn
mn
Exercise 34.
P0 =
n
X
j=1
aj jxj1 =
n1
X
n1
X
j=0
aj+1 (j + 1)xj
j=0
84
3
aj
j+1
if j 3
We also have
a1 (1) 3a0 = 4
a2 (2) 3a1 = 5
a3 (3) 3a2 = 3
= a3 a2 = 1
(P Q)
=3
P Q
= ln (P Q) = 3x
= ke3x = P Q = k
X
(3x)j
j=0
Q = k
X
(3x)j
j=0
j!
j!
+P
Since we didnt specify what Q has to be, we find that, in general, any Q is P plus some amount of the homogeneous solution, ke3x .
(2) If Q(x) is a given polynomial, and suppose P is a polynomial solution to P 0 (x) 3P (x) = Q(x). Suppose R is
another polynomial solution such that R0 (x) 3R(x) = Q(x). Then just like above, P R = ke3x . If we wanted
polynomial answers of finite terms, then k must be zero. Thus, theres at most only one polynomial solution P .
Exercise 35. Bernoulli Polynomials.
R1
Pn (x)dx = 0, if n 1
1
Z 1
1
1 2
(x + c) = ( x + Cx) = + C = 0 C = 1/2
2
2
0
0
(1)(1) = P10
P1 = x 1/2
n=2
(x2 x + C) =
1
1
1 3 1 2
x x + Cx =
+ C = 0 C = 1/6
3
2
6
0
P2 = x x + 1/6
Z 1
1
x
1 13
1
3x2
0
n = 3 3(x x + ) = P3
+ + C) =
+ +C =0
(x3
6
2
2
4
2
4
0
2
3x
x
P3 = x 3
+
2
2
Z 1
x
1
1
3
1 14
n = 4 4(x3 x2 + ) = P40
(x4 2x3 + x2 + C) =
+ 13 + C = 0 C =
2
2
5
2
3
30
0
1
P4 = x4 2x3 + x2 +
30
Z 1
1
5x4
5x3
x
1 (1)5
5(1)4
(1)2
n = 5 5(x4 2x3 + x2 ) = P50
(x5
+
+ C) =
+
+
+ C = 0;
30
2
3
6
6
2
12
12
0
5x4
5x3
x
P5 = x 5
+
2
3
6
2
(2) The first, second, and up to fifth case has already been proven.
Pn1
Assume the nth case, that Pn (t) = tn + j=0 aj tj (the general form of a polynomial of degree n).
0
Pn+1
= (n + 1)(tn +
n1
X
aj tj ) = Pn+1 = tn+1 + (n + 1)
j=0
n1
X
j=0
85
aj tj+1
+C
j+1
C=0
(3) The first, second, and up to fifth case has already been proven.
Assume the nth case, that Pn (0) = Pn (1).
Z
0
Pn+1
= Pn+1 (1) Pn+1 (0) (by the second fundamental theorem of calculus)
0
Pn+1
= (n + 1)Pn
(n + 1)Pn (t) = 0
a1
(5)
k
0
Pn+1
Pn+1 (k) Pn+1 (0)
=
n
+
1
n+1
0
Pn (x + 1) Pn (x) = nxn1
k
Pn =
0
Pn (x + 1) Pn (x)
= xn1
n
k1
k1
X Pn+1 (x + 1) Pn+1 (x) k1
X
X Pn+1 (r + 1) Pn+1 (r)
=
xn =
=
n+1
n+1
x=1
x=1
r=1
=
k1
X
rn =
r=1
(6) This part was fairly tricky. A horrible clue was that this part will rely directly on the last part (because of the way
Rx
Px1
n+1 (0)
this question is asked), which gave us j=1 j n = 0 Pn (t)dt = Pn+1 (x)P
.
n+1
Use induction. It can be easily verified, plugging in, that Pn (1 x) = (1)n Pn (x) is true for n = 0 . . . 5.
Assume the nth case is true.
Z
u=1t
du = dt
1x
Pn (1 u)du =
Pn (t)dt =
0
1x
Pn (u)(1)n du
Z 1
Pn (t)dt (since
Pn = 0 )
0
0
Pn+1 (1 x) Pn+1 (0)
Pn+1 (x) Pn+1 (0)
== (1)n+1
=
n+1
n+1
= (1)n+1
1x
P2j1
true. Since P2j1 is a polynomial and P2j1 (0) = 0, then the form of P2j1 must be P2j1 = k=1 ak xj . Using
0
Pn+1
= (n + 1)Pn ,
x
Z x
2j1
2j1
XZ x
X
1 k+1
k
P2j (x) P2j (0) = 2j
P2j1 = 2j
ak t = 2j
t
ak
=
k+1
0
0
0
k=1
= 2j
Z
2j1
X
ak k+1
x
= 2j
k+1
k=1
2j
X
ak1 x
+ P2j (0)
k
k=1
k=2
!
2j+1
X
X 2jak2 xk
ak1 k
(2j)
t + P2j (0) = (2j + 1)
+ (2j + 1)P2j (0)x
k
k(k 1)
k=2
k=3
|f 0 (0)| = |
Z 0a
f 00 (t)dt|
|f 00 |dt mc
|f 0 (a)| m(a c)
f 00 (t)dt = f 0 (a) f 0 (c) = f 0 (a)
|f 0 (0)| + |f 0 (a)| ma
6.9 Exercises - Introduction, Motivation for the definition of the natural logarithm as an integral, The definition
of the logarithm. Basic properties; The graph of the natural logarithm; Consequences of the functional equation
L(ab) = L(a) + L(b); Logarithm referred to any positive base b 6= 1; Differentiation and integration formulas involving logarithms;Logarithmic differentiation.
Exercise 1.
(1)
log x = c +
x
(ln |t|)|e
= c + ln |x| 1
= ln
x
|x|
=c1
c=1
(2)
1+a
1+b
(1 + a)(1 + b)
1+x
+ ln
= ln
= ln
1a
1b
(1 a)(1 b)
1x
1+x
(1 + a)(1 + b)
1 + a + b + ab
=
=
=
1x
(1 a)(1 b)
1 b a + ab
f (x) = ln
x=
a+b
1 + ab
Exercise 2.
= x =
e1
1+e
(4) log ( x + x + 1) = 1
ln x2 + ln 2x = 0 = ln 1 = ln x2 2x
= x = 2
x = x + 1 = e2 2 xe + x
2
2
e 1
2 xe = e2 1 = x =
2e
x+1=e
Exercise 3.
ln x
x
1
ln x
f0 =
x2
1 2
2
2 ln x 3
00
x x 2x ln x
f = 3
=
x
x4
x3
f=
for x3 > 0,
f0 =
2x
1 + x2
f0 =
x
1 + x2
1 + x2
4 x2
f0 =
1 2x
x
=
2 4 x2
4 x2
1
f =
ln x
0
1
1
=
x
x ln x
1
4
log
2
1
+
x x log x
x2 1
x2 +1
f0 =
Exercise 10. f (x) = (x +
0
1
1
log x2 1 log x2 + 1 =
4
4
2x
2x
x2 1 x2 + 1
=x
1 + x2 )n
p
ln f = n ln (x + 1 + x2 )
f0
1
x
n
=n
1+
=
2
2
f
x+ 1+x
1+x
1 + x2
p
n
f 0 = (x + 1 + x2 )n
1 + x2
1
x4 1
1
1
f =
2 x+1 1+ x+1
0
1 + x2 )
2 x+1
=
2(1 +
x + 1)
1 + x2
x
x
x
1+
x + 1 + x2
1 + x2
1 + x2
Note to self: Notice how this had made some of the square root terms disappear.
f 0 = log (x +
1
2 ab
log
p
1 + x2 ) +
a+xb
ax b
1
f = (ln ( a + x b) ln ( a x b))
2 ab
1
1
x b
b
( b) =
f 0 = f rac12 ab
a(a bx2 )
a+x b
ax b
Exercise 14. f (x) = x(sin (log x) cos log x)
f 0 = sin (ln x) cos (ln x) + (cos (ln x) + sin (ln x)) = 2 sin (ln x)
Exercise 15. f (x) = log1 x
f0 =
Exercise 16.
dx
2+3x
Exercise 17.
log 2 xdx
1
3
ln (2 + 3x)
(x ln x x)0 = ln x + 1 1 = ln x
Exercise 18.
1
x(ln x)2
x log xdx
x2 ln x
2
0
x
2
Z
x2 ln x x2
x ln x =
2
4
Exercise 19.
= x ln x +
x log2 xdx
0
x2 ln2 x
1
2
2
= x ln x + x ln x
2
x
Z
2 2
2
x ln x x ln x x2
= x log2 x =
2
2
4
Exercise 20.
R e2 1
0
dt
1+t
e3 1
Exercise 21.
cot xdx
Z
Exercise 22.
dt
e3 1
= ln (1 + t)|0
=3
1+t
cos x
dx = ln | sin x|
sin x
Z
Z
xn+1
xn log a + xn log x =
log a + xn log x
n+1
Z
Z n+1
n+1
n+1
x
x
1
x
xn+1
xn ln x =
ln x
=
log x
n+1
n+1x
n+1
(n + 1)2
Z
n+1
n+1
x
x
xn+1
= xn log ax =
log a +
log x
n+1
n+1
(n + 1)2
Exercise 23.
x2 log2 xdx
x2 log2 x =
Exercise 24.
xn log ax =
1 3 2
x ln x
3
x3 ln2 x 2
x2
2 ln x =
3
3
3
R 1e2
1
1e2
Exercise 26.
=
+
3
9
27
dx
= ln (ln x) + C
x ln x
log (1t)
1t dt
x3 ln x x3
3
9
dx
x log x
Exercise 25.
log |x|
1e2
ln (1 t)
1
2
= 2
dt = (ln (1 t))
1t
2
0
dx
1+log |x|
log x
=
x 1 + log x
4
= 2 log x(1 + log x)1/2 (1 + log x)3/2
3
Exercise 27. Derive
Z
n
xm+1 n
ln x
xm lnn1 x
x log xdx =
m+1
m+1
By inspection, we just needed integration by parts.
Z
Z
Z
x4 3
3
x4 3
3 x4 2
2
x4 ln3 x 3x4 ln2 x 3x4 ln x 3x4
x3 ln3 x =
ln x
x3 ln2 x =
ln x
ln x
x3 ln x =
4
4
4
4 4
4
4
16
32
128
Z
f (x) = x 1 ln x;
g(x) = ln x 1 +
1
x
(1)
1
x
1
1
1
g0 = 2 = f 0
x x
x
so then if f 0 > 0, g 0 > 0;
f0 = 1
For f 0 < 0
0<x<1
f0 > 0
xg 0 = f 0
f 0 < 0,
x>1
g0 < 0
f 0 (1) = g 0 (1) = 0
f (1) = g(1) = 0
x 1 ln x > 0 since f (1) = 0 is a rel. min.
1
0 < ln x 1 + since g(0) is a rel. min.
x
(2) See sketch.
Exercise 29. limx0
log (1+x)
x
Rx
(1) L(x) = 1 1t dt ;
(2) Use this theorem.
=1
L0 (x) = x1 ;
L0 (1) = 1
90
axa+
n 1,
1
1
1
< ln x < x 1 = 1
< ln x + 1 < x
x
x+1
ln x + 1
x
<
<1
1+x
x
ln (1 + x)
=1
x
r=
p
q
p
f (a)
q
since
f (a2 ) = f (aa) = 2f (a)
f (a) = f (a);
(1) ln x =
ba
n
R |x|
1
R |x|
1
t dt
b1
n ;
1
t dt
k=1
(2) log x is greater than the step function integral consisting of rectangular strips within
covering over x1
k1
(3) ak = 1 + k
= akaa
= k1
k1
n
X
k=1
1
x
n
n+1
n
X
X1
X
1
1
1
< ln (n + 1) <
=
< ln (n + 1) <
1+k
k
k
k
k=1
k=2
k=1
n
n1
X
X1
1
< ln (n) <
=
k
k
k=1
k=2
Exercise 32.
(1) L(x) =
1
ln b
ln x = logb x
loga x = c logb x
= loga a = 1
(There must be a unique real number s.t. L(a) = 1 )
1
loga x =
logb x
= logb x = logb a loga x
logb a
loga x
loga b
log10 e =
Exercise 34. Given
R xy
x
loge e
loge 10
f (t)dt = B(y)
= loge 10 =
f (2) = 2,
1
1
=
' 0.43429
log10 e
2.302585
, We Want A(x) =
91
Rx
1
f (t)dt
xy
xy
d
dx
R xy
f (t)dt = y
d
dB(xy)
dB(x)
(B(xy) B(x)) =
y
= f (xy)y f (x) = 0
dx
d(xy)
dx
f (x)
= f (xy) =
y
Z x
Z x
Z x
t
f (2)
A(x) =
f (t)dt =
f ((2)
)dt =
dt = 4 ln x
2
(t/2)
1
1
1
f (t)dt =
x
Rx
1
f (t)dt + x
Ry
1
(f 0 (1))
y=1
f 0 (y) =
f (y) = k ln y + C f (1) = 0 + C = 3
y
R xy
Rx
Ry
(k ln t + 3) = y 1 (k ln t + 3) + x 1 (k ln t + 3)
1
R
x=1
1+x
x3
x2m1
= 2(x +
+ +
) + Rm (x)
1x
3
2m 1
where
x2m+1
2 x x2m+1
< Rm (x)
2m + 1
1 x 2m + 1
Rm (x) = E2m (x) E2m (x)
where E2m (x) is the error term for log 1 x
m = 5, x =
1
3
ln
The error for m = 5, x =
4/3
2/3
1
3
= ln 2 ' 2
1
+
3
1 3
3
3
11
1+x
1x
1 7
3
7
is
1 11
3
Exercise 2. ln
1 5
3
11
5 13
R5 (x)
2 11
= ln 32 = ln 3 ln 2
92
1 9
3
9
!
' 0.693146047
1
5
m=5
x=
ln
1+x
1x
(1/5)11
11
Exercise 3. x =
1
9
ln
1+ 19
1 19
1 (1/5)3
(1/5)7
(1/5)9
=2
+
+
+
= 0.405465104
5
3
7
9
11
9 15
' 0.000000002 < R5 (x)
' 0.000000004
4 11
log 3 ' 1.098611
=
1.098611666 < log 3 < 1.098612438
10
8
= ln
= ln 54 = ln 5 2 ln 2
For m = 2
2
1 7
9
7
Exercise 4. x =
1
6
ln
1+ 16
1 16
= ln
7
5
1
+
9
1 5
9
3
1 5
9
!
= 0.2231435
17
9
8
9
1 7
9
' 0.000000063
7
1.609437 < log 5 < 1.609438
= ln 7 ln 5.
For m = 3,
1+x
'2
ln
1x
1
+
6
1 3
6
1 5
6
+
3
5
2(3)+1
1
!
= 0.336471193
6
= 0.00000051
2(3) + 1
The error bounds are
1 2(3)+1
2 16
6
= 0.000001123
2(3) + 1 1 16
1.945908703 < ln 7 < 1.945910316
Exercise 5.
ln 3 = 1.098614
ln 8 = 3 ln 2 = 2.0794404
ln 4 = 1.386293
ln 5 = 1.609436 ln 6
= ln 2 + ln 3 = 1.791700
ln 9 = 2 ln 3 = 2.197228
ln 10 = ln 5 + ln 2 = 1.302577
6.17 Exercises - The exponential function, Exponentials expressed as powers of e, The definition of ex for arbitrary
real x, The definition of ax for a > 0 and x real, Differentiation and integration formulas involving exponentials.
Exercise 1. f 0 = 3e3x1
Exercise 2. 8xe4x
Exercise 3. 2xex
Exercise 4.
1
x
e
2 x
Exercise 5.
1 1/x
x2 e
Exercise 6. ln 22x
Exercise 7. (2x ln 2)2x
93
1 log x
xe
Exercise 11. ex ee
ex
xex dx = xex ex
Exercise 14.
xex dx = xex + ex
Exercise 15.
x2 ex = x2 ex 2xex + 2ex
Exercise 16.
x2 e2x dx =
Exercise 17.
Exercise 18.
x3 ex .
=e
x2 e2x
2
(2 x)
xe2x
2
1 e x
x
e2x
4
=e
(2 x) 2e x = 2( xe x e x )
x2 ex = 2x3 ex + 2xex
2
ex = 2xex
2
2
2
2
1 2 x2
1
x2 ex + ex
(x e
+ ex )0 =
2xex + 2x3 ex + 2xex =
2
2
2
Exercise 19. ex = b +
Rb
a
et dt = b + ex ea ,
ea = b.
Exercise 20.
Z
A=
Z
B=
Z
b sin bxeax
eax
b
eax
cos bx
=
cos bx + B = aA + bB = eax cos bx + C
a
a
a
a
Z ax
eax
e
ax
B=
sin bx
b cos bx = aB + bA = e sin bx + C
a
a
1
(aeax cos bx + beax sin bx)
A= 2
a + b2
beax cos bx + aeax sin bx
B=
a 2 + b2
A=
Exercise 21.
ln f = x ln x;
f0
= ln x + 1;
f
f 0 = xx (ln x + 1)
Exercise 22.
ln
Exercise 23. f =
f0
1
1
x2
=
+
),
2 (2xe
x
f
1+x 1+e
ex ex
ex +ex .
94
f 0 = 1 + ex + 2(1 + x)xex
ln f = ln (ex ex ) ln (ex + ex )
1
1
f0
(ex + ex ) x
(ex ex )
= x
x
f
e e
e + ex
x
2
e ex
f0 = 1
ex + ex
a
f2 = ax
f1 = xa
ln f1 = aa ln x
= f 0 = xa
1 a
1 a
+1 a1
ln f3 = ax ln a
f20
= axa1 ln a
f2
f10 = xa
a + ax
f3 = a a
ln f2 = xa ln a
f10
aa
=
f1
x
a
f20 = ax
+1 a1
f30
= (ln a)2 ax
f3
f30 = (ln a)2 ax+a
ln a
Exercise 25.
ef = ln (ln x);
1
1
0 f
fe =
ln x x
1
1
1
0
f =
ln (ln x) ln x
x
Exercise 26. ef = ex +
1 + e2x
e2x
(ef )f 0 = ex +
1 + e2x
x
2x
2x
1+e e +e
ex
f0 =
=
1 + e2x (ex + 1 + e2x )
1 + e2x
Exercise 27. ln f = xx ln x
f0
xx
= (xx )0 ln x +
= (xx (ln x + 1)) ln x + xx1
f
x
x
f 0 = xx+x (ln x + 1) ln x + xx
xx
+x1
f0
1
= ln (ln x) +
f
ln x
f 0 = (ln x)x (ln (ln x) +
1
)
ln x
f0
2 ln x
=
f
x
f 0 = 2xlog x1 ln x
Exercise 30. ln f = x ln (ln x) ln x ln x = x ln ln x (ln x)2
f0
1
ln x
= ln (ln x) +
2
f
ln x
x
x
(ln
x)
1
2 ln x
0
f = ln x
ln ln x +
x
ln x
x
Exercise 31.
95
ln f2 = sin x ln cos x
ln f1 = cos x ln sin x
f20
sin2 x
= cos x ln cos x +
f1
f2
cos x
3
cos
x
ln
sin
x
sin3 x ln cos x
f10 = sin x cos x(ln sin x)2 +
f20 = sin x cos x(ln cos x)2
sin x
cos x
3
3
sin
x
ln
cos
x
cos
x
ln
sin
x
= f = sin x cos x((ln sin x)2 + (ln cos x)2 ) +
+
sin x
cos x
f10
Exercise 32. ln f =
f0
f
1
x2
ln x +
cos x
sin x
= sin x ln sin x +
1
x
ln x
= f 0 = x1/x2 ln x + x1/x2
1
x2
Exercise 33. ln f = 2 ln x +
1
3
ln (3 x) ln (1 x) +
2
3
ln (3 + x)
2
1
1
2 1
f0
= +
f
x 3(3 x) 1 x 3 3 + x
2
x(3 x)1/3
x (3 x)2/3
1
x2 (3 x)1/3
2 x2 (3 x)1/3
0
f =2
+
3 (1 x)(3 + x)2/3
3 (1 x)(3 + x)5/3
(1 x)(3 + x)2/3
(1 x)2 (3 + x)2/3
2 3
4 2
x(18 12x + 3 x + 3 x )
=
(1 x)2 (3 + x)5/3 (3 x)2/3
Exercise 34. ln f =
Pn
i=1 bi
ln (x ai )
n
X bi
f0
=
f
x ai
i=1
= f =
n
X
j=1
n
bj Y
(x ai )bi
x aj i=1
Exercise 35.
(5) If x = loga y,
Using the definition
logb x =
so then
loga y =
log x
log b
if b > 0, b 6= 1,
x>0
log y = x log a
log y
= x = x log a
log a
e
= elog y = y = ax
If y = ax ,
log y = x log a = x =
Exercise 37. Let f (x) =
1 x
2 (a
log y
= loga y
log a
+ ax ) if a > 0.
1
f (x + y) = (ax+y + a(x+y) )
2
1 x+y
f (x + y) + f (x y) =
a
+ a(x+y) + axy + a(xy)
2
1 x
1 x+y
x
y
f (x)f (y) = (a + a )(a + ay ) =
a
+ axy + a(xy) + a(xy)
4
4
Exercise 38.
Exercise 39.
g(x) = f (x)ecx
g 0 (x) = f 0 ecx + cg = cg cg = 0
f = Kekx
Exercise 40. Let f be a function defined everywhere on the real axis. Suppose also that f satisfies the functional equation
(2) Take the derivative with respect to x on both sides of the functional equation.
df (x + y) d(x + y)
df (x)
=
f (y)
d(x + y)
dx
dx
d(f (x + y))
f (x + y)
= f 0 (x)
d(x + y)
f (x)
Let y = x + y
df (y)
f (y)
= f 0 (x)
dy
f (x)
(3)
f 0 (x)
f (x)
f 0 (y)
f (y)
x, y
The only way they could do that for any arbitrary x, for any arbitrary y they one could choose on either side, is for
them to both equal a constant
0
(y)
= ff (y)
=c
(4) Referring to Exercise 39 of the same section, f = ecx since f 0 (0) = 1
Exercise 41.
97
(1)
f = ex 1 x
0
(
0
f (0) = e 1 0 = 0
f = e 1 0 if x 0
(2)
Z
ex > 1 + x
ex > 1 x
for x > 0
for x < 0
1
1
et = ex 1 > x + x2 = ex > 1 + x + x2
2
2
0
2
2
x
x
ex > 1 + x
= ex < 1 x +
2
2
(3)
Z
1
1 3
1
1 3
et = ex 1 > x + x2 +
x
x
= ex > 1 + x + x2 +
2
3
2
2
3
2
0
x2
x3
x2
x3
ex > 1 + x
+
= ex < 1 x +
2
32
2
32
(4) Suppose the nth case is true.
( P2m+1 j
n
j
X
> j=0 xj!
x
ex =
ex >
P2m j
j!
< j=0 xj!
j=0
n
n+1
X
X xj
xj+1
=1+
(j + 1)!
j!
j=0
j=1
( P2m+1 j+1
x
> j=0 (j+1)!
=
ex + 1
P2m xj+1
< j=0 (j+1)!
ex > 1 +
n+1
X
j=0
( P2m+2
< j=0
ex
P2m+1
> j=0
xj
j!
xj
j!
xj
j!
j)!j!
n
j!
n
j!
j=0
j=0
j=0
j=0
If you make this clever observation, the second inequality is easy to derive.
x
>0
x>0
n
n
x
x n
x
= ex/n > 1
e n > 1
n
n
ex > (1 x/n)n = ex < (1 x/n)n
Exercise 43. f (x, y) = xy = ey ln x
x f = xy y/x
y f = xy ln x
6.19 Exercises - The hyperbolic functions.
Exercise 7.
2 sinh x cosh x = 2
1
ex ex ex + ex
= (e2x ex ) = sinh 2x
2
2
2
Exercise 8.
cosh2 x + sinh2 x =
ex + ex
2
2
+
ex ex
2
2
=
1 2x
(e + 2 + e2x + e2x 2 + e2x ) = cosh 2x
4
Exercise 9.
cosh x + sinh x =
ex + ex
ex ex
+
= ex
2
2
Exercise 10.
ex + ex
cosh x sinh x =
2
Exercise 11. Use induction.
98
ex ex
2
= ex
p
(cos x)0 = sin x = 1 cos2 x D arccos x =
1
1<x<1
1 x2
Exercise 2.
sin2 x + cos2 x
= tan2 x + 1
cos2 x
1
D arctan x =
1 + x2
Exercise 3.
(sin2 x + cos2 x)
1
= (1 + cot2 x) = arccotx =
1 + x2
sin2 x
Exercise 4.
p
(sec y)0 = tan y sec y = sec2 y 1 sec y; | sec y| > 1 y R
If we choose to restrict y such that 0 y , then (sec y)0 > 0. Then we must make sec y | sec y|.
Darcsecx =
1
|x| x2 1
Exercise 5.
p
(csc y)0 = cot x csc x = csc y( csc2 y 1)
Darccscx =
|x| x2 1
Exercise 6.
x
(xarccotx)0 = arccotx
1 + x2
0
1
1x
ln (1 + x2 ) =
2
(1 + x2 )
Z
1
arccotx = xarccotx + ln (1 + x2 ) + C
2
Exercise 7.
|x| x2 1
1+ x
x2 1
x>1
0
|x+ x2 1|
p
x
x
2
ln |x + x 1| =
=
x
|x|
|x| x2 1
1+ x2 1
|x+x2 1| x < 1
Z
p
x
= arcsecxdx = xarcsecx
log |x + x2 1| + C
|x|
(xarcsecx)0 = arcsecx +
99
2j+1
2
; j Z; try x
Exercise 8.
|x| x2 1
0
1
x
p
1
+
= x12 1
x
2
x2 1
ln |x + x2 1| = x+1x 1
2
|x|
x 1
Z
p
x
= arccscx = xarccscx +
ln |x + x2 1|
|x|
(xarccscx)0 = arccscx +
x>1
x < 1
Exercise 9.
2x arcsin x
(x(arcsin x)2 )0 = (arcsin x)2 +
1 x2
0
p
x
1 x2 arcsin x =
arcsin x + 1
1 x2
Z
p
(arcsin x)2 = x(arcsin x)2 + 2 1 x2 arcsin x 2x
Exercise 10.
arcsin x
x
0
1
1
arcsin x
2
x
x 1 x2
I would note how x is in the denominator of the second term. Again, reiterating,
p
x
( 1 x2 ) 0 =
1 x2
p
p
(y 1 x2 )(y 1 x2 ) = y 2 (1 x2 )
=
Multiply by its conjugate. As we see, choose y appropriately to get the desired denominator (thats achieved after differentiation). Here, pick y = 1.
p
1
x
x(1 1 x2 )
(1 1 x2 )
0
2
(ln (1 + 1 x )) =
=
=
1 + 1 x2
1 x2
1 x2 (x2 )
x 1 x2
Z
1 1 x2 arcsin x
arcsin x
=
= ln
+C
x2
x
x
Exercise 11.
(1)
1
D arccotx arctan
x
1
1
= 2
x +1 1+ 1 2
x
1
x2
=0
arctan x.
1
arctan x arctan = C = C = arctan x + arctan
2
x
2
x
x = C = + 0 = C = 0
2
2
but x
C = + 0 = C =
2
2
There are problems with the choice of brances for arccotx, arctan x1 , even though the derivatives work in all cases.
100
Exercise 12.
f0 = q
1
2
x 2
1
1
Exercise 13.
1
2
1 1x
2
1
f0 = q
2
1 x1
f0 = r
1
x2
1
1 + 2x x2
1
x2 1|x|
Exercise 15.
cos x =
1 sin x
cos x
| cos x|
1
1
1
x
=
2 sqrtx x + 1 2 x
2(x + 1)
Exercise 17.
x2
1
+
1 + x2
1 + x6
Exercise 18.
r
1
1
q
1x2
1+x2
2
2x(2)
(1 + x2 )2
=p
1 + x2
4x
4
=
2
2
(1 + x2 )3/2 2
1 + x2 (1 x2 ) (1 + x )
2 tan x sec2 x
1
2
2
tan
x
sec
x
=
1 + tan4 x
1 + tan4 x
Exercise 20.
0
f =
1 + (x +
x
1 + x2 + x
(1 +
)=
2
2
2
1+x )
1+x
1 + (x + 1 + x2 )2
Exercise 21.
f0 = q
1
2
1 (sin x +
cos2
cos x + sin x
(cos x + sin x) =
2 sin x cos x
x 2 sin x cos x)
Exercise 22.
f 0 = (arccos
1 x2 )0 =
1 (1
x2 )
1
|x|
Exercise 23.
0
f =
1+
1
1+x
1x
2
2
(1 x)2
=
2
2
1
=
=
(1 x)2 + (1 + x)2
(1 2x + x2 + 1 + 2x + x2 )
1 + x2
2 3
f = 2(arccos x )
1 x2
Exercise 25.
101
(2x) =
4x(arccos x2 )3
1 x4
f =
Exercise 26.
dy
dx
1
arccos 1x
1
x
1
2x3/2
=
1
2 arccos
1
x
x3 x2
x+y
xy .
arctan
y 0
1
=
2
x
1 + xy
y0 x y
x2
=
0
1
1
1
ln (x2 + y 2 ) =
(2x + 2yy 0 )
2
2
2 (x + y 2 )
= y 0 =
x+y
xy
Exercise 27.
1
ln y = ln (arcsin x) ln (1 x2 )
2
1
1
1
1 1
x
y0
(2x) =
=
+
2
2
2
y
arcsin x
21x
1 x2
1x
arcsin x 1 x
arcsin x
y=
1 x2
1 x2 + x(arcsin x)
1
(arcsin x)x
0
=
y =
+
2
2
3/2
1x
(1 x )
(1 x2 )3/2
p
3
ln y 0 = ln ( 1 x2 + x arcsin x) ln (1 x2 )
2
y 00
1
x
x
3 (2x)
=
+ arcsin x +
0
2
2
2
y
2 1 x2
1 x + x arcsin x
1x
1x
y 0 3x
arcsin x
arcsin x
( 1 x2 + x arcsin x)(3x)
y 00 = y 0
=
+
+
2
2
3/2
2
(1 x )
(1 x2 )3/2
1 x + x arcsin x 1 x
Exercise 28.
1
1 1 x2 + x4
x4
2
1
+
x
=
=
0 x
1 + x2
1 + x2
1 + x2
x3
since f (0) = arctan 0 0 + 0 = 0, arctan x > x , x > 0
3
f0 =
Exercise 29.
dx
x
, a 6= 0 = arcsin
2
a
x
a2
Exercise 30.
dx
p
=
2 (x + 1)2
r
2
dx
x+1
2 = arcsin 2
1 x+1
2
Exercise 31.
dx
a2
Exercise 32.
1+
x 2
a
=
1
x
arctan
a
a
dx
bx
1
2 = arctan
a
ba
a(1 + ba
)
a
Exercise 33.
Z
x
dx
1 2
2
7
4
4
=
7
2 x
2
= arctan
2
7
7
x 21
+1
dx
2
7
102
1
2
Exercise 34.
x2 arctan x
2
0
= x arctan x +
x2 1
1
= x arctan x +
2
2 1+x
2
1
1
1 + x2
0
1
1
1
(x arctan x) =
1
2
2
1 + x2
Z
1
x arctan x = x arctan x + (x arctan x)
2
Exercise 35.
0
x3 1
x3
arccos x = x2 arccos x +
3
3 1 x2
p
p
x3
(x2 1 x2 )0 = 2x 1 x2 +
1 x2
3
(2x)(1 x2 )1/2 = 3x(1 x2 )1/2
2
Z
x3
1 p
9
x2 arccos x =
arccos x x2 1 x2 (1 x2 )3/2
3
3
2
((1 x2 )3/2 )0 =
Exercise 36.
0
x2 (arctan x)2
1
1
2
2
2
= x(arctan x) + x
arctan x = x(arctan x) + 1
arctan x
2
1 + x2
1 + x2
0
arctan x
(arctan x)2
=
2
1 + x2
x
(x arctan x)0 = arctan x +
1 + x2
Z
ln (1 + x2 )
x2 (arctan x)2
(arctan x)2
x arctan x
x(arctan x)2 dx =
+
2
2
2
Exercise 37.
1
1
(arctan x) =
1+x
2 x
x
1
1
1
= arctan x +
(x arctan x) = arctan x +
2(1 + x)
2
x
x(1 + x)
1/2 0
(x arctan x + arctan x + x ) = arctan x + 0
Z
arctan x
dx = (arctan x)2
x(1 + x)
u sin 2u
arcsin x x 1 x2
cos udu = +
=
+
2
4
2
4
Z p
x2 dx
Exercise 40.
103
xearctan x
(1 + x2 )3/2
0
earctan x
xearctan x
earctan x
=
+
(1 + x2 )3/2
(1 + x2 )3/2
1 + x2
arctan x 0
arctan x
xe
e
x2 earctan x
xearctan x
earctan x
xearctan x
=
+
+
=
+
(1 + x2 )3/2
(1 + x2 )3/2
(1 + x2 )3/2
(1 + x2 )3/2
1 + x2
1 + x2
arctan x
0
1 xe
earctan x
xearctan x
=
2
(1 + x2 )3/2
1 + x2
1 + x2
1
2
xearctan x
earctan x
+
+C
2
1+x
1 + x2
Exercise 42.
0
x(1 + x2 )1
1
x2
=
2
2
2
(1 + x )
2(1 + x2 )
x
1
x2
dx =
+ arctan x
(1 + x2 )2
2(1 + x2 ) 2
Since
Z
Exercise 44.
Z
(arccotex )0 =
(e
arccotex
dx
ex
ex
1 + e3x
x 0
arccote ) = e
ex (1)ex
e2x
x
x
arccote +
= e arccote + 1
1 + e2x
1 + e2x
x
2e2x
1 + e2x
(ex arccotex + x
1
ln (1 + e2x ))0 = ex arccotex
2
Exercise 45.
Z r
a+x
dx =
ax
a+x
dx =
a2 x2
p
x
q 1a
dx = a arcsin x + a2 x2
+
2
a
a2 x2
1 xa
Exercise 46.
104
Z p
x a b xdx =
bx ab x2 + axdx =
Z s
a+b
a+b
a2 + b2
2ab
=
x
x
+
=
2
2
4
4
v
s
!2
2
2
Z u
Z
u
x a+b
a+b
ab
ab
t
2
x
=
=
1
dx =
ab
2
2
2
2
2 Z p
ab
=
1 u2 =
2
2 arcsin 2x(a+b)
ab
ab
2x (a + b) p
=
+
(a b)2 (2x (a + b))2
2
2
2(a b)2
arcsin x 1 p
+ x 1 x2
2
2
Z
Exercise 47. Wow!
0
Since, recall,
p
1 x2
1
1
1 x(2x)
=
+
+
= 1 x2
2 1 x2
2
4 1 x2
dx
p
(x a)(b x)
x a = (b a) sin2 u
dx = (b a)(2) sin u cos udu
b x = (a b) sin2 u + b a = (b a)(cos2 u)
Z
dx
p
=
(x a)(b x)
= 2u = 2 arcsin
b a cos u b a sin u
xa
ba
6.25 Exercises - Integration by partial fractions, Integrals which can be transformed into integrals of rational functions.
R
R 1 1
2x+3
Exercise 1. (x2)(x+5)
=
x2 + x+5 = ln (x 2) + ln (x + 5)
Exercise 2.
xdx
(x+1)(x+2)(x+3)
A
B
+
x+1 x+2
1 1
= 5 4
6 3
C
= A(x2 + 5x + 6) + B(x2 + 4x + 3) + C(x2 + 3x + 2)
x+3
1
A
0
1 1 1 0
1
0 1/2
3 B = 1 = 5 4 3 1 =
1 0 2
2
C
0
6 3 2 0
0 1 3/2
A = 1/2,
=
Exercise 3.
x
(x2)(x1)
Exercise 4.
x4 +2x6
x3 +x2 2x dx
2
x2
1
x1
B = 2,
C = 3/2
1
3
ln (x + 1) + 2 ln (x + 2) +
ln (x + 3)
2
2
= 2 ln x 2 ln (x 1)
105
x4 + 2x 6
3(x2 2)
=x1+ 3
(do long division)
3
2
x + x 2x
x + x2 2x
Z
Z
1
x2 2
3(x2 2)
= x2 x + 3
x1+
x(x + 2)(x 1)
2
x(x + 2)(x 1)
Z
Z
2
x 2
1
1/3
1/3
1
1
=
+
+
= ln x + ln x + 2 ln x 1
x(x + 2)(x 1)
x x+2 x1
3
3
1 2
x x + 3 ln x + ln x + 2 ln x 1
2
Exercise 5.
8x3 +7
(x+1)(2x+1)3 dx
A
B
C
8x3 + 7
D
=
+
+
+
3
3
2
(x + 1)(2x + 1)
(2x + 1)
(2x + 1)
(2x + 1) (x + 1)
8x3 + 7 = A(x + 1) + B(2x2 + 3x + 1) + (4x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 1)C + D(8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1)
1 0 0 0 12
8
A
0 0 4 8
0 2 8 12 B 0
1 0 0 6
|
=
1 3 5 6 C = 0 =
1 0 0
0 1 1
7
D
1 1 1 1
A = 12, B = 6, C = 0, D = 1
Z
12
6(2x + 1)1
6
1
6(2x + 1)2
=
+
+ ln (x + 1)
+
+
(2x + 1)3
(2x + 1)2
x+1
2
2
Exercise 6.
4x2 +x+1
(x1)(x2 +x+1)
4x2 + x + 1
A
Bx + C
=
+ 2
= A(x2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x 1) = 4x2 + x + 1
2
(x 1)(x + x + 1)
x1 x +x+1
4
A
1 1
= 1 1 1 B = 1 = A = 2, B = 2, C = 1
1
C
1 0 1
Z
2
2x + 1
+
= 2 ln |x 1| + ln |x2 + x + 1|
=
x 1 x2 + x + 1
Exercise 7.
x4 dx
x4 +5x2 +4
x4
x4 +5x2 +4
=1+
5x2 +4
Ax + B
Cx + D
5x2 + 4
+ 2
= 2
2
x +1
x +4
(x + 1)(x2 + 4)
It could be seen that A + C = 0, 4A + C = 0 so A = C = 0
1
B=
B+D =5
3
16
4B + D = 4
D=
3
Z
Z
2
5x + 4
1/3
16/3
1
= 1 2
=x
+
= x + arctan x + 4/3 arctan x/2 + C
(x + 1)(x2 + 4)
x2 + 1 x2 + 4
3
Exercise 8.
x+2
x(x+1) dx
Exercise 9.
dx
x(x2 +1)2
1
x+1
A
x
2
x(x+1)
Bx+C
(x2 +1)
= ln |x + 1| + 2
1
x
Dx+E
(x2 +1)2
106
1
x+1
= ln |x + 1| + 2 ln x
+ 2
+ 2
+
x x + 1 (x + 1)2
2
2
R
dx
Exercise 10.
Exercise 11.
Exercise 12.
(x+1)(x+2)2 (x+3)3
x
(x+1)2 dx
dx
x(x2 1)
x = A(x + 1) + B
x
A
B
=
=
+
A = 1; B = 1
(x + 1)2
x + 1 (x + 1)2
Z
1
1
1
dx = ln x + 1 +
+
+C
2
x + 1 (x + 1)
x+1
R
R
dx
B
C
= x(x1)(x+1)
= A
x + x1 x+1
1
A(x2 1) + Bx(x + 1) + Cx(x 1) = Ax2 A + Bx2 + Bx + Cx2 Cx
= A = 1, B = = C
2
Z
1/2
1/2
1
1
1
+
+
= ln x + ln |x 1| + ln |x + 1|
x
x1 x+1
2
2
R
R
2
dx
x2 dx
Exercise 13. x2x+x6
= (x+3)(x2)
The easiest way to approach this problem is to notice that this is an improper fraction and to do long division:
x2
6x
x2 +x6 = 1 + x2 +x6
x = (A + B)x 2A + 3B
6 = A(x 2) + B(x + 3)
B
A
+
=
6
6
x+3 x2
; B=
A=
5
5
Z
=
1+
x2+4
(x2)2
x+2
(x2)2
Exercise 15.
dx
(x2)2 (x2 4x+5)
A=
3B
2
B = 2/5
A 3/5
6/5
3/5 2/5
4
6/5
9
+
+
+
=
ln |x + 3| + ln |x 2| + x + C
x+3 x2 x+3 x2
5
5
Exercise 14.
2A = 3B
= ln |x 2| +
4
(x2)2
= ln |x 2| + 4(x 2)1
Consider the denominator with its x2 4x+5. Usually, we would try a partial fraction form such as
but the algebra will get messy. Instead, it helps to be clever here.
B
A
x2 + (x2)2
+ x2Cx+D
4x+5 ,
1
1
1
1
=
=
(x 2)2 (x2 4x + 4 + 1)
(x 2)2 ((x 2)2 + 1)
(x 2)2
(x 2)2 + 1
Z
Z
dx
1
1
=
=
= (x 2)1 arctan (x 2) + C
(x 2)2 (x2 4x + 5)
(x 2)2
(x 2)2 + 1
R (x3)dx
R (x3)dx
Exercise 16. x3 +3x2 +2x = x(x+2)(x+1)
Z
(x 3)dx
=
x(x + 2)(x + 1)
Z
1
1
+ 3
(x + 2)(x + 1)
x(x + 2)(x + 1)
1
1
1
=
+
(x + 2)(x + 1)
x+2 x+1
1
A
B
C
= +
+
x(x + 2)(x + 1)
x
x+2 x+1
107
1
3
2
1 1
3 1
2
=
1 0
0 1 0 1/2
2 0 = 0 0 1 1
1
1 0 0 1/2
1/2
1/2
1
1
=
+
+
x(x + 2)(x + 1)
x
x+2 x+1
1
(x2 1)2 .
A
B
C
D
+
+
+
(x 1)2
(x + 1)2
(x 1) (x + 1)
Now
(x2 1)(x 1) = x3 x2 x + 1
(x2 1)(x + 1) = x3 + x2 x 1
(x + 1)
dx =
x3 1
x+1
dx =
(x 1)(x2 + x + 1)
2
32 x 31
3
+
=
x2 + x + 1 x 1
1
2
= ln |x2 + x + 1| + ln |x 1|
3
3
where we had used the following partial fraction decomposition for the given integrand
Ax + B
C
x+1
+
= 3
x2 + x + 1 x 1
x 1
Ax2 + Bx Ax B + Cx2 + Cx + C = x + 1
2Ax + B A + 2Cx + C = 1
(where we used the trick to take the derivative of the above equation)
= A = C
B + C = 1;
Exercise 19.
BAA=1
2
2
1
,C= B=
A=
3
3
2
x4 +1
x(x2 +1)2
dx
x3 (x2)
108
Working out the algebra for the partial fractions method, we obtain
1
1/4 1/8
1/2
1/8
+
+
=
+
x3 (x 2)
x3
x2
x
x2
So then
Z
1
dx
1
1
1
= 2+
+
ln x + ln |x 2| + C
x3 (x 2)
4x
4x
8
8
Exercise 21.
1 x3
=
x(x2 + 1)
Z
Z
x3 1
x2
1
=
+
=
x(x2 + 1)
x2 + 1
x(x2 + 1)
Z
Z
x
1
1
=
+
+
=
1 2
x +1
x x2 + 1
Z
= x + arctan x + ln x ln |x2 + 1| + C
Exercise 22.
Z
Exercise 23.
Z
Z
1
1/2
1
1/2
=
2
=
2
2
2
x +1
x 1
x 1 x +1
Z
1
1/2
1/2
1/2
=
=
2
2 x1 x+1
x +1
dx
=
4
x 1
1
1
1
ln (x 1) ln (x + 1) arctan x + C
4
4
2
dx
x4 + 1
A(x2 i)(x e(i )) + B(x2 i)(x + e(i )) + C(x2 + i)(x e(i )) + D(x2 + i)(x + e(i )) = 1
4
4
4
4
x3 : A + B + C + D = 0
3
3
x1 : iA iB + iC + iD = 0
3
3
x0 : e(i )A + Be(i ) + C(e(i )) + D(e(i )) = 1
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
A
0
e(i 3 ) e(i 3 ) e(i ) e(i ) B 0
4
4
4
4 =
=
i
i
i
i C 0
3
D
1
e(i 4 ) e(i 4 ) e(i 3
4 ) e(i 4 )
To do the complex algebra for the desired Gaussian elimination procedure, I treated the complex numbers as vectors and
added them and rotated them when multiplied.
109
1
&
1
.
&
1
1 0
% 0
=
0 0
0
- 1
1
20
0
1
0 0
2 % 0
=
1 0 0
2 - 1
0
1
2&
1
20
1
0
2 %
=
1
1 0 0
0 4 - 1
=
0
1
41
4 =
0 1 0 14 %
0 1 14 .
1
41
&
1
41
%
1
4
1 14 .
1 i3
e(
)
4
4
1 i3
Z
B = e(
)
1/4e( i3
1/4e(i 3
1/4e(i 4 )
1/4e(i 4 )
4
4
4 )
4 )
=
=
+
+
+
3
3
1
x + e(i 4 )
x e(i 4 )
x + e(i 4 )
x e(i 4 )
C = e(i )
4 4
1
e(i )
D=
4
4
1
3
3
3
3
e(i ) ln (x + e(i )) e(i ) ln (x e(i )) + e(i ) ln (x + e(i )) e(i ) ln (x e(i ))
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
A=
=
ln
2 arctan
2 arctan
x2 2x + 1
4 2
2x 1
2x + 1
The computation could be done to do the derivative on this, so to check our answer and reobtain the integrand.
Is there a way to solve this without complex numbers?
R
x2 dx
Exercise 24.
(x2 +2x+2)2
x2 dx
=
(x2 + 2x + 2)2
Z
Z
x2 + 2x + 2 2x 2
1
=
+ (x2 + 2x + 2)1
(x2 + 2x + 2)2
x2 + 2x + 2
Z
1
1
=
= arctan (x + 1)
x2 + 2x + 2
(x + 1)2 + 1
Z
Z
(x2
Exercise 25.
1
x2 dx
= arctan (x + 1) + 2
+C
+ 2x + 2)2
x + 2x + 2
4x5 1
(x5 +x+1)2 dx
(x(x + x + 1)
Exercise 26.
1 0
(doesnt work)
dx
2 sin xcos x+5
dx
=
2 sin x + cos x + 5
Z
=
3
5
dx
4SC + C 2 + S 2 + 5
sec2 x2 dx
=
6T 2 + 4T + 4
Z
du
9(u+ 31 )2
5
1
C2
1
C2
Z
=
sec2 x2 dx
6(T + 31 )2 +
1
= arctan
5
+1
110
sec2 x2 dx
=
4T 1 + T 2 + 5(1 + T 2 )
Z
10
3
2du
6(u + 13 )2 +
3(tan x2 + 13 )
u = tan
10
3
(where
du =
x
2
sec2
2
x
2
)
dx
u = tan
Exercise 27.
1
a
dx
1+a cos x
Z
1
a
1
dx
=
a
+ cos x
1
a
1
a
1
a
2
1+a
Exercise 28.
dx
1+a cos x
x
2
sec2
du =
2
x
2
,
dx
sec2 x2 dx
=
1
2 x
2
a sec 2 + 1 T
Z
Z
sec2 x2 dx
1
2du
2
=
=
1
2 1 1
a
1+a
+ 1 + T 2 ( a1 1)
a +1+u
a
1
dx
=
2
2
a
+C S
arctan
q
1a
1+a u
1a
1+a
2
arctan
==
1 a2
1a
x
tan
1+a
2
du
q
2 =
1a
1 + u 1+a
Half-angle substitution.
Z
Z
sec2 x2 dx
dx
dx
=
=
=
1 + a cos x
1 + a(C 2 S 2 )
sec2 x2 + a(1 T 2 )
u = tan /2 = T
Z
Z
Z
2
2du
du
du
=
=
=
2
=
1
a+1 =
2
2
2
2
2
1 + T + a(1 T )
(1 a)T + (1 + a)
1a
u a1
du = sec /2
d
2
Z
2
1
1
q1
q
q
=
=
1a
a+1
a+1
a+1
u a1
u + a1 2 a1
!
r
r
r
1
a1
a+1
a+1
=
ln (u
) ln (u +
) =
a+1 1a
a1
a1
q
x
a+1
tan
2
a1
1
q
=
ln
a2 1
tan x + a+1
Z
Exercise 29.
a1
sin2 x
dx
1+sin2 x
Z 2
Z
s2
s +11
dx
dx
=
dx
=
x
+
2
2
1+s
1+s
1 + sin2 x
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
dx
dx
2dx
2
dx
2
dx
2
sec2 xdx
=
=
=
=
=
2
2
2 =
2x
3 cos 2x
3
3
3
1 cos32x
1 + 1cos
1 + sin2 x
1 c s
sec2 x 1T
2
3
3
Z
u = tan x
du = sec2 xdx
2
= =
3
du
2
1+u
2
=
1u2
3
3
1
= arctan 2 tan x
2
Z
=
Z
2
3
du
=
+ 43 u2
du
=
1 + ( 2u)2
sin2 x
1
dx
=
x
arctan
(
2 tan x)
1 + sin2 x
2
It seems like for here, when dealing with squares of trig. functions, step up to double angle.
R
dx
Exercise 30. a2 sin2 x+b
(ab 6= 0) Take note, we need not change the angle to half-angle or double-angle.
2 cos2 x
111
a2 s2
1
1
1
1
sec2
sec2
= 2
= 2
= 2
= 2
= 2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+b c
a (1 c ) + b c
a + (b a )c
a (1 + (kc) )
a (sec +k )
a (1 + T 2 + k 2 )
u = tan x
= =
du = sec2 xdx
1/a2 du
1 + k2
u
du
=
arctan
=
u2
a2 (1 + u2 + k 2 )
a2 (1 + k 2 )
1 + k2
(1 + k 2 )(1 + 1+k
2)
Z
=
Exercise 31.
dx
(a sin x+b cos x)2
1
dx
=
arctan
ab
a2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x
a tan x
b
(a 6= 0)
Note its a good idea to simplify, cleverly, your constants as much as you can.
Z
Z
1
dx
dx
=
2
2
(a sin x + b cos x)
a
(sin x + k cos x)2
Thus, only one constant, k, is only worried about.
1
1
1/c2
sec2
= 2
= 2
=
=
2
2
2
2
(s + kc)
s + 2ksc + k c
t + 2kt + k
(t + k)2
u = tan x
= =
du = sec2 xdx
=
du
(u + k)2
1
a2
1
1
= 2
(a tan x + ab)
(s + ab c)2
Again, note, we need not always step up or step down a half angle in the substitution.
Exercise 32. Note that we have a rational expression consisting of single powers of sin and cos. Then use the tan
Exercise 33.
Z
Z
2CS
CS
T
=
=
1 + 2CS + C 2 S 2
C(S + C)
(T + 1)
u = tan /2
C = cos x/2
2
where
S = sin x/2 du = sec /2d
2
Z
Z
u
2du
2udu
=
(u + 1) u2 + 1
(u2 + 1)(u + 1)
A
Bu + C
+ 2
u+1
u +1
2
Au + A + Bu2 + Cu + Bu + C = u
1
1
1
A = B C + B = 1 A + C = 0 = C = ; B = ; A =
2
2
2
Z
Z
1
(u
+
1)
1/2
1
u
+
1
2
+ 2 2
du =
+
u+1
u +1
u + 1 u2 + 1
1
= ln |u + 1| + ln |u2 + 1| + arctan u =
2
1
x
= ln | tan x/2 + 1| + ln | sec2 x/2| +
2
2
1
3 x2 dx
112
substitution.
(x)0
Z
Z
Z p
Z
p
p
p
x(x)
x2 + 3 3
1
= x 3 x2
= x 3 x2
3 x2 dx = x 3 x2
3 x2 + 3
2
2
3x
3x
3 x2
Z p
Z
p
1
= 2
3 x2 = x 3 x2 + 3 r
2
1 x3
Z p
xp
3
x
3 x2 =
3 x2 + arcsin
=
2
2
3
Exercise 34.
1
dx
3x2
= (3 x2 )1/2 + C.
0
x
1
1
1
arccos
= q
=
2
3
3 1 x
3 x2
3
p
0 p
x2
x 3 x2 = 3 x2 +
3 x2
3
x
x 3 x2
+ arccos
2
2
3
Exercise 35.
3x2
dx
x
Rq
3
x2
1dx.
3
= sec
x
3 cos = x
dx = sin 3
Z
Z p
Z
2
sec 1( sin ) 3 = tan sin ( 3) = 3 (sec cos ) =
x2
+
= 3 ln
1 + 3 1
2
x
x
3
Exercise 36.
Rq
1 + x1 dx
r
!0
r
1
x
1
1
1/2
= 1+ + q
= 1+ +
x 2 1+ 1
x
x
x2 + x
x
0
x + 21
1 p 2
1
1
ln x + + x + x
=
1+
=
1
2
2
2
2
x+ 2 + x +x
x +x
x +x
r
Z
p
1
1 1
1
=
1+
dx = x 1 + + ln x + + x2 + x
x
x 2
2
1
x 1+
x
Exercise 37.
p
p
x2
(x x2 + 6)0 = x2 + 5 +
x2 + 5
p
1
x
1
0
2
(ln (x + x + b)) =
1+
=
2
2
2
x+ x +b
x +b
x +b
Z p
p
p
1
x x2 + 5 + 5 ln (x + x2 + 5)
x2 + 5 =
2
Exercise 38.
113
0
x + 12
1
1
1 p 2
1
+
=
+ x + x + 1) =
2
x + 12 + x2 + x + 1
x2 + x + 1
x2 + x + 1
Z
Z
x + 12 21
1
x
1 p
=
= (x2 + x + 1)1/2 ln (x + + x2 + x + 1)
2
2
2
2
x +x+1
x +x+1
ln (x +
dx
=
x2 + x
dx
q
2dx
q
2
2 x + 21
1
p
0
ln
(2(x + 1/2))2 1 + 2(x + 1/2)
=
x+
1 2
2
1
4
2(x + 1/2)2
2+ p
=
=p
(2(x + 1/2))2 1 + 2(x + 1/2)
(2(x + 1/2))2 1
2
=p
(2(x + 1/2))2 1
Z
p
1
dx
21 +C
q
=
ln
2
x
+
+
(2(x
+
1/2))
2
2
x + 12 14
Exercise 40.
log t
t+1
Z 1
Z x
x log t
1
ln (u) 1
f
=
dt =
du
=
1
x
u2
1 t+1
1
u +1
1
Z x
u=
ln (u)
t
=
du
2
1
1 u+u
du = 2 dt
t
x
Z x
Z x
1
t ln t + ln t
ln t
(ln t)2
(ln x)2
f (x) + f
=
dt =
dt =
=
x
t(t + 1)
t
2 1
2
1
1
1
1
f (2) + f
= (ln 2)2
2
2
Exercise 2. Take the derivative of both sides, using the (first) fundamental theorem of calculus.
2f f 0 = f (x)
sin x
sin x
; = 2f 0 =
2 + cos x
2 + cos x
At this point, it could be very easy to evaluate the integral by guessing at the solution.
( ln 2 + cos x)0 =
sin x
ln |2 + cos x|
= f =
+C
2 + cos x
2
114
Otherwise, remember that for rational expressions involving single powers of sin and cos, we can make a u = tan /2
substitution.
x
u = tan
2
C = cos x/2, S = sin x/2
2 x
2du = sec dx
2 Z
Z
Z
2T
2du
2SCdx
sin x
=
dx =
=
2 + cos x
2 + C2 S2
2 sec2 x/2 + 1 T 2 sec2 x/2
Z
Z
udu
T
T
=4
=2
2
2
2
2
(1 + u )(3 + u )
T +1 T +3
2
1
T +1
2
1
2
2
ln T + 1 ln T + 3 = ln
= ln
=2
2
2
T2 + 3
4 + 2 cos x
where tan2
sin2 x2
x
1 cos x
=
=
2
cos2 x2
1 + cos x
Exercise 3.
ex
dx = ex
x
ex (x 1)
xdx = ex
x2
ex (x 1)
dx . . .
x
No way.
Exercise 4.
R /2
0
3/2
= 1.
Exercise 5.
(1)
f = 4x + 2x(x + 1)(x + 2)
4(x + 2)
1
1
ln f = ln
= (ln (4x + 2) ln x ln (x + 1) ln (x + 2))
2
x(x + 1)(x + 2)
2
1
4
1
1
1
f0
7
=
f 0 (1) =
f
2
4x + 2
x x+1 x+2
12
s
1
4x
+
2
4
1
1
1
= f 0 =
2 x(x + 1)(x + 2)
4x + 2
x x+1 x+2
(2)
Z
4x + 2
dx = 2
x(x + 2)(x + 1)
Z
1
= 2
(2x + 1)
dx =
x(x + 2)(x + 1)
4
1
3
25
ln x + ln |x + 2| + ln |x + 1| = ln
2
2
8
1
1 1 1
A
0
0 1 0 3/2
3 1 2 B = 2 = 0 0 1 1
2 0 0
C
1
1 0 0 1/2
Exercise 6.
115
(1)
x
1
dt
t
log x =
1
Z
log x =
1
F (x) =
1
if x > 0
et
dt; t
t
e > 1 for t > 0
If 0 < x < 1
Z 1
Z 1 t
1
1
e
dt =
dt >
= F (x)
t
t
x
x t
log x F (x) for x 1
(2)
Z
x+a
F (x + a) F (1 + a) =
1
= ea
et dt
a+1
et dt
=
t
1a
et+a dt
t+a
1a
et+a dt
t+a
et
dt
t+a
(3)
x
Z
1
eat
dt =
t
Z
a
ax
et
dt =
t
Z
1
ax
et
+
t
Z
a
et
=
t
= F (ax) F (a)
x
Z x t
Z
e
e
1 t
1 t
e
=
e
+ F (x)
2
t
t
x
1 t
u Z
Z x
Z 1/x
eu
e
eu
e1/t dt =
du
=
=
u2
u
u
1
1
u=
= xe1/x e F (1/x) where we used the substitution
1
t
du =
Exercise 7.
(1)
ex = F (x) F (0); F (x) = ex + F (0) = F (0) = 1 + F (0)
0 6= 1. False.
(2)
d
dx
x2
ln 2
f (x) = ln 2ex ln 2
Z
0
(3)
x2
x2
2
ln 2eln 2 dt = et ln 2 0 = ex ln 2 + 1
x
f (x) = 2f (x)f 0 (x); = f (x) = + C
2
2
x
Z x
1
t
x2
t + c dt =
+ ct =
+ cx
2
4
4
0
0
x2
+ Cx + C 2 1
4
x
= C = 1, f (x) = + 1
2
f 2 (x) 1 =
Exercise 8.
(1)
f (x + h) f (x)
f (x)f (h) f (x)
f (x)(hg(h))
=
=
= f (x)g(h)
h
h
h
0
g(h) 1 as h 0 so = f (x) = f (x)
116
1
dt
t2
(1)
g(2x) = 2ex g(x)
g(3x) = ex g(2x) + e2x g(x) = ex 2ex g + e2x g = 3e2x g
(2)
Assume g(nx) = ne(n1)x g
g((n + 1)x) = ex g(nx) + e(n+1)x g(x) = nenx g(x) + enx g = (n + 1)enx g
(3) From g(x + y) = ey g(x) + ex g(y),
g(0) = g(0) + g(0) = g(0) = 0
h
eh g(x) + ex g(h) g(x)
e 1
ex g(h)
g(x + h) g(x)
=
= g(x)
+
h
h
h
h
g(x + h) g(x)
g(h)
f 0 (0) = 2 = lim
= lim h 0
h0
h
h
(4) g 0 (x) = g(x) + 2ex C = 2
Exercise 10.
g0
f0
+
= (f g)0 = f 0 g + f g 0
(ln (f g))0 =
f
g
0
0
f
f0
g0
f 0 g g0 f
f
=
ln
=
=
2
g
f
g
g
g
Exercise 12. A =
R1
et
dt
0 t+1
(1)
u=ta
=
1
(2)
R1
t2
te
dt
0 t2 +1
R1
u
1
2 due
u+1
et
dt
a1 t a 1
Z 0 ta
Z 1 t
eta
e
e
a
dt =
dt = e
= ea A
t1
t
1
t
+
1
1
0
Z
1
A
2
e1
+1+A
2
0
R1 t
R
et
(4) 0 e ln (1 + t)dt = et ln (1 + t) 1+t
= e ln 2 A
(3)
R1
et
dt
0 (t+1)2
et
(t+1)
R1
et
0 t+1
Exercise 13.
117
(1) p(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 ;
f (x) = ex p(x)
p0 = c1 + 2c2 x
p00 = 2C2
0
x 0
f =f +e p
n
X
n!
n x
n!
f (n) (x) =
+ ex (2c2 )
e (p(x))j = f + ex (c1 + 2c2 x) +
(n 1)!
(n 2)!2!
j
j=0
f (n) (0) = c0 + c1 n + n(n 1)c2
(2) See generalization below.
(3)
m
X
p=
aj xj ;
p(k) (x) =
p(0) = a0 ;
j=0
m
X
aj
j=0
f (n) (x) =
n
X
n
j=0
j!
xjk = p(k) (0) = ak k!
(j k)!
ex p(j) (x)
m
n
m
X
X
X
n!
n (j)
n
(n)
aj
f (0) =
p (0) =
aj j! =
(n j)!
j
j
j=0
j=0
j=0
So for m = 3, then f (n) (0) = a0 + na1 + n(n 1)a2 + n(n 1)(n 2)a3
f (2) = a2 x sin ax + 2a cos ax
(1)k
k=0
Z 1
Z 1X
n
n
X
n
n
1
n k+m
=
(1)k
tk+m dt =
(1)k
t
dt =
k k+m+1
k
k
0
0
k=0
k=0
Z 1
Z 1
n
X
n
m
k
=
t
(t) dt =
tm (1 t)n dt =
k
0
0
k=0
Z 0
Z 1
m n
=
(1 u) u du =
(1 u)m un du =
1
1
Z
=
0
Z 1
m
X
X
m
j m
j n
(1)
tj+n dt
6m
(u) u du =
j
j
0
j=0
j=0
u1 t
du = dt
Exercise 16. F (x) =
Rx
0
f (t)dt
(1)
Z
F (x) =
0
(R x
(2t)2 dt = 43 x3
(t + |t|) = R0x
0dt = 0
0
2
if t, x 0
if t, x < 0
(2)
Z
F (x) =
(R x
f (t)dt =
0
(1 t2 )dt
(1 |t|)dt
0
R0x
if |t| 1
=
if |t| > 1
1 3 x
x3
(t 3Rt 0 = x 3
x
2
x2
1
=
3 + 1R (1 t)dt = x 2 + 6
x
2
x2
3 + 1 (1 + t)dt = x + 2
118
if |x| 1
1
6
if x > 1
if x < 1
if |x| 1
Z
F (x) =
e|t| dt =
f (t)dt =
0
(R x
R0x
et dt = et |x = 1 ex
x
et dt = et |0 = ex 1
if x 0
if x < 0
F (x) =
0
R x
=x
0 1dt
Rx 2
f (t)dt = 1 + 1 t dt
Rx
0 f
x
x
3
= 1 + 13 t3 1 = x3 + 32
R
R
1
0
x t2 + 1 1 =
Exercise 17.
f 2 =
Ra
0
if |x| 1
if x > 1 =
if x < 1
1 3 x
3 t 1
1=
x3
3
2
3
if |x| 1
if x > 1
if x > 1
f 2 = a2 + a.
0 r
x2 + x
2x + 1
=
2x + 1
a
= x2 + x 0 = a2 + a
Z
for
0
t
e2x
e2t 1
2x
e
dx
=
2 =
2
0
0
R t 4x
4t
(2) V (t) = 0 e
1)
dx = 4 (e
(3)
(1) A(t) =
Rt
ln y
y = e2x =
=x
2
2
Z 1
1
ln y
W (t) =
dy = (y(ln y)2 (2(y ln y y)))e2t =
2
4
e2t
2t 2
=
2 e 4t (2(e2t (2t) e2t )) =
4
te2t e2t
=
2
2
where the antiderivative used was (y(ln y)2 )0 = (ln y)2 + 2 ln y
(4)
(1 e4t )
4
1e2t
2
=
e4t 1
t
e2t 1
t
=
ecx 1
=c
x0
x
3
4
(1)
ec ec
=
2
p
ec = ex + e2x + 1
ex + e2x + 1 ex +1e2x +1
=
2
=
= ex =
4
2(ex + e2x + 1)
x = ln 3 2 ln 2
119
(2)
ex e2x 1 ex 1e2x 1
ec ec
=
=
2
2
=
2(ex e2x 1)
3
1
ex
1
= ex c =
=
+ ex e2x 1
e
4
= x = ln 5 2 ln 2
Exercise 20.
log3 5
log2 5
=
= log2 5
log2 3
(log2 3)2
= 1 = log2 3 False
(3) Use induction
n = 1 11/2 < 2 1
1
n = 21 + < 2 2
2
n+1
n
X
X
1
k 1/2 =
k 1/2 + p
<
(n
+ 1)
k=1
k=1
n + 1 case
!
p
(n + 1)
1
+p
<2 n p
(n + 1)
(n + 1)
Now (n + 21 )2 = n2 + n +
1
2
p
1 p 2
> n + n = n + 1 > n2 + n
2
n+1
X
k 1/2 < 2 n + 1
=
k=1
(4)
f = (cosh x sinh x 1) =
ex + ex ex + ex
1 = ex 1 < 0 for x > 0
2
False.
Exercise 21. For 0 < x <
2,
1
1
<
t
t
Z
x+1
x+1
t
1
dt = ln (x + 1) ln x;
t
x+1
Exercise 23.
120
x+1
1
x+1
1
So ln
=
<
t
x
x
x
y n 1/n
) .
x
A
n
n
1n
(1 + An ) n ln (1 + A ) + A ln 1+An
An
=
<
0
since
ln
<0
n2
n2 (1 + An )
1 + An
= (xb + y b )1/b < (xa + y a )1/a
if b > a
Exercise 25.
(1)
Z
0
x
et t = tet et 0 = xex ex + 1
(2)
t
Z
0
x
t2 et dt = t2 et 0
et (2t)dt = x2 ex + 2
tet dt =
= x2 ex + 2xex 2ex + 2
(3)
Z
x
3 t
Z
3
x
t
3 x
t (e )dt = x e + 3
0
x2
3 x
x
x
= x e + 3(2)(e ) e 1 x
2!
t e dt =
0
x
t3 et 0
t2 et dt =
tn et dt = n!ex ex
Z
0
n
X
xj
j!
j=0
x
tn+1 et dt = tn+1 et 0
n
X
xj
j!
j=0
= (n + 1)!ex ex
n+1
X
j=0
xj
j!
Exercise 26. Consider the hint a1 sin x + b cos x = A(a sin x + b cos x) + B(a cos x b sin x). Solve for A, B in terms of
121
a1 , b1 , a, b. Matching up term by term the coefficients for sin and cos separately,
A=
Aab + Bb2 = a1 b
Ab2 + Bab = b1 b
aa1 + bb1
a2 + b2
B=
ab1 a1 b
a2 + b2
So if not both a, b = 0 ,
Z
a1 sin x + b1 cos x
A(a sin x + b cos x) + B(a cos x b sin x)
=
=
a sin x + b cos x
a sin x + b cos x
= Ax + B ln |a sin x + b cos x| + C
Exercise 27.
(1)
f 0 (x2 ) =
1
x
df
= u1/2
du
f (x2 ) = 2x 1
(2)
x2
1
1
f 0 (sin2 x) = 1 sin2 x f 0 (u) = 1 u f = u u2 + C = f (x) = x
+
2
2
2
(3)
x3
1
1
f 0 (sin X) = (1 sin2 x) f (u) = u u3 + C f (x) = x
+
3
3
3
(4)
(
(
for
x
1
1
for 0 < x 1
f 0 (ln x) =
=
ln x
for x > 1
e
x>1
(
y
for y < 0
f (y) =
y
e 1 for y > 0
1
x
Exercise 28.
(1)
x
dt
Li(x) =
if x 2
ln
t
Z x 2
Z x
x
1
1
x
dt
2
Li(x) =
2
dt
=
+
2
2
ln x
ln 2
(ln
x)
ln
x
(ln
x)
ln
2
2
2
(2)
Z x
x
2
2
x
2
Li(x) =
dt
ln x ln x (ln 2)2
(ln x)2
(ln
t)3
a
Z x
n1
X k!x
x
x
(n + 1)dt
Li(x) =
+
+ n!
ln x
lnn+1 x
lnn+2 t
lnk+1 x
2
k=1
Z x
n
X
x
k!x
dt
Li(x) =
+
+
(n
+
1)!
k+1
(n+1)+1
ln x
ln
x
t
2 ln
k=1
122
C2 =
2
X
2
2(j 1)!
+
ln x
(ln 2)j
j=2
n
Cn = 2
X 2(j 1)!
1
Cn+1 = 2
X 2(j 1)!
1
n+1
(3)
Z
u = ln t
1
du = dt
t
eu du = dt eu = t
dt
ln t
Li(x) =
2
ln x
Li(x) =
ln 2
et dt
t
(4)
1
ln 2
2
Z x1 2u
e
e2(u+1) du
= e2
du =
u
u
c1
Z 2(x1)
3
1
et
= e2
t dt =
2 2(c1)
2
3
c=1+
Z
x1
c1
t = u + 1 =
= e2 Li(e2(x1) )
(5)
f (x) = e4 Li(e2(x2) ) e2 Li(e2(x1) )
e2x
e2x
1
Z x
Z x 2t
2x
0
2t
=
+
=
e
f
(x)
=
e
e
t2
t1
t2 3t + 2
=
t
2
(t
1)
c
c
Exercise 29. f (x) = log |x| if x < 0. x < 0 uniquely ln |x| since f 0 =
ey = x(y) = g(y)
1
x
< 0 x < 0.
D=R
Rx
0
(1 + t3 )1/2 dt if x 0.
(1)
f 0 (x) =
1
> 0 for x > 0
1 + x3
(2)
g 0 (x) =
p
1
3x2
3 g 00 (x) =
=
1
+
x
f 0 (x)
2 1 + x3
7.4 Exercises - Introduction, The Taylor polynomials generated by a function, Calculus of Taylor polynomials. Use
the following theorems for the following exercises.
Theorem 22 (Properties of Taylor polynomials, Apostol Vol. 1. Theorem 7.2.).
c2 Tn (g)
(2) Differentiation (Tn f )0 R= Tn1 (f 0 )
x
(3) Integration. If g(x) = a f (t)dt
Rx
Tn+1 g(x) = a Tn f (t)dt
Theorem 23 ( Substitution Property, Apostol Vol. 1. Theorem 7.3. ). Let g(x) = f (cx), c is a constant.
(12)
This theorem is useful for finding new Taylor polynomials without having to find the jth derivatives of the desired function.
123
(13)
where g(x) 7 0 as x 7 0.
Then Pn = Tn (f, x = 0).
Exercise 3.
Tn f (x) =
n
X
f (j) (a)
j!
j=0
x
a =e
(x a)j
x ln a
x 0
(a ) = (ax ) ln a
(ax )(n+1) = (ax (ln a)n )0 = ax (ln a)n+1
Tn (ax ) =
n
X
(ln a)j
j!
j=0
xj
Exercise 4.
00
1
1
(1)2 2
;
=
2
(1 + x)
1+x
(1 + x)3
(n+1)
0
(1)n n!
1
(1)n+1 (n + 1)!
=
=
1+x
(1 + x)n+1
(1 + x)n+2
X
n
1
Tn
=
(1)j xj
1+x
j=0
1
1+x
0
Exercise 5. Use Theorem 7.4. . Theorem 7.4 says for f (x) = Pn (x) + xn g(x), Pn (x) is the Taylor polynomial.
n
n
2 n+1
X
X
1
(x
)
xn xn+2
2j
(x2 )j +
=
=
x
+
1 x2
1 x2
1 x2
j=0
j=0
n
X
x
(x2n+3 )
2j+1
=
x
+
1 x2
1 x2
j=0
T2n+1
x
1 x2
=
n
X
x2j+1
j=0
Exercise 6.
(ln (1 + x))0 =
1
1+x
Tn
1
1+x
=
n
X
(x)j
Tn (ln 1 + x) =
j=0
n
X
j=0
(1)j
X
xj+1
xj
=
(1)j+1
j + 1 j=1
j
Exercise 7.
!0
r
1x 1x
1
1
1
log
=
=
=
2
1 + x 1 + x (1 x)
(1 + x)(1 x)
1 x2
!
r
r
Z
Z X
n
n
X
1
1+x
x2j+1
1+x
2j
= log
so
x =
= T2n+1 ln
1 x2
1x
2j + 1
1x
j=0
j=0
1+x
1x
Exercise 8.
Tn
1
2x
= Tn
1/2
1 x/2
1
= Tn
2
1
1
1
2
n
n
1 X 1 j X xj
=
( x)
=
2 j=0 2
2j+1
j=0
(1 + x) =
1
x =
x
j
j
j=0
j=0
or determine each of the coefficients of the Taylor polynomial.
((1 + x) )0 = (1 + x)1 ; ((1 + x) )00 = ( 1)(1 + x)2
0
!
!
n
(n+1)
=
(1 + x)
(1 + x)(n+1)
((1 + x) )
=
( n)!
( (n + 1))!
Exercise 10. Use the substitution theorem, Apostol Vol.1. Thm. 7.3., to treat cos 2x.
T2n (cos x) =
n
X
(1)j x2j
j=0
(2j)!
n
X
(1)j (2x)2j
(2j)!
j=0
X (1)j (2x)2j
X (1)j+1 22j1 x2j
1
1
=
T2n (sin x2 ) = T2n ( (1 cos 2x)) = 1
2
2
(2j)!
(2j)!
j=0
j=1
7.8 Exercises - Taylors formula with remainder, Estimates for the error in Taylors formula, Other forms of the
remainder in Taylors formula. We will use Theorem 7.7, which we learn in the preceding sections, extensively.
Theorem 25. If for j = 1, . . . , n + 1, m f (j) (t) < t I, I containing a,
(14)
(15)
(16)
(x a)n+1
(x a)n+1
En (x) M
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
n+1
(a x)
(a x)n+1
m
(1)n+1 En (x) M
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
Z x
1
En (x) =
(x t)n f (n+1) (t)dt
n! a
m
if x > a
if x < a
En (x)
(x)2n+1
(x)2n+1
if x > 0; (1)2n+1 E2n (x) (+1)
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1)!
= E2n (x)|
|x|2n+1
(2n + 1)!
Exercise 2.
cos x =
n
X
(1)k x2k
(2k)!
k=0
2n+2
E2n+1 (x)
x
(x)2n+2
; (1)2n+2 E2n+1 (x) (1)
(2n + 2)!
(2n + 2)
2n+2
|x|
= |E2n+1 (x)|
(2n + 2)!
Exercise 3.
arctan x =
n1
X
k=0
n1
X
k=0
k 2k+1
(1) x
2k + 1
(2k)!
(2k)!
=
n1
X
k=0
(1)k x2k+1
+ E2n (x)
2k + 1
(1)k (2k)!x2k+1
= f (2k+1) (0) = (1)k (2k)!
(2k + 1)!
f (2n+1) (0)x2n+1
(1)n (2n)!x2n+1
(1)n x2n+1
x2n+1
=
=
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1)!
2n + 1
2n + 1
Note how jth derivative (arctan x)(j) changes sign with each differentiation for f (2j+1) (0). Then we can always pick a
small enough closed interval with a = 0 as a left or right end point to make the f (2j+1) (0) value the biggest for f (2j+1) (t).
125
Exercise 4.
(1)
x2 = sin x = x
x3
x3
x
x 3 + 15
x (3 15)
=
+ x2 x =
6
6
6
x = 15 3
(2)
E4 (r; 0) =
1
4!
3
r5
r
3
1
4
<
=
=
<
5!
5!
5(2)(5)(4)(3)(2)1
(5)(4)(2)5
200
Exercise 5.
r3
r2 + E4 (r; 0) = 0 + E4 (r; 0)
arctan r r2 = r
3
Z
7
1 r
M (r5 ) r5
= 0.065536 <
E4 (r, 0) =
(x t)4 f (5) (t)dt
4! 0
5! 5!
100
E4 (r, 0) < Ej (r, 0); j > 4
f (5) (0) 5
24 5
r =
r >0
5!
5!
2
so r arctan r = E4 (r, 0) < 0
Z
0
1 + x30
dx =
1 + x60
Z 1
x30 x60
1 x30
30
dx
=
1
+
x
dx =
1 + x60
1 + x60
0
1
c
1 31
x =1+
=1+c
31
31
1+
0
Exercise 7.
R 1/2
0
1
1+x4 dx.
n1
X
X
1
4 j
)
=
=
(x
(x4 )j + En = 1 + x4 + x8 . . .
1 + x4
j=0
j=0
16 x4n+1
1
En (x; 0)
(x4 )n+1
17 (n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
Z 1/2
1 4n+5
1
2
=
En =
(n + 1)! 4n + 5
0
5
Z 1/2
1
1 1 1
'
+
1 + x4
2
5
2
0
0.493852 < 0.49375 < 0.493858
Exercise 8.
(1)
1
x3
sin x = x
+ E4 (x)
2
3!
5
1 12
sin 13 |x|5
M |x|5
|E4 (x)|
=
5!
5!
5!
0x
126
(2)
x6
+ E4 (x2 )
6
2/2
1 3 x7
1
1
2
sin x =
=
2
x
3
42 0
12 42(16)
2
E4 (x2 )
64(5!)
Z 22
1
55
sin x2 2
+
= 0.1159
672 64(5!)
0
sin x2 = x2
2
2
Exercise 9.
x3
x5
(1)x7
+
E6 (x; 0)
6
5!
7!
x2
x4
E6 (x; 0)
x2
x4
x6
sin x
=1
+
+
1
+
+
x
6
5!
x
6
5!
7!
sin x
1 1
1
1
1
dx = 1
+
+
= 0.9461 +
= 0.9461 + 0.0000283
x
3 6
5(5!) 7(7!)
7(7!)
sin x = x
Z
0
4.
(1)
(tan A + tan B)
2/5
2 tan
=
; A = B = ; tan 2 =
= 5/12
1 tan A tan B
24/25
1 tan2
2(5/12)
10/12
120
2(tan 2)
=
=
=
A = 4, B =
tan 4 =
2
2
1 (5/12)
119/144
119
4
1 tan (2)
120
119
tan 4 + tan 4
+
1
= 119 120 119 =
tan (4 ) = tan =
4
239
1 119 (1)
1 tan 4 tan 4
tan (A + B) =
4 arctan
1
1
= + arctan
This is incredible.
5
4
239
(2)
T11 (arctan x) =
61
X
(1)k x2k+1
k=0
2k + 1
+ E2(6) (x)
; |E2(6) (x)|
x3
x5
x7
x9
x11
+
...
3
5
7
9
11
1
= 3.158328957 < 16 arctan < 3.158328958
5
x2(6)+1
2(6) + 1
=x+
(3)
T3 (arctan x); x =
0.016736304 < 4 arctan
1
239
1
< 0.016736304
239
(4)
3.141592625
3.158328972 0.016736300 = 3.141592672
7.11 Exercises - Further remarks on the error in Taylors formula. The o-notation; Applications to indeterminate
forms.
Exercise 1.
2x = exp x ln 2 = 1 + (x ln 2) +
Exercise 2.
127
x2 (ln 2)2
+ o(x2 )
2!
+ ( sin 1)(x 1)
(x x2 )3
(x x2 )5
+
+ o(x x2 )5 =
3!
5!
1 3
1
x 3x4 + 3x5 x6 +
x5 5x6 + 10x7 10x8 + 5x9 + x1 0 =
= (x x2 )
6
120
61 5
25 6
1 3 1 4
2
x
x
= (x x ) x x +
6
2
120
120
sin (x x2 ) = (x x2 )
Exercise 4.
(x 1)2
(x 1)3
+
2
3
1
= a = 0; b = 1, c =
2
Exercise 5.
1 2
x + o(x3 )
2
1 cos x
1 o(x3 )
= +
2
x
2
x2
1 cos x
1
1 cos x
1
since
= + o(x),
as x 0
x2
2
x2
2
1
cos x = 1 x2 + o(x3 ) as x 0
2
1 cos x =
1
x4
2
cos x = 1 x2 +
+ o(x5 ) = cos 2x = 1 2x2 + x4 + o(x5 )
2
4!
3
23 x4 o(x5 )
2
2
1 cos 2x 2x2
=
=
o(x) as x 0
x4
x4
3
3
Exercise 6.
3
4
ax (ax)
sin ax
a
3! + o(x )
lim
= lim
=
2
x0 sin bx
x0
bx + o(x )
b
Exercise 7.
sin 2x
lim
= lim
x0 cos 2x sin 3x
x0
1
(2x) +
(2x)2
2!
(2x)4
4!
(2x)3
3! +
+ o(x5 )
o(x4 )
(3x)
(3x)3
3!
2
=
3
+ o(x4 )
Exercise 8.
lim
x0
sin x x
1
=
x3
6
Exercise 9.
ln 1 + x
x o(x)
1
= lim
=
2x
x0 e
x0 2x + o(x)
1
2
lim
lim
x0
1 cos x
= lim
x0
x tan x
1 1
x x+
x2
2!
x3
6!
2
+ o(x2 )
1 (1 + x2 + o(x2 ))
= lim
=1
x0
x2 + o(x2 )
+ o(x3 )
Exercise 11.
128
lim
x + x6 + o(x4 )
x
x0
=1
x3
3
Exercise 12.
ex ln a 1
x ln a + o(x)
= lim
= ln a/b
x0 ex ln b 1
x0 x ln b + o(x)
lim
Exercise 13.
lim
(x 1)
(x1)2
2
+ (x1)
+ o(x 1)4
1
3
=
(x + 2)(x + 1)
3
x1
Exercise 14. 1 .
Exercise 15.
x2
2 )
x(2 + x +
x(ex + 1) 2(ex 1)
= lim
lim
x0
x0
x3
2(x + x2 /2 + x3 /6)
x3 ( 16 )
1
=
lim
=
x0 x3
x3
6
Exercise 16.
x2
2
x
ln (1 + x) x
= lim
lim
x0
x0
1 cos x
x3
3
3 + o(x )
x3 /2
= 1
Exercise 17.
0 + 1(x 2 )
cos x
=
= 1
x 2
x/2 x 2
lim
cosh x cos x
lim
= lim
x0
x0
x2
ex +ex
2
cos x
=
x2
1+x+
= lim
x2
2
2 1
x2
2
+ o(x3 )
= 2
x2
x0
Exercise 20.
(4x) +
3 tan 3x 12 tan x
lim
= lim
x0 3 sin 4x 12 sin x
x0 (4x)
=
43 4
43 +4
2
(4x)3
3
(4x)3
3!
4 x+
x3
3
+ o(x4 )
4 x
x3
+ o(x4 )
3!
= 2
Exercise 21.
ax asinx
ex ln a esin x ln a
=
lim
=
x0
x0
x3
x3
lim
1 + x ln a +
= lim
(x ln a)2
2!
(x ln a)3
6
1 + sin x ln a +
ln a(x x
3
x
3!
)+
(x2 ln a)2
2!
(ln a)2
2
2 (x )
(lna)3
3
6 (x
x3 ) + o(x4 )
=
x3
x0
Exercise 22.
lim
x0
+ o(x4 )
=
x3
x0
= lim
1
1
2
sin2 x
2!
sin4 x
4!
+ o(x5 ) 1
x2
2!
4
x 4 4
x4
2
2
x (x 3 ) + x x
+ o(x5 )
4!
x4
x0
129
x4
4!
=
1
6
ln a
6
Exercise 23.
1
1
ln x
(x 1) + o(x 1)2
lim x 1x 1x = lim x 1e 1x ln x = exp lim x 1
= exp lim x 1
= e1
1x
1x
Exercise 24.
1
ln (x + e2x )
x
ln (x + e2x )
ln (1 + x + e2x 1)
lim
= lim
=
x0
x0
x
x
x + e2x 1 + o(x2 )
3x + o(x2 )
= lim
= lim
=3
x0
x0
x
x
= lim (x + e2x )1/x = e3
lim (x + e2x )1/x = exp lim
x0
x0
x0
Exercise 25.
2
x+ x +o(x2 )
2
x
e
e x ln (1+x) e
e
(1 + x)1/x e
= lim
= lim
=
lim
x0
x0
x0
x
x
x
x
e(1 + x2 + o(x)) e
e1 2 +o(x) e
e
= lim
= lim
=
x0
x0
x
x
2
Exercise 26.
lim
x0
(1 + x)1/x
e
1/x
= lim
x0
exp
1/x
2
x x +o(x3 )x
2
1
x2
= e1/2
ln (1 + x) 1
= lim e
x0
x
Exercise 27.
1
1 x2
x
(arcsin x)00 =
(1 x2 )3/2
3x2
1
+
(arcsin x)000 =
2
3/2
(1 x )
(1 x2 )5/2
1
arcsin x
1
arcsin x
exp lim 2 ln
= exp lim 2 ln 1 +
1
=
x0 x
x0 x
x
x
1
x + x3 /6 + o(x4 ) x
1
x2
= exp lim 2 ln 1 +
= exp lim 2 ln 1 +
+ o(x3 )
=
x0 x
x0 x
x
6
1 x2 + o(x3 )
= exp lim 2
= e1/6
x0 x
6
(arcsin x)0 =
1
x
1
ex 1
= limx0
ex 1x
x(ex 1)
= limx0
3
x
2 +o(x )
x2 +o(x3 )
1
2
Exercise 29.
lim
x1
1
1
log x x 1
= lim
x1
(x 1) log x
(x 1) log x
=
2
(x 1) ((x 1) (x1)
+ o(x 1)3 )
1
2
= lim
=
x1
(x 1)((x 1) + o(x 1)2 )
2
Exercise 30.
2
1 + ax + (ax)
+ o(x3 ) 1 x
eax ex x
2
lim
=
lim
x0
x0
x2
x2
if a = 2, the limit is 2
Exercise 31.
130
x2
2
(1) Prove
Rx
0
Rx
f (t)dt = o
Rx
g(t)dt as x 0, given f (x) = o(g(x)).
f (t)dt
Rx
lim
x0
A(x)A(0)
x
f (t)dt
f (0)
limx0 f (x)
0
=
= lim
=
=0
limx0 g(t)dt x0 B(x)B(0)
g(0)
limx0 g(x)
x
We can do the second to last step since f, g have derivatives at 0 and thus are continuous about 0.
(2) Consider limx0 exx = 0. However, limx0 e1x = 1.
Exercise 32.
f (x)
x
1/x
lim g(x) = A,
x0
Then
g(x) = e3 + o(1) =
1+x+
f
x
1/x
x
x e3 + o(1) = x + x2 + f (x) = f (0) = 0
x exp x ln (e3 + o(1)) = x + x2 + f (x)
x
3
3
3
0
1 exp x ln (e + o(1)) + x exp x ln (e + o(1)) ln e + o(1) + 3
(o (1)) = 1 + 2x + f 0 (0)
e + o(1)
1 + 3(0) + 0 = 1 + 0 + f 0 (0) = f 0 (0) = 0
We need to assume that in general o(1) = x + kx2 + o(x2 ).
2 exp x ln (e + o(1)) ln (e3 + o(1)) +
3
x
0
(o (1)) +
e3 + o(1)
x
0
3
3
+ x exp x ln (e + o(1)) ln (e + o(1)) + 3
o (1) +
e + o(1)
2o0 (1)
xo00 (1)
x
3
0
2
x exp x ln (e + o(1))
+
+ 3
(o (1)) = 2 + f 00 (x)
(e3 + o(1)) e3 + o(1)
(e + o(1))
x0
f (x)
x
1/x
!1/x
2
1/x
0 + 0 + 4 x2 + o(x3 )
f (x)
1/x
lim 1 +
= lim 1 +
= lim (1 + x (2 + o(x)))
=
x0
x0
x0
x
x
1/x
131
7.13 Exercises - LHopitals rule for the indeterminate form 0/0. Exercise 1.
3x2 + 2x 16
14
(3x + 8)(x 2)
= lim
=
x2 x2 x 2
x2 (x 2)(x + 1)
3
lim
Exercise 2.
x2 4x + 3
(x 3)(x 1)
= lim
= 2
2
x3 2x 13x + 21
x3 (2x 1)(x 3)
lim
Exercise 3.
0
sinh x sin x
= = lim
x0
x3
0 x0
lim
cosh x cos x
3x2
=
0
= lim
0 x0
sinh x + sin x
6x
= lim
x0
cosh x + cos x
6
=
1
3
Exercise 4.
(2 x)ex x 2
ex + (2 x) 1
(2 x)(1 + x + x2 /2 + x3 /6 + o(x3 ))
1
= lim
= lim
=
3
2
x0
x0
x0
x
3x
x3
6
lim
Exercise 5.
1 (1 x2 + x24 + o(x4 ))
x sin x
2
1 cos x
lim
=
lim
=
lim
=
1
3
3 x0+ e 2 ln (x sin x) (x x63 + o(x3 ) + x x23 + o(x3 ))
x0+ (x sin x)3/2
x0+ (x sin x)1/2 (sin x + x cos x)
2
x2
x4
4
+
o(x
)
2
2
24
=
=
lim q
3 x0+
x3
2 3
3
3
x(x + 6 + o(x ))(2x 3 x + o(x ))
1
x2
2
+
o(x
)
2
2
24
= 2 lim 1/2 = 1
lim+ q
=
2
3 x0
3 x0+
2
6
1 + x + o(x2 )(2 + 2 x2 + o(x2 ))
6
Notice in the third step how in general we deal with powers, (x sin x)1/2 , is to convert it into exponential form, e 2 ln (x sin x) ,
but it wasnt necessary.
Exercise 7. Do LHopitals first.
lim
xa+
1
x2 a2
x+a
=
lim
+
=
2 xa+ x3/2
x
1
x2 a2 + x1/2 x + a
1 2a
2
=
lim
=
=
2 xa+
2 a3/2
2 a
x3/2
x a+ xa
= lim+
xa
x2 a2
2 x
1
2 xa
x
x2 a2
lim+
x1
1
x
exp (x ln x)
2 3 2 1 2
1x
arcsin 2x 2 arcsin x
1(2x)
lim
= lim
=
x0
x0
x3
3x2
1 (1 (2x)2 )3/2 (8x) ( 21 )(1 x2 )3/2 (2x)
2
= lim 2
=
3 x0
6x
4(1 (2x)2 )3/2 + 4x( 32 )(1 (2x)2 )5/2 (8x) + (1 x2 )3/2 x( 23 )(1 x2 )5/2 (2x)
1
= lim
=
9 x0
1
141
1
=
=
9 1
3
Exercise 10.
lim
x0
x cot x 1
x cos x sin x
cos x x sin x cos x
sin x
= lim
= lim
= lim
=
2
2
2
x0
x0
x0
x
x sin x
2x sin x + x cos x
2 sin x + x cos x
cos x
cos x
1
= lim
=
= lim
x0 2 cos x + cos x + x sin x
x0 3 cos x x sin x
3
Exercise 11.
Pn
lim
x1
xk n
= lim
x1
x1
k=1
Pn
X
kxk1
n(n + 1)
=
k=
1
2
k=1
k=1
Exercise 12.
1
1
1
1
b
x
x
1+ a2
1+ b2
2a x
2b x
x
x
1
b arctan
= lim
a arctan
=
lim
3 1/2
x0+
x0+ x x
a
b
x
2
1
a2
(b2 + x)a2 b2 (a2 + x)
1
b2
1
1
=
lim 2
lim
=
2
=
3 x0+ a + x x
b +x x
3 x0+
(a2 + x)(x + b2 )x
(a2 b2 )
1 a2 b2
1
lim
=
3 x0+ (a2 x)(b2 + x)
3 a2 b2
Exercise 13.
as x
x
2
We used LHopitals at the second to last step for x 0.
Exercise 14.
x0
3 cos 3x + a + 3bx2
9 sin 3x + 6bx
27 cos 3x + 6b
27 + 6b
sin 3x + ax + bx3
=
=
=
=
=0
3
2
x0
x
3x
6x
6
6
lim
So b =
9
, a = 3 .
2
Exercise 15.
1
lim
x0 bx sin x
Z
0
2x
2x a + x
= 1
=
1
(1 cos x) + a + x(sin x)
2 (1 cos x) + (a + x) sin x
2 a+x
a + x + 2xa+x
a
= 2 lim sin x
=2
=1
x0
a
2 + sin x + (a + x) cos x
x2
t2 dt
a+x
=
=
b cos x
a+t
= a = 4
Note that we had dropped the limit notation in some earlier steps and applied LHopitals a number of times, and we also
rearranged the denominator and numerator cleverly at each step.
133
Exercise 16.
(1)
x
x
, length BC is tan
2
2
x
x
x
2 tan cos = 2 sin is the base length of ABC
2
2
2
x
x
tan sin is the height of triangle ABC
2
2
1 cos2 x2
x
x
x 1
x
sin = tan sin x
= T (x) = tan sin2 =
2
2
cos x2
2
2 2
angle ABC is
(2)
S(x) =
x
1
x
x
x sin 2
((1)) cos (2 sin ) =
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
xsin
x
S(x)
2
d
dx
sec2
x0
x
2
1
2
x
cos x
2 2
1cos x
2
2 x
2 x
d
sec
dx
2 tan 2
sec2
tan x2 + sin x
sin x
+ 12 sec4
cos x
x
2
+ cos x
3
2
I(t) =
t
L
=
Et
L
Exercise 18.
c k 0 since c k
kc=u
ku=c
A(sin kt sin ct)
A(sin (kt) sin (k u)t)
=
=
2
2
c k
u(2k u)
A(cos (k u)t)(t)
At cos kt
=
(2k u) + u
2k
f (t) =
7.17 Exercises - The symbols + and . Extension of LHopitals rule; Infinite limits; The behavior of log x and
ex for large x.
Exercise 15. Use LHopitals at the second to last step.
lim1 (ln x)(ln (1 x)) = lim1
x1
ln (1 x)
x1
1
ln x
= lim1
x1
1
1x
1
(ln x)2
(1)
= lim
1
1
x
x1
2 ln x x1
x
(ln x)2 = lim1
= 0
1x
(1)
x1
Exercise 16. Persist in using LHopitals and trying all possibilities systematically.
lim+ xx
x0
ln x
=
(ex ln x 1)1
2x ln x
1/x
e
2ex ln x + 1
= exp lim
=
exp
lim
=
ex ln x (x ln x + x)
x0+ (1)(ex ln x 1)2 (ex ln x (ln x + 1))
x0+
= lim+ e(x
1) ln x
x0
= exp lim+
x0
= lim+ e(e
x ln x
1) ln x
x0
= exp lim+
x0
ex ln x (ln x + 1) + ex ln x ( ln x 1)
ex ln x ex ln x
= exp lim+
= 1
1
(ln x + 1 + 1)
x0
1 + ln x+1
Exercise 17.
134
x
x ln x
x
x ln x
ln x
ln x
lim+ (xx 1) = lim+ ex ln x 1 = lim+ ee
1 = elimx0+ e
1 =
x0
x0
=e
x0
lim
x ln x
x0+
limx0+ ln x
1 = 0 1 = 1
We used
lim x log x = 0 > 0
x0+
since
t = x1 , x log x =
log t
t
0 as t .
Exercise 18.
lim e
sin x ln (12x )
x0
!
1
ln 2ex ln 2
ln (1 ex ln 2 )
1ex ln 2
=
= exp lim
= exp lim
1
1/ sin x
x0
x0
cos x
sin2 x
(sin2 x) ln 2ex ln 2
2 sin x cos x
= 1
= exp lim
=
exp
(ln
2)
lim
x0 (1 ex ln 2 ) cos x
x0 ln 2ex ln 2
Exercise 19.
1
lim+ e ln x ln x = e
x0
Exercise 20. At the end, LHopitals could be used to verify that indeed sin x ln sin x 0 as x 0.
lim esin x ln cot x = elimx0+ sin x(ln cos xln sin x) = elimx0+ sin x ln sin x = 1
x0+
Exercise 21. Rewrite tan into sin and cos and use LHopitals.
x
4
x 4
= exp lim
1
sin x
x 4
x 4
1
(ln sin x ln cos x) =
cos 2x
Exercise 22.
Exercise 23. Use LHopitals theorem, taking derivatives of top and bottom.
lim exp
x0+
ln x
1/x
e
ln x = exp e lim
= exp e lim
= ee
x0 1 + ln x
x0 1/x
1 + ln x
Exercise 24. Rewrite tan into sin and cos and take out sin since we could do the limit before doing LHopitals.
x1
x1
x
2
ln (2x)
= elimx1
= exp lim
x1
2
(1)
2x
sin x/2
= exp
Exercise 26.
(xc)(x+c)
1
1+c/x
2
1+c/x
ln 1c/x
(xc)
( 1c/x )
x+c
= exp lim
= exp lim
=
lim exp x ln
1
x+
x+
x+
xc
1/x
x2
= exp (2c) = 4 = c = ln 2
Exercise 27.
(1 + x)c = exp (c ln (1 + x)) = exp (c(x o(x))) = 1 + c(x o(x)) + o(x o(x)) = 1 + cx + o(x)
1/2
1/2
1
1
x2 1 + 2
x2 = x2 1 + 2
x2
x
x
Let x2 = 1t . So t 0 as x +.
=
1 + 12 t 1 + o(t)
(1 + t)1/2 1
1
=
=
t
t
2
135
Exercise 28.
5
7
1
+ 4 +2
t5
t
c
(x + 7x + 2) x = x
Let
1
t
7
2
1+ + 5
x x
c
x
1
5
1/5
1
1
/t =
= 1 + (7t + 2t5 )
t
t
=
Exercise 29.
x
1
g(t) t +
dt
t
1
1
g(1)2;
f 0 (x) = g(x) x +
x
Z
f (x) =
x2
g(x) = xe
g 0 (x) = ex + 2x2 ex
1
x2 )
4x + 2x3
1
as x
=
3
6x + 4x
2
Exercise 30.
g(x) = xc e2x
f (x) =
Guessing that c = 1
f 0 (x)
e2x (3x2 + 1)1/2 1
=
=
g 0 (x)
2xc e2x + cxc1 e2x
3
2
So c = 1 .
Exercise 31.
Exercise 32.
(1)
r 2
r m
r
,P 1 +
,...P 1 +
P 1+
m
m
m
For each year, there are the just previously shown m compoundings, so for n years,
r mn
P 1+
m
(2)
2 = ert
ln 2
= t = 11.55years
r
(3)
r mt
2P0 = P0 1 +
m
ln 2 = mt ln (1 + r/m)
t=
ln 2
ln 2
=
= 11.64years
m ln (1 + r/m)
4 ln (1 + 0.06/4)
136
7.17 Exercises - The symbols + and . Extension of LHopitals rule; Infinite limits; The behavior of log x and
ex for large x. Exercise 1.
1
x2
2
500
e1/x
u
1
lim
= lim eu u5 00 = lim
=0
x2 =
u
u eu
x0 x1000
u
1
1000
x
= 5
u 00
Where we had used Theorem 7.11, which are two very useful limits for log and exp.
u=
(17)
xb
eax
(ln t)b
ta
0 as t as x .
Exercise 2.
sin x1
lim
= lim
x0 arctan 1
x0
x
1
x
1
x
o
o
1
x
1
x
= 1
lim
x
2
1
tan 3x
cos x
sin x
= lim
= lim
=
x 2 cos 3x
x 2 3 sin 3x
tan x
3
a+bx2
ln (a + bex )
= lim
x
x
a + bx2
lim
lim x
1
aex +b
1
x a
+b
x2
= lim
1
=
b
1
t.
1
1
cos 1 + 2
x
2x
1
= lim 4
t t
t2
cos t 1 +
2
t4 /4! + o(t4 )
1
1
=
=
4
t
t
4!
120
= lim
Exercise 6.
lim
ln | sin x|
= lim
ln | sin 2x| x
1
sin x
2
sin 2x
cos x
1
sin 2x
1
2 cos 2x
= lim
= lim
= 1
2 x sin x
2 x cos x
cos 2x
Exercise 7.
lim
x 21
1
12x
(2)
ln (1 2x)
2(cos2 x)
= lim
= lim
=
2
tan x
(sec x)
(1 2x)
x 12
x 12
=
2
2 cos x sin x
lim
=1
x 12
2
137
Exercise 8.
cosh x + 1
ex+1 + ex1
1
1
e
= lim
=
lim e1 + 2x+1 =
x
x
x
e
2ex
2 x
e
2
lim
Exercise 9.
ex ln a
ax
=
lim
; a > 1
x xb
x xb
b
x
since lim ax (in this case, ln a > 0 )
x e
lim
Exercise 10.
lim
x 2
tan x 5
sec2 x
sec x
1 cos x
= lim
= lim
= lim
= 1
x 2 tan x sec x
x 2 tan x
x 2 cos x sin x
sec x + 4
8.5 Exercises - Introduction, Terminology and notation, A first-order differential equation for the exponential function, First-order linear differential equations.
The ordinary differential equation theorems we will use are
y 0 + P (x)y = 0
Z
A(x) =
(19)
P (t)dt
y = beA(x)
(20)
Rx
P (t)dt.
h(x) = h(a) +
Q(t)eA(t) dt
(21)
A(x)
Z
Q(t)e
A(t)
dt + b
We had done some of these problems previously, using an integration constant C, but following Apostols notation for
y(a) = b for initial conditions is far more advantageous and superior as we seem clearly the dependence upon the initial
conditions - so some of the solutions for the exercises will show corrections to the derived formula using Apostols notation
for y(a) = b initial conditions.
Rx
Exercise 1. A(x) = 0 (3)dt = 3x
y = e3x
Z
e2t e3t dt + 0
Exercise 2. y 0
2
xy
= x4 . A(x) =
y=e
A(x)
Rx
Z
2
t
dt = 2 ln x.
Q(t)e
x
= e3x (et )0 = e2x + e3x
A(t)
dt + b
=e
R
2 ln x( 1x t4 e2 ln t dt+1)
= x2 +
Z
, with y = 2 when x = 0.
138
x
2
t dt + 1
1
x2 3
x5
2x2
(x 1) =
+
3
3
3
=x
=
y = eA(x)
0
Z x
P (t)dt =
A(x) =
Q(t)eA(t) dt + b
Z
= cos x
2 sin tdt + 2
= cos x
= 2 cos2 x + 4 cos x
a
0
Exercise 4. y + xy = x . y = 0, x = 0.
1
A(x) = x2
2
Z x
t2
x
x2
1 2
t2
t2
y = e 2 x
t3 e 2 dt + 0 = e 2
t2 e 2 2e 2 =
0
= x 2 + 2e
x2
Exercise 5. y 0 + y = e2t . y = 1, t = 0.
y(x) = ex
Z
e2t et dt + 1
= ex
A=x
x
e3t
+
1
3 0
2
e2x
+ ex
3
3
Z x
sin x
cot tdt = ln
A(x) =
sin a
a
Z
sin x
sin t
sin a
xa
+b
y(x) = e ln ( sin a )
(csc t)eln ( sin a ) dt + b =
sin x
sin a
x a b sin a
indeed y =
+
sin x
sin x
x + b sin a a
x a b sin a
+
=
x 0 for y =
sin x
sin x
sin x
b sin a = a for x 0
a b sin a = for x
Exercise 7.
2
2
1
x(x + 1)y 0 + y = x(x + 1)2 ex = y 0 +
y = (x + 1)ex
x(x + 1)
Z x
1
x
x+1
1
A(x) =
dt = ln ln
t
t+1
a
a+1
a
(a
+
1)x
eA(x) =
a(x + 1)
Z x
Z x
2
a(x + 1)
(a
+
1)t
(x + 1)
a(x + 1)
t
t2
y=
(t + 1)e
dt + b =
te dt + b
=
(a + 1)x
a(t + 1)
x
(a + 1)x
a
a
a(x + 1)b
2
x + 1 a2
e
ex +
=
2x
(a + 1)x
y = (ea ex )(1/2)(1 +
lim y =
x0
1
x
1
ab
1
)+
(1 + ) =
x
a+1
x
!
ea ex
ab
+
2
a+1
139
a=0
sin x A(x)
sin x
A(x) =
cot tdt = ln
e
=
sin
a
sin a
a
x
Z
sin t
sin a
sin a
cos 2t
2 cos t
+b =
y=
+b =
A(x) =
a
2
(x2)(x3) y
x1
x3 .
x 3 a 2
x
dt = 2 (ln |t 3| ln |t 2|)|a = 2 ln
a 3 x 2
a
x 3 03 x
x3
If (, 2), (3, +),
=
x 2 02 x
x2
2dt
=2
(t 2)(t 3)
1
1
t3 t2
a 2
x3
x3
x2
a2
2
2 Z
2
2
2
2
a 3
x 2 a 3
t 1 a 2 3 t
x2
=
If (2, 3) y = b
a 2 + 3 x a 2
x3
t 3 a 3 t 2
2
2
Z
x 2 a 3
x2
(t 1)(3 t)
=
=b
+
3x
a2
3x
(t 2)2
2
2
2
x2
x 2 a 3
+
(x + (x 2)1 a (a 2)1 )
=b
x 3 a 2
x3
Exercise 10. s(x) =
sin x
x ;x
6= 0 s(0) = 1, T (x) =
Rx
0
f 0 = T + x(s(x)) = T + sin x
xf 0 f = x sin x
y
y 0 = sin x
x
Z x
1
x
x
A(x) =
dt = ln , eA(x) =
t
a
a
a
Z
x
x
bx
a
y=
sin t + b = xT +
a
t
a
a
1
y(0) = 0 6= 1 since P (x) = is not continuous at x = 0
x
Exercise 11.
f (x) = 1 +
Z
1
x
f (t)dt
1
xf (x) = x +
1
x
= f (x) = ln |x| C
Z
1
(ln |t| c) dt =
x 1
f (x) = ln |x| + 1
1
1+C
x
= 1 + (t ln |t| t ct)|1 = ln |x| C +
= C = 1
x
x
ln |x| C = 1 +
f (t)dt =
1
1 f (x)
1
= f (x) = 2
x
x
140
f 0x f
x2
So then
1
1
f0 + x
f =
x
x
Z
Z
1 2
1
1 2
A(x) = P (t)dt =
dt =
x ln x
a ln a
t
t
2
2
a2 x2
x2 a2 a
x
; eA(x) = e 2
eA(x) = e 2
x
a
Z x
1 t2 a2
x a2 x2
2
2
ae
dt + b
f (x) = e
2
a
a t
Exercise 13.
v = yk
v 0 = ky k1 y 0
v 0 + kP v = kQ = ky k1 y 0 + kP y k = kQ where k = 1 n
= y 0 y n + P y 1n = Q = y 0 + P y = Qy n
n=
1
1
1
1
1
k = 1 = ; v = y 1/2 ; v 0 + (4)v = (2ex ) = v 0 2v = ex
2
2
2 Z
2
2
x
A(x) =
P (t)dt = 2(x a) = 2x
a
Z
v = e2x
et e2t dt + b = e2x ex + b = be2x ex
b=1+ 2
x2
1
x + 2 2ex
Exercise 16.
v = eln x
Z
1
v 0 + v = 2x2
x
2x2 e ln x dx + C
= x(x2 + C) = x3 + Cx
Then since v = y k , k = 1 n,
y = (x3 + Cx)2 = x2 (x2 + C)2 ; x 6= 0
y = x2 (x2 1)2
Check:
1
2
when x = 12 , x 6= 0.
141
y
= y 2 x log x
x
k = 1 n = 1 2 = 1, v = y k = y 1
1
0
0
v = 1x log x
v + kP v = kQ; v +
x
Z
Z
x log x
v=x
dt + C = x
log tdt + C =
1
x
y=
2
Cx + x x2 log x
= x((x log x x) + C) = x2 log x + x2 + Cx
y0 +
1
1
C = (1 log ) + 2
2
2
Check:
y 0 = (C + 2x 2x log x x)(y 2 )
y 2 (C + 2x + 2x log x + x + C + x x log x)
y=
1
1
; x = 1 y(x = 1) = b = 2
2
2
1
y=
x(x ln x x + 3)
e when x = 1; y = e when x = 1.
If x 6= 0, y 6= 0,
(1 + x)
e2 1
y=
y
2x
2x
k = 1 n = 2; v = y k = y 2
y0 +
2ex
1+x
ex
1+x
v=
= v 0 +
v=
= v 0 + Pv = Qv
v 0 + 2P v = 2Q; v 0 + 2
2x
2x
x
x
Z x
Z x
x
Rx
1+t
x
Av =
Pv =
dt = ln
+ (x a);
e a Pv dt = eln x/a+xa = exa
t
a
a
a
a
x
Z x t
x+a
ae
e t ta
1 2ta
a
v=
e dt + bv = ex+a
e
+ bv
x
t
a
x
2a
a
a
a x+a e2xa
ea
= e
+ bv
x
2a
2a
s
a x+a e2xa
ea
y=
e
+ bv
x
2a
2a
Now y k = v
1
e2 + bv = bv = e
r
2x1
(1) bv = e = y = x1 ex+1 e 2 2e + e
r
2x1
(2) bv = e = y = x1 ex+1 e 2 2e + e
q
ex
(3) If we could take a = 0, then limx0 y = 2x
y 2 = v = e = 11 e1+1
e21
2(1)
ex+2a
2x
bv aex+a
x
sinh x
1 x
e ex =
x
x
q
2(0)
x+a
v 0e
= 1+xe (1x)+2b
= 1
2x
If u is a known solution, y = u +
1
v
1 0
v
v2
0
1
v
2u
1
y 0 + P y + Qy 2 = R = u0 + 2 + P (u + ) + Q(u2 +
+ 2) = R
v
v
v
v
(u + 1/v)0 = u0 +
= v 0 P v = Q(2uv + 1)
Exercise 20. y 0 + y + y 2 = 2, y = 1, 2.
(1) If 2 b < 1,
y 0 + y + y 2 = 2 P = 1, Q = 1, R = 2
1
v 0 + (P 2Qu)v = Q y = u +
v
u=1
v 0 + (1 2(1)(1))v = v 0 3v = Q = 1
Z
3t x
e
1
+
b
= be3x
v = e3x
1e3t dt + b = e3x
1 e3x3a
3 a
3
3
y =1+
3be3x (1 e3x3a )
1
b=1+
b
3
b2 b 1 = 0
y(0) = 1 +
=
3b (1 e3a )
1 5
b=
2
3
1 5
y =1+
b=
3x
3x
3be (1 e )
2
(2)
u = 2
0
v + (1 2(1)(2))v = v + 3v = 1
Z x
3x
e e3a
1 e3a3x
v = e3x
e3t dt + b = e3x
+ be3x =
+ be3x
3
3
a
3
3
3
a=0
y = 2 +
; y(0) = 2 +
y(0) = 2 +
= b = 1 2
1 e3a3x + 3be3x
1 e3a + 3b
3b
3
b 1 or b < 2, y = 2 +
b = 1 2
1 e3x + 3be3x
8.7 Exercises - Some physical problems leading to first-order linear differential equations.
Exercise 3.
(1) y 0 = y(t).
y(T ) = y0 eT =
1
y0 .
ln e = T .
k
y0
n.
143
f (b) = y0 ekb .
f (a)
1
f (a)
f (a)
= eka+kb = ln
= k(a b);
ln
= k
f (b)
f (b)
a b f (b)
a/b
ln ff (a)
f (a)
1 a
(b) t
; f (a) = y0 f (b)
; =
= y0 b
f (t) = y0 exp
a/b
ab
y0
(f (b))
f (t) =
f (a)
(f (b))a/b
b
ba
f (a)
f (b)
t
ab
(f (a)) ba f (a) ba
=
=
a
t
f (b) ba f (b) ab
bt
f (a) ba
at
ba
bt
ta
= f (a) ba f (b) ba
(f (b))
bt
w(t) =
;
ba
1 w(t) =
b a (b t)
ta
=
ba
ba
Exercise 4. F = mv 0 = w0 43 v
v(t) = e 8
w0 = 192
1
1
w0
w0
w0
v = v 0 + v =
= 32
v0 =
=6=m
m
8
8
m
g
Z t
t
w0 t
8w0 t/8
e 8 dt + b = e 8
(e 1) + 0 = 256(1 et/8 )
m
0 m
v(10) = 256(1 e5/4 ) = 256(1 37/128) = 182
12
w0
F = mv 0 = w0 12v v 0 + v =
= v 0 + 2v = 32
m
m
Z t
2t
2x
v(t) = e
e 32dx + b = e2t 16(e2t e2t0 ) + b = 16(1 e2(t0 t) ) + be2t
v(10) = be
t0
2(10)
= 182 = b = 182e20
v(t) = 16 + 166e202t
So then
(
256(1 et/8 )
v(t) =
16 + 166e202t
if t < 10
if t > 10
Exercise 7.
(1)
y 0 (t) = (y M )k = ky kM
y 0 + ky = kM
Z
y = ekt ( kM ekt dt + b) = ekt (M (ekt 1) + b)
M = 60
y(0) = b = 200
1
ln
T
ln 3ln 7
t
30
(2)
(ln 7 ln 3)
30
Y 60
(ln 140 ln (T 60))
ln
= kt = tf =
for 60 < T 200
140
k
y(t) = 60 + 140ekt ;
(3) tf =
ln (140)ln (30)
k
30
ln 7/3
ln 14
3 = 54 minutes
144
k=
1
(4) M = M (t) = M0 t
= 10
Z
Z t
kM ekt dt + b = ekt
k(M0 u)eku du + b =
y = ekt
0
= kekt
t
ku
t !
M0 eku
ue
eku
kt
+
= ke
+ be =
k 0
k
k2
0
kt
kt
M0
1
e
te
= kekt
+ bekt =
(1 ekt )
2 + 2
k
k
k
k
y(t) = M0 ekt + M0 t /k + ekt /k + bekt = (M0 + /k + b)ekt + (M0 t /k) =
3
t
y(t) = (140 +
)ekt + (60
(ln 3 ln 7)
10
Exercise 8. y 0 (t) = k(y M0 );
y = ekt
Z
3
)
ln 3/7
y 0 + ky = kM0 .
tf
kM0 eku du + b
= ektf M0 (ektf ekti ) + b = M0 (1 ek(tf ti ) ) + bektf
ti
65 M0 = M0 e
k(5)
+ 75e
k(5)
60 M0 = M0 ek(5) + 65ek(5)
65 M0
= 5k;
= (75 M0 )e
= ln
75 M0
60 M0
= (65 M0 )e5k = ln
= 5k
65 M0
65 M0
60 M0
=
=
75 M0
65 M0
5k
1
k = ln
5
75 M0
65 M0
M0 = 55
Exercise 9.
Salt leaving =
So then
2 gal
min.
y(t) salt
w(t)
2y
w0 + t
y =
= ln y = 2(ln (w0 + t) ln w0 ) = 2 ln
w0 + t
w0
is the equation of motion given by the problem.
2
w0 +t 2
w0 + t
ln
w0
y(t) = Ce
=C
w0
2
2
100
100
25
625
y(t) = 50
y(t = 60 min.) = 50
= 50
=
' 19.53
100 + t
160
64
32
0
Exercise 10.
Let y be the dissolved salt (total amount of) at t time. The (total) amount of water at any given time in the tank is w = w0 + t.
There is dissolved salt in mixture that is leaving the tank at any minute. There is also salt from undissolved salt in the tank
that is coming into the dissolved salt, adding to the amount of dissolved salt in the mixture. Thus
y
y
1 gal
y 0 (t) = (2)
+
3 ; =
w
w
3 min
We obtained easily by considering only the dissolving part and how it dissolves 1 pound of salt per minute if the salt
concentration, wy was zero, i.e. water is fresh.
145
y 0 (t) =
7 y
+ 1;
3 w
7 y
=1
3 w0 + t
y0 =
7/3
w +t
Z
Z0
7/3
7
7
w0 + t
t
P =
= ln (w0 + t)|0 = ln
w0 + t
3
3
w0
Z
7/3
7/3
t
w0 +u
w0 +t
ln
ln
w0
w0
(1)e
y=e
du + b =
0
!
!
!
7/3 Z t
7/3
7/3
10/3
w0 + u
w0
w0
3w0
w0 + t
du + b =
1 +b =
=
w0 + t
w0
w0 + t
10
w0
0
!
!
7/3
10/3
100
3(100)
100 + 60
1 + 50 ' 54.78 lbs.
y=
100 + 60
10
100
P =
V (t) = E sin t.
I(t) = I(0)eRt/L + eRt/L
V (x) Rx/L
e
dx
L
E
I(t) = I(0)eRt/L + eRt/L
L
Using
sin xeRx/L dx
I(0) = 0
Rt
L
R Rt
L
Le
EeRt/L
+
L
Rt
sin t e L cos t
+
R 2
+ 2
L
R 2
L
+ 2
So
I(t) =
E
L
R
L
sin t cos t
E(R sin t L cos t)
EL
EL
eRt/L =
+ 2
eRt/L =
+ 2
2
2
2
R 2
2
R + (L)
R + (L)
R + (L)2
+
L
L
sin = p
2
R + (L2 )
E sin (t )
EL
= I(t) = p
+ 2
eRt/L
2
2
(R + 2 L2 )
R + (L)
L=0
sin = 0
Exercise 12.
(
E(t) =
I(t) = eRt/L
E
0
if 0 < a t < b
otherwise
0 = 0 for t < a
0
I(t) = eRt/L
Z
a
E
R(at)
E Rx/L
E
L Rt/L
e
dx = eRt/L
e
eRa/L =
1e L
L
L
R
R
E
I(b) = (1 eR(ab)/L )
R
for t > b,
= I(t) =
Exercise 13. From Eqn. 8.22,
dx
dt
I(t) = KeRt/L
Ra
EeRt/L Rb
(e L = e l )
R
= kx(M x)
146
dx
1/kdx
dx
= dt =
= kx(M x) = kM x kx2 ; =
= dt
2
dt
kM x kx
x(M x)
1
1
1
ln x + ln (M x)
= kdt =
+
dx =
x M x M
M
x
M k(tti )
M k(t ti ) = ln
; e
(M x) = x
M x
M eM k(tti )
M
=
1 + eM k(tti )
1 + eM k(tti )
x(t) =
Exercise 14. Note that we are given three equally spaced times.
M x2
M = x2 + x2 e(t2 t0 ) ;
= e(t2 t0 )
x2
M x2
x1
= et2 +t0 +t1 t0 = e(t2 t1 )
x2
M x1
M x3
x2
M x2
x1
= e(t3 t2 ) =
x3
M x2
x2
M x1
(M x3 )(M x1 )x22 = x1 x3 (M x2 )2 = x1 x3 (M 2 2M x2 + x22 ) = x22 (M 2 M (x1 + x3 ) + x1 x3 )
(x22 x1 x3 )M 2 = M (x22 (x1 + x3 ) + 2x2 x1 x3 ) = (x1 (x3 x2 ) + x3 (x2 x1 ))x2
= M = x2
Exercise 15.
dx
dx
= k(t)M x k(t)x2
= k(t)dt = M
dt
M x x2
Rt
x
M
k(u)du
= e ti
M x
Me
x=
1+e
Rt
ti
k(u)du
Rt
ti
k(u)du
k(u)du = ln
ti
x
M x
=
1+e
Rt
ti
k(u)du
Exercise 16.
(1) M = 23 92(233.9)3.9(9223)
= 201
232 3.9(92)
(2)
150(122 92) 92(150 122)
150(30) 92(28)
M = 122
= 122
= 216
(122)2 92(150)
(122)2 92(150)
(3) Reject.
8.14 Exercises - Linear equations of second order with constant coefficients, Existence of solutions of the equation
y 00 + by = 0, Reduction of the general equation to the special case y 00 + by = 0, Uniqueness theorem for the equation
y 00 + by = 0, Complete solution of the equation y 00 + by = 0, Complete solution of the equation y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0.
Exercise 1. y 00 4y = 0
y = c1 e2x + c2 e2x .
Exercise 2. y 00 + 4y = 0
where
(1) If a = 0, then u1 (x) = 1 and u2 (x) = x
(3) If d < 0, then u1 (x) = cos kx and u2 (x) = sin kx; where k = 12 d
147
Exercise 3. y 00 4y 0 = 0;
a = 4.
y = e2x (c1 e2x + c2 e2x ) = c1 e4x + c2
Exercise 4. y 00 + 4y 0 = 0
d = 4 4(3) = 8
Exercise 8. y 00 2y 0 + 5y = 0
d = 16
Exercise 9. y 00 + 2y 0 + y = 0
2x + c2 cos
2x)
y = ex (1 + x)
y = ex (1 + x)
d = 4 4(1)(1) = 0
y = 1, y 0 = 1; x = 0 d =
3
4 x
9
4
>0
3x
3x
(c1 e 4 + c2 e 4 ) = c1 + c2 e
2
5 2 3x
c2 =
= y = +
e 2
3
3
3
y=e
d = 4 4(1)(1) = 0
Exercise 10. y 00 2y 0 + y = 0
Exercise 11. y 00 + 23 y 0 = 0
= y = ex (c1 sin
3x
2
y = 1, y 0 = 0, x = 3.
y = c1 sin 5x + c2 cos 5x
1 = c1 sin 15 + c2 cos 15
= c1 cos 15
cos2 15
) = c1
1c1 (sin 15 +
sin 15
1
sin 15
c1 = sin 15
c2 = cos 15
y = 2;
y 0 = 1 when x = 1
d = 10 4(1)(1) = 20
y = c1 e(2+
5)x
+ c2 e(2
5)x
y(x = 1) = c1 e2+ 5 + c2 e2 5 = 2
= (5 + 2 5)c1 e2+ 5 + (5 2 5)c2 e2 5 = 0
2 5 5 25
c2 e
c1 =
5+2 5
!
2 55
4 5c2 e2 5
5 + 2 5 52
2 5 5 25
2 5
2 5
e
e
c2 e
+ c2 e
=2=
=
= c2 c1 =
5+2 5
5+2 5
2 5
2 5
2 5 5 25 (2+5)x 5 + 2 5 52 (25)x
e
e
e
+
e
y=
2 5
2 5
16 4(1)(5) = 4
y = e2x (c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x) y(x = 0) = c2 = 2
y 0 = 2e2x (c1 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x) + 2e2x (c1 cos 2x 2 sin 2x)
y 00 = 4e2x (c1 sin 2x + 2 cos 2x) 8e2x (c1 cos 2x 2 sin 2x) + 4e2x (c1 sin 2x 2 cos 2x)
y 0 (0) = 2(2) + 2(c1 ) = 4 + 2c1
y 00 (0) = 4(2) + (c1 ) + 4(2) = c1 = 4 + 2c1
4
y = e2x ( sin 2x + 2 cos 2x)
3
148
c1 =
4
3
d = 16 4(1)(29) = 100
y 00 + 4y 0 + 13y = 0
v:
d = 10 4(13) = 36
u(0) = 1(0 + c2 ) = c2 = 0
v = e2x b1 sin 3x
u = e2x c1 sin 5x
u0 = 2e2x c1 sin 5x + e2x c1 5 cos 5x
1
= 1 = 2e c1 (1) c1 =
u0
2
2e
1
u0 (0) = 5
2e
5
u0 (0) = v 0 (0) = b1 =
6e
v 0 (0) = 3b1
u=
1 2x
e sin 5x
2e
v = e2x
5
sin 3x
6e
Exercise 16.
y 00 3y 0 4y = 0
00
y + 4y 5y = 0
u
v
9 4(1)(4) = 25
16 4(1)(5) = 36
u=e
(c1 e
2x
5x
2
(b1 e
+ c2 e
3x
5x
2
3x
+ b2 e
)
3x
5x
u = 2e 2 c1 (sinh
)
2
u(0) = c1 + c2 = 0v(0) = b1 + b2 = 0 =
v = 2b1 e2x (sinh (3x))
5x
3x
5
5x
3 3x 5x
v 0 = 4b1 e2x sinh (3x) + 6b1 e2x cosh (3x)
u0 = c1 e 2 (e 2 e 2 ) + 2e 2 c1 cosh
2
2
2
v 0 (0) = 6b1
u0 (0) = 5c1
c1 =
v=e
3x
2
6b1
5
Exercise 17.
Assume k > 0
y = c1 sin kx + c2 cos kx
y 00 + ky = 0
d = 4(k)
d
4k
=
= k
2
2
y(0) = c2 = 0
y(1) = c1 sin k1 = 0 = k = n
k = > 0
k < 0;
y = c1 e
+ c2 e
y(0) = c1 + c2 = 0 y = c1 sinh x
y = c1 sinh 1 = 0 c1 = 0
Exercise 18. y 00 + k 2 y = 0
d = 4k 2 < 0
d
2
2k
2
=k>0
149
y = c1 sin kx + c2 cos kx
0
cos ka =
k
k
kb sin2 ka + m sin ka cos ka
kb(1 cos2 ka) + m sin ka cos ka
=
k
k
kb sin ka + m cos ka
c1 =
k
kb sin ka + m cos ka
kb cos ka m sin ka
y=
sin kx +
cos kx
k
k
k = 0 = y = mx ma + b
=
Exercise 19.
b2 c1 = k1 s2 c1 + k2 c2 c1
(b1 c2 = k1 s1 c2 + k2 c1 c2 )
=b2 c1 b1 c2 = k1 (s2 c1 s1 c2 )
s1 b2 = k1 s1 s2 + k2 s1 c2
y=
y=
= k1 =
= k2 =
(s2 b1 = k1 s1 s2 + k2 c1 s2 )
sin x +
b2 cos a1 b1 cos a2
sin a2 cos a1 sin a1 cos a2
s1 b2 s2 b1
s1 c2 c1 s2
b2 sin a1 b1 sin a2
sin a1 cos a2 cos a1 sin a2
cos x
b2 cos a1 b1 cos a2
b2 sin a1 b1 sin a2
sin x +
cos x if a2 a1 6= n
sin (a2 a1 )
sin (a1 a2 )
otherwise, if a2 a1 = n;
(2) Its true if a1 = a2 =
(3) y 00 + k 2 y = 0
4;
b2 c 1 b1 c 2 = 0
b2 s1 b1 s2 = 0
b2 c1 = b1 (1)n c1 ;
if c cos (a1 ) 6= 0,
b2 = b1 (1)n
b1 = b2 .
y = A sin kx + B cos kx
y(a1 ) = A sin ka1 + B cos ka1 = b1 = AS1 + BC1
y(a2 ) = A sin ka2 + B cos ka2 = b2 = AS2 + BC2
S1 C1 A
b
= 1
S2 C2 B
b2
1
A
C2 C1
b1
=
B
S2 S1
b2
S1 C2 C1 S2
S1 C2 C1 S2 = sin ka1 cos ka2 cos ka1 sin ka2 = sin (k(a1 a2 ))
y=
b2 c1 b1 c2
s2 c1 s1 c2
Exercise 20.
(1)
u1 (x) = ex ;
u2 (x) = ex
u02 = ex
150
u002 = ex = y 00 y = 0
(2)
u1 = e2x
u2 = xe2x
u01 = 2e2x
u001 = 4e2x
(3)
u2 (x) = ex/2 sin x
u1 (x) = e
cos x;
1 x/2
u02 =
e
sin x + ex/2 cos x
1
2
0
x/2
x/2
cos x + e
sin x
u1 = e
1
2
u002 = ex/2 sin x + ex/2 cos x ex/2 sin x =
1
4
u001 = ex/2 cos x + ex/2 sin x + ex/2 cos x
3 x/2
4
e
sin x ex/2 cos x
=
3 x/2
4
x/2
=
e
cos x + e
sin x
5
4
u002 + u02 + u2 = 0
4
5
y 00 + y 0 + y = 0
4
x/2
y 00 + 4y = 0
(5)
u1 = cosh x
u01 = sinh x
y 00 y = 0
u001 = cosh x
Exercise 21. w = u1 u02 u2 u01 .
u2
u1
0
=
u02 u1 u01 u2
u2
= 0 =
=c
2
u1
u1
If uu12 is not constant, then w(0) 6= 0 for at least one c in I (otherwise, itd be constant).
(2) w0 = u1 u002 u2 u001
Exercise 22.
Consider adding together the solutions and the solutions derivatives into some function f . By the linearity of the differential
equation, we know that f is also a solution since it is a linear superposition of solutions.
y 0 (x) = Av10 (x) + Bv20 (x)
v1 (0)
v10 (0)
since W (0) 6= 0,
so y(x) =
f (0), f 0 (0) are initial conditions for y. f (0), f 0 (0) are arbitrary.
But since W (0) 6= 0, W (0) = v1 (0)v20 (0) v2 (0)v10 (0), we can do things like
f (0) =
8.17 Exercises - Nonhomogeneous linear equations of second order with constant coefficients, Special methods for
determining a particular solution of the nonhomogeneous equation y 00 + ay 0 + by = R.
Exercise 1. y 00 y = x
homogeneous solution c1 ex + c2 ex . yp = x
y = c1 ex + c2 ex x
Exercise 2. y 00 y 0 = x2 For the homogeneous solution
x
x
x
yh = e 2 c1 e 2 + c2 e 2 = c2 ex + c1
y 00 y 0 = 0 d = (1)2 4(1)(0) = 1
yp = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D
yp0 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C
y = c1 + c2 ex +
yp00 = 6Ax + 2B
1 3
x + x2
3
Exercise 3. y 00 + y 0 = x2 + 2x
x
x
x
e 2 c1 e 2 + c2 e 2 = c1 ex + c2
P 0 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C
P 00 = 6Ax + 2B
1
3Ax2 + 2Bx + C + 6Ax + 2B = x2 + 2x
A=
B=0 C=0
3
1
y = c1 ex + c2 + x3
3
P = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D;
Exercise 4. y 00 2y 0 + 3y = x3
3(Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D)
2(3Ax2 + 2Bx + C)
A=
1
3
B=
2
3
C=
8
9
D=
16
27
(6Ax + 2B)
y = C1 ex sin
2x + C2 ex cos
Exercise 5. y 00 5y 0 + 4y = x2 2x + 1
yh = e
5x
2
3x
2
+e
3x
2
= c1 e4x + c2 ex
152
1
2
8
16
2x + x3 + x2 + x +
3
3
9
27
d=
25 4(4) = 3
4(Ax2 + Bx + C)
4Ax2 + 4Bx + 4C
1
A=
4
10Ax 5B
5(2Ax + B)
2A
2A
1 5
+ 4C = 1
2 8
9
C=
32
1
B=
8
1
1
9
y = c1 e4x + c2 ex + x2 + x +
4
8
32
Exercise 6.
y 00 + y 0 6y = 2x3 + 5x2 7x + 2
5x
5x
yh = e 2 (e 2 + e 2 ) = e3x + e2x
p
d = 1 4(6) = 5
yp = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D
yp0 = 3Ax2 + 2Bx + C
yp00 = 6Ax + 2B
A=
6Ax + 2B
1
3
B = 1
C=
1
2
D=
7
12
1
1
7
y = C1 e3x + C2 e2x x3 + x2 + x
3
2
12
Exercise 7.
y 00 4y = e2x
v1 = e2x
yh = c1 e2x + c2 e2x
v10 = 2e2x
v20 = 2e2x
v2 = e2x
t1 =
v2
R
dx;
W (x)
e2x
1
t1 = e2x
= x
4
4
Z
e2x
e4x
t2 = e2x
=
4
16
Z
t2 (x) =
v1
R
dx
W
x 2x
e2x
e +
4
16
x
e2x
y = c1 e2x + c2 e2x + e2x +
4
16
yp =
Exercise 8.
153
y 00 + 4y = e2x
e2x sin 2x cos 2x e2x sin2 2x e2x sin 2x cos 2x + e2x cos2 2x
e2x
+
=
8
8
8
y = c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x +
Exercise 9. y 00 + y 0 2y = ex
e2x
8
d2 = 1 (4)(1)(2) = 9
3x
1x
3x
yh = e 2 e 2 + e 2
= ex + e2x
(xex )0 = ex + xex
+(xex )00 = +(2ex + xex )
= 3ex + 2xex
x
c1 e
3x
2
+ c2 e
3x
2
1
y = c1 ex + c2 e2x + xe2
3
= c1 ex + c2 e2x .
Theorem 29. Let d = a2 4b be the discriminant of y 00 + ay 0 + by = 0. Then every solution of this equation on (, )
has the form
(24)
d
2
154
yh = ex (c1 + c2 x) = c1 ex + c2 xex
Z x
2x3
xex (2xex )
e (2xex )
t1 =
=
= x2
t2 =
2x
e
3
e2x
W (x) = ex (ex + xex ) (xex )(ex ) = e2x
Z
yp =
x3 ex
2x3 x
e + x3 ex =
3
3
y=
Exercise 13. y 00 + 2y 0 + y =
x3 ex
+ c1 ex + c2 xex
3
ex
x2
yh = ex (c1 + c2 x) = c! ex + c2 xex
Z xex ex
Z ex ex
x2
x2
1
t1 =
= ln x t2 =
=
2x
2x
e
e
x
W = ex (ex + xex ) (ex )(xex ) = e2x
1
yp = ln xex + xex
= ln xex ex
x
y = c1 ex + c2 xex + ( ln x 1)ex
Z
Z
cos x
cos x cos2 x
cos x(1 sin2 x)
1
2
t1 =
cot xdx =
=
=
+ sin x
2
2
1
sin x
sin x
sin x
Z
Z
Z
sin x
cos2 x
1 sin2 x
t2 =
cot2 x =
=
= ln | csc x + cot x| + cos x
1
sin x
sin x
Z
Exercise 15. y 00 y =
2
1+ex
yh = c1 ex + c2 ex
= W (x) = ex ex ex ex = 2
Z x 2
Z
e 1+ex
ex
t1 =
=
=
2
1 + ex
Z
Z
Z
1
1
ex
1
x
x
=
e
=
e
+
= ex + ln (1 + ex )
=
ex
1 + ex
1 + ex
ex + 1
Z x 2
e 1+ex
t2 =
= ln |1 + ex |
2
y = 1 + ex ln (1 + ex ) + ex ln (1 + ex ) + c1 ex + c2 ex
Exercise 16. y 00 + y 0 2y =
ex
1+ex
155
Discriminant:
12 4(2)
2
= yh = c1 ex + c2 e2x
= W = ex (2)e2x e2x ex = 3ex
Z e2t et t
Z
1+e
1
1
1
t1 =
=
=
ln (1 + ex )
3et
3
1 + et
3
Z
Z 2
Z e t et t
1+e
1
e3t u=et 1
u du
=
=
t2 =
3et
3
1 + et
3
1+u
Z
Z
u
1
1
1
1 1 2
u+
u + 1 +
=
=
=
( u u + ln u + 1)
3
u+1
3
u+1
3 2
1
1 2x ex
e +
+
ln (ex + 1)
=
6
3
3
y1 =
= 2, 1
1 x
1 ex
e2x
e ln (1 + ex ) +
+
ln (ex + 1) + c1 ex + c2 e2x
3
6
3
3
Exercise 17. y 0 + 6y 0 + 9y = f (x); where f (x) = 1 for 1 x 2. f (x) = 0 for all other x.
d = 36 4(1)(9) = 0
yh = e
3x
Rx
e3t
3xe3x +e3x
te
3t
a
<
1
<
x
te
dt
=
+
+ 92 e3
3
9 =
9
1
1
R2
3
6
6
6
2e3
t1 (x) = a < 1 < 2 < x 1 te3t dt = 6e9+e + 2e9 = 5e
9 + 9
x
R
3x
3x
3a
3t
x
1 < a < x < 2
+ e3t 9 = xe
+ e9 + ae3
te3t dt = te
3
3
a
a
Z 3t
Z
Z x
e f (t)
1 3x
3t
t2 (x) =
=
e
f
(t)
=
e e3a
e3t =
6t
e
3
a
3x
3xe
+
e3x
x
3x
+C +
y1 = e
9
3
y = c1 e3x + c2 xe3x +
e3a
9
1
when 1 x 2; otherwise y = yh
9
L(yh ) = 0
The key to this problem is to apply the integration directly on the ODE itself, not to go the other way around by differentiating the supposed particular solution.
Z x
Z x
Z x
Rx
dt sinh (k(xt))
d2 y
0
dt 2 (t) sinh (k(x t)) k 2
dty(t) sinh (k(x t)) =
dtR(t) sinh (k(x t))dt
dt
0
0
0
Z x
Z
y 00 sinh () = y 0 (0) sinh (kx) y 0 cosh ()(k) =
0
Z
0
= y (0) sinh (kx) + k(y(x) y(0) cosh (kx) + k y(t) sinh ()) =
Z
= y 0 (0) sinh (kx) + ky(x) ky(0) cosh (kx) + k 2 y(t) sinh ()
Z
1 x
y 0 (0) sinh (kx)
y(0) cosh (kx) =
dtR(t) sinh (k(x t))dt
= y(x)
k
k 0
Rx
Now note that L(yh ) = 0, so applying 0 dt sinh (k(x t)) results in 0 still.
156
With yp (x) =
y 0 (0) sinh (kx)
k
1
k
Rx
0
1
k
e3x
e3x
xe3x
+
6
y
6
then it could be checked easily with some computation, that this satisfies the ODE.
Exercise 19. Start from y 00 + k 2 y = R(x)
Again, note that if L(yp ) = yp00 + k 2 yp = R(x), L(yp + yh ) = R(x) + 0 = R(x), so y1 = yp + yh is also a particular
solution.
Z x
Z x
Z x
Rx
dt sin k(xt)
d2 y
0
2
dt sin k(x t) 2 + k
dt sin k(x t)y =
R(t) sin k(x t)
dt
0
0
0
Z x
Z
x
d2 y
dt sin k(x t) 2 = y 0 (0) sin (kx) + k
y 0 (t) cos (k(x t))dt =
dt
0
0
Z x
0
= y (0) sin (kx) + k(y(x) y(0) cos (kx) k
y(t) sin (k(x t))dt) =
Z 0x
= ky(x) ky(0) cos (kx) y 0 (0) sin (kx) k 2
y(t) sin (k(x t))dt
0
Z
1 x
y 0 (0) sin (kx)
= y(x) =
dtR(t) sin k(x t) + y(0) cos (kx) +
k 0
k
y 0 (0)
We can add yh with c1 = y(0), c2 =
k
Z
1 x
y1 =
dtR(t) sin k(x t)
k 0
Now for y 00 + 9y = sin 3x, then k = 3,
Z
1 x
y1 =
sin 3t sin 3(x t)dt
3 0
Z x
sin 3t(sin 3x cos 3t cos 3x sin 3t)
0
Z x
Z x
s(6t)
1
sc =
dt =
(c(6x) 1)
2
12
0
0
x
Z x
Z x
1 cos (6t)
x sin (6t)
x sin (6x)
s2 =
=
= 2 12
2
2
12
0
0
0
1
1
x sin (6x)
sin 3x x cos 3x
y1 =
sin 3x
(cos (6x) 1) cos 3x
3
12
2
12
18
6
157
It could be shown with some computation that this particular solution satisfies the ODE without having to add or subtract
parts of a homogeneous solution.
Exercise 20. y 00 + y = sin x
= W (x) = s2 c2 = 1
Z
Z
cs
cos 2x
x sin 2x
ss
1 cos 2x
t1 =
=
; t2 =
=
=
1
4
1
2
2
4
3
2
sin x cos 2x
sin 2x 2x
sin x cos x + sin x 2x cos x
yp =
+
cos x =
4
4
4
yh = c1 sin x + c2 cos x
y = c1 sin x + c2 cos x +
yh = c1 sin x + c2 cos x = c1 S + c2 C
W (x) = 1
Z
Z
Z
x + sin22x
CC
1 + cos 2x
SC
cos 2x
t1 =
=
=
;
t2 =
=
1
2
2
1
4
x sin x sin 2x sin x cos x cos 2x
+
+
yp =
2
4
4
x sin x sin 2x sin x cos x cos 2x
+
+
+ c1 sin x + c2 cos x
= y =
2
4
4
Exercise 22. y 00 + 4y = 3x cos x
yh = c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x
W (x) = sin2 2x(2) + cos2 2x(2) = 2
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
cos (2x)(3x cos x)
3
3
3
2
t1 =
=
x cos x cos (2x) =
xc(1 2s ) =
xc 3 xcs2 =
2
2
2
2
Z 3 0
Z
Z
c
3
3
3
3
3
3
= (xs + c) 3 x
= (xs + c) (xs s ) = (xs + c) xs + s(1 c2 ) =
2
3
2
2
3
1
3
c
1
= (xs + c) xs3 + c + c3 = xs + xs3 + c3
2 Z
3
2
2
3
Z
Z
Z
Z
sin (2x)(3x cos x)
2
3 0
3
3
3
t2 =
= 3 xsc = x(c ) = xc c = xc c(1 s2 ) =
2
1
= xc3 s + s3
3
3
c
1 3
s3
3
yp =
xs + xs + c (2sc) + (xc3 s + )(1 2s2 ) = (lots of algebra) =
2
2
3
3
2
= xc2 + s
3
= y = c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x + x sin x
2
cos x
3
(xs)0 = s + xc
(xs)00 = 2c + xs
(c)00 + 4c = 3c =
2
= yh = xs c
3
y = x sin x
2
cos x + c1 sin 2x + c2 cos 2x
3
158
00
2
2
c +4
c = 2c
3
3
Exercise 24. y 00 3y 0 = 2e2x sin x Guessing and stitching together the solution seems easier to me.
00
2x
2x
2x
2x
= 3e2x s + 4e2x c
2x
(e c) 3(e c) = 3e c 4e s 6e c + 3e s =
= 3e2x c e2x s
= 3e2x s + e2x c
(e2x c(3x))00 = 4e2x c(3x) + 12e2x s(3x) 9e2x c(3x) = 5e2x c(3x) 12e2x s(3x)
(e2x s(3x))00 = 4e2x s(3x) + 12e2x c(3x) + 9e2x s(3x) = 5e2x s(3x) + 12e2x c(3x)
L(e2x c(3x) 3e2x s(3x)) = 40e2x cos (3x)
y = c1 sin x + c2 cos x +
8.19 Exercises - Examples of physical problems leading to linear second-order equations with constant coefficients.
In exercises 1-5, a partcile is assumed to be moving in simple harmonic motion, according to the equation y = C sin (kx + ).
The velocity of the particle is defined to be the derivative y 0 . The frequency of the motion is the reciprocal of the period.
(Period = 2/k, frequency = k/2 )
Exercise 1. Find the amplitude C if the frequency is 1/ and if the initial values of y and y 0 (when x = 0) are 2 and 4,
respectively.
k
1
=
= k = 2
2
y(x = 0) = C sin
y(x = 0)
1
1
= 0
= tan =
0
y (x = 0)
k
2
y (x = 0) = C cos
= and C = 2 2
4
Exercise 2. Find the velocity when y is zero, given that the amplitude is 7 and the frequency is 10.
frequency =
y = C sin (kx + )
k
= 10 = k = 20
2
y = Ck sin (kx + )
y(x =
) = 0 = y 0 (x =
) = 140
k
k
0
C=7
Exercise 3.
y = A cos (mx + )
y = A cos (mx + ) = A cos cos (mx) A sin sin (mx)
y = C sin kx + = C cos sin kx + C sin cos kx
A sin = C cos
A cos = C sin
Exercise 4.
2
T
= k = m (since x is arbitrary )
= 4
= tan ( )
2
2
Exercise 5. y = C cos (x + )
y0 = C cos (x0 + )
y 0 = C sin (x + ) = v0
v02 + y02 = C 2 sin2 (x + ) + C 2 cos2 (x0 + ) = C 2
= C =
v02 + y02
Exercise 6.
y 0 = kC sin (kx + )
y = C cos (kx + )
y(0) = C cos () = 1
y 00 (0) = k 2 C cos () = 12
y 0 (0) = kC sin () = 2
12
y 00 (0)
= k 2 =
= k = 2 3
y(0)
1
y 0 (0)
kC sin ()
2
=
= = 2 = k tan ()
y(0)
C cos ()
1
Exercise 7. k =
y = C sin
2
3
= =
y = C sin (kx)
2x
;
3
C>0
y 00 + y = 0
Z x
cos t(1)
t1 =
= sin x
yh = C1 sin x + C2 cos x
1
0
Z
x
(sin t)(1)
W (x) = S 2 C 2 = 1
= (cos x 1)
t2 =
1
0
for 0 x 2 otherwise, for x > 2, t1 = 0, t2 = 0
y1 = sin2 x + cos2 x + (1 cos x)
y(0) = 0 = c2
y 0 (0) = c1 = 1
0 t 2
Exercise 9.
= tan () =
1 2
1 2
1 2 + 4
= sec2 , and S 2 +C 2 = 1, we can get
S=
1 2 + 4
C=
With tan =
1 2
1
C2
1
(1
2 )C()
1
4 2 + 1
160
S()
(1
D
()
2 )2
d
(R)2 + (1 2 )2 = 4 + 2 (2 + R2 ) + 1
4 3 + 2(2 + R2 ) = 2(2 2 + (2 + R2 )) = 0
=0
1
to have resonances
R <
2 = 2 R
2
2
Exercise 10. A spaceship is returning to earth. Assume that the only external force acting on it is the action of gravity, and
that it falls along a straight line toward the center of the earth. The rocket fuel is consumed at a constant rate of k pounds per
second and the exhaust material has a constant speed of c feet per second relative to the rocket.
Let M (t) = M be the mass of the rocket + f uel combination at time t. With +y direction being towards earth, then the
equation of motion is Fg = +M (t)g, where g = 9.8m/s2 .
M (t)v(t) = M vR is the momentum of the rocket.
M (t + h) = M (t) m = M m is the change in mass of the rocket due to spent fuel.
ve = velocity of the exhaust in the lab frame = c + vR (t)
p = m(c + vR ) + (M m)vR (t + h) M vR = M (vR (t + h) vR ) + m(vR (t + h) vR ) + mc
vR (t + h) vR
vR (t + h) vR
m
p
=M
+ m
+
c = M (t)g
t
t
t
t
kc
0
M vR
+
= M (t)g
g
kt
kc/g
kc/g
0
Now M (t) = M0
= vR
=g
=g
g
M
M0 kc
g
kt
kt
kc g
ln (M0 ) = gt + c ln (M0 )
g k
g
g
2
gt
g
k
kt
M0 cg
kt
yR =
+c
t M0 ln M0
+
ln M0
2
k
g
g
g
k
vR = gt
Exercise 11.
0
M vR
=
0
vR
kc
=
g
1
M0
vR = c ln (M0
kc
g
!
kt
g
kt
)
g
g
= yR = c
k
M0 g = w = yR = c
g
k
kt
kt
kt
M0 cg ln M0
M0 ln M0
+
g
g
g
k
kt w
ln
g
w kt
g
kt
g
+
wc w
ln
k
g
We couldve also solved this problem with an initial velocity of v0 and gravity. Then
kt
vR (t) = gt + c ln (1
) + v0
M0 g
1
M0 g
kt
y(t) = v0 t + gt2 + c
t
ln 1
t
2
k
M0 g
161
Exercise 12.
M vR = (M m)(vR (t + h)) + 0
M (vR (t + h) vR (t)) = (m)vR (t + h)
k
v0
k
k
vR = R =
=
kt
g
vR
g(M0 g )
M0 g(1 Mkt0 g )
kt
w
kt
ln vR = (k/w) ln (1 )
= ln (1 )
w
k
w
w
v0
kt
v0 w
kt
= x(t) = v0
vR =
ln (1 ) =
ln (1 )
k
w
k
w
1 kt
w
0
M vR
=
8.22 Exercises - Remarks concerning nonlinear differential equations, Integral curves and direction fields.
= y 0 = 2
3
Exercise 1. 2x + 3y = C
Exercise 2. y = Ce2x
= y 0 = 2y
= yy 0 = x = y 0 = xy ;
Exercise 3. x2 y 2 = c
Exercise 4. xy = c
= y 0 =
Exercise 5. y 2 = cx
y2
x
y
x ;
y 6= 0
x 6= 0
= c = y 0 =
y
2x
x 6= 0
Exercise 6. x2 + y 2 + 2Cy = 1
1
x2
+ y = 2C
y
y
1
2xy y 0 x2
+ y0 + 2 y0 = 0
y2
y
2xy
y0 =
1 + y 2 x2
Exercise 7. y = C(x 1)ex
y
=C
(x 1)ex
y 0 (x 1)ex (ex + (x 1)ex )y
=0
(x 1)2 e2x
xy
y0 =
x1
Exercise 8. y 4 (x + 2) = C(x 2)
y 4 (x + 2)
=C
x2
(4y 3 y 0 (x + 2) + y 4 )(x 2) y 4 (x + 2)
y 4 (x + 2)
= 0 = 4y 3 y 0 (x + 2) + y 4 =
2
(x 2)
x2
y
y0 =
(x 2)(x + 2)
Exercise 9. y = c cos x
= y 0 = tan xy
1
1
y0 +
=0
2
1+y
1 x2
Exercise 11. All circles through the points (1, 0) and (1, 0).
(1 + y 2 )
= y 0 =
1 x2
R2 1)2 = R2
1
2xy y 0 x2
+ y0 + 2 y0 = 0
y2
y
=
y0 =
y2
2xy
x2 + 1
Exercise 12.
(x + A)2 + (y + B)2 = r2
(1 + A)2 + (1 + B)2 = 1 + 2A + A2 + 1 + 2B + B 2 = r2
(1 + A)2 + (1 + B)2 = 1 2A + A2 + 1 2B + B 2 = r2
=4A + 4B = 0 = A = B
2
(x + B) + (y + B)2 = r2
2(x B) + 2(y + B)y 0 = 0
= y 0 =
(y + B)y 0 = B x
Bx
y+B
p
(1 B) + (1 + B) = r = 2 (1 + B 2 ) = r or
r2
1=B
2
= (so B could be treated as a parameter for the family of curves)
2
= 41 x4 + C
= y 3 = 34 x4 + C
ln | cos x| =
1
cos y
Exercise 3. (x + 1)y 0 + y 2 = 0
1
y
= ln (x + 1) + c
Exercise 4. y 0 = (y 1)(y 2)
1
1
+
y2 y1
y0 = 1
= ln (y 2) ln (y 1) = x
y2
= ex
y1
Exercise 5. y 1 x2 y 0 = x
1 2
2y
= 1 x2
= y 2 = 2 1 x2
Exercise 6. (x 1)y 0 = xy
Z
ln y =
1+
1
= x + ln |x 1|
x1
y = ex (x 1) + C
163
Exercise 7. (1 x2 )1/2 y 0 + 1 + y 2 = 0
arctan y = arccos x + C
Exercise 8. xy(1 + x2 )y 0 (1 + y 2 ) = 0
1
ln (1 + y 2 ) =
2
Z
1
1
x
+ C = ln x
x 1 + x2
2 ln |1 + x2 |
2
x
y2 = k
1 + x2
x
1
arctanh
2 Z
2
Z
1
1
dx
since
=
dx =
x 2
x2 4
4
1
2
Z
1
x
du
=
( where u = )
2
u2 1
2
2
2
cosh u sinh u
(tanh (u))0 =
= 1 tanh2 u
cosh2 u
x
1
= y = k exp ( arctanh
)
2
2
ln y =
= y 2 = kx2 ex 1
ln (1 + y 2 ) = ln x + 12 x2 + C
ye2y
e2y
ex sin x ex cos x
=
+C
2
4
2
(2y + 1)e2y = 2ex (sin x cos x) + C
Exercise 12. xdx + ydy = xy(xdy ydx)
Rx
1
f (t)dt
f 0 (x) = f (x)
= f (x) = Cex
C=
2
e
2 x
e
e
f (0) = 1
f (x)2 = 5x2 + C
= f (x) =
p
f (x) = 5x2 + 1
f (0) = 0
164
5x2 + C
ey y 0 = 2x = ey = x2 + C
y = ln (x2 + C)1
= y = ln (x2 + 1)
f = 1
02
y =1y
y0 =
1 y2
f (t)dt = K(x a)
= f (x) = k > 0
f >0
x R
Exercise 18.
dx
f (t)dt = k(f (x) f (a))
f (x) = kf 0 (x)
a
1
= f (x) = Ce k x ;
Exercise 19.
x
Rx
a
C>0
x=a
0 = Ce kf (a) = C = 0
= f = 0
8.26 Exercises - Homogeneous first-order equations.
Exercise 1. f (tx, ty) = f (x, y) homogeneity (or homogeneity of zeroth order).
v xv 0
1
x
= f (x, ) = f (1, )
v
v2
v
v
Z
1
dv
v v 2 f (1, ) = xv 0 = ln x =
v
v v 2 f (1, v1 )
y 0 = f (x, y) =
Exercise 2. y 0 =
x
y
Exercise 3. y 0 = 1 +
y
x
=v
x 0
= 12 y 2 = 12 x2 + C = y 2 = x2 + C
y
x
= y 0 = v + xv 0 = 1 + v = v = ln x
y = x(ln x + C)
Exercise 4. y 0 =
x2 +2y 2
xy
165
x2 + 2y 2
x 2y
= +
xy
y
x
1
= v + xv 0 = + 2v =
v
y0 =
v=
y
x
1
ln |1 + v 2 | = ln x + C
2
v0
1
=
1
x
v +v
= y 2 = (Cx2 1)x2
if 2y 2 6= x2 , y 0 =
y = vx
y0 = v0 x + v
= y 0 = v 0 x + v =
1
3v
+
v 1 + v2
v0 =
3vx2
3v
=
2
2
2
x 2v x
1 2v 2
1 2v 2 0
1
v =
2v(1 + v 2 )
x
=
1
2
3xy
x2 2y 2
1
3
v
y/x
1
= ln v +
ln (1 + v 2 ) = ln x + C =
= Cx2 =
3
x
2
2
(1 + v 2 )3
x2 +y 2
x2
yx3 = C(x2 + y 2 )3
However,
y0 =
y
x
y0 = v0 x + v
v=
3xy
x2 2y 2
3x2 v
3v
=
2v 2 x2
1 2v 2
3v
(v 2v 3 )
2(v + v 3 )
1
3v
2
3
0
vx=
=
=
+
v 0 = = ln v + ln |1 + v 2 | = 2 ln x + C
1 2v 2
1 2v 2
1 2v 2
v
1 + v2
x
2
y 2 /x4
v
2
=
Cx
=
= Cx4
(x2 + y 2 )3
(1 + v 2 )3/2
= v 0 x + v =
x2
= y 2 = C(x2 + y 2 )3
Exercise 6. xy 0 = y
p
x2 + y 2
r
y
= y = =
x
0
1+
y 2
x
p
v0 x = 1 + v2
y
v=
x
vx = y
v x+v =v
1+
v+
v2
v 0
1
=
=
x
1 + v2
p
= ln (v + 1 + v 2 ) = ln x + C since
p
1
v
1
0
2
(ln (v + 1 + v )) =
1+
=
2
2
v+ 1+v
1+v
1 + v2
1 + v 2 = Cx
= v =
= 1 + v 2 = C 2 x2 2vCx + v 2
Cx
1
2
2Cx
= y =
Exercise 7. x2 y 0 + xy + 2y 2 = 0
166
1
Cx2
2
2C
v 0 x + v = 2v 2 v
y
2y 2
y
v
=
=
x2
x
x
v 0 x = 2(v 2 + v)
Z
v0
2
1
1
v
C
=
= v0
= 2 ln x + C =
= 2
v(v + 1)
x
v v+1
v+1
x
x2 y 0 = 2y 2 xy
= y 0 =
Cx
C x2
y=
Exercise 8. y 2 + (x2 xy + y 2 )y 0 = 0
y y 2 0
+ 1 +
y =0
x
x
x
y
v 2
Let v =
= v0 x + v
=
x
1 v + v2
v 2
v(1 + v 2 )
v2 v + 1 0
1
1
1
1
v0 x =
v
=
=
v
=
=
+
v0 =
2
2
2
2
1v+v
1v+v
v(1 + v )
x
v v +1
x
y
ln y = arctan + C
= ln v arctan v = ln x + C = ln (vx) = arctan x + C
x
y 2
Exercise 9. y 0 =
y(x2 +xy+y 2 )
x(x2 +3xy+y 2 )
y
y(x2 + xy + y 2 )
y0 =
=
x(x2 + 3xy + y 2 )
x
1+
y
y2
x + x2
3y
y2
x + x2
y
v= x
v x + v = v
1 + v + v2
1 + 3v + v 2
1+
3
1
2
1
v 0 (1 + + 2 ) =
= v + 3 ln v +
= 2 ln x + C
v v
x
v
x
y
+ 3 ln y = ln x + C
x
y
Exercise 10. y 0 =
y
x
=v+
2v 2
v 2 + 3v + 1
+ sin xy
y
=x
x
0
y = v + v0 x
v + v 0 x = v + sin v
=
v0
1
=
sin v
x
ln csc v + cot v = ln x + C
= csc v + cot v =
K
x
y0 =
4 ln v 3 ln (1 + v) = 5 ln x + C = (yx)4 = (x + y)3 C
8.28 Miscellaneous review exercises - Some geometrical and physical problems leading to first-order equations.
Exercise 1.
2x + 3y = C
y0 =
2
3
g0 =
3
3
= g x = C
2
2
Exercise 2.
d/dx
xy = C y + xy 0 = 0 = y 0 = y/x x 6= 0 = g 0 = x/g =
Exercise 3. x2 + y 2 + 2Cy = 1
167
1 2
1
g = x2 + C
2
2
x + yy 0 + Cy 0 = 0 = y 0 (y + C) = x
x
x
2xy
y0 =
=
= 2
1x2 y 2
y+C
y
x2 + 1
y+
2y
y 2 x2 + 1
1
1 1
orthogonalcurves
0
y =
=
y+
x y 1
2xy
2x
2 x
Recognize that this is a Ricatti equation and we know how to solve them.
y0 +
1
y = y 1
2x
x
1
+
2
2x
v = yk = y2
Z x
Z x
1
a
P (t)dt =
A(x) =
= ln
t
x
a
a
n = 1
k = 1 n = 1 (1) = 2
2 1
1
0
v=
x
v +2
2x
2 x
Z x
Z x
1
a
a
A
Qe =
t
=
+ 1 a(x a)
t
t
x
a
a
y 2 = v = 1 +
x
bx
x(x a) +
a
a
Exercise 4. y 2 = Cx.
0
2
y2
d/dx 2yy x y
= C
=0
x
x2
1
y
2x
= y 0 = y =
y0 =
2x
y
2x
= y 2 + 2x2 = C
Exercise 5. x2 y = C.
2xy + x2 y 0 = 0 y 0 =
2y
x
= y 0 =
x
2y
1 2
x2
y =
+C
2
4
2y 2 x2 = C
Exercise 6. y = Ce2x
2x 2yy 0 = 0
x
y
y 0 = = y 0 =
y
x
= ln y = ln x + C = y =
C
x
Exercise 8. y sec x = C
Exercise 9. All circles through the points (1, 0) and (1, 0) From Sec. 8.22, Ex.10, we had obtained y 0 =
= y 0 =
x2 y 2 1
2xy
x2 1
2yx
y
2x
= y 0 +
1
2x y
x2 1 1
2x y
dt =
t
a
a
a
a
a a
x
a
e ln a =
x
1 3
1 3
x
ba
3a + a
+
= y 2 = v = 3
x
x
Exercise 10. All circles through the points (1, 1) and (1, 1).
(x + A)2 + (y + B)2 = r2
(1 + A)2 + (1 + B)2 = 1 + 2A + A2 + 1 + 2B + B 2 = r2
(1 + A)2 + (1 + B)2 = 1 2A + A2 + 1 2B + B 2 = r2
=4A + 4B = 0 = A = B
2
(x + B) + (y + B)2 = r2
2(x B) + 2(y + B)y 0 = 0
= y 0 =
(y + B)y 0 = B x
Bx
y+B
p
(1 B) + (1 + B) = r = 2 (1 + B 2 ) = r or
r2
1=B
2
= (so B could be treated as a parameter for the family of curves)
1
y+B
=
y0 =
Bx
xB
2
y+B
y0
1
=
= y = C(x B) B
y+B
xB
Exercise 11. With (0, Y ) = Q the point that moves up wards along the positive y-axis and
kY = x.
1
k
xy
= f (x, y)
x
f (x, y) is homogeneous of zero order = y = vx
0
y =
1
v0
1
y 0 = v 0 x + v = v = 1
=
k
x
k 2v
1
1
x
1
= ln
2v = ln x + C = y =
2
k
2k 2C 2 x
(1,0)
y =
x
1
=
2k
2kx
169
k=
1
2
y =x
1
x
2xy
y 2 x2 +1
Exercise 12.
x
1
2k 2kx
y=
Exercise 13. y = f (x).
x
Z
f (t)dt = xf (x)
n
0
f (t)dt; (n + 1)
0
f (t)dt = xy
0
ny = xy 0
= (n1 )y = y + xy 0 =
n
y0
=
x
y
n ln x = ln y
y = Cxn of y = Cx1/n
Exercise 14.
x
f (t)dt =
0
f 2 (t)dt = xy 2 (x) = xy 2 ;
(n + 1)
y0 =
ny
2x
= ln y =
n
ln x + C
2
y = Cxn/2 of y = Cx1/2n
Exercise 15.
x
f 2 2xf
x2
0
The left hand side of the last expression shown is homogeneous. Thus do the y = vx substitution.
Z
f 2 (t)dt = x2 f (x)
f 2 (x) = 2xf + x2 f 0 = f 0 =
v 2 x2 2x2 v
= v 2 2v
x2
v0 x
v0
1
1
1
1
=
1
=
=
=
v0
3
v 2 3v
x
3
v
(v 2 3v
)
v
3
ln (v ) ln v = 3 ln x + C
v 3/
ln
= 3 ln x + C
v
3
vx xCvx4
3
3x/
y x = Cyx3 = y =
3
1 + x2
v0 x + v =
Exercise 16. A =
AB =
d/dx
Ra
0
Ra
f+
f;
Ra
1
B=
R1
a
f = 2f (a) + 3a + b
2f (a) = 2f 0 (a) + 3 = 1 =
So then
f 0 (a)
f (a) 32
3
3
a + C = ln (y ); f (a) = Cea +
2
2
3
3
1
f (1) = 0 = Ce + ; = C =
2
2e
3 x1 3
f (x) =
e
+
2
2
170
To find b,
2
3 a1 3
3
3 3
e
+ a + e1 + = 2f (a) + 3a + b =
2
2
2
2 2
3 a1 3
=2
e
+
+ 3a + b
2
2
= b =
3 1
e 3
2
Exercise 17.
y(x) 1
f (t)
t+1
dt = x3
x
0
Z x
y(x) 1 1 2
=
x x = x3 =
f +
x
2
0
Z x
y(x) 1
=
f +
x x = x3
2
0
1
1
d/dx
f (x) + (y 0 x + y) = 3x2
2
2
1
2
2(3x
+
y/2)
y
2
y0 =
= 6x x1 +
x
x
Z
A(x) =
v 0 = 6 x2 ;
v = 6x + x1 + C
y = 6x2 + 5x + 1 x
mgh =
1
mv 2
2 f
(imagine
how the top layer of water is now at the bottom of the tank (final potential energy configurations))
Vf = 2gh (how fast water is rushing out)
A0 = cross-sectional area of the orifice.
p
dV
dh
=A
= c 2ghA0
dt
dt
hf
p A0
2h1/2 = c 2g t
A
hi
p
2A p
= T =
hf hi = 59.6sec
c gA0
Note that we included the discharge coefficient C = 0.6.
Exercise 19.
dV
dt
1/2
= c 2ghA0 + 0 = A dh
+ 0 . = c 2gA0 .
dt = h
171
dh
Adh
= dt = (A/0 )
0 h1/2
1 0 h1/2
0
1
a 1
=
ln 1 ah1/2
(where a =
)
1/2
1/2
2h
0
1 ah
1
a 1/2
1 ah1/2
1
2 2h
(h1/2 )0 = 1/2
=
2h
1 ah1/2
h1/2 1 ah1/2
2
hf
Z
dh
20
1/2
20 h1/2
= (A/0 )
= (A/0 )
ln 1 h
+
=
2
0
1 0 h1/2
hi
=T
= exp
t
hf =
2
1
0
20 1/2
1/2
hf hi
=
t
2
A
20
1
1/2
0 hf
1/2
0 hi
02
(100in3 /s)2
2
= 2
= (25/24)
2
Exercise 20.
1 2
R H0
3 0
2
R0
1
1 R2
V (h) = V0 h h
= V0 02 h3 = V0 h3
3
H0
3 H0
p
1
mg(H0 h) = mvf2 ; 2g(H0 h) = vf (energy conservation)
s2
r
h
h
cA0 vf = cA0 2gH0 1
= 1
H0
H0
r
p
h
dh
dV
2 dh
1
= 1 h/H = 3h
=
=
2
dt
dt
dt
3h
H
Z
/H02
h2 /H02
q
=
T =
3
1 h
V0 =
H0
Z
Z
(1 y)2 (dy)
u2 du
1 2y + y 2
= H0
= H0
= H0
=
y
y
1u
hf
2
2
= H0 2y 1/2 y 3/2 + y 5/2 =
3
5
hi
1/2
3/2
5/2 !hf
4
h
2
h
h
1
+
1
= H0 2 1
=
H0
3
H0
5
H0
hi
2
cA0 2gH0 /H0
T
=
R2
3 31 H02
Z
For hi = 0,
hf = H,
H0 (2(1) 4/3(1) + 2/5) = H0 (16/15) = cA0
Exercise 21. m2 x m + (1 x) = 0
Exercise 24. Given f s.t. 2f 0 (x) = f
2gH0 T /(R02 ); T =
= (m2 1)x + 1 m = 0,
1
x
H0 R02
2 R02 H0
=
9
A0
cA0 2g
16
15
= m = 1
(1)
d
1
1
0
2f (x) =
f
= (f )
dx
x
x
1
1
1
= x2 y 00 =
f0 =
f
2
4
x
00
a = 0;
b=
1
4
(2)
f (x) = Cxn
f 0 = nCxn1
= n(n 1)Cxn =
f 00 = n(n 1)Cxn2
n2 n +
1 n
Cx
4
1
1
= n =
4
2
Exercise 28. Choose the units for time to be in days first - we can convert into years later.
If no one died from accidental death, then the population will grow by e. That means, with x = x(t) being the population at
time t
dx
= x = x = Cet
dt
which makes sense because if C is the original population number, then after 1 year, x = Ce.
1
With t in days, we have a decrease of 100
x in population each day due to death. Add up the changes from the decrease
due to deaths and the increase due to growth for the DE:
1
1
100 365
265
dx
=
x
x=
x=
dt
365
100
36500
36500
265
= x = Ce 36500 t
Change t units to years by multiplying the time constant
265
36500
by 365 days.
= (0 mgh) = 21 mvf2
1 ft
1m
mi
mi
vf = 2gh = (6.37 108 cm) 2.54
cm
12 in = 6.93 sec = 24940 hr
The constant energy formula could also be obtained by considering
F =
GMe m
r 2
d
= m dt
2 = r U
2y 2 +x
3y 2 +5
0
f (0) = 0
0
5
x
2y 2 + x
= (3y 2 + 5)y 0 = 2y 2 + x = (3 + 2 )y 0 = 2 + 2
2
3y + 5
y
y
Consider
y0 =
specifically,
x
y2 .
x
y2
5
y2
2+
2y 2 + x
=
2
3y + 5
3+
Now y must, at the very least, have some linear increase because we had already shown that y 0 23 .
2+ yx2
3+ y52
32 . = y = 23 x or
y
x
5
0 x
y 2 )y
(3 + 0) 23 = 2 =
x
y2
= 32 .
Exercise 31. Given a function f which satisfies the differential equation xf 00 (x) + 3x(f 0 (x))2 = 1 ex
= f 00 (c) =
1ec
c
>0
1 ex
x
x0
f 00 (0) + 0 = 1
1ex
x
X
j=1 (x)
(1)j xj
1 ex
j!
=
=
x
x
(j + 1)!
j=0
This further suggests that f itself has a power series representation because its first and second order derivatives are
simply a combination of infinitely many terms containing powers of x.
P
Then suppose f = j=0 aj xj .
f0 =
f 00 + 3(f 0 )2 =
1 ex
=
x
f 00 =
X
(j + 1)aj+1 xj
j=0
(j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj
j=0
X
X
X
(1)j xj
=
(j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj + 3
(j + 1)(k + 1)aj+1 ak+1 xj+k =
(j + 1)!
j=0
j=0
j=0
k=0
If f (0) = 0
0
If f (0) = 0
P
Then f = a2 x2 +
term is x1 . So then
j=3
a1 = 0
aj xj . Consider the x0 terms in the DE. (f 0 )2 doesnt contribute, because f 0 s leading order
2(1)a2 + 0 = 1 = a2 =
A=
a0 = 0
1
2
1
in order for f (x) Ax2
2
174
i.e. f =
1 2 X
x +
aj xj
2
j=3
9.6 Exercises - Historical introduction, Definitions and field properties, The complex numbers as an extension of
the real numbers, The imaginary unit i, Geometric interpretation. Modulus and argument. Exercise 6. Let f be a
polynomial with real coefficients.
(1) Since z1 z2
(z1n+1 ) = z1n z1 = z1n z1 = z n+1
1
f (z) =
aj z j =
aj z j = f (z)
Ax. 7 If x, y R+ , x + y, xy R+
Ax. 8 x 6= 0, x R+ or x R+ but not both
Ax. 9 0
/ R+
x < y means y x positive.
Suppose i positive: i(i) = 1 but 1 is not positive.
Suppose i is positive. i(i) = 1 but 1 is not positive.
i is neither positive nor negative so Ax. 8 is not satisfied.
Exercise 8. Ax. 8 , Ax. 9 are satisfied.
For Ax. 7, ( 32 , 1), (1, 12 ) contradicts Ax. 7 since we required the product to be positive as well if the factors are positive.
We found this particular counterexample by considering factors (a, b), (c, d), so the product of the two is (ac bd, ad + bc)
and so we need ac bd ad bc = a(c d) b(c + d) < 0
Exercise 11. See sketch.
Exercise 12.
az + b
cz + d
(az + b)(cz + d)
ac|z|2 + adz + bcz + bd
w=
= 2 2
(cz + d)(cz + d)
c |z| + cd(z + z) + d2
w=
w + w =
ad bc
2Imz;
|cz + d|2
ad bc
>0
|az + d|2
9.10 Exercises - Complex exponentials, Complex-valued functions, Examples of differentiation and integration formulas.
Exercise 7.
(1)
Z
if m 6= n ,
ix(nm)
2
eix(nm)
11
dx =
=
=0
i(n m) 0
i(n m)
eix(0) dx = 2
if m = n ,
0
(2)
einx eimx dx =
=
0
2
einx eimx dx =
=
0
Z
0=
0
2
Z
=
2
einx eimx dx =
Z
cos nx cos mx = 0,
0
2
sin mx cos nx = 0
0
=
0
einx eimx dx =
=
0
Z
=
sin nx sin mx = 0
0
176
einx einx = 2 =
0
2
cos2 nx + sin2 nx
=
0
2
inx inx
=0=
2
2
cos nx sin nx = 0
=
0
cos nx sin nx = 0
0
0
2
cos2 nx =
=
0
Then also,
sin2 nx =
Exercise 8.
z = rei = rei(+2m) , m Z
z 1/n = r1/n ei(/n+2m/n) m = 0, 1, . . . n 1
= z 1/n = Rei m = z1 m
The roots are spaced equally by an angle 2/n
i = ei/2+i2n = i1/3 = ei/6 , ei5/6 , ei3/2
i1/4 = ei/8 , e5i/8 , e9i/8 , e13i/8
i = ei/2+i2n = (i)1/4 = ei/8 , e3i/8 , e7i/8 , e11i/8
Exercise 9.
Exercise 10.
(1) Log(1) = i
log (i) = ln 1 + i 2 = i 2
(2) Log(z1 z2 ) = Log(|z1 ||z2 |ei(1 +2 ) ) = ln |z1 ||z2 | + i(1 + 2 + 2n) = Logz1 + Logz2 + i2n
177
1|
(3) Log(z1 /z2 ) = Log(|z1 |/|z2 |ei(1 theta2 ) ) = ln |z
|z2 | + i(1 2 + 2n) = Logz1 Logz2 + i2n
(4) exp (Logz) = exp (ln |z| + i + i2n) = z
Exercise 11.
(1)
1i = eiLog1 = ei(i2n) = e2n = 1 if n = 0
if L(u) = P, L(v) = Q,
00
L(u + iv) = (u + iv) + a(u + iv) + b(u + iv) = u00 + au0 + bu + i(v 00 + av 0 + bv) = L(u) + iL(v) = P + iQ = R
if L(f ) = R
L(u + iv) = L(u) + iL(v) = P + iQ
then, equating real and imaginary parts, L(u) = P, L(v) = Q
Exercise 13.
Exercise 14.
L(b
y ) = ceix ; yb = Beix =
= yb = p
c
(b
2 )2
= <b
y=p
(a)2
c
eix
2 + ai + b
c
(b
2 )2
+ (a)2
a
b 2
cos (x )
Exercise 15.
=(b
y) = p
= A = p
c
2 )2
(b
c
+ (a)2
(b 2 )2 + (a)2
sin (x + )
tan =
a
b 2
10.4 Exercises - Zenos paradox, Sequences, Monotonic sequences of real numbers. Exercise 1. Converges to 0.
f (n) =
2
n12 n
n
n+1
n2 (n2 + 2n + 1)
2n 1
=
= 2
= n
0
n+1
n
n(n + 1)
n +n
1 + n1
Exercise 2. Converges to 1.
f (n) =
1 n1
n3 (n3 + n + n2 + 1)
n2 n 1
=
=
(n + 1)n
n(n + 1)
1 + n1
n
n
L| 1 cos
|L| |1 |L||
2
2
L| > 1 for n = 4m.
|cos
Choosing 1 =
|1|L||
,
2
| cos n
2
178
1
n2
Exercise 4. f (n) =
1
5
Exercise 5. f (x) =
x
2x
3
5n
2
5n2
limn f (n) =
x
exp (x ln 2)
1
5
0 since limx
x
.
(ex )
Thus, choosing 1 =
|1|L||
;
2
Suppose =
for any n = 2m
1+(1)n
.
n
3
N.
So for n > N,
1
N
>
1
n,
n N = N () = 3/.
1 + (1)n
2 < 3 < 3 =
|f (n)| =
n
n
n
N
Exercise 8. f (n) =
(1)n
n
1+(1)n
2
(1)n
(1)n 1 + (1)n
1 + (1)n
|f (n) L| =
+
L L
n
2
n
2
(1)n 1 + (1)n
1 1 + (1)n
|L|
= |L| n =
n
2
2
1 1
|L|
n
2
Thus, consider
|L| 1
n
1
x
ln 2 ;
1 1
1 = 0 for n > N
|L|
>
2
N
limx f (x) = 0.
Exercise 10.
n
|f (n) L| = |n(1) L| ||n(1) | |L|| = ||n| |L|| = |n| |L| > N |L|
Thus, for n > N , N () = + |L|, so then |f (n) L| > .
Exercise 11. f (n) =
n2/3 sin n!
.
n+1
2/3
n sin (n!) sin (n!) 1
=
|f (n)| =
n + 1 n1/3 + n2/3 n1/3
Thus, for n > N ,
N () =
1
3 ,
|f (n)| < .
1
3n+1 + 3(2)n 3n+1 (2)n+1
(2)n (3 + 2)
f (n) =
=
=
3
3(en+1 + (2)n+1 )
3(3n+1 + (2)n+1 )
5
(2)n
=
3 3n+1 + (2)n+1
(2)n+1
(2)n
f (n) 1 = 5
=
3 3 3n+1 + (2)n+1 3n+1 + (2)n+1
1
1
= n+1
=
n+1 <
3
3
+ 1 1 + 2
2
<
For n > N , consider =
2 N
,
3
i.e. N =
1
3 n+1
2
ln
ln 2/3
<
1
3 n
2
= N (). Thus
179
L=
1
;
3
Exercise 13.
f (n) =
n+1
n+1+ n
n+1n
f (n) =
=
= 1 n+1+ n
n+1+ n
n+1+ n
1
1
|f (n)| =
;
n + 1 + n 2 n
n+1 n
2 n
<
2 N
= .
Exercise 14.
loga n
n ,a
n
xa
=0
0
since
lim
x (ex )b
exp n ln a1
(log x)a
xb
1 + n cos n L 1 + n cos n |L| = 1 + n |L| =
n+1
2
n+1
2
n+1
1
=
|L| > |L|
n+1
Choose 0 =
|L|
2 .
Exercise 19.
i
5 i
1+ =
e
2
2
2
5
1
=
1+
2
4
1
tan =
2
!n
n
2
5 i
e
,
eni
2
5
n
2
eni = 0
lim
n
5
|L|
2 ,
1 in/2
ne
|f (n)| =
1
n.
1
n.
1
1
1
|an | = < ; N () =
n
N
= 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001
N = 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000
Exercise 24. |an 1| = n+1n
n+1 =
1
n+1
<
1
n
180
N () =
1
1
n
1
exp N
1
exp n
= , so that N = ln 1/.
N () = 1, 2, 4, 6, 9
Exercise 27. an =
2n
n2 +1
2 2
; |an | = n2 +1/n
n2 .
2
N () = = 1, 4, 14, 44, 141
9 n
=
Exercise 28. |an | = 10
9 n
10
= en ln 9/10
ln
ln 1/
=
=
9
ln (9/10)
ln 10
= 1, 21, 43, 65, 87
N () =
= lim an bn = AB
n
Exercise 33.
(1)(2)...(n+1)
n!
181
(1)
12
1!
1/2
1
1
12 3
2
5
2
=
=
2!
2!
8
5
1
12 3
2
5
2
2
=
=
3!
3!
16
1
n 2
(2) an = (1) n .
a1 =
1
2
> 0.
an+1
a2 =
3
8
1
12
2
=
4
1
12
2
=
5
3
2
4!
3
2
5
2
7
2
35
128
7 9
5
2
5!
63
256
>0
1
an (1) 1
2 (n + 1) + 1
12
n+1
2 n
= (1)
= (1)
=
=
n+1
n+1
n+1
n
an (n + 1/2)
>0
=
n+1
n + 1/2
an < an
an+1 =
n+1
n+1
Exercise 34.
(1)
n
1X
tn sn =
f
n
k=1
n1
k
k
1X
1
f
=
n
n
n
n
f (1) +
k=0
n1
X
k=1
k
f
n1
k
1X
f
f (0) +
n
n
!!
=
k=1
1
(f (1) f (0))
n
Since f nk f (t) f k+1
for nk t k+1
n
n , by f being monotonically increasing.
Z 1
= sn
f (x)dx tn (from definition of integral)
=
0
1
Z
0
f (x)dx sn tn sn =
0
1
(f (1) f (0))
n
for all step functions s and t with s f t. The function f is integrable on [a, b] iff its upper and lower integrals
are equal,
Z b
f (x)dx = I(f ) = I(f )
a
(3)
R1
Since f (x) is integrable, then limn sn = limn tn = 0 f (x)dx
Pn1
Pn
ba
1
1
= , sn =
k=0 f (a + k), tn =
k=1 f (a + k)
n
Rb
So by increasing monotonicity of f , sn a f (x)dx tn .
1
tn sn =
f (b) +
n1
X
f (a + k) =
k=1
n1
X
!
f (a + k) f (a)
k=1
Z
0
f (x)dx
a
f (b) f (a)
Exercise 35.
2 R 1
Pn
(1) limn n1 k=1 nk = 0 t2 dt = 13
Pn
Pn
1
(2) limn k=1 n+k
= limn n1 k=1
1
k
1+ n
R1
1
dx
0 x
182
= ln 2
f (b) f (a)
1
= arctan x|0 =
4
1
R1 1
Pn
1
1
1
q
= limn n k=1
= 0 1+x2 dx = ln (x + 1 + x2 )0 = ln (1 + 2)
n2 +k2
k 2
1+( n
)
R1
P
2
n
k
1
k
1
cos x 1
= (11)
=
k=1 sin n = 0 sin xdx =
n sin n = limn n
Rn 2
1
2 k
1
n sin n = 0 sin x = 2
Pn
(3) limn
1
n
1
k=1 1+( k )2
n
(4) limn
Pn
(5) limn
Pn
(6) limn
Pn
k=1
k=1
k=1
R1
1
dx
0 1+x2
10.9 Exercises - Infinite series, The linearity property of convergent series, Telescoping series, The geometric series.
P
P 1/2
1/2
1
1
Exercise 1.
n=1 (2n1)(2n+1) =
n=1 2n1 2n+1 = 2
P
Exercise 2.
=2
Exercise 3.
Exercise 4.
2n +3n
6n
Exercise 5.
n+1 n
2
n +n
2
n=1 3n1
1
n=2 n2 1
n=1
n=1
1
n=0 3n
1
= 2 11/3
= 3
1/2
n=2 n1
1 n
3
n=1
n=1
1/2
n+1
1
n
P 1/2
n=2
1 n
2
n=1
n1
1
n+1
1/2
n
1/2
11/2
1/3
11/3
1/2
n+1
1
2
1/2
n
+1=
1
2
1
4
3
4
3
2
=1
Exercise 6.
X
X
3/2
1
n
1/2
1 1
=
+
=
+
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) n=1 (n + 2)(n + 3) (n + 1)(n + 2) n=1 (n + 2)(n + 3) 2
6
n=1
=
Exercise 7.
Exercise 8.
Exercise 9.
2n+1
n=1 n2 (n+1)2
2n +n2 +n
n=1 2n+1 n(n+1)
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
=
1 + 2 n + 3 12
3 12
4
n=1
1
n=1 n2
=1=
(1)n1 (2n+1)
n=1
n(n+1)
1
(n+1)2
=1
1
n=1 2n(n+1)
n1
n=1 (1)
1
1
+
n n+1
1
2n+1
1
n
1
n+1
1
2
1
n=1 n
1
n+1
1/4
11/2
1
2
1
2
=1
1
1
1
1
+
= (1)n
+
n+1 n+2
n
n+2
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
+
=
+
=
= 1
2j
1
2j
+
1
2
(j
1/2)
(j
+
1/2)
2 1/2
j=1
j=1
(1)n1
+ (1)n
Exercise 10.
n
X
X
log n+1
(1 + n)
log ((1 + n1 )n (1 + n))
n
=
=
(log nn )(log (n + 1)n+1 ) n=2 log (n + 1)n+1 log nn
n=2
since if
1
2 log 2
Exercise 11.
= y, then y = log2
n=1
d
nxn = x dx
X
X
1
1
log(n + 1)n+1 log nn
=
=
n+1
n
n
log (n + 1)
log n
log n
log (n + 1)n+1
n=2
n=2
1
= log2 e
2 log 2
2.
n=1
xn = x
x
1x
0
x
(1x)2 .
Exercise 12.
183
0
d X n
x
=
n x =x
nx = x
dx n=1
(1 x)2
n=1
2 n
=x
x(1 x2 )
x(1 + x)
(1 x)2 + 2(1 x)x
=
=
4
(1 x)
(1 x)4
(1 x)3
Exercise 13.
n3 xn = x
n=1
=x
Exercise 14.
n=1
0
d X 2 n
x + x2
=
n x =x
dx n=1
(1 x)3
(1 + 2x)(1 x)3 + 3(1 x)2 (x)(x + 1)
(1 + 2x)(1 x) + 3x(x + 1)
x(x2 + 4x + 1)
=x
=
6
4
(1 x)
(1 x)
(1 x)4
d
n4 x4 = x dx
n=1
n3 x3 = x
x3 +4x2 +x
(1x)4
0
x3 + 4x2 + x
ln
= ln (x3 + 4x2 + x) 4 ln (1 x)
(1 x)4
3x2 + 8x + 1
1
1
+4
;
(ln f )0 = f 0 = 3
f
x + 4x2 + x
1x
(3x2 + 8x + 1)(1 x) 4(x3 + 4x2 + x)
f0 =
+
=
(1 x)5
(1 x)5
3x2 + 8x + 1 3x3 8x2 x + 4x3 + 16x2 + 4x
x3 + 11x2 + 11x + 1
=
=
(1 x)5
(1 x)5
4
3
2
x + 11x 11x + x
=
(1 x)5
R x P
Rx 1
P R x n1
xn
= ln (1 x).
dt = 0 dt n=1 tn1 = 0 1t
n=1 0 t
n =x
Exercise 15.
n=1
Exercise 16.
Z x X
Z x
X
X
x2n1
=
t2j2 dt =
(t2 )j1 =
dt
2n
1
0
n=1
j=1 0
j=1
Z x
Z x
1/2
1+x
dt
1
1/2
=
+
=
= ln
dt
2
1t 1+t
2
1x
0 1t
0
P
P d n+1
d
x
1
n
Exercise 17.
= dx
n=0 (n + 1)x =
n=0 dx x
1x = (1x)2
Exercise 18.
00
X
(n + 1)(n + 2) n X xn+2
d2 x2
1
d
x
x2
x =
= 2
=
+
2!
2
dx 2 1 x
dx 1 x 2(1 x)2
n=0
n=0
=
1
x
x
x3
1 2x + x2 + 2x 2x2 + x2
1
+
+
+
=
=
1 x (1 x)2
(1 x)2
(1 x)3
(1 x)3
(1 x)3
Exercise 19.
X
(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) n X d3 xn+3
1 d X d2 x(n+1)+2
x =
=
=
3!
dx3 3!
3 dx n=0 dx2
2
n=0
n=0
!
1 d X d2 xn+2
1 d X d2 xn+2
d2 x2
=
=
2
=
3 dx n=1 dx2 2
3 dx n=0 dx2 2
dx
2
1 d
1
1 3(1)
1
=
1 =
=
3 dx (1 x)3
3 (1 x)4
(1 x)4
Exercise 20.
n=1
nk xn =
Pk (x)
(1x)k+1
184
0
k+1 n
n=1
((k + 1)Pk (x) + (1 x)Pk0 (x))x has x as its lowest degree term from xPx0 (x) and
(k + 1)xk+1 + kxk+1 = xk+1 highest degree term is obtained from (k + 1)Pk (x) + xPk0 (x).
P n+k n
P xn+k
1
dk
Exercise 21.
n=0
n=0 k! .
k x = (1x)k+1 = dxk
X
1
d X dk x(n+1)+k
n + k + 1 n X dk+1 xn+k+1
=
=
x =
dxk+1 (k + 1)!
(k + 1) dx n=0 dxk
k!
k+1
n=0
n=0
1 d X dk xn+k
1
d X dk xn+k
dk xk
=
=
=
k + 1 dx
dxk k!
k + 1 dx n=0 dxk k!
dxk k!
k=1
d
1
1
1
1 =
=
k + 1 dx (1 x)k+1
(1 x)k+2
Exercise 22.
(1)
(2)
(3)
P
P 1
P 1
P 1
n1
1
n=2 n! =
n=2 (n1)!
n=2 n! =
n=1 n!
n=2 n! = 1 .
P n P 1
P
P 1
P 1 P 1
1
n=2 n! +
n=2 n! =
n=2 (n1)! +
n=0 n! 1 1 =
n=1 n! +
n=0 n!
2 =
2
n=0 n!
3 = 2e 3 .
X
X
(n 1)(n + 1) X n2 X 1 X
n
1
=
+
=
+
=
n!
n!
n!
(n
1)!
n!
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
n=2
X
X
X
n+1 X 1
1
1
=
+
+1=
+1= e+1
n!
n! n=1 (n 1)!
n!
n=1
n=2
n=0
Exercise 23.
P
P xn
P nxn
P n2 xn
nxn1
d
d
d
d
d x
d
(1) x dx
x dx
=
x
= x2 ex + xex
x
= x dx
n=1 n!
n=1 n! =
n=1 n! = x dx x dx e
n=1
dx
n!
P
P
3 n
n2 x n
d
d
(2) x dx
= n=1 n n!x = x dx
(x2 + x)ex = x (2x + 1)ex + (x2 + x)ex = (x3 + 3x2 + x)ex
n=1 n!
x=1
k=5
Exercise 24.
P
P
(1) Pn=2 (1)n = Pn=2 (1)n (n (n 1)). Identical.
(2)
= n=2 (1)n . Not
n=2 (1 1) P
Pidentical.
1 n
2
(2 1) =
n=0
1 n
2
Exercise 25.
(1)
1
if |x| < 1
1 x2
1
= 1 + 0 + x2 + 0 + x4 + =
if |x| < 1
1 x2
P
P
P
(2) Thm. 10.2. n=1 (an + bn ) = n=1 an + n=1 bn . So then
1 + x2 + x4 + + x2n + =
X
j=0
xj
X
X
X
xj + (x)j
xj (x)j
1
1
x
=
=
x2j+1 =
=
2
2
2
1
x
1
x
1
x2
j=0
j=0
j=0
(3)
X
j=0
(x2 )j +
X
j=0
xj =
X
j=0
185
(xj x2j ) =
x
1 x2
10.14 Exercises - Tests for convergence, Comparison tests for series of nonnegative terms, The integral test. Well be
using the integral test.
Theorem 31 (Integral Test).
Let f be a positive decreasing
function, defined
Pn
Pnfor all real x 1.
For n 1, let sn = k=1 f (k) and tn = 1 f (x)dx.
Then both sequences {sn } and {tn } converge or both diverge.
Exercise 1.
3
1
3(4j 1) + (1)(4j 3)
8j
+
=
=
4j 3 4j 1
(4j 3)(4j 1)
(4j 3)(4j 1)
n
n
X
X
1/8
j
3/8
=
+
(4j 3)(4j 1) j=1 4j 3 4j 1
j=1
n
Z n
3/8
1/8
ln (4x 3)
ln (4x 1)
+
dx = (3/8)
+ (1/8)
=
4x 3 4x 1
4
4
1
1
3 n
3
1
(4x 3)
1
3(4n 3)
=
ln
=
ln
32
4x 1 1
32
4n 1
Z n
n
3
X
1
3(4n 3)
xdx
j
lim
ln
= lim
dx = , so
diverges as well
n 32
n
4n 1
(4j 3)(4j 1)
1 (4x 3)(4x 1)
j=1
Exercise 2.
X
2j 1 log (4j + 1)
j=1
j(j + 1)
aj
j=1
4 log (4j + 1) (4j + 1)
log (4j + 1)(4 + 1/j)
4j + 1 log (4j + 1)
=
=4
j(j + 1/4)
j(4j + 1)1/2 (4j + 1)
(4j + 1)3/2
16 log (4j + 1)
= bj
(4j + 1)3/2
X
X
Now use the integral test on
bj to determine the convergence of
bj .
0
Z
Z n
(2)
log (ax + 1)
dx =
log (ax + 1)dx =
3/2
(ax
+
1)
a(ax
+ 1)1/2
1
Z
a
2
2
=
log (ax + 1)
=
a(ax + 1)1/2
a(ax + 1)1/2 ax + 1
2
4
=
log (ax + 1) +
a(ax + 1)1/2
a(ax + 1)1/2
!!
1/2
Z n
log(ax + 1)
2 log (an + 1) 2 log (a + 1) 4
1
1
lim
dx = lim
+
+
=
n 1 (ax + 1)3/2
n
a
an + 1
a(an + 1)1/2
a(a + 1)1/2
(a + 1)1/2
aj
2 log (a + 1)
4
+
a(a + 1)1/2
a(a + 1)1/2
P
P
P
Then by integral test, bj converges. Since bj converges, then aj converges by comparison test.
P j+1
Exercise 3.
j=1 2j .
=
Z
lim
xex ln 2
ex ln 2
ex ln 2
+
+
ln 2
ln 2
(ln 2)2
1
nen ln 2
e ln 2
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
en ln 2 +
+
ln 2
ln 2
(ln 2)2
ln 2
(ln 2)2
x+1
2
1
1
dx
=
+
ex ln 2
ln 2 (ln 2)2
2
x+1
dx =
ex ln 2
(xex ln 2 + ex ln 2 )dx =
186
n
1
1
ln 2
e ln 2
By integral test,
P
j+1
j=1 2j
converges.
j
j=1 2j .
Exercise 4.
n
x2 ex ln 2
2ex ln 2
2xex ln 2
+
+
x ln 2
ln 2
( ln 2)2
( ln 2)3 1
1 e
x2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
ln 2
dx
=
e
+
=
+
+
+
2x
ln 2 (ln 2)2
(ln 2)3
2 ln 2 (ln 2)2
(ln 2)3
x2
dx =
2x
1
n
Z
lim
By integral test,
j2
j=1 2j
x2
converges.
Exercise 5.
X
| sin jx|
j=1
1
j=1 j 2
converges since
Z
lim
n
|sinjx|
j=1
j2
j2
aj
j=1
X
1
2
j
j=1
n
1
xs+1
1
1
1
dx
=
lim
=
lim
1
if s > 1
=
s1
n s + 1
n 1 s
xs
n
s
1
1
Exercise 6.
X
2 + (1)j
j=1
Exercise 7.
2j
X
j=1
1
22j1
3
22j
=
3(1/4)
4
2(1/4)
+
=
1 1/4 1 1/4
3
j!
j=1 (j+2)! .
1
1
j!
= aj =
2 = bj
(j + 2)!
(j + 1)(j + 2)
j
P
P
Since bj converges, aj converges, by comparison test.
P log j
P
P log j
Exercise 8.
j=2 j j+1 =
j=2 aj
j=2 j 3/2
aj =
Z
lim
n Z n 2x1/2
dx =
(2x1/2 )0 log x = (2x1/2 log x)
x
2
2
2
n
log n log 2
1/2
= (2)
+
4x
n1/2
21/2
2
log x
4
1/2
dx = 2 log 2 +
x3/2
2
log x
dx =
x3/2
j(j+1)
aj
j
1
= lim p
= lim p
=1
j
j
bj
j(j + 1)
1 + 1/j
P
P
By limit comparison test, since bj diverges, aj diverges.
P
P
1+ j
Exercise 10.
j=1 (j+1)3 1 =
j=1 aj
lim
bj =
1
j 5/2
aj
1+ j
j 3 + j 5/2
1 + 1/j 1/2
5/2
= lim
j
=
lim
=
lim
lim
j bj
j (j + 1)3 1
j (j + 1)3 1
j (1 + 1/j)3 13
j
P
P
By limit comparison test, since bj converges, aj converges.
P
P
1
Exercise 11.
aj
j=2 (log j)s =
187
If s 0,
(log x)
Z
=
1
js
1
(log j)s
0
Z
Z
(log x)s+1
1
(log x)1s
(log x)s+1
s
x=
(log x)
x
x=
x
(1 s)
(1 s)
1s
Thus, if s > 1 has any decimal part, or is an integer, its integral will diverge, so that by integral test, the series diverges.
Exercise 12.
|aj |
j=1 10j ;
X
|aj |
j=1
Exercise 13.
1
j=1 1000j+1
<
P1
j
X
X
1
10
10
1
<
=
=
=
j
j
10j
10
10
1
1/10
9
j=1
j=0
1
j=1 1000j
1
1000
1
j=1 j
diverges.
Exercise 14.
X
j cos2 (j/3)
Z
1
Exercise 15.
X
X
j
j
=
j
j
j
2
2
e ln 2
j=1
j=1
j=1
kx
Z
xe
ekx
ek
ek
x
kx
=
xe
=
=
+
kx
2
e
k
(k)
k
(k)2
1
1
1
j=3 j log j(log (log j))s
1
=
x log x(log (log x))s
Z
s+1
0
s+1
= ln (ln (ln x))
ln (ln x)
xe
x2
ex
2
!
e1
=0+
2
1
x
x
1 + x2
1
1/n
3/2
Z 1/n
2 3/2
2 1
xdx = x
=
3
3 n
0
0
X 2 1 3/2
2X 1
=
3 j
3 j=2 j 3/2
j=2
So
R 1/n
0
x
1+x2 dx
Exercise 18.
188
if s > 1, s < 1, s 6= 0
if s = 1
if s = 0
(e
x 0
) = e
2 x
e x
1
e x
( xe x )0 =
+ e x ( xe x + e x )0 =
2
2
2 x
n+1
Z n+1
n+1
x
1
+
=2
=
e x dx = 2 ( x + 1)e x
x
x
n
e
e
n
n
n+1
1
n
1
=2
+ n+1 n n
n+1
e
e
e
e
X
j+1
j
1
1
1
j + j+1 j =
2
j+1
e
e
e
e
e
j=1
Note the use of telescoping sum in the last step. The series converges.
Rn
Rn
n
Exercise 19. 1 f (x)dx = 1 log xdx = (x ln x x)|1 = n ln n n + 1.
n1
X
k=1
lnk
ln x
1
n
X
ln (k) =
k=2
exp
exp
lnk n ln n n + 1
k=1
n1
X
k=1
n
X
n
X
ln (k)
k=2
!
= (n 1)! nn en+1
ln k
!
= (n)! nn en+1
ln k
k=2
1/n
n1
X
<
(n!)1/n
e1/n n1/n
<
n
e
10.16 Exercises - The root test and the ratio test for series of nonnegative terms. Exercise 1.
((j + 1)!)2
(2j + 2)
(2j)!
(j!)2
=
j 2 + 2j + 1 j 1
(j + 1)2
= 2
(2j + 2)(2j + 1)
4j + 6j + 2
4
((j + 1)!)2 2j
(j + 1)2 2j
j 2 + 2j + 1 j
= j 2 +2j+1 =
0
2
2
(j+1)
(j!)
2ej ln 2
2
2
Converges by ratio test.
P 2j j!
Exercise 3.
j=1 j j
2j+1 (j + 1)! j j
2(j + 1)
=
(j + 1)j+1 2j j!
(j + 1)
1
1 + 1/j
j
2
<1
e
j=1 j j
3j+1 (j + 1)!
(j + 1)j+1
jj
3j j!
=3
1
(1 + 1/j)j
j=1 22j
189
3
>1
e
(j!)2
j=1 (2j)!
(j + 1)! 22j
(j + 1)
=
2(j+1)
j!
4
2
Diverges.
Exercise 7.
1
j=2 (log j)1/j
X
j=2
X
1
=
exp
1/j
(log j)
j=2
0<
ln (log j)
ln j
<
j
j
ln log j
j
1
ln log j
j
for j > 3
ln (log j)
ln j
< lim
=0
j j
j
= lim
1
ln (log j) = 0 so then
j
1
lim exp
ln (log j) = 1
j
j
= lim
1
j=2 (log j)1/j
Exercise 8.
j=1 (j
1/j
1)j
j
(ej )1/j = ej 0
Converges by root test.
Exercise 10. I systematically tried ratio test and then root test. Both were inconclusive.
P1
j.
ej j
jej 2
Exercise 12.
j=1
(1000)
j!
P1
j
ej j
j j
j=
= 1 j 2 1
ej 2
e
P 1
1
diverges, so does
j ej 2 .
= e1000
j j+1/j
j=1 (j+1/j)j .
exp
1/j
aj
j 1/j
=
1 + j12
1/j
lim aj
= lim
1
j2
1+
ln j
1
j2
j=1
3j
.
190
=1
!1/j
3
j 3/j ( 2 + (1)j )
j 3 ( 2 + (1)j )j
e j ln j ( 2 + (1)j ) j ( 2 + (1)j )
=
=
<1
3j
3
3
3
Converges by root test.
P j
Exercise 14.
j=1 r | sin jx|.
If 0 < r < 1.
j=1
rj
j=1
so by comparison test,
j=1
If r 1,
lim rj | sin jx| =
6 0 so
j=1
Exercise 15.
(1) cj = bj
bj+1 aj+1
aj
>0
n
X
aj
j=N
n
X
j=N
n
X
aj
j=N
aN bN
r
(2) cn < 0
X 1
bj+1 aj+1
diverges, so
<0
bj
aj
bj
aj+1
bj
lim
1 by ratio test
<
aj bj < bj+1 aj+1 =
j bj+1
bj+1
aj
bj
aj+1
j
1
<
bj+1
aj
P
So by ratio test, aj diverges.
bj
r = aan+1
1 n1 nr .
n
P
Using
15, anPconverges.
P Exercise
1
1
diverges
since
bn
bn is a harmonic series of s = 1.
cn = n 1
n1
nan+1
1
an+1
0 = 1
an
n
an
an+1
A f (n)
=1 + s =1
an
n
n
Consider A
(n)
A nfs1
n
f (n)
ns1 .
(n)
Since |f (n)| < M , f (n) is finite, so consider s larger than 1 and n going to infinity so that nfs1
0.
P
(n)
Using Exercise 16, for aj to converge, A nfs1
= 1 + r where r > 0, for all n N , where N is some positive number.
M
Let r = N s1 so that
f (n)
A = 1 + r + s1 > 1
n
191
P
If A > 1, then an converges.
If A = 1, then consider using Exercise 15 and bn = n log n.
an+1
an+1
= (n 1) log (n 1) n log n
an
an
(n 1)
1
f (n)
f (n)
= (n 1) log
=
= (n 1) log (n 1) n log n 1 + s
n log n
n
n
n
ns
n
f (n)
= (n 1) log
n log n
(n 1)
ns
log n n
since s1 0,
n
n
f (n)
(n 1) log
< 0 for n large enough
n log n
(n 1)
ns
X
since cn < 0 for n N for some N > 0, then by Exercise 15,
an is divergent.
cn = bn bn+1
(n)
f (n)
M
Given that A < 1, then for A nfs1
, choose N > 0 so that nM
s1 < < 1 and that A ns1 A + ns1 = A + 1.
We can always choose small enough because theres always a real number in between A and 1 (Axiom of Archimedes).
f (n)
f (n)
A s1 1 = A s1 1
n
n
(n)
A + nfs1
1
an+1
=1
1 for all n N
an
n
n
Exercise 18.
1 3 5 . . . (2n + 1)
2 4 6 . . . (2n)
2 4 6 . . . (2n + 2) 1 3 5 . . . (2n 1)
k
=
2n + 1
2n + 2
k
an+1
=
an
j
k
X
k
1/2
<
n+1
X
j
k k
1/2
M
Let
n + 1
j=2 j
X
X
k/2 = A > 1 or k > 2 means
aj converges k/2 = A 1 or k 2 means
aj diverges
j=2
10.20 Exercises - Alternating series, Conditional and absolute convergence, The convergence tests of Drichlet and
Abel. We will be using Leibnizs test alot, initially.
Theorem 32 (Leibnizs Rule). If aj is a monotonically decreasing sequence with limit 0,
P
j1
aj converges.
j=1 (1)
If S =
j=1
aj ,
sn =
Pn
j=1 (1)
j1
aj ,
0 < (1)j (S sj ) < aj+1
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
1 100
j+ j
j=1
(1)j+1
.
j
limj
1
,
101 j
= 0 Converges conditionally.
j
j
j=1 (1) j+100
1
j
limj
j
j+100
so by comparison test, the series diverges absolutely. So the alternating series converges conditionally
by comparison test.
192
Exercise 3.
j=1
(1)j1
js
1
js
j=1
2j
j
j=1 (1)
exp j ln
2j+100
3j+1
j
2j + 100
3j + 1
(1)j(j1)/2
2j
= 0;
1
j=1 2j
1/2
11/2
= 1 . Absolutely converges.
2
298
2
1
298
= exp j ln
+
exp j ln
+ 2
=
3 9j + 3
3
9j + 3
3
2
146
= exp j ln +
3 3 + 1/j
2j + 100
lim
0 lim exp j ln
j
j
3j + 1
2
146
exp j ln +
=0
3 3 + 1/j
2j + 100
=0
= lim exp j ln
j
3j + 1
2.5j
5
2j + 100
<
=
( for j 200)
3j
3j
6
j j
2j + 100
5
=
<
for j 200
3j + 1
6
2j + 100
3j + 1
<
Exercise 7.
j=2 j+(1)j .
1
doesnt exist since ???
j + (1)j
To show divergence, we usually think of either taking the general term and finding the limit (and if it goes to a nonzero
constant, then it diverges), or we use ratio, root, comparison test on the general term. Since this is an alternating series, Ive
observed that the general term is a sum of two adjacent terms, one even and one odd.
lim
(1)j
j + (1)j
(1)2j
(1)2j+1
1
1
2j + 1 1 ( 2j + 1)
+
=
+
=
=
2j + (1)2j
2j + 1 + (1)2j+1
2j + 1
2j + 1 + 1
( 2j + 1)( 2j + 1 1)
q
2j 1 + 2j
2j 2
2j + 1 2j 2
=
=
=
q
1
( 2j + 1)( 2j + 1 1)
( 2j + 1)( 2j 1 + 2j
1)
!
1
2j
1
+
2j 2
1 412j
4j
2
for j large
'
=
1
1
1
j
2 2j
+ 22j
3/2
( 2j + 1)( 2j 1 + 4j
1)
Every term, since we considered any j, will contain 2. So we factor it out. Then
!
1 !
1 412j
1
1 1 42j
1
>
=
1
1
1
j 2 2j
j
4j
+ 22jj
4
3/2
2j
193
By comparison test to
1
j
Theorem
P33.
Assume |aj | converges
P
P
P
Then aj converges and | aj | |aj |.
So using the contrapositive,
P
If Paj diverges,
|aj | diverges.
1
j 1/j
=
e
1
j
ln j
lim
j j 1/j
1
exp limj
1
j
ln j
=1
Diverges absolutely.
Exercise 9.
2
j j
j=1 (1) 1+j 2
Diverges absolutely.
(2j)2
(2j 1)2
4j 2
=
1 + (2j)2
1 + (2j 1)2
1 + 4j 2
(4j 2 4j + 1) (1 + 4j 2 )
4j 2 4j + 2
4j 2 4j + 2
(4j 2 4j + 2) 1 + 4j 2
4j 1
=
2(1 + 4j 2 )(2j 2 2j + 1)
4j 1
4 1/j
1
(j 3 ) =
=
2(1 + 4j 2 )(2j 2 2j + 1)
2(4 + 1/j 2 )(2 2/j + 1/j 2 )
4
1
j3 ,
j2
j=1 1+j 2
converges.
(1)n
n=1 log (en +en )
lim
1
1
= lim
=0
n
+ e ) n n
n log (en
lim
n log (en
Since
1
n
Exercise 11.
limj
diverges,
1
log (en +en )
diverges.
(1)j
j=1 j log2 (j+1)
1
j log2 (j+1)
2
log n
log n
log 2
n log n
(1)j
j=1 log (1+1/j)
1
,
n log2 n
diverges absolutely.
194
2j
+ log 2j1
+
=
+
=
=
2j
2j
1
1
log 1 + 2j1
log 1 + 2j
log 2j1
log 2j+1
log 2j1
log 2j+1
2j
2j
(2j)2
log 4j
log 1 + 4j 211
2 1
=
=
=
2j
1
1
1
log 1 + 2j
log 1 + 2j
log 2j1
log 1 + 2j1
1
1
4j 2 1 + o 4j 2 1
=
1
1
1
1
+
o
+
o
2j1
2j1
2j
2j
(1)
1
log
2j+1
2j
1
1 2j
4j 2 2j
j
=
1 1
4j 2 1
1 4j 2
j=1
(1)j j 37
(j+1)!
1
j+2
37
1
1+
0
j
P
|aj |. Then aj converges. The series absolutely converges.
R
P
n n+1 ex
Exercise 14.
n=1 (1)
x dx
n
Converges for
n+1
ex
dx
x
n+1
n+1
e2x
1
1
1
1
dx
=
=
=
e2x
2 n
2
e2n
e2(n+1)
=
e2 1
<1
2e2n+2
Converges absolutely.
Pn
Exercise 15.
j=1 sin (log j)
limj sin (log j) doesnt exist. So the series is divergent.
P
1
Exercise 16.
j=1 log j sin j Note that
1
sin 1/j
log j sin
= log
j
1/j
sin 1/j
sin 1/j
lim log
= log lim
= log 1 = 0
j 1/j
j
1/j
2k+1
1
j
1
sin =
(1)k
j
(2k + 1)!
k=0
2k+1
2k
1
1
k
k
(1)
(1)
1 X j
X j
log j
= log 1 + 2 +
(2k + 1)!
6j
(2k + 1)!
k=0
k=2
log 1 +
The series absolutely converges.
P
1
j
Exercise 17.
(1)
1
j
sin
j=1
j
195
1
6j 2
1
6j 2
0
1
1
1 1
=
1 x sin
= sin x cos
x
x
x x2
= sin
1 X
sin =
x j=0
x sin x1 + cos x1
1
1
1
+ cos =
x x
x
x
1 2j+1
x
(1)j
(2j + 1)!
x sin x1 + cos x1
=
x
3
1 +
=
P
j
j=1 (1)
( x1 )
(+1)
3!
P ( x1 )2j+1 (1)j
j=2
(2j+1)!
+1
1 2
x
/2 +
P ( x1 )2j (1)j
(2j)!
2k+1
2k+1
1
1
k
k
(1)
(1)
X j
1
1 X j
=1j +
1 j sin = 1 j
=
j
(2k + 1)!
j
(2k + 1)!
k=0
k=1
2k
= 1 1 +
k=1
1
j
(1)k X
=
(2k + 1)!
2k
1
j
(1)k+1
1
(cos )0 =
x
j
j=1 (1) (1
(2k + 1)!
k=1
The series converges absolutely since the term itself is a series that is dominated by
must converge.
P
1
j
Exercise 18.
(1)
1
cos
j=1
j .
j=2
1
6j 2 ,
1
6j 2
1 1
1
1
sin
= 2 sin < 0
x x2
x
x
X
X
(1/j)2k (1)k
(1/j)2k (1)k+1
1
1
=
2
(1 cos ) = 1
j
(2k)!
(2k)!
2j
k=0
k=1
P 1
So the series converges absolutely, by comparison test with
j 2 which converges.
P
1
j
Exercise 19.
j=1 (1) arctan 2j+1 .
1
1
1
2
(arctan
)0 =
(2) =
<0
2
2
2j + 1
(2j
+
1)
(2j
+
1)2 + 1
1
1 + 2j+1
P
1
1
j
j=1 (1) arctan 2j+1 converges, since aj = arctan 2j+1 is monotonically decreasing to 0
X
X
1
= (arctan x)0 =
(x2 )j =
(1)j x2j
2
1+x
j=0
j=0
X
x2j+1
= arctan x =
(1)j
2j + 1
j=0
2k+1
1
(1)k
X
2j+1
1
1
arctan
=
=
+ (1)
2j + 1
(2k + 1)
2j + 1
k=0
1
(2j+1)3
!
+
(1)k
X
k=2
1
2j+1
2k + 1
2k+1
>
1
1
3(4j 2 + 4j + 1) + (1)
12j 2 + 12j + 2
2j
21
+ (1)
=
=
>
>
for j > 2
3
3
3
2
2j + 1
3(2j + 1)
3(2j + 1)
3(2j + 1)
(2j + 1)
9j
P1 P
1
arctan 2j+1
diverges absolutely. The series is conditionally convergent.
So by comparison test to
j,
P
j
Exercise 20.
j=1 (1)
2 arctan log j
>
196
2
arctan log n
0
=
1
1 + (log n)2
1
n
1
arctan x dx = x x arctan x ln (1 + x2 )
2
2
2
0
0
1
1
2
= n n arctan n
ln 1 + n
=n
arctan n + ln (1 + n2 )
2
2
2
2
1
lim n
arctan n + ln (1 + n2 )
n
2
2
P
Then by the integral test,
2 arctan log n diverges absolutely. So the alternating series is conditionally convergent.
Exercise 21.
log
1+
j=1
limj log 1 +
Exercise 22.
1
| sin j|
1
| sin j|
doesnt exist and log 1 +
sin
j +
j=2
1
log j
1
| sin j|
>0
1
1
sin 2j +
+ sin (2j + 1) +
=
log 2j
log (2j + 1)
1
1
1
1
= sin (2j) cos
+ sin
+ cos (2j + 1) sin
cos (2j) + sin (2j + 1) cos
=
log 2j
log 2j
log (2j + 1)
log 2j + 1
1
1
sin
=
= sin
log 2j
log 2j + 1
2k+1
2k+1
1
1
k
(1)
(1)k
X
X
log 2j
log (2j+1)
=
(2k + 1)!
(2k + 1)!
k=0
k=0
1
1
sin
=
sin
log 2j
log 2j + 1
2k+1
2k+1 !
X
(1)k
1
1
=
(2k + 1)!
log 2j
2j + 1
k=0
2k+1
2k+1
1
1
0 < log 2j < log 2j + 1 so
>0
log 2j
log 2j + 1
1
1
and since for j > 1,
and
are < 1 and so we are adding smaller and smaller amounts
log 2j
log 2j + 1
1
log 2j + 1
<
log 2j
=
1
1
log 1 + 2j
log (2j + 1) log 2j
2j
=
log 2j log 2j + 1
(log (2j))2
(log (2j))2
n
Z n
1
1 n
1
=
2
log 2j 1
log 2
1 2j(log 2j)
So the series converges by using integral test, showing that
verges.
Exercise 33.
n=1
nn z n
197
1
2j(log 2j)2
X
X
X ln j j
j
n n
e z
n z = (jz) =
n=1
j=1
n
X
(eln j z)j =
j=1
ln j
z (eln j z)n
1 eln j z
So z = 0
Exercise 34.
j=1
(1)j z 3j
j!
j=1
(z 3 )j
j!
= ez . C .
j
P
= j=0 13 z j
P j
Pn
z be convergent or j=1 z j bounded.
Exercise 35.
zj
j=0 3j
zj
j=1 j j
{z} = C since
z
j < 1 for j N > |z|
Exercise 37.
(1)j
j=1 z+j
1
By Leibnizs Rule, since z+j
0, then the series converges. However, z cannot be equal to any negative integer since
one term in the series will then blow up.
P zj
log 2j+1 .
Exercise 38.
j=1 j
j
1
log
2
+
j
j
z
1
log 2 +
= zj
j
j
j
log (2+ 1j )
log (2+ 1j )
Since limj
= 0 so that
is a monotonically convergent sequence.
j
j
Pn
j
Then by Dirchlets test, j=1 z must be bounded. |z| > 1, and |z| = 1 if z 6= 1.
j 2
j 2
P
P
1
1
17j
|z|
=
1
+
(|z|17 )j
Exercise 39.
1
+
j=1
j=1
5j+1
5j+1
!j
j
1
17
1+
|z|
5j + 1
j
j
1
1/5
lim 1 +
lim 1 +
= e1/5
j
j
5j + 1
j
(z1)j
j=0 (j+2)!
X
X (z 1)j X
|(z 1)|j+2
|z 1|
|(z 1)|j
= e|z1| 1
(j
+
2)!
(j
+
2)!
(j
+
2)!
1!
j=0
j=0
j=0
The series converges z.
Exercise 41.
X
(1)j (z 1)j
j=1
X
(1 z)j
j=1
Exercise 42.
(2z+3)j
j=1 j log (j+1)
1
1
= 0 so
is a monotonically convergent sequence
j log (j + 1)
j log (j + 1)
|2z + 3| < 1
X
X
then
(2z + 3)j converges
(2z + 3)j
1
3
|z + | <
2
2
0
1
1
x
=
log (x + 1) +
< 0; for x > 0
x log (x + 1)
(x log (x + 1))2
x+1
lim
By Dirichlets test,
Exercise 43.
j=1
P (
z1
z+1
3
1
converges for |z + | ;
2
2
j
j
j
P
(1)j
/2 1z
1z
= j=1 (1)
(2j1) 1+z
1+z
j 1
(2z+3)j
j=1 j log (j+1)
z 6= 1 .
1
1
= 0 and 2j1
is monotonically decreasing.
= j=1 2j1 = limj 2j1
1
So 2j1 is a monotonically decreasing convergent sequence of real terms.
For z1
z+1 < 1,
z 1
z + 1 < 1 = |z 1| < |z + 1|
<(z) > 0;
z 6= 0
u < u
Exercise 44.
X
j X
j X
j
j
z
1/2
1
1
1
+
=
=
1
2z + 1
2 2z + 1
2
2z + 1
j=1
j=1
j
1
is a monotonically decreasing, convergent sequence
2
1 2z + 1 1 2z
Now we want 1
=
=
<1
2z + 1 2z+ 2z + 1
j=1
j
j=1 j+1
z
2z+1
j
Exercise 46.
1
j=1 (1+|z|2 )j
1
if <(z) =
4
1
2 14 + iv
2 + 2iv
=
1
1
2 4 + iv + 1
2 + 2iv
= z 6=
1
4
0
x
(x + 1) x
1
=
=
>0
x+1
(x + 1)2
(x + 1)2
j
is a monotonically increasing and convergent sequence
j+1
z
1
1
<1
+
=
2 2(2z + 1) 2z + 1
2z + 1
1
z > 1 = |2 + z | > 1
P
j=1
1
1+|z|2
j
199
1
<1
1 + |z|2
z except z = 0
1 < 1 + |z|2
0 < |z|2
Exercise 47.
j=1 (1)
j 2j sin2j x
j
1
j
is a monotonically decreasing sequence converging to zero. Consider (2)j sin2j x. The condition
|(2 sin2 x)| < 1 for j N for some N
= x (
+ n, + n), n Z
4
4
Exercise 49.
aj converges.
aj a1j
diverges.
P
Then since aj is a convergent series (by Abels test), a1j is a divergent sequence.
P 1
1
Then
aj is divergent (since limj aj doesnt exist ).
P
Exercise 50.
|aj | converges.
P
P
|aj | converges, then aj converges.
|aj |2 = a2j . |aj | converges, then
lim |aj | = 0
j
|aj |2
lim
=1
j a2
lim |aj |2 = 0
j
j
P
By limit comparison test, a2j converges.
P1
P 1 2
converges, but
Counterexample:
j
j diverges.
P
P
Exercise 51. Given
aj , aj 0.
aj converges.
lim aj = 0
1
aj p
(j)
lim
Z n1
X
x =
j=0
j=0
A counterexample would be
aj
jp
n1
X
1/2
aj =
lim aj
X xj
xj+1
=
=
j + 1 j=1 j
=0
1 xn
1x
aj
j .
Exercise 52.
(1)
a2j
1 + a2j
(2)
|aj | converges,
a2j converges.
a2j
1
=1+
1 + a2j
1 + a2j
X
X
a2j since
a2j converges ,
a2j
converges
1 + a2j
aj converges absolutely,
lim
j |aj | = 0
P aj P
1
1+aj = |aj | |1+aj | .
By Abels test, since
1
1
=
=1
j |1 + aj |
|1 + limj aj |
P aj
By Abels test,
1+aj is convergent.
lim
shows that
1
0 is a monotonically convergent sequence
|1 + aj |
200
(2)
c
1
1
1
1 = (j c ) 1 + c
+o
1 =
aj = (j + 1)c j c = j c
1+
j
j
j
1
1
1
= jc c
+o
= cj c1 + j c o
j
j
j
if c > 1,
aj diverges
if c = 1,
lim aj = 1
if c < 1,
lim aj = 0
Exercise 2.
(1)
n j
j1
X
1
1
1
(x ) (1)
n
(1 + xn ) n = exp
ln (1 + xn ) = exp
1
n
n j=1
j
n 1/n
(2) limn (an + bn )1/n = limn a 1 + nb
= a if a > b.
an +an1
2
Exercise 3. an+1 =
an1 +an2
22
an2 +an3
22
10.24 Exercises
R -xImproper integrals.
dx
0
x4 +1
Exercise 1.
lim
x4 + 1
x
dx
x4 +1
Since
R
1
1
x
diverges, so does
R
0
1
1/x
x2
= lim
x2
1 + 1/x4
=1
Exercise 2.
x2
Z
dx =
x2
dx +
x2
Z
dx =
Z
0
ex dx
Exercise 5.
Exercise 6.
R1
Exercise 7.
R 1
Exercise 8.
Exercise 9.
R 1
0+
0+
0+
log
x dx
x
log x
1x dx
dx
x log x
201
= 1
0
dx
dx +
ex dx = ex
x
dx
cosh x
0+
1 dx
ex
e
x2
Converges by theorem.
R
Exercise 3. 0 13 dx
x +1
Exercise 4.
x2
Z
dx = 2
0
ex dx
Exercise 10.
dx
x(log x)s
11.7 Exercises - Pointwise convergence of sequences of functions, Uniform convergence of sequences of functions,
Uniform convergence of sequences of functions, Uniform convergence and continuity, Uniform convergence and inteP zj
gration, A sufficient condition for uniform convergence, Power series. Circle of convergence. Exercise 1.
j=0 2j =
P z j
j=0
So
j=0
Exercise 2.
(e2i )j =
z j
(j + 1)2j
z (j + 1)
z (1 + 1/j) j z
z j+1
aj+1
=
=
=
j+1
aj
(j + 2)2
zj
2 (j + 2)
2 (1 + 2/j)
2
P
P
If |z| < 2, j=0 aj converges, if |z| > 2, aj diverges.
P zj
P 2i j 1
If |z| = 2,
=
(e ) j+1
j
(j+1)2
1
Now j+1
is a monotonically decreasing sequence of real terms.
P 2i j
(e ) is a bounded series.
P
By Dirichlets test, aj converges if |z| = 2, z 6= 2
P (z+3)j
Exercise 3.
j=0 (j+1)2j
(z + 3)j+1
(j + 2)2j+1
(z + 3)
(j + 1)2j
=
(z + 3)j
2
j+1
j+2
=
(z + 3)
2
1 + 1/j
1 + 2/j
z+3
2
P We can plug in real numbers to satisfy the condition 2 < 1 for convergence.
aj converges for |z + 3| < 2; diverges for |z + 3| > 2.
P
P
1
1
Consider |z + 3| = 2; z 6= 1
aj = (e2i )j j+1
. Since j+1
is a monotonically decreasing sequence of real
P 2i j
numbers and (e ) is a bounded series, by Dirichlets test,
P
aj converges for |z + 3| = 2; z 6= 1.
j1
2j
P (1)j 22j z2j
P
Exercise 4.
= j=1 (1) (2j)(2z) . Look at what the terms look like.
j=1
2j
Consider using Leibnizs Rule, Theorem 10.14.
Theorem
(Leibnizs rule). If aj is a monotonic decreasing sequence and limj aj = 0,
P35
(1)j 22j z 2j
(1)j (2z)2j
=
2j
2j
(2z)2j |2z|2j
(2|z|)2j
=
Consider
=
2j
2j
2j
Consider 2|z| = M 1/2 <
=
(2|z|)2j
Mj
ej ln M
=
=
2j
2j
2j
1
2
(we use Theorem 11.6 at this point, because real numbers are included in complex numbers).
Theorem 36. Assume
P
(1) P aj z j converges absolutely z with |z| < |z1 |.
(2)
aj z j converges uniformly on every circular disk with center at 0 and R < |z1 |
We had first used Leibnizs test to find az1 on the real line.
24j z 4j ((1 4z12 )
24j z 4j (4j(1 4z12 ) 2)
=
4j(4j 2)
(4j 2)
2
4j ) j
24j z 4j (1 4z12 )
(4j 2)
j=1 (1
(2)j )z j .
1 j
j
=
1 1
2
P
P
According to limit comparison
test, for (1 (2)j )z j to converge, (2z)j must converge.
P
If z =
X
zj
(e2i )j =
X
1
=0
(e2i+i )j <
sin ( + )
(1 (2)j )z j =
1
2 ,
X 1 j X
1j
2
Exercise 6.
j!z j
j=1 j j
A very big hint is to use Exercise 19 on pp. 399, in the section for Exercises 10.14.
203
Since
Pn1
j=1
f (j)
Rn
1
f (x)dx
n1
X
j=1
ln x = n ln n n + 1
ln j
1
n
X
ln j
j=2
(n 1)! nn en n
n!
n!
nen
nn
n!
lim
lim nen = 0
n nn
n
n!
n2
lim n lim n = 0
n n
n e
n!
= lim n = 0
n n
P
So then since nn!n is a monotonically decreasing convergent sequence of real terms; if
z is a bounded series, then by
P n!zn
Dirichlets test,
nn is convergent.
|z| < 1; |z| = 1 if z 6= 1
Try the ratio test, because its clear from the results of the ratio test where convergence and divergence begins and ends.
n
(n + 1)!|z|n+1 nn
n
=
|z| =
(n + 1)n+1 n!|z|n
n+1
n
1
n 1
|z| |z|
=
1 + 1/n
e
Converges for |z| < e .
Now try plugging in a complexified e:
ej
j!ej ei2j
j j ej jej ei2j i2j
j =
j
(j)j
jj
j!
j 2 +1
j=0
j=0
aj z j , 0 < a < 1
(aj z j )1/j = aj z 0
So the series converges z C
P (j!)2 j
Exercise 9.
j=1 (2j)! z
204
2
j
aj
(2(j + 1))! (j!) z
(2j + 2)(2j + 1)
4
X
for |z| < 4,
aj absolutely converges
X
for |z| > 4,
aj diverges
Lets test the boundary for convergence.
(j!)2 j
ej ln 4
(j!)2 ej ln 4
(j!)2 j ln 4
(j!)2
4 =
e
=
(2j)!
(2j)!
(2j 2)! (2j)(2j 1)
(2j 2)! (2j)2
(j!)2
j 2j
j 2j
=
(2j 2)! (j!)2
(2j 2)!
where we had used
(n 1)! nn en n n!
n
n!
n
en
n
Exercise 10.
j=1
j j
= nen
n!
nn
nn
en
n!
n
j ln 3 j
j=1
j+1 ln 3 j+1
j
1
z
e( j+1 j) ln 3 z
=
j
ln
3
j
j+1
j+1
e
z
r
p
p
1
1 1
1
j+1 j = 1+ 1'1+
1=
(for large j )
j
2 j
2j
1
j
(for large j )
e 2j z 0
j+1
= Converges z C
e
Exercise 11.
P 135...(2j1) 3
j=1
aj+1
=
aj
246...(2j)
zj
3
3
3
3
2 4 6 . . . (2j)
1
1/2
1 3 5 . . . (2j + 1)
2j + 1
j+1
z
z = 1+
z
=
2 4 6 . . . (2j + 2)
1 3 5 . . . (2j 1)
zj
2j + 2
j+2
If |z| < 1, it converges by ratio test, if |z| = 1, then it converges by Gauss test
3
k
3
X
3
1/2
aj+1
1/2
z=
|z| =
= 1+
k
aj
j+2
j+2
k=0
2
3 !
1/2
1/2
1/2
j
= |z| 1 + 3
+3
+
|z|
j+2
j+2
j+2
diverges for |z| > 1 (by ratio test )
Exercise 12.
j 2
P
1
1
+
zj
j=1
j
1
1+
j
1
,
e
1
|z| > ,
e
|z| <
!1/j
j 2
z
=
1
1+
j
j
z e1 z
X
1 2
(1 + )j z j converges by root test
j
X
1 j2 j
(1 + ) z diverges by root test
j
1
=r
e
205
Exercise 13.
a>0
By comparison test, j=0 (sin aj)z j converges, since j=0 |z|j converges absolutely, for |z| < 1.
Note that if a = , the series is zero.
P
j=0 (sin aj) for a = 2 so r=1indeed.
P
P eaj eaj j
j
z =
Exercise 14.
(sinh
aj)z
=
j=0
j=0
2
1
ea ,
then
Exercise 15.
If |z| <
1
2
P
a j
j=0 (e z)
a j
b
a j+1
b
j=0
zj
j=1 aj +bj .
j
z
ea
a>0
1
ea
Assume a < b
zj
j
bj (1 + ab )
j
bj 1 + ab
z j+1
= z
(ratio test)
j+1
j
a
z
b
)
bj+1 (1 +
b
1+
1+
z
b
X
1 X z j
zj
=
2aj
2 j=1 a
j=1
= |z| <
1
b
So if a b, then r = a; (b)
Exercise 17.
R1
0
fn (x) =
R1
0
nxenx =
enx
2
1
=
0
en 1 n 1
2
2
However,
2
limn nxenx = 0
This example shows that the operations of integration and limit cannot always be interchanged. We need uniform converlimn sinnnx = 0
gence. Exercise 18. fn (a) = sinnnx
f (x) = limn fn (x)
nx
fn0 (x) = n cos
= limn fn0 (0) = 1
n
This example shows that differentiation and limit cannot always be interchanged.
P sin jx
Exercise 19.
j=1 j 2 = f (x)
206
1
sin jx
2
x R
j2
j
X
X
| sin jx|
sin jx
by comparison test,
converges,
so
converges
2
j
j2
j=1
j=1
sin jx
1
x R;
j N
j2 N 2
P
N N12 converges, so
Since
P sin jx
j2
P sin jx
uniformly converges.
P sin jx
are continuous,
j 2 is continuous.
j2
sin jx
j2
uniformly converges.
Z
Z X
X (1)j 1
sin jx X sin jx X cos jx
=
=
=
=
j2
j2
j 3 0
j 3
0
0
= 2
X
j=1
j=1
cos jx
j2
x2
4
1
(2j 1)3
x
2
2
6
if 0 x 2
(1) x = 2
X
1
(2)2
2 2
2
2
=
+
=
2
j
4
2
6
6
j=1
P cos jx
j2
is uniformly convergent on R
+
=
+
x
4
2
6
3 4
4
6
0
1
1
1
1
3
= ()
+
= ()3
12(8) 16 12
32
11.13 Exercises - Properties of functions represented by real power series, The Taylors series generated by a function,
A sufficient condition for convergence of a Taylors series, Power-series expansions for the exponential and trigonometric functions, Bernsteins Theorem. Sufficient Condition for convergence.
Theorem 37 (Bernsteins Theorem). Assume x [0, r], f (x), f (j) (x) 0
Then if 0 x < r
X
f (k) (0)
(25)
k!
xk
j N.
converges
n
X
f (k) (0)
k=0
n+1
k!
Z 1
n!
xk + En (x)
un f (n+1) (x xu)du
En (x)
1
Fn (x) = n+1 =
x
n!
1
n (n+1)
u f
0
(x xu)du
= Fn (x) Fn (r) =
207
En (x)
En (r)
n+1
n+1
x
r
For f (x) =
Pn
j=0
f (j) (0) j
j! x
+ En (x) = En (x)
f (r) =
n
X
f (j) (0)
j!
j=0
x n+1
r
En (r)
n+1
f (r)
So then 0 En (x) xr
n
n and f (t) will be some non-infinite value, so En (x) 0.
Exercise 1.
j=0 (1)
j 2j
X
X
(1 x)x4j = (1 x)
(x4 )j
j=0
Indeed
j=0
X
(1)j x2j converges for |x| 1
j=0
xj
j=0 3j+1
Exercise 2.
Exercise 3.
1
3
j=0
x j
3
j = 0 jxj
Z
0
xX
jtj1 =
j=0
xj
j=0
So the series converges for |x| < 1. Note that we had used the integrability of power series.
P
j
j
Exercise 4.
j=0 (1) jx .
jxj jej ln x
(
j ln x
lim je
=
j
0
if x > 1
if 0 < x < 1
If x = 1,
(2j)x2j (2j + 1)x2j+1 = x2j (2j + (2j + 1)x) = 1
X
(1) =
lim
j+2
j+1
if |2x| < 1
=
2j + 1
2j + 2
(2j + 1)(2j + 2)
2
2
4j + 8j + 4 (4j + 5j + 3)
3j + 1
(3j + 1)/2
(3j + 1)/2
= 2
= 2
=
4j 2 + 6j + 2
4j + 6j + 2
2j + 3j + 1
(2j + 1)(j + 1)
3j + 1
3j + 1
3(j + 1/3)
3 1
1
<
<
<
+
4j 2 + 6j + 2
4(j 2 + 1/3)
4 j
12j 2
4j 2 + 34
for x = 21 .
P
Theorem 38. Let f be represented by f (x) = j=0 aj (x a)j in the (a r, a + r) interval of convergence
P
j1
(1)
also has radius of convergence r.
j=1 jaj (x a)
Thus, it diverges, by comparison test with
1
j
208
(26)
jaj (x a)j1
j=1
Exercise 6.
j=1
(2x)j
j
0 < x < 21 .
P
(1)j
j=0 (2j+1)
Exercise 7.
j=1
ej ln 2x
j
= |x| <
1
itll converge, since by comparison test,
2
ej ln 2x
j
<
1
j2
if
x 2j
.
2
X x2j
1 X x 2j
x2j
<
=
2j
2j+1
2(j + 1/2)2
2
j
2 j=0 2
j=0
j=0
x
1
1 X e2j ln 2
=
j
2 j=0
j
e2j ln 2
1
if 0 < x < 2
< 2
j
j
1
1
1
1
2
2(2j) + 1 2(2j + 1) + 1
4j + 1 4j + 3
(4j + 1)(4j + 3)
If x = 2 ,
X 1
1 1
(converges by comparison test to
)
2
8j
j2
P (1)j x 2j
For |x| < 2 , j=0 (2j+1)
converges.
2
since by comparison test,
Exercise 8.
Exercise 9.
j=0
Exercise 10.
(1)j x3j
j!
xj
j=0 (j+3)!
(x1)j
j=0 (j+2)!
j=0
1
x3
(x3 )j
j!
= ex , which converges x R
xj+3
j=0 (j+3)!
1
(x1)2
j=0
j=0
1
x3
xj
j=+3 j!
(x1)j+2
(j+2)!
1
(x1)2
1
x
x3 (e
P
(x1)j
j=2
j!
1
(x1)2
ex1 x
ex1 (x 1) 1 =
(x 1)2
(log ax)j
j!
(log ax) j
j+1
0. By ratio test,
j=0
(log ax)j
j!
Exercise 12.
ex ex
1 X xj X (x)j X x2j+1
=
sinh x =
=
2
2 j=0 j! j=0 j!
(2j + 1)!
j=0
x2
x2j+3 (2j + 1)!
j
=
0
(2j + 3)! x2j+1
(2j + 3)(2j + 2)
Exercise 13.
1
1 cos 2x
sin x =
=
2
(2x)2j
j
j=0 (2j)! (1)
X
22j1 x2j (1)j+1
j=1
(2j)!
x j
2
1
2x
xj
j=0 2j+1
xj+1 2j+1
x
= <1
2j+2 xj
2
If x = 2
1
2
X
j=0
(2)j
1X
1
1
=
(1)j = 0 but
= x
j
2
2 j=0
2 (2)
4
209
Exercise 15. ex =
x2j+2 j!
(j+1)! x2j
j=0
x2 j
j+1
(1)j x2j
j!
2j+1
j
2j+1
j
X
X
3 sin x sin 3x
3
x
(1)
(3x)
(1)
sin3 x =
=
=
4
4 j=0 (2j + 1)!
(2j
+
1)!
j=0
j 2j+1
2j+1
j+1 2j+1
2j+1
X
X
3
(1) x
(1 3
) 3
(1) (3
1)x
=
=
4 j=0
(2j + 1)!
4 j=0
(2j + 1)!
Exercise 17. log
ln (1 + x) =
1+x
1x
X
(x)j+1
j=0
j+1
(1) =
X
(x)j
j=1
1
1x
j+1
1
1+2x
j=1
(+x)j
j1
j (1)
j=1
(xj )(1)j
j
X
X
xj+1
xj
=
j + 1 j=1 j
j=0
X
((1)j + 1)xj
j
j=1
X
x2j+1
2j + 1
x2j+3 2j + 1 j 2
x
2j + 3 x2j+1
converges, with radius of convergence of 1
|x2 | < 1,
3x
1+x2x2
P
ln (1 x) =
(1)
Exercise 18.
1
2
xj
j=0 j
j+1
|(1 (2)
j+1
j=0
(2x)j
j
xj
j=0 j (1
(2)j )
1
+
2
j
j
(2)
j
)|
2x < 1
= x
j
j
1
|x (1 (2) )|
(2)
j 1
|x| <
1
2
1
2
x2j
x2j+1
x2j ((2j + 1)(1 22j ) + x(1 + 22j+1 )(2j))
2j
2j+1
(1 (2) ) +
(1 (2)
)=
2j
2j + 1
(2j)(2j + 1)
1 2j
(2j + 1 (2j + 1)22j + 2jx + 22j+2 jx) j (2j + 1) + 4j
2j 1
2
=
0
(2j)(2j + 1)
(2j)(2j + 1)
(2j)(2j + 1)
For x =
So
3x
1+x2x2
(1)j
6j
xj
X
X
12 5x
5x 12
1
6
j
=
=
+
=
x
+
6 5x x2
(x + 6)(x 1)
1 x 6 + x j=0
j=0
x
6
j
=
x (1 +
j=0
j
) = 1.
|x| < 1 since for x = 1, limj (1 + 1
6
P
1
Exercise 20. x2 +x+1
= 23 j=0 sin 2(j+1)
xj (|x| < 1)
3
X
1
=
(x3 )j
3
1x
j=0
x3 1 = (x 1)(x2 + x + 1)
1
x1
1x
= 3
=
x2 + x + 1
x 1
1 x3
X
1x
=
(x3 )j x3j+1
3
1x
j=0
1
6
j
)
2
3
sin 2(j+1)
accounts for this.
3
2
3
j=0
sin 2(j+1)
xj
3
|x| < 1
sin 2(j+1)
xj < xj (so by comparison test to
3
Exercise 21.
X
1
=
xj ;
1 x j=0
0
X
X
1
=
jxj1 =
(j + 1)xj
2
(1 x)
j=1
j=0
X
1/4
1/4
1/2
1 X j
1
+
=
+
=
(x + (x)j ) + 2
jxj1
(1 x)(1 x2 )
1 x (1 x)2
1+x
4 j=0
j=1
X
1 X j+1
1X j
x
j
j
=
x
=
x (1 + (1)j1 + 2j)
(1
+
(1)
)
+
2
jx
(1 x)(1 x2 )
4 j=0
4
j=1
j=1
1
1x
Exercise 22.
X (2x)2j+1
=
(1)j ;
sin 2x +
4
(2j
+
1)!
j=0
X
(2x)2j+1
sin 2x =
(1)j
(2j
+
1)!
j=0
X
(2x)2j
j=0
cos 2x =
j=0
(2j)!
(1)j
X
(2x)2j
j=0
(2j)!
(1)j
aj xj =
2
(sin 2x + cos 2x)
2
!
2
298
=
2
98!
298 (1)49
aj =
98!
For j = 98,
cos 2x =
!
2
2
Exercise 23.
f (x) = (2 + x2 )5/2
5
f 0 (x) = (2 + x2 )3/2 (2x) = 5x(2 + x2 )3/2
2
15
00
f (x) = 5(2 + x2 )3/2 + x(2 + x2 )1/2 (2x) = 5(2 + x2 )3/2 + 15x2 (2 + x2 )1/2
2
15
15x2
f 000 (x) =
(2 + x2 )1/2 (2x) + 30x(2 + x2 )1/2 +
(2 + x2 )1/2 (2x)
2
2
30x
15
(2 + x2 )1/2 (2x)+
f 0000 (x) = 15(2 + x2 )1/2 + (2 + x2 )1/2 (2x)x + 30(2 + x2 )1/2 +
2
2
1
+ 45x2 (2 + x2 )1/2 + 15x3
(2 + x2 )3/2 (2x)
2
25/2 + 0x +
5(23/2 )x2
0x3
45 4
+
+
2x
2!
3!
4!
(1)
f (x) =
X
j=0
f (k) =
X
j=0
(1)j
1 j
x2
j!
1 X
=1+ 2 +
x
j=2
1 j
x2
j!
X
(1)j x2j
j=0
j=0
j!
(1)j
(2j)!
x2j
(2j k)!j!
j 1
y=
y0 =
aj xj
j=0
y 00 =
jaj xj1
j=1
f (0) = 1 = a0 = 1
j=2
f 0 (0) = 0 = a1 = 0
X
(j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj
j=0
j=2
X
((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 + aj (j + 3)(j 2))xj
= 2a2 + 6 + 6a3 x +
j=2
a2 = 3
a3 = 0
aj+2 =
(j + 3)(j 2)
aj
(j + 2)(j + 1)
f 0 (0) = 2 = a1 = 2
f (0) = 0 = a0 = 0
2(1)a2 + 3(2)a3 x + 2(1)a1 x + 12a0 + 12a1 x +
j=2
X
= 2a2 + 6a3 x + 4x + 0 + 24x +
((j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 aj (j + 4)(j 3))xj
j=2
a2 = 0
a3 = 10/3
aj+2 =
(j + 4)(j 3)
aj
(j + 2)(j + 1)
x4j
j=0 (4j)! ;
d4 y
dx4
=y
212
(x4 )0 = 4x3
4 00
(x ) = 12x
2
(x4 )0000 = 24
x4j
(4j)!
0
x4j
(4j)!
00
x4j
(4j)!
000
x4j
(4j)!
0000
x4j1
(4j 1)!
x4j2
(4j 2)!
x4j3
(4j 3)!
x4j4
(4j 4)!
X
X
x4j4
x4j
= f (x)
= y 0000 =
(4j 4)!
(4j)!
j=1
j=0
x
x4
(4j)!
j
=
0
4j
(4j + 4)! x
(4j + 4)(4j + 3)(4j + 2)(4j + 1)
So the series converges on R.
P xj
Exercise 4. f (x) = j=0 (j!)
2
x R
xy 00 + y 0 y = 0
y0 =
X
jxj1
j=1
(j!)2
X
(j + 1)xj
((j + 1)!)2
j=0
(j + 1)jxj1
((j + 1)!)2
j=1
X
X
(j + 1)j
(j + 1)
1
1
1
1
j
+
x + 1=
=0
((j + 1)!)2
((j + 1)!)2
(j!)2
1!
(j!)2
(j!)2
j=1
j=1
y 00 =
Exercise 5. f (x) = 1 +
j=1
f0 =
147...(3j2) 3j
x ;
(3j)!
X
1 4 7 . . . (3j 2)
(3j 1)!
j=1
f 00 =
X
1 4 7 . . . (3j 2)
(3j 2)!
j=1
=x+
xa f = xa +
(Find a and b )
x3j1
x3j2 =
X
1 4 7 . . . (3j 5)
j=1
(3j 3)!
x3j2 =
X
1 4 7 . . . (3j 5) 3j2
1 4 7 . . . (3j 2) 3j+1
x
=x+
x
(3j 3)!
(3j)!
j=1
X
j=2
X
1 4 7 . . . (3j 2)
(3j)!
j=1
So then a = 1;
y 00 = xa y + b
x3j+a
b=0.
1 4 7 . . . (3j + 1) 3j+3
x
(3j + 3)!
(3j)!
1 4 7 . . . (3j 2)
1
1(3j + 1)
j
=
x3 0
x3j
(3j 2)(3j + 3)(3j + 2)(3j + 1)
X
2jx2j1
j=1
j!
=2
X
X
x2j1
x2j+1
=2
= 2xf
(j 1)!
j!
j=1
j=0
x2j+2 j!
x2 j
=
0
(j + 1)! x2j
j+1
By ratio test, f converges x R.
P j
Exercise 7. f (x) = j=2 xj! y 0 = x + y
213
X
X
xj1
xj
f =
=
=x+y
(j 1)! j=1 j!
j=2
0
x j
xj+1 j!
= 0
(j + 1)! xj
j
So the series converges x R by ratio test.
Exercise 8.
f (x) =
0
f =
X
(1)j (kx)2j
j=0
X
j=1
f 00 =
(2j)!
X
(1)j+1 (kx)2j
(2j)!
j=1
f 00 k 2 f = 0
k2
2j+1
(kx)
(2j)!
kx j
=
0
(2j + 1)! (kx)2j
2k + 1
Exercise 9.
f 00 =
X
X
(3x)2j1
9(3x)2j+1
9=
(2j 1)!
(2j + 1)!
j=1
j=0
9(f x) = 9(x +
X
(3x)2j+1
x)
(2j + 1)!
j=0
9x2
(3x)2j+3 (2j + 1)!
j
=
0
2j+1
(2j + 3)! (3x)
(2j + 3)(2j + 2)
(by ratio test, f converges x R )
Exercise 10. J0 (x) =
j x2j
j=0 (1) (j!)2 22j
J1 (x) =
x2j+1
j
j=0 (1) j!(j+1)!22j+1 .
(1)
x2j+2
(j!)2 22j
x2
j
=
0
2
2j+2
2j
((j + 1)!) 2
x
(j + 1)2 4
x2j+3
j!22j+1
x2
j
=
0
(j + 2)!22j+3 x2j+1
(j + 2)(j + 1)4
(2)
J00 (x) =
(1)j
j=1
X
x2j1
x2j+1
=
(1)j+1
= J1 (x)
2j1
(j 1)!(j!)2
j!(j + 1)!22j+1
j=0
(3)
j=0
x2j+1
(j!)2 22j
X
(1)j
j=0
j10 =
X
j=0
= j0 = j10
Exercise 11. x2 y 00 + xy 0 + (x2 n2 )y = 0.
214
j 2j+1
(1) x
(j!)2 22j
x2j+2
j!(j + 1)!22j+1
n = 0 = x2 y 00 + xy 0 + (x2 )y = 0
J0 =
(1)j
j=0
X
J00 =
(1)j
j=1
J000 =
(1)j
j=1
(1)
j=1
X
x2j
x2j2
=
;
(1)j1
2
2j
(j!) 2
((j 1)!)2 22j2
j=1
x2j1
;
j!(j 1)!22j1
x2j2 (2j 1)
j!(j 1)! 22j1
(2j 1)
1
2j
+
+
2j1
2j1
j!(j 1)!2
j!(j 1)!2
((j 1)!)j!22j1
=0
n = 1 = x2 y 00 + xy 0 + (x2 1)y = 0
J1 (x) =
X
j=0
(1)j x2j+1
x X (1)j x2j+1
x X (1)j1 x2j1
= +
= +
2j+1
2j+1
j!(j + 1)!2
2 j=1 j!(j + 1)!2
2 j=1 (j 1)!(j)!22j1
J10 =
J100 =
X
(1)j (2j + 1)(2j)x2j1
j=1
(j!)(j + 1)!22j+1
X
(1)j (2j + 1)
(1)j (1) j + 1
j
1
2
(1)j
=
x2j+1
((2j)
+
(1))
+
+
(j!)(j + 1)!22j+1
(j 1)!j! j + 1
j
22j1
22
(j + 1)!(j!)22j+1
j=1
x x
+ =
2
2
X
(1)j x2j1
=
((2j + 1)(2j + 1) + (1)(2j)(2j + 2) 1) = 0
(j!)(j + 1)!22j+1
j=1
Exercise 12. y 0 = x2 + y 2 ;
y = 1 when x = 0.
215
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x +
aj xj
j=3
X
y 2 = a20 + a21 x2 + a22 x4 +
a j xj +
y 0 (0) = 0 + 12 = 1
j=3
aj xj +
j=3
+ 2a1 a2 x3 + 2a1
aj xj+1 + 2a2
j=3
y 0 = a1 + 2a2 x +
aj xj+2
j=3
jaj xj1
j=3
a1 = 1 since y 0 (0) = 1
Consider the first few terms of x2 + y 2
a1 = 1 = a20 = a0 = 1
a20 + 2a0 a1 x + a21 x2 + 2a0 a2 x2 + x2 = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x2
2a2 = 2a0 a1 = a2 = 1
= a3 =
= a0 = 0
y = a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +
aj xj
j=4
y=
aj xj
y 2 = a21 x2 + a22 x4 + a3 x6 +
j=1
y=
2
a j xj +
j=4
jaj xj1 =
j=1
(j + 1)aj+1 x6j
j=0
aj xj+1 +
j=4
+ 2a2 a3 x5 + 2a2
aj xj+2 + 2a3
j=4
aj xj+3
j=4
a1 = 1
x:
2a2 = 0
= a2 = 0
4a4 = 12
= a4 =
x4 :
5a5 = 0
= a5 = 0
x6 :
x7 :
8a8 = 0 + 2a2 a4 = 0 = a8 = 0
2
1
1
23
10a10 =
+ 2(1)
= a10 =
4
14
1120
Exercise 14. y 0 = x + y 2
y = 0 when x = 0
3a3 = 0
= a3 = 0
x5 :
6a6 = 0
= a6 = 0
x8 :
9a9 = 0
= a9 = 0
1
4
x3 :
x9 :
x2 :
= a7 =
1
14
= a0 = 0
216
4
3
y 0 (0) = 0 + 0 = 0
= a1 = 0
y=
y0 =
aj xj
j=2
jaj xj1 =
j=2
y 2 = a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 +
X
(j + 1)aj+1 xj
j=1
2
aj xj =
j=5
X
= a2 x4 + a23 x6 + a24 x8 +
aj xj +
j=5
aj xj + 2a3 a4 xy + 2a3 x3
j=5
y =x+y
j=5
x3 : 4a4 = 0 = a4 = 0
1
20
x8 : 9a9 = 0 = a9 = 0
x
: 11a11
x9 : 10a10 = 0 = a10 = 0
1
1
= 2( )(
)+
2 160
1
20
2
= a11 =
7
8800
Exercise 15. y 0 = y
j=0 (j
aj+1 =
aj =
+ 1)aj+1 xj =
aj xj
1 1
1
x7 : 8a8 = 2( )( ) = a8 =
2 20
160
10
1
2
x2 : 3a3 = 0 = a3 = 0
x4 : 5a5 = a22 = a5 =
aj xj + 2a4 x4
j=5
0
x : 2a + 2 = 1 + 0 = a2 =
j=0
aj xj
aj
(j+1)
j
a0 x (by induction)
j!
Exercise 16. y 00 = xy
y 00 =
X
(j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj =
j=0
X
= 2a2 +
(j + 3)(j + 2)aj+3 xj+1
aj xj+1
j=0
j=0
= a2 = 0 and aj+3 =
j=0
a0
32
a3
a6 =
65
a+3=
j=3
a3j =
j1
a0 Y
(3k + 1) ;
(3j)!
aj
(j + 3)(j + 2)
j=1
j=4
a3j+1 =
k=0
a4 =
a7 =
a1
7643
j1
Y
a1
(3k + 2)
(3j + 1)!
k=0
Exercise 17. y 00 + xy 0 + y = 0
217
a1
43
y=
y0 =
y 00 =
X
j=0
X
j=1
aj xj
jaj xj1
y 00 + xy 0 + y =
j=1
aj
(j + 2)
j=2
X
=
(j + 2)(j + 1)aj+2 xj
j=0
a1
3
a3
a1
a5 =
=
5
15
a0
2
a2
a4 =
4
a3 =
a2 =
a2j =
(1)j a0
(2j)!!
a1
(1)j (could be shown by induction)
(2j + 1)!!
a2j+1 =
y=
y0 =
X
j=0
aj xj
jaj xj1
j=1
X
=
(j + 1)aj+1 xj
j=0
2x
j=0 (2aj
= e2x = y 0 + 2y
Rx
Rx
Q(t)eA(t) dt + y(a) where A(x) = a P (t)dt,
a
y = e2x (x + 1)
We had obtained the necessary initial conditions to solve this ODE from the information given, that a0 = 1, so that y(0) = 1.
By doing some simple computation and comparison of powers with e2x , then a1 = 2, a2 = 2, a3 = 4/3
P
P
Exercise 19. cos x = j=0 aj (j + 2)xj for f (x) = j=0 aj xj .
P
Using cos x =
j=0
matching powers of x,
(x)2j
j
(2j)! (1)
representation, we can immediately conclude that for odd terms, a2j+1 = 0 and by
a2j (2j + 2) = (1)j
1
(2j)!
a5 = 0
(1)3
7
= a6 =
6!
8!
P
P
P
Now notice that for cos x = j=0 aj (j + 2)xj = j=1 jaj xj + 2 j=0 aj xj is actually a differential equation, cos x =
0
xy + 2y. We can solve this first-order ODE using
Rx
Rx
cos x
y(x) = eA(x) a Q(t)eA(t) dt + y(a) where A(x) = a P (t)dt. Then solving y 0 + 2y
x = x ,
a6 (6 + 2) =
y=
1
(x sin x + cos x (a sin a + cos a) + b)
x2
218
1
2
and f () =
1
2
sin x cos x 1
+
if x 6= 0
x
x2
f (x) =
So f (0) =
= y(0) =
2
2
Exercise 20.
(1)
X
1/2
(x)j =
j
j=0
3
1
1
2
2
x2 +
=1+ x+
2
2
(1 x)1/2 =
1
2
3
2
5
2
7
2
1
2
3
2
5
2
3!
9
2
x +
1
2
3
2
5
2
7
2
4!
x4 +
x5 + =
5!
1
3
5
35 5
63 5
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 +
x +
x + ...
2
8
8
128
256
P
P
P
j+1
So for =
j!
( j)
( 1) . . . ( (j + 1) + 1)
=
(j + 1)!
( 1) . . . ( j + 1)
(j + 1)
1
2 ,
aj+1
=
aj
1/2 + j
j+1
(x) < x
1
50 .
1
50
1
< bj
50
1
50
2
1 j
50
an+j <
j=1
X
j=1
an
1
50
rn <
j
= an
an
1/50
=
1 1/50
49
an
49
1/2
1 1/2
49 1/2
(3) Note that (1 x)
= 1 50
= 50
= 572
1/2
2
3
4
5
7
1
1
3
1
5
1
35
1
63
1
1
=1+
+
+
+
+
5
50
100 2 2(50)
2 2(50)
8 2(50)
8 2(50)
2 ' 1.4142135624
Exercise 21.
(1)
1/2
176
3000000 1/2
= 1732
1 3000000
1000
2999824
1/2
Obviously, (3000000)1/2 = 1000 3 so that we have 1732 (3/2999824) .
With long multiplication, we could show easily that 1732 1732 = 2999824 (its harder to divide). So then
1732
1000
1732
1000
176
1
3000000
(2)
219
1/2
=
(1 x2 )1/2 =
1
1x2
j=0
(x2 )j = 1 +
j=1
(x2 )j
X
1/2 (1)j 2j+1
x
= arcsin x = x +
(2j + 1)
j
j=1
3
1
. . . 1
(1)(3) . . . (1 + 2j 2)
(2j 1)!!
2
2
2 j+1
= (1)j
= (1)j
j(j 1) . . . (2)(1)
(2j)!!
(2j)!!
X
(2j 1)!! x2j+1
= arcsin x = x +
(2j)!! 2j + 1
j=1
13.21 Exercises - The conic sections, Eccentricity of conic sections, Polar equations for conic sections.
Exercise 1. F is in the positive half-plane determined by N .
kX F k = ed(X, L)
kX F k = e|(X F ) N + d|
Exercise 2.
(1)
kX F k = ed(X, L)
kX F k = e|(X F ) N + d|
F = 0 = kXk = e|(X N ) + d|;
r = e|r cos + d|
ed
1 e cos
because X N > 0. The left branch for e > 1,
= r = e(r cos + d) = r =
(2) The right branch for the hyperbola is given by r =
ed
1e cos
kX F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X F ) N + d| =
= e|X N + d| = e(d + r cos ) = r
r=
ed
(1 + e cos )
kX F k = ed(X, L)
F = 0 = kXk = ed(X, L) = e(|(X F ) N d|) = e|X N d| = e|r sin d|
Now Thm. 13.18 says r =
ed
e cos + 1
= r = e(d r sin ) = r =
if 0 < e 1
ed
1 + e sin
ed
ed
=
1 e sin
e sin 1
e = 1, d = 2 .
Exercise 5. r =
3
1+ 12 cos
Exercise 6. r =
6
3+cos
Exercise 7. r =
1
1
2 +cos
6( 12 )
.
1+ 12 cos
2
.
1+ 13 cos
e = 21 ; d = 6
e = 31 ; d = 6.
.
220
= r =
ed
1+e cos
2
2 cos 1 ,
e = 2, d = 1.
Exercise 8. r =
4
1+2 cos
Exercise 9. r =
4
1+cos
e = 2, d = 2.
e = 1 d = 4.
3
5x
Exercise 10. 3x + 4y = 25 =
+ 45 y = 5. N =
3 4
5, 5
L = {x = P + tA}, N X = N P .
To find the distance from the focus, at the origin, to the directrix,
dN = P + tA;
dN N = d = N P
4x + 3y = 25
4
5x
+ 35 y = 5;
N=
4 3
5, 5
d = 5.
4
3
kX F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X F ) N d| = e r cos + r sin 5
5
5
4
3
r =5r
cos + sin
5
5
5
r=
1 + 54 cos + 35 sin
Exercise 12. e = 2, hyperbola, so theres 2 branches.
1
1
1
x+ y =
2
2
2
dN = P + tA;
L = {x = P + tA}
X N =N P
1
dN N = d = N P =
2
Note that the sign of d here tells you what side the focus, at the origin, lies on.
1
1
kX F k = ed(X, L) = kXk = e|(X F ) N d| = e(d r cos r sin )
2
2
2/ 2
r=
1 + 22 cos + 22 sin
But for the right side branch,
1
1
kX F k = ed(X, L) = kXk = e|(X F ) N d| = e(d r cos r sin )
2
2
2/ 2
r=
1 22 cos 22 sin
Exercise 13. e = 1 parabola.
221
(1)
108 mi
= 0,
1 + cos
(2) Focus is in the positive half-plane determined by N .
r=
r=
3
106 mi
4
1
d = r(1 cos ) = 108 mi(1 cos ) = 108 mi
3
2
r=
1
108 mi
d
= 2
1 cos
1 cos
r( = ) =
1
108 mi
4
13.24 Exercises - Conic sections symmetric about the origin, Cartesian equations for the conic sections.
Quick Review.
Consider symmetry about the origin.
kX F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X F ) N d| = e|X N F N d| = |eX N e(F N + d)|
2
kX F k = kXk 2X F + kF k = e2 (X N )2 2aeX N + a2
X X;
X F = aeX N
ed
1 e2
2
2
2
2
= kXk + (ae) = e (X N ) + a2
X = (F aeN ) = 0 = F = aeN ;
if X = bN 0 ;
b2 + (ae)2 = e2 (0) + a2
y2
36
b2 = a2 (1 e2 )
=1
4
.
5
|F | = |aeN | = 10 45 = 8. f = (8, 0). (0, 0) center. Vertices (0, 6).
b2
a2
= e = e =
Exercise 2.
y2
100
x2
36
= 1.
4
5
= e;
f = (0, 8).
(x2)2
16
(y3)2
9
7
4
7.
2
9
1 ab 2 = 1 16
= 47 = e; (2 + 7, 3), (2 7, 3) foci.
Vertices (6, 3), (2, 3), (2, 6), (2, 12).
2
Exercise 4. x25 + y 2 = 1. Center x = (0, 0). |F | = ae = 35 45 = 43 .
(9)
q
q
2
9
e = 1 ab 2 = 1 25
= 45 . Foci: ( 43 , 0). Vertices ( 35 , 0), (0, 1).
q
Exercise 5.
y2
(1/4)
x2
(1/3)
F =
if X = aN ;
x2
100
Exercise 1. b2 = a2 (1 e2 )
F N = ae; a =
=1
1
|F | = ae = 13 2 = 2
.
3
q
1
1
, 0 . Center (0, 0).
1 1/4
=
=
e.
Foci:
1/3
2
2 3
1
e2 d
N
1 e2
b2
a2
q
1
16
25
3
5
= e;
|F | = ae = 5 35 = 3.
Exercise 7. F = ae =
a = 1, e = 34 . b2 = a2 (1 e2 );
b2 = 1
1
4
x2 + 4y 2 = 1 .
Exercise 8. 2a = 4. a2 = 4. 2b = 3. b2 = 9/4.
(x+3)2
9/4
Exercise 9.
(y4)2
4
(x+3)2
4
(y4)2
4
=1
= 1.
(x+4)2
9
Exercise 10. 2a = 6, a = 3.
(y2)2
1
= 1.
(x2)2
a2
(y1)2
b2
= 9.
= 1;
16
25
(x2)2
42
(y1)2
4
=1
Exercise 13. b = a (1 e ).
2
x2
100
64
y64 = 1; b2 = 100(1 e2 ) = 64. 1 + 100
= e2 .
y2
64
x,y
+ 1 ;
Exercise 14.
y2
100
x2
64
+1=
4
5 x
b2 = 64.
41
5 . Vertices
2
x,y
y
5
100
4 x = y.
b2 = a2 (1 e2 ).
x2
64
y=
e=
(x+3)2
4
(y 3)2 = 1.
q
q
2
5
Center (3, 3). e = 1 ab 2 = 1 1
4 = 2 .
Exercise 16.
e=
x2
144/9
9
16
y2
144/16
=1=
x2
16
y2
9 .
= 54 . Center (0, 0). |F | = ae = 5. Foci: (5, 0), (5, 0). Vertices (4, 0).
3
2
y2
4
x2
5 .
Vertices: (0, 2)
(x1)2
4
(y+2)
= 1.
9
q
13
Center (1, 2). e = 1 9
4 = 2 ;
Exercise 18.
|F | = 2
13
2
13. Foci: (1 +
y2
12
= 1.
y2
12
+1=
x2 x,y
y = 3x.
223
13, 2), (1
13, 2).
e=
q
1
5
4
3
2.
b2 = a2 (1 e2 ) = 4(1 4) = 12.
x2
4
y2
16
=1
(x+1)2
3
= 1 where
F = ae = | 2| = ae. b2 = a2 (1 e2 ) = 1(1 4) = 3
Exercise 23.
(x2)2
a2
(y+3)2
b2
=1
1
4
2 =1
(y + 3)2
(x 2)2
a2
b
=
=1
9
9
27/8
(27/5)
(1, 0) = 2 2 = 1
a
b
(3, 1) =
Exercise 24.
x2 1
3
2x
3
= y2 .
3
2
3x 2y = C. m =
The asymptotes of y 2 =
Exercise 25.
x2
a2
= 2yy 0 .
= y0 92 = x0 .
x2 1
3
25
4
81 2
4 y0
1 = 3y02 = y0 =
.
69
are y = x3 .
9
2
23
3
2
= =C
69
69
69
r
23
= 2y
3x
3
x2
a2
2
+ yb2 = 1
(3, 5) 9
yy 0 = x3 .
= a2 ;
a =
y2
4a2
11
4 .
= 1.
y2
x2
=1.
11/4 11
Quick Review of Parabolas.
1
6
Exercise 30. x2 + 8y = 0.
4c =
c=
1
24 .
1
8 ;
5
2 ,1
1
Vertex: (0, 0). Directrix: y = 24
. Symmetry axis: x = 0.
c=
1
32 .
y=
1
32
directrix; x = 0 axis.
Exercise 32. y = x2 .
224
5
4
5(x 74 ) = (y + 1)2
(0, 1) c = 1
(1, 0) 0 = a + b + 1(2, 0) 0 = 4a + 2b + 1
a=
1
2
= y =
1 2 3
x x+1
2
2
8(x 1) = (y 3)2 .
y
5
10
}.
5
dN N = d = xL N =
10
.
5
2
2
y
10
x + +
= x2 + y 2
5
5
5
5x2 + 5y 2 = (2x y + 10)2 = 4x2 + y 2 + 100 + 4xy 40x 20y
F = 0 = kXk2 = |X N d|2 =
2
x 2
y2
x2
bx
2
2
2
=
1
y
=
b
=
b
1
b2
a2
a
a
Z a r
Z 1 p
x 2
dx = 2
b 1
ab 1 x2 dx = (ab) area of a circle of radius 1
y=2
a
a
1
Exercise 2.
q
2
(1) Without loss of generality, let the major axis be 2a in the x-axis. y = b 1 xa
Z 1
Z a
4
x2
V =
(1 x2 )dx = (1)3 b2 a
b2 1 2 dx = b2 a
a
3
a
1
(2) If rotated about the minor axis, suppose, without loss of generality, 2a is the minor axis (just note that
have x, y, a, b as dummy labels).
x2
a2
b2
a2
=1
x2
(3/A)
y
+ (3/B)
=1
By 2 = 3 Ax2
r
2
2
1
B
= y 2 =
3
B
Ax
B ;
y=
3
B
Ax2
B .
r Z 3/A s
Z 3/A p
x2
3
3 Ax2 dx = 2
1 3
3/A
2
3/A
3
y 2 = AB
1
y
x
For the other ellipse equation, 3/(A+B)
+ 3/(AB)
= 1.
Thus, the area inside this ellipse is
r
3
Z A+B
3
2
3
A B A+B
u
u
x
u
t1 q
x
(3/(A+B))
3
A+B
y=
3
AB
x2
(3/(A+B)) .
Thus A2 B 2 = AB
of A.
= A2 BA B 2 . Simply try treating B as a number and solve the quadratic equation in terms
B
A=
B 2 4(1)(B 2 )
BB 5
B(1 + 5)
=
=
2(1)
2
2
2
Exercise 4. y = 4h
b2 x .
b/2
b/2
R2
Exercise 5. y 2 = 8x.
b/2
b
4h 3
4h 2
b
2hb
+
h
x
+
h
=
x
+
=
2
2
b
3b
2 2
3
b/2
(1)
Z
A=2
Z
2(x 1) + 2
2(x 1) 2 x 2 =
2
3
3
2
2
2
3/2
= 2 2 (x 1) + 2 2 (x 1)3/2 4 (x 2)3/2
3
3
3
2
2
1
2 4 3/2
2
2
= 2 2 + 2 (2) 2 2 4 = 8/3
3
3
3
3
(2)
2
1
1 2
x x = 2
(4 1) (2 1) = 1
2
2
1
1
Z 3
Z 3
3
3
(2(x 1) 4(x 2)) dx =
(2x + 6)dx = x2 2 + 6x|2 = (9 + 4 + 6(3 2)) = 1
Z
2(x 1) = 2
2(x 1) +
= V =
1
(3)
y2
2
+ 1 = x, y4 + 2 = x
2 2
2 !
2
Z 2 2
Z 2
y
y
3y 4
3 5
2
+2
+1
= 2
+ 3 dy = 2
y + 3y =
4
2
16
80
0
0
0
3(32)
96 + 480
384
48
= 2
+ 6 = 2
= 2
=
80
80
80
5
Exercise 7. By Apostols definition of conic sections, we are basically given the conic section definition with e =
2 !
1
1
2
1
2
b = a (1 e ) = 16 = a
x2
y2
+
=1
64/3 16
Exercise 8. F = 0
kX F k = kXk = ed(X, F ) = |X N + d| =
y
2
y + x = 1
1
1
1
x
1
y + =
N = ,
2
2
3
2
2
XL = P + tA
dN = XL XL N = d = 1/ 2
XL N N P = 1/ 2
226
1
2.
So just
x2 + y 2 =
Exercise 9. Center (1/2, 2) because we equate the asymptotes to see where they intersect: y = 2x + 1 = 2x + 3.
(y 2)2
(x 1/2)2
1
3
(0,0) 4
= 1 2 2 = 2 = 1
2
a
a2 /4
a
a
a
(x 1/2)2
(y 2)2
=1
3
3/4
x2
p+2
y2
p
= 1.
(1) Since p + 2 > p, the foci must lie on the x axis. a2 = p + 2; b2 = a2 (1 e2 ) = p = (p + 2)(1 e2 ). e =
F = ae = 2. ( 2, 0).
q
(2) F = ae = 2 = a( 3) = a = 23 ; b2 = 23 (1 3) = 4
3 .
x2
y2
=1
2/3 4/3
Exercise 11. e = 1 for an ellipse.
kX F k = |X N a| = a X N
kX F k = kX + F k = | X N a| = a + X N
kX F k + kX + F k = 2a
Exercise 12.
kX F k = e|(X F ) N d| = e(d (X F ) N )
kX + F k = ed(X, L) = e|(X F ) N + d| = e(d (X F ) N )
kX F k kX + F k = 2ed
X X
Exercise 13.
2
2
2
(by)2
)
b 2
(1) (tx)
= a (1e
=
a2 + b2 = 1
t
t2
2
2
2
2
2
2
(2) b1 = a1 (1 e ) b2 = a2 (1 e ).
a 2
t
(1 e2 )
b21
b22
b21
b22
=
1
;
=
a21
a22
a21
a22
2
2
b2
b2
x
y
2
2
b1
b1
x1
y
+ 2 =1=
+
a21
b1
a22
(b2 y)2
2
2 2
1)
b 2
= a (e
= at (e2 1).
t
t2
1
(3) (tx)
a2
(ty)2
b2
=1
x
a1
2
y
b1
b22
b22
+1
a22
2
=
227
= a22 (e2 1)
= e2
b2
b1 x
a2
2
b21
b2
= 22
2
a1
a2
!
2
b2
b1 y
b2
=1
2
p+2
= y 0 =
y2
b2
x2
a2
b2 x
ya2
Exercise 14.
= 1. =
a2 (1e2 )x
a2 y
x
a2
y 0
b2 y
=0
(e2 1)x
y
Exercise 15.
(1) y = ax2 + bx + c
(2) y = tx2 , t 6= 0
Exercise 16. x y + 4 = 0 y = 4 x
y 0 (x = 4) = 1
(y 2 = 16x); y 0 = 2x1/2 .
Exercise 17.
(1) If we treat the two given parabolas, y 2 = 4p(x a) and x2 = 4qy, as two vector objects free from any specific
coordinate system then we observe that we can disregard the sign of q and p and simply state that they are both
positive. What matters is that we observe that p and q are the distance of the foci to the vertex for each of the
respective parabolas.
Second, observe that a is not given. By diagram, if p, q are given, a must be moved along the x-axis to fit the
tangency condition. Thus, in terms of doing the algebra, just eliminate p and q from the relations.
If (h, k) is the point of contact,
y 2 = 4p(x a) y = 2 p x a
x2 = 4qy
x
1
= y0
y0 = p
2q
xa
h
1
y 0 (h) =
y 0 (h) = p
2q
ha
2
p
h
=
= (h2 )(h a) = (2q)2 p
(Tangent condition)
2q
ha
h2
k2
(one point of contact condition) with q =
,p=
4k
4(h a)
2 2
2
h
k
h2
= h2 (h a) =
= (h a)2 =
2k
4(h a)
16
2a a/2
= h =
= 4a/3
15/8
(2)
p
h
=
2q
ha
p
2a
3p
p
=
= ; 2a a = 3 3pq
3q
a
a/3
= 4a3 = 27pq 2
Exercise 18. First hint: Vector methods triumph over algebraic manipulations of Cartesian coordinates. Think of the locus
2
in terms of vector objects that are coordinate-free and the conic section will emerge. I mean, try evaluating kP Ak =
(x 2)2 + (x 3)2 = (x + y)2
A = (2, 3), N = 12 (1, 1), X = (x, y).
= 1 = y = ab x = e2 1x.
= e =
x2
a2
y2
b2
x+
+ x+
=x+ x+
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
s
2
1
25 x
1
1 + 2
5(1 + ) x +
+
= (1 + 2 ) x +
2
2
2
(1 + )
= = 0
The asymptotes are y =
1
2
and x =
1
2 .
In the second part, each quadrant must be checked. So far, I only have that quadrant II is filled: points in quadrant III and
quadrant IV cannot satisfy the given condition. To see this, consider quadrant II.
1 1
kx Ak = x + y = 2(x, y) ,
2
2
1
1
For quadrant II, N = 2 , 2 . By diagram, (X F ) N > 0 and X N > 0.
1
1
1
AN =
AN =
d=
2
2
2
|(X F ) N + d| = (X F ) N + d
The equation for the axis of the conic section is y = (x 5).
By taking the asymptotic limit like above, we can show that = 0 again. We only sketch the part of the hyperbola in
quadrant II.
By similar procedure, I found that quadrant III, IV cannot satisfy the condition.
Exercise 19.
kX F k = d(X, L) = |(X F ) N + d|
x2 + y 2 = (X N + d1 )2 = y 2 + 2yd1 + d21
x
F =0
x2 = 2yd1 + d21
y10 =
d1
kX F k = |(X F ) N d2 | = d2 (X F ) N
F =0
kXk = d2 y
x + y = d22 2d2 y + y 2
= x2 = d2 2d2 y
229
y20 =
x
d2
d2 d1
2
d2
d2 d1
0
y1 =
=
d
d1
1
=
d
d
1
2
1
y20 =
= q
d2
d2
d1
Exercise 20.
kXk 2X F + kF k = e2 (X N )2 2ea(X N ) + a2
2
X X = kXk + 2X F + kF k = e2 (X N )2 + 2ea(X N ) + a2
= kX 2 k + kF k2 = e2 (X N )2 + a2
(2)
x
a2
yy 0
a2 c2
= 0 = y 0 =
x2 + y 2 + c2 = e2 x2 + a2
|F | = c = ae
2
2
a c
y2
x2
2
2
2
2
+
=1
x
+
y
=
a
c
=
a2
a2
a2 c2
(a2 c2 )x
ya2
2
2 3
a c2
x
xy(y 0 )2 =
a2
y
2
2
(a2 c2 )x
a c 2
2
(x2 y 2 c2 )y 0 = x2 +
x
a
=
a2
ya2
(a2 c2 ) x
= (a4 + (a2 c2 )x2 a2 x2 )
a4
y
2 2
a
c
x2 )
x(a2 c2
a2
xy 2
xy =
=
=
y
y
= (a2 c2 )(a4 + a2 x2 )x/(a4 y)
= xyy 02 + (x2 y 2 c2 )y 0 xy = 0
(3) For y 0 , consider y10 at every (x, y).
2
1
1
xy
1
xy
+ (x2 y 2 c2 ) 0 xy = 0 = 0 + (x2 y 2 c2 ) 0 + xy
0
y
y
y
y
if y 0 6=0
xy + (x2 y 2 c2 )y 0 + xy(y 0 )2 = 0
Thus S S since the defining differential equation is invariant under the transformation of the slope.
Exercise 21. For a circle centered at C, then kX Ck = r02 for all points X on that circle.
For the condition of being tangent to a given line, L = P + tA, then (XC C) A = 0 and the point lies on the circle so
kXC Ck = r02 .
Call the point that all the circles pass through F . Then kC F k = kC XC k. kC XC k is by definition d(X, L), the
distance from the circle center to the line. kC F k = kC X0 k is by definition a parabola.
Exercise 22. Consider a circle thats part of the mentioned family that has its center directly below the given circle with radius
r0 , and center Q.
Its given that the center is equidistant from the point of tangency and the line. This hints at a parabola because the parabolas
230
vertex is equidistant from the focus and the directrix. Thus, we need to show that d(X, L) is equal to the distance from the
circle center C to the bottom point of Q.
Let N be a unit normal vector pointing from the line towards the focus, placing the focus in the positive half-plane.
Let C be the center of an arbitrary circle in the family and r1 its radius.
Let X1 be the point of tangency between circle Q and circle C.
We want k(Q + r0 N ) Ck = kX2 Ck.
The tangency condition between circle Q and C means that
r1
(X1 C) = (X1 Q); > 0
=
r0
Q r0 N C = Q X1 r0 N C + X1
take the magnitude
1
(C
X1 ) N .
L1 = B2 r0 N + tA2 .
The latus rectum intersect the parabola at (c, +2c), (c, 2c).
Thus 4c = length of latus rectum = 2d = 2( distance from focus to directrix ).
y = 2 cx y 0 = c/ x y 0 (c) = 1
Tangent lines: y = (x + c).
intersection
= r02
231
>0
2
= kQk
For the line defined in Cartesian coordinates as x + 2y 5 = 0, the vector form of this line is given by
1
2
XL = B + tA XL N = (x, y) ,
=N B+0= 5
5
5
2 1
A= ,
is a vector thats perpendicular to N ;
5
5
B = (1, 2) since we can simply plug it in to satisfy the equation
2 1
tR
XL = (1, 2) + t ,
5
5
2
1
1
, 1t
2
1t2
1
2t
t
1+t2 , 1+t2 , (1+t2 )2
Exercise 7. F 0 =
2
1+t2
4t2
4t
(1+t2 )2 , (1+t2 )2 , 0
F0 F =
Exercise 8.
1 2 1
2, 3, e
.
4t 4t3
4t(1 + t2 ) 4t2 (2t)
+
+
=0
(1 + t2 )3
(1 + t2 )3
(1 + t2 )3
1
Exercise 9.
/4
( cos t, sin t, ln | cos t|)|0
1
1+e
2
, 1 ln
3
2
2
+ 1,
, ln
2
2
2
1+e
2
1
Exercise 11. tet et , t2 et 2tet + 2et , tet et 0 = (1, e 2, 2e1 + 1)
R1
0
1 2t
2 te
1 2t t sinh 2t
4 e ,
2
2
2
2
+ 14 , sinh
+ 14
cosh
+ 14 , 2 3
2
4
4 e
1 2
3 2
B = 2 e + 2 sinh 2 + cosh 2 + 2 e .
0
0
1 2
4e
cosh 2t
,2
4
1 2t
2 te
e2t
4
= F 00 (t) F 0 (t) = 0
Exercise 14.
232
1
=
0
F 0 = 2e2t A + 2e2t B
F 00 = 4e2t A + 4e2t B = 4(F )
Exercise 15. G0 = F 0 F 0 + F F 00 = F F 00
Exercise 16.
G = F (F 0 F 00 )
G0 = F 0 (F 0 F 00 ) + F (F 00 F 00 + F 0 F 000 ) = F (F 0 F 000 )
Exercise 17. If limtp F (t) = A,
jth component,
r
> 0, j > 0
n
r
such that |Fj (t) Aj | <
n
if |t p| < j
Consider min j = 0
j=1,...n
n
X
j=1
n r
X
j=1
n
2
=
whenever |t p| < 0
= lim kF (t) Ak = 0
tp
qP
Aj )2 <
fj0 = lim
1
(fj (t + h) fj (t))
h
n
j=1 (Fj (t)
if |t p| < .
F0 =
n
X
fj0 ~ej
h0
j=1
F0 =
n
X
1
1X
1
(fj (t + h) fj (t)) = lim
(fj (t + h) fj (t))ej = lim h 0 (F (t + h) F (t))
h0 h
h0 h
h
j=1
j=1
lim
Pn
If F 0 (t) = limhto0 h1 (F (t + h) F (t)) = limh0 h1 j=1 (fj (t + h) fj (t))ej =
Pn
P
n
= j=1 limh0 h1 (fj (t + h) fj (t))ej = j=1 fj0 (t)ej
So F 0 is differentiable.
Exercise 19. F 0 (t) = 0, j = 1 . . . n, fj0 (t) = 0. By one-dimensional zero-derivative theorem, fj (t) = cj constant. Thus
F (t) =
Pn
ej
j=1 cj ~
Exercise 20.
1 3
6t A
= C on an open interval I.
+ 12 t2 B + Ct + D
n
X
jj (x) = Y (x) = e
Rx
a
Z
B+
Exercise 22.
233
Rt
Qe
a
j=1
dt
tF 0 = F + tA = F 0 + tF 00 = F 0 + A
tF 0 = F + tA = At ln t + Bt = A(t ln t t) + Bt + C + tA
= tF 00 = A
F 00 (t) = A/t
C = 0,
B = 3A
= F (t) = A ln t + B
= F (t) = A(t ln t t) + Bt + C
F (3) = A(3 ln 3 3) + 9A = 3A ln 3 + 6A
F (1) = A(1) + B + C = 2A
Exercise 23.
1
F (x) =
x
1
F (x) F (x)
= ex A + xex A + ex A
+
= 2ex A + xex A = (2 + x)ex A
x
x
F 0 (x) = (2 + x)ex A;
F (x) = 2ex A + A(xex ex ) + C = Axex + ex A + C
Z x
x
(Atet + et A + C)dt = A(tet et ) + et A + Ct 1 =
1
F (x) = e A + xe A + 2
x
0
F (t)dt +
C(x 1) eA
= C = eA
x
x
ln
fk (t)
fk (a)
(x)dx
a
Rt
fk = fk (a)e a
Z t
n
n
Rt X
X
fj (a)e6
F (t) =
ej = e a
fj (a)ej = u(t)A
j=1
j=1
14.19 Exercises - Velocity and acceleration in polar coordinates, Plane motion with radial acceleration, Cylindrical
coordinates.
Exercise 1.
dr
dr
d
= ~er + r ~e = ~er + r~e ( = t)
dt
dt
dt
2 !
d2 r
d
1 d
2 d
a=
r
~er +
r
~e = r~er + 2~e
dt2
dt
r dt
dt
v=
v = ~er + t~e = cos t~ex + sin t~ey + t sin t~ex + t cos t~ey =
= (cos t t sin t)~ex + (sin t + t cos t)~ey
a = (t cos t 2 sin t)~ex + (t sin t + 2 cos t)~ey
Exercise 2.
v = ~er + r~e + ~ez = (cos t t sin t)~ex + (sin t + t cos t)~ey + ~ez
a = (t cos t 2 sin t)~ex + (t sin t + 2 cos t)~ey
Exercise 3. (a).
2
1 2
1
1
2
2
(r cos ) + (r sin ) = r r sin + =
2
4
4
r = sin t; = t; z = log sec t; t <
234
(b).
v=
dt
d
tan sec
~er + r ~e + log sec t~ez = cos t~er + r~e +
~ez
dt
dt
sec
vz = tan ; v 2 = cos2 t + r2 + tan2 = sec2
cos =
tan
= sin = r = sin t
sec
= arccos (sin )
Exercise 6.
Z
A=
R2 ()d =
2
1 2c
e4c 1
e2c
=
e d =
2
4c 0
4c
Exercise 7.
1
1
sin4 d =
2
2
Z
0
1
sin (1 cos )d =
2
2
1 cos 2
2
1 cos 4
2(4)
d
= 3/16
Exercise 15. Place target at the center (without loss of generality). The strategy is to break up v into the polar coordinate unit
vectors.
r = r~er
d
dr
~er + r ~e
dt
dt
dr
= vr = v cos ( ) = v cos
dt
d
r
= v sin
dt
r d
v sin
d 1 dr
dt
= tan = dr
= tan
=r ;
v cos
dr r d
dt
v=
r = e tan
Exercise 17.
A first order differential equation of the form y 0 = f (x, y) is homogeneous if f (tx, ty) = f (x, y). Then
f (r cos , r sin ) = f (cos , sin ) = f ()
We find that
dy
dr
=
sin + r cos
d
d
dx
dr
=
cos r sin
d
d
Thus
dy
=
dx
dr
d
dr
d
sin + r cos
cos r sin
= f ()
Exercise 18.
v = k r
dr
d
~er + r ~e
dt
dt
dt
d
d
v ~er = 0, so
= 0; k r = r ~e = r~e = r
dt
dt
dt
2
d
2
|k r| = 2 r2 = r2
dt
d
= , > 0
dt
v=
v=
(b).
dr
d
d
dr
~er + r ~e = r ~e ;
= 0; ~e = ~ez ~er
dt
dt
dt
dt
d
d
v = r ~ez ~er = ~ez r~er = r
dt
dt
a = v0 = 0 r + r0 = r + r0
r0 = ( r) = ( r) 2 r
(c).
Now r = 0 = a = 2 r
Exercise 20.
d
dt |rp (t)
d 2
drp
drp
drq
drq
(r 2rp rq + rq2 ) = 2rp
2
rq 2rp
+2
rq = 0
dt p
dt
dt
dt
dt
drp
drq
(rq rp ) =
(rp rq )
dt
dt
Suppose
vp = p rp
vq = q rq
Then
vp (rq rp ) = vq (rp rq )
p rp rq = q rq rp =
= q rp rq
((p q ) rp ) rq = 0
Thus, p = q .
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