Umece Merenja

,
,

283,
,
24.06.2011.
.
-
,
006 . 91 ( 075.8)
621 . 317 ( 075.8)
, , 1945 / .
:
, 2011
( : ) . 332 . : . ; 24 cm
30 . .
. -
ISBN 978 - 86 - 7982 - 098 - 3
) b)
COBISS.SR - ID 186112524

1, ,
,

.

. ,
, .
,
.
.
. ,
. ,
.
,
.
. , ,

. .
, .
,
( ),
.
, ,
. , .
,
, ,
, ,
.

. , ,
, .

, a .
. .
. ,
, . ,
,
.
.
,
.
, ,
. , ,
, ,
.
14 .
.
.
, , ,
.
.
.
.

,
.
.
SI .
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
-.
.
, ,
,
.
,
, ,
M .
.

. .

.
.
.
.
,
.
.
j
, .

. e e
, .

.
, .
.

: ,
, .

.

: e .
, .
.
-
.
: ,
. U/N .
, , ,
.

.
,
- .
/ .
,
, , , .
,

.
.
, e
.
-
.
.

.

, .
.
.

,
.
,
, ,
,
.
28.06.2011.

a, A
a
A
b
B
c
C
d
E
f
g
G
i
i~
I
IAV
IM
iIN
iin
IIN
IO
iO
io
IOUT
,
l
K
L
m
n
N
p(t)
P
q
q, Q
qe
r
,
,
,

()
R
t
T
TC
u
u~
U
UAV
UM
UF
uF
UFM
uIN
uin
UIN
uO
uo
UO
UT
v
V
W
,

()
PN-

PN-
()
()

,
,

()

1.
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
2.
, ,
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
3.
3.3.
3.4.
59
59
62
3.2.1. 63
3.2.2. 70
72
75

4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
21
22
2.1.1. 24
2.1.2. 28
2.1.3. 35
2.1.4. 38
2.1.5. 40
2.1.6. 41
43
2.2.1. 44
2.2.2. e 45
2.2.3. 45
2.2.4. 48
52
2.3.1. 55

56

3.1.
3.2.
4.
7
Me 9
11
1.3.1. 12
1.3.2. 13
1.3.3. 15
16
80
81
82
85
4.4.1. 86
4.4.2. 89
4.4.3. 90
79
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
5.

5.1
5.2.
5.3.
6.
6.2
6.3.
6.4
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
7.5.
7.6.
8.
145
146
7.1.1. 148
151
7.2.1. 151
7.2.2. 153
7.2.3. 154
156
160
163
166
8.1.
8.2.
115
116
6.1.1. 117
6.1.2. 118
6.1.3. 119
6.1.4. 121
6.1.5. 122
123
125
6.3.1. 125
6.3.2. 127
6.3.3. 129
6.3.4. 132
6.3.5. 137
139
6.4.1. 142

7.1
99
101
106
109
5.3.1. 110

6.1
7.
91
4.5.1. 91
4.5.2. 92
93
4.6.1.
94
95
169
172
8.2.1. 174
8.2.2. 176
8.2.3. 177
169
9.

9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
10.
179
180
183
185
9.3.1. 185
9.3.2. 187
189
9.4.1. 189
9.4.2. 195
199
200
/ 202
207
209
10.4.1. 210
10.4.2. 212
10.5. 213
10.6. 214
10.6.1. N 214
10.6.2. f N 216
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
11.
-
11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
12.
227
228
/ 229
/ 230
/ 233
11.4.1. 233
11.4.2. / 234
11.4.3. / 236
11.4.4. / 240
247
12.1. 247
12.2. 251
12.3. 253
12.3.1. 254
12.3.2. 255
12.4. 262
12.4.1. 264
12.4.2. 265
12.5. 267
12.6. 268
12.6.1. 270
12.6.2. 273
12.6.3. 274
13.
277
13.1. 278
13.1.1. 281
13.2. 282
13.2.1.
285
13.3. 286
13.3.1. 287
13.3.2. 288
13.3.3. 290
13.3.4. 292
13.4. 294
13.4.1. 294
13.4.2. 296
13.5. 297
13.5.1. R/U 298
13.5.2. R/U 299
13.5.3. R/U 302
13.6. 303
13.6.1. 304
13.6.2. 306
14.

14.1.
14.2.
14.3.
14.4.
14.5.
14.6.
309
309
311
314
315
317
318
14.6.1. 320
15.
323
16.
330

,
, ;
,
;
,
, ,
,

Lord Kelvin of Largs
" " . ,
,
,

.
.
, ,
.
, , ,
;
.
, " ",
,
.
" ",
. , ,
10% .

.
.
: , , , , , ...
,
, .

.
, ,

.

.

.

:
, 1.
,
.

.
e

.
e (2 400 . ...)
,
, ,
, .
O ,

, .
, ,
,
. ,
,
.

.

. ,

.
,

.

.
,
, ,

: , , ,
.
, , ,
,
, , 585.
. ..., ,
, ,
, ,
.

, , ,
,
, ,
, ,
.
, ,
. , .

.
, ,

.
2,
,
, .

.
,
,

.

,
. a

.
, ,

.

.
. ,
,

,

. ,
.
,

( ),
e e (chip),
.
.
, ,
.

( ).

( ).
,
.
.
, .

.

,
, .

.
,
3

,
,
, .

, ,
.
, ,
-
, ,
.
.
, ,

(
, , ,
) .
4,
, .
0,1 nm 100 nm.

,
,
.
, ,
(), ().

.
.

.

.
e
. -3,
(1958).
(1990), ,
, 600 km.
,
Hubble
. Galileo, ,
(1995) .
-, 2004.
,
.
,
Spirit Opportunity,

.
. , ,

. ,
.

,
, . ,
.
.
.
,
- ,

.
.
.
.
: , .
, :
.
5
, ,
. ,
.
,

.
( ),
, ,
, ,
,
.
(, , )
.
(, , , )
. ,
. , ,

.

. ,

() , .

.
,
. , ,
,
.

,
, .
,
,
,
,
.
. ,
, .
, ,
,
.
.
.
Anthony Standen
(Science is a sacred cow)
1.
,
, ,
, 1. ,
,
.
.
.
.
,
.
,
.
, .
.
.
.
1.1.

, ,
2 .
.
,
, .
, .
,
,
.
(talon, ).
, ,
, , .
, . mtron, , loga
(), : .
: (, , , )
(. quantitas, , , ).
(. Normale . norma, ,
, ). , ()
3.
4 [1].
, ,
, 5 6.
, ,
7 ,
[2].
,
.

,
. [3]

(1795) ,
,
[4]. ,
(A tous les temps, a tous les peuples),

(1840).
, (metrology)
. ,
,
. :
;
;
(traceability chain),
;

;

, .
, ,
, ,
, :
(1873),
Urma ( ur = , , ma = ).
.
. : , .
.
,
.
.
, , , , (od .
instrumentum, , ) [3].
.
, (. disseminatio, ).
01
.
,
.
,
,
, , .

,
.
a (metrological traceability)
,
,
.
,
, (metrological traceability
chain). a .

,
.
1790.
,
, ,
, .
,
,
. , , 86 400
,
, .
,
,
(Antoine Lavoisier, 1743-1794)
.
, .
1792. 1798.
,
, . 1799.

.
1.2.

.
.
. ,
, ,
, "
"
9
20. 1875. 8. :
,
.
(Confrence Gnrale des
Poids et Mesures, CGPM)

,
.
(Comit Gnrale des Poids et
Mesures, CIPM), ,
,
,
,
.
(Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures, BIPM) ,
,
,
,

. BIPM
.
.
.
, BIPM
,

. , [2]:
(1927),
(1933),
(1937),
(1952),
(1956),
(1958),
(1954),
(1980),
: (1993)
, (1999).
(European
Association of National Metrology Institutes - EURAMET)
, 2007. 9,
8
9
1879. .
- EURAMET-,
(European Collaboration in Measurement Syandards -EUROMET).
10
01

, SI,
.

, ,
[5].
, ,
.
(International
Measurement Confederation, IMEKO)
, 1958.

,
.

, ,

.
[6].
1.3.
,
. ,

:
,
, ();

,
;

,

.
,
. ,
.

.

.
11
1.3.1.
10.
,
, . ,
, 11

.
12
13.
,
. ,
, ,

.
, (observation)
. ,
, ,
,

[7], [8], [9].
. ,
, ,
.
, , .
, ,
, .
,
, ,
, .
.
BIPM [10]:
10
11
12
13
, ,
(. renaissance, , , ).
(. empeira, ).
.
a,
(),
(. experimentum, , , ).
.
, , , (. mthodos, ,
). ,
.
12
01
,
, 14,
,
,
.
. 2000. ,

.
,
.
,
15
.
,

.

.
, .
,

[5].
1.3.2.

, ,
. ,

, . 16

.
.
10
15 .
.
, ,
,

, .
14
15
16
(. gravis, ).
.
( . automatos, ).
13

,
, .
,
, -
, ,

. ,

.
.
.
SCADA-17
.

.

,
,

.
,
( ,
, , , ),
,
,
.
,
,

LAN
WAN
GPS
a

17
() (SCADA = supervsory control and data

acqusition).
14
01
.

() ,
, .

.

. EURAMET-
: [5].

, , 18, ,
,
, ,

,
, , ,
,
,
,
,
,
, , ,
() , (,
),
, ,
,
, , ,
, , , pH

,
, .
1.3.3.
, ,
.
() 19
" " ,
. ,
,
.
18
19
.
, : , , , ,
, , .

.
15
(legal metrology)

.
,
, ,
, , ,
,

( )
.

:
;
;
;
.
O .
1.4.

,
,
.

20. ,
, ,

.

. 21 ,

() .
20
21
,
, . ,
,
. modulus ( , ,
)
, .
.

(), (
) .
16
01
, je
, .

,
.
,
,
.
a , ,

, [11].
,
.

. ,
, :
, ;
,
, ;
, ;
.
,
, , ,
,
[12]. . e
e , .
.
, , :
, ;

;
- , ,
;
,
;
, ,
;
, , , , , , ,

.
, ,
.
17

22 [13]. , ,

, ,
,
, ,
.
(International
Telecommunication Union, ITU)
.
(1906)
(International Electrotechnical Commission - IEC)

23. ,
,

. IEC
,
, , ,

.
. M

,
, [14], [15], [16].

.
(International
Organisation
for
Standardisation - ISO24) 160
. ISO-
.

, , ,
.
22
23
24

.
.
, .
(William Thomson),
.
() , ISO, isos (
), .
18
01
,
18 000 .

. : (European
Committee for Standardization,CEN),
(European
Committee
for
Electrotechnical
Standardization, CENELEC)
(European Telecommunications Standards Institute, ETSI).
[17]
,
, ,
.

.
, ,
. ,
, [6],
ISO IEC [18], [19].
[20].

,
.
,
, 25
, .
, ,
, ,
, .
,
[21].
()

. , ,

,
.
26
.
25
26
, ,
.
, (. certe, , facere, ).
19
,
[22].

.
,

, [23], [24].
1. , , 30/2010.
2. The International System of Units (SI), BIPM, 8.th edition, 2006.
3.
. , 40/80.
4. M. Brezinak, Merenje i raunanje u tehnici i znanosti, Tehnika knjiga, 1971.
5. Metrology - in short, 3rd edition, EURAMET, 2008.
6. International vocabulary of metrology Basic and general concepts and asotiated terms (VIM),
2007, http://www1.bipm.org/en/publications/guide/vim.html.
7. . , , DSP mecatronic, 1997.
8. M. Koen, E. Nejgel, Uvod u logiku i nauni metod, Zavod za izdavanje udbenika,1965.
9. A Koare, Nauna revolucija, Nolit, 1981.
10 http://www1.bipm.org.
11. , 44/05.
12. , 30/96.
13. I. Stojanovi, Osnovi telekomunikacija, Graevinska knjiga, 1985.
14. International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050.
15. http://stf.iec/ch/glossary.
16. Electropedia, The World`s Online Electrotechnical Vocabulary, http://www.electropedia.org.
17. , 36/2009.
18. ISO 80000-1, Quantities and Units,-Part 1: General, .
19. IEC 80000, Quantities and Units, .
20. International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 311, Electrical and electronic
measurements, General terms relating to measurements.
21. , 73/2010.
22. -03, , 2009.
23. SRPS ISO/IEC 17025: 2006,
, (General requirements for the competence of testing and
calibration laboratories).
24. SRPS ISO/IEC 17020: 2002,
(General criteria for the operation of various types of bodies performing inspection).
20

,
,

Galileo Galilei
2.
, ,

,
,
.

.
1
.

, , .
,
,
1913. .
. , ,
1992. , 70
18 000 , [1].
. ,
,
, .
[2], [3].
1969.
[4].

[5]. , o 2007.
,
,
2 [6].
() ,
. (terminus,
). ,
(terminus technicus).

. :
BIPM ( ), IEC ( ),
IFCC ( ), ILAC (
), ISO ( ), IUPAC
( , IUPAP (
), OIML ( ).

, .

.
.

.
.
.

.
2.1

(measurable quantity), ,
3
4. , , , , ,
, , , ...
5 ,

.
, , , .
,
, ,
,
. ,
(6)
( , ).
2.1.

,
5
6

, ,
. qualitas, , , ()
, , .
.
.
.
, . gns, .
. intensitas, , , .
22
, ,
02
. ,

I, , ,
7 .
.
, ,
(), (, ),
. ,
( ) F
:
F ma ,
8
m , a .
,
,

,

,
,
(2.1)
2.1.

(quantity equation).

,
(, , ). ,

( ) ( ).
9.
,
,
10.
9
10
,
yard. , ()
.

ISO (IEC) 80000 Quantities and units.
.
(Helmholtz, 1887) dimensio (,
) . ,
(, ).
23
.
, , (velocity, v)
(length, L) (time, t) :
L
.
(2. 2)
t
,
, :
(2. 3)
L dl .
v
2.2
. Q :
dim Q. (dim Q = Q).
, ,
-1
L T, LT .

(kind of quantity). (quantities of the
same kind)
.
, :
, , ;
, , .
. ,
.
. , ,
, .
,
() ,
(quantity equation). .

. 7],[8]
2.1.1
11, (length, l)
() : (area, surface, S) (volume, V)
:
11
, , (. phsis,
). , .
[7].
(. gemetra, )
,
. ,
(. mthma, ).
, , :

[8].
24
, ,
02
S dS dxdy ,
S
(2.4)
V dV dxdydz .
V
(2.5)
x
(l, S, V)
, .
,
, :
S l2 V l3.
(2.6)
12, ,
13: (time, t), (velocity, v) (accelaration, a).
:
dl
,
dt
dv
a
.
dt
v
(2.7)
(2.8)
.

.
v
a
,
, .
,
. , .
14 ,
. , , (mass, m),
, 15 (momentum, mv), 16,
(force, F), .
( ) :
. .
12
13
14
15
16
, ,
.
, (.
kinma, , ).
(bold) .
,
(. dynamik, dynamis, ).
(. momentum, , )
()
(). , (. impulsus, ) [9].
,
.
25
17
.
( )
:
d(m v )
.
dt
:
F
F m
d2 l
dt 2
(2.9)
ma .
(2.10)
.
18. Fg

, m1 m2, r:
Fg
m1 m 2
r,
(2.11)
r3
,
.
(Isaac Newton,
1643-1727), ,
.
.
Philosophia naturalis principia mathematica (1687)
.

.
.
19 .
: .

. ()

(
).
.
:
M r F .
17
18
19
(2.12)
,
.
, , : ,
, .

.
26
, ,
02
(pressure, p)
() :
F
p .
(2.13)
S

. (
) .
,
( ):
(2.14)
F kl ,
k .
F
dl , :
dA F d l .
(2.15)
, A F
:
B
A F d l .
(2.16)

: .
.
, .
,
( ).
.
.
, ,
(power, p). :
dA dW
.
dt
dt
(2.17)
(Wk)
(Wp). .
. .
m, v :
Wk
mv 2
.
2
(2.18)
.
m h
:
27
Wp mgh ,
(2.19)
g ( ).
.
l
:
kl 2
We
.
(2.20)
2

.
20.
: , .

.
2.1.2

, ,
.
21,
22
[9], [10]. .
.
(
).
2.1.2.1

(electrostatic force),
. , .
, 23,
Fe :
1 q1 q 2
Fe
r,
(2.21)
4 r 3
20
21
22
23

.
: (. electric charge, .
electrische Ladung), , (. ),
.
( . axioma, , )
.
.
28
, ,
02
q1 q2 , r
(-) q1
q2.
24.
,
, (Charles de
Coulomb, 1736-1806)

.

.
25

. ,
26
, .
Wq, ,
, q,
,
. :
Wq
q
(2.22)

N
:
WMN q(VM VN ) .
(2.23)

. (voltage):
U MN VM VN .
(2.24)
(Alessandro
Volta,
1745-1827)
( )
.

(1810).
24
25
26
(permitivity). (
) .
, , ,
. .
.
29
27.

:
q
.
U
(2.25)

.
:
qU CU 2
.
2
2
(2.26)
2.1.2.2
() ,
,
(current).
28.
.
i q
:
dq
i
,
(2.27)
dt
:
q id t .
(2.28)
, .
q[tp, tk],
tp tk, :
tk
q[t p , tk ] i(t )dt .
(2.29)
tp
i(t)i ,
,
:
1t
u(t ) i(t )dt U 0 ,
(2.30)
C0
U0
27
28
u(t) t = 0.
(capacitor) ( )
. condensatio,
, , .
[11].
30
, ,
02
29.

30
.

. i(t), 31,
u(t), ,
:
u (t ) Ri(t ) .
(2.31)
.
R je (resistance).
.
, G,
:
i Gu .
(2.32)
(Georg Simon Ohm, 1789-1854),

,
,
(1827).
, ,
(1881)
().

. .
, I
R,
t, :
W RI 2 t .
(2.33)

. 2.33

:
29
30
31
, ,
.
.

(). (, .
) ()
.
, (conductor) ()
.
,
.
31
W
RI 2 .
(2.34)
t
,
,
:
dW
p(t )
u(t )i(t ) .
(2.35)
dt
P
(James Joule, 1818-1889)

[11].

23
.
, W[tp, tk],
tp tk, :
tk
W [t p , t k ] p(t )dt .
(2.36)
tp

. ,

:
tk
W [t p ,t k ]
1
P
(2.37)
p(t )dt .
tk t p
tk t p t
p
(2.31) (2.37) :
P RI ef2 ,
(2.38)
Ief
32:
I ef
tk
1
2
i t dt .
tk t p t
p
(2.39)
,
o
.
:
P
U ef2
,
(2.40)
R
Uef :
32
IRMS (RMS = root-mean-square).
32
, ,
02
U ef
tk
1
2
u t dt .
tk t p t
p
(2.41)

.
33.
B q v
v B ( 34):
(2.42)
F q v B .
F
B
dl,
I, ;
(2.43)
d F Id l B .
I
dl
Ka a
.
B
.
I1
B d l I k
C
I3
(2.44)
k 1

() .
, (AndrMarie Ampre, 1775-1836)

.
(1821)

[11].
I2

,
, I:
I
B
B
.
(2.45)
I
2r

r
r 35.
B
33
34
35

(magnetic flux density).
,
[12].
- ,
1820. (Jean-Baptiste Biot, Felix Savart).
33
BdS .
(2.46)
.
,
36
:
d
.
(2.47)
dt
[12].
.
,
37,
.
.
.

:
di
uL L .
(2.48)
dt
, L,
u, :
1t
i(t ) u(t )dt I 0 ,
(2.49)
L0
I0 i t = 0. 2.49
38.

(Michael Faraday, 1791-1867). ,
,
.

. ,
.

.
36
37
38
(electromotive force, e.m.f)

(
). ,
(. motus, )
( electromotive). .
(source voltage).
, .
: (coil,
Spule, ). (inductor).

.
34
, ,
02

. (c),
(f) ().
:
c
(2.50)
f .
, c0, .
,
39 [13]:
0 0c02 1 .
(2.51)

(James Clerk Maxwell, 1831-1879)

(1864).
,
(Heinrich Rudolph Hertz,
1857-1894)
.
, ,
, , ,
. .

.
2.1.3
(amount of
heat) ( ).
(
), ( )
( ). :
.
40.
. ,
.
(Jean-Baptist
Joseph Fourier, 1768 -1830) , ,
,

( , 1822).

,
.
39
40
0 ( ) .
0 ( ) .
temperare, , .
35
.

41 ( , )

[14]. (1742),

, 42.
,
.
.

(1606)
(). - (1802)

:
V V0 (1 t ) ,
(2.52)
V0 t = 0,
.
1/266,6
43.
.
,
.
p(t) .
p p 0 (1 t ) .
(2.53)
V V0 (1 t ) ,
(2.54)
, , ,
.
,
,
:
l l 0 (1 t ) .
41
42
43
(2.55)

,
(. scale, ).
, 100 ,.
, (centesimal)
(1927), .
, ,
1/273,15.
36
, ,
02

(44),

.
,
, .
45.

46.
:
mv 2 3
kT ,
(2.56)
2
2
k .
.
.
Ek
,
,
. (),
,
.
,
e, 47.
48.

,
, .
(Villiam Thompson,
1824 -1907)
.
,
(1`st
baron
Kelvin
of
Largs,
1892).

.
49 50,
( , luminous intensity)
44
45
46
47
48
49
- , , (. therms).
2.52 2.53 ().
.
.

.
(, 1703),

[13].
:
, .

(. phs, ).
37
, ,
Iv.
.
.
(radiant intensity) I.
51 , 52,
:
I v 683Iy( ) ,
(2.57)
y() (luminosity function),

.
53 (amount of
substance).
.
, , , ,
.
,
.
() .
(Amadeo Avogadro, 1776 1856) (1811)
, ,
.
,
,
2.1.4

(system of quantities). (base quantity)

. (derived quantity)

. (quantity equation)
, ,

.
50
51
52
53

0,01 m 1000 m (. radius, ).
, .
(. mnos, ; chrma, ).
(. sos, ; trpos, ).
.
38
02
, ,

.
,
.
e
, . . -

.
.
() ,
, ,
L, M T.
, ,
,
54.
,
.
,
[15].
,
() . ,
, ,
,
. ,
, , , .
- , ,
: .
(space time, ST),
-3 3
-1
, L T , L T [16].
,
(International System of Quantities, ISQ)
.
2.2.
(lenght)
(mass)
(time)
(electric current)
T (thermodinamyc themperature)
(luminous intensity)
() (amount of substance)
O
L
M
T
I
J
N
2.2. ISQ
54
(1832),
: .
39
2.1.5
,
.
:
. .

, .
55.
:
;

.
(quantity dimension)
, ,

. X, , B C,
:
dimX X A a B b C c .
, a, b , ,
. , .
()
, , ,
. 2.4 2.5,
, 56:
S L2 V L3 .

, , :
dimX X Ll Mm T t Ii .
(2.58)
l, m, t i ,
. 2.3.
, ( 2.10)
:
55
56

() , , : !.
: ... !.
, (=).
40
, ,
02
dimF F LMT-2 .

( 2.18):
2
L
dimW W M L2MT-2 .
T
2.27 :
dimQ Q IT .
, ,

,
,

v
a
f
F
W
-1
LT
-2
LT
-1
T
-2
LMT
2
-2
-3
L MT
P
Q
L MT
-1
IT
L MT I
R
G
C
L
B
-3 -1
-3 -2
L MT
-2
-1 3 2
L M T I
-2
-1 4 2
L M T I
2
-2 -2
L MT I
-2 -1
MT I
-3
-1 4 2
L M T I
-2 -2
LMT I
2.3.
2.1.6

.
57. A,
,
amin amax ( 2.1.a).
A {a a [a min , a max ]} .
(2.59)
A :

57
(, )
. , ,
( . analogos, , , ).
()
, , , .
41
.
, , ,
58
.
amax
amin
d0 d1
dj-1 dj dj+1 dJ-1
2.1 a a e e
59
(60) . D
d (
2.1.).
D {d j }; j 0,...J 1.
(2.60)

61, :
B {b0 , b1 }; .
.

. ,
62
. .
( )
() ,
.
() .

.63
,
, () ().
, x(t)
(
58
59
60
61
62
63
(
resolutio, ).
. , x
.
, , ,
.

( , , . digitus, ).
, ( . discernere, , ).
. bi, .
E ( ), q, ,
.
() .
.
42
, ,
02
)64. , T,
() x(t),
, tp,
, t ( 2.2.).
T {t t [t p , t k ]} .
(2.61)
d(ti)
a(t)
tp
t0 t1 t2
tk
t
tJ
2.2.
x(t) ( ).
( )
. x(t) (continuoustime).
, ,

. T,
d(t),
( 2.2.):
T {t j } ; j
1,.., J ,
(2.62)
y(t) (discrete-time).
(t, t+1) y(t) .
2.2
(quantity)
, ,
[6].
(quantity value)
, .
.
a (numerical quantity value) je
, .

. .
64
, x
.
43
, .
.

, () .
.

(1 = 1,8 F).
2.2.1

. ,
, ,
, ,
. ,
.
(measurement unit) ,
,
, ()
.

.
,
.
. ,
(1/s) (Hz),
, (Bq)
.
.
65,
-3
( mV/V 10 ).
.
m ().
(),
().

. . ,
:
Z (1 j2) .
Z
65
() , , .
44
, ,
02
(),
, 1+2 .
2.2.2

. :
Q {Q} [Q] ,
(2.63)
Q , {Q}
, [Q]
Q .
.
Q, ,
.
. .
,
.

66. {Q} [Q], ,
, . ()
.
13 , ,
.
, {Q}
Q :
{Q}
Q
.
[Q ]
(2.64)
2.2.3
,
, ,
(system of units) .
,
, 67 .

.
66
67
.

(2 = 120 ).
( . cohaerentia, ).
45

.
,
68 [17].
(Karl Friedrich Gauss,
1777-1855) (1832)

. (1852)
.
, .
- [15].
1881.

, (CGS-69).
,
(, , ).
, , 1889. ,
1935. .
, ,
(Giovanni Giorgi, 1871-1950) 1901.
: ,
( S-) [14].
,

CGS-. 1935. ,
.
(IEC) S-
(, , ) 1935. ,
, , 70.
(1950) .
SA-
.
(CIPM) 1946.

71.
(72)
.
68
69
70
71
72
,
,
.
,
,
. [15].
, ,
( ).
S- 1938. [14].
, .
1948.
[16].
46
02
, ,
( )
.
( )
.
( )
, ,
,
,
-7
2 x 10 .
( )

, 73
.
( )
,
, ,
.
( 74)
.
( )

() .
( )

75.
( )

.
(Max Planck, 1858-1947),
, 1906.
:
, , , k,
, h c. .

[17], [18].
73
74
75
,
( . dissipatio, ).
(quantity of electricity) . IEC-
(electric charge) [19], [13].

.
47
2.2.4
(International System of Units, SI)

(11th CGPM, 1960)
[19], [20].
ISQ. 2.4
.
, , ,
, [7]. 2.4
.

T

()
l, x, r,
m
t
I, i
T
Iv
n
(metre)
(kilogram)
(second)
(ampere)
(kelvin)
(candela)
(mole)
m
kg
s
A
K
cd
mol

1983
1901
1967
1948
1967
1971
1979
2.4. SI

1/299 792 458 .

76.
,
1975. CGPM:
c = f = 299 792 458 ,
(2.65)
(1983) ()
( ) .

[21]. (Tito Livio
Burratini) (Misura universale)
1675. ,
.
(. )
. (
), ,
, (mtre),
(metre, meter ).
76
. (1960)
86.
48
, ,
02
:
.
(CGPM)
1889.
.
(BIPM).

.
.
XIV, ,
grave,
. ,
gramme, .
, ,
, , :
.
().
9 192 631 770

133.
77
.
,
,
,
-7
, 2 x 10
.

:
0 = 410-7 mkgsA-2.
(2.66)
1/273,16
78.
()
. t
T, ISQ,
:
t T T0 ,
77
78
, , () .

, (1960). (1967)
.
.

, CIPM 2005.
[17].
49

0 = 273,15 , .
()
0,012 12.
,
, , ,
.
( ), ,
12
540 x 10
1/683 .
SI
79
rad
mm-1
sr
m2m-2
Hz
s-1
mkgs-2
2
m-1kgs-2
Pa
N/m
, ,

Nm
m2kgs-2
J/s
m2kgs-3
J/V
sA
,
(),

W/A
m2kgs-3A-1
V/A
m2kgs-3A-2
A/V
m-2kg-1s3A2
C/V
m-2kg-1s3A2
Wb/A
m2kgs-2A-2
Wb
Vs
m2kgs-2A-1
Wb/m2
kgs-2A-1
2.5.
SI, 80
79
1960. .
; (base units),
(derived units) (supplementary units).
(plane angle) (solid angle), ()
. .
(dimernsionless derived quantities, CIPM
1980). CGPM 1995. .
50
, ,
02
2.5. SI

, ,

SI ( 2.6).
,
( .1.1).
, SI
, . .2.2.
.
SI
. ()
() .2.3 .2.4
. 81
.2.5.
(submultiple prefix). .
(1875)
.
(SI) 11.
82 (1960). ,

.
min
h
d
1 min = 60 s
1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
1 d = 24 h =86 400 s
'
"
1 = (/180) rad
ha
l, L
1' = (1/60) =(/10800) rad

1" = (1/60)' =(/648000) rad
1 ha = 1 hm2=104 m2
1 L =1 l =1 hm2=10-3 m3
1 t =103 kg
2.6. SI
SI-
80
81
82
(
) ,
, .
- ( . decem) .
( ), a
. ,
. .
1960. .
() .
51

", , [22],
[23], SI : (Myanmar),
A ,
SI 83 [24]. SI,

(British units).
2.3
,
, 84.
() ()

. .
,
. ,

. ,
85, .

(deterministic signal).

. (
2.3.) .
()
(random signal).
( 2.3.), .
,
.
2.3
83
84
85
Mars Climate Orbiter, 1998.

, ,
.
. ,
SI [21].
. signum, .
, , detectio, , .
52
, ,
02
,
,
(),
:
;
;
;
.
(measurement signal)
. ()

( 2.4).
, :
, -, (stimulus), (response),
, (frequency response),
(transfer function)...
2.4. -
, 2.5.
. (2.33), P
je
:
P UI .
(2.67)
+
Ui
Up
Uu
2.5. -

.
:
:
Uu kuU , Ui ki I .
ku , ki
.

.
:
53
Up kmUuUi ,
. ku, ki km
Up
(mW, W, kW).
, , , ,
(
2.6.a):
x(t ) X sin(t ) .
(2.68)
,
(, ,
)
.
.
, , .
TH
TH
X
XH
XH
TL
XL
2.6.
, Uav,
u(t) , tp tk:
u(t ) U av
1
tk t p
tk
u(t )dt ,
(2.69)
tp
, Ueff,

U eff u 2 (t ) ,
(2.70)

( 2.6.),
() (peek), ,
.
.
:
TH
,
T
(2.71)
(0 1).

54
, ,
02
( 2.6.):
TH TL
,
TH TL
(2.72)
.
( ).
86, .
,
a(t).
(87) x(t),
a(t) .
2.3.1
, ,
( )
.
[25].
(analog signal)
, ,

88.

[26].
(digital signal)

.

.
(binary signal)

.
86
87
88
, .
, ( . magnus, ).
, ,
(
). (
, ,
).
55
,
89 [27].

()
, ,
, .
.

.
()
.
,
.
2.4

e (, italic),
[28].

.
. (,
), :
12 34'5" .
,
.

.
, ,
(m, g, s).
(A, Hz, Pa, T, Wb).
,
(, , ).
,
.
89
56
, ,
02
.
-
.
SI (mA, mm,
kV, MHz).

.
.
,
. : m -, m
( ).

, ()
(/), , .
, , ,
. ( , ""),
.
, .
.
, . :
(Rmin), 1 2 (U12).
(, ,
), .
,
( , , ).
SI
(, ).
.

()
4 m2
4 mA 20 m
27 C 0,5 C (27 0,5) C
230 V 23 V (230 23) V
10 kg, 20 kg 40 kg
20 mm 10 mm 5 mm
300 K
25 C

Umax = 123 V
l = 12,345 m
57
4m2
4 - 20 mA
4 20 mA
27 0,5 C
230 V 10 %
10, 20 40 kg
20x10x5 mm
300 K
25C, 25 C

U = 123 Vmax
l = 12m34cm5 mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
IEC , , 1996.
http://stf.iec/ch/glossary.
Electropedia, The World`s Online Electrotechnical Vocabulary, http://www.electropedia.org.
Vocabulare de metrologie legale, termes fondamentaux, OIML, 1969, :
, , 1971.
International vocabulary Basic and general terms in metrology, BIPM, IEC, ISO, OIML, 1984.
International vocabulary of metrology Basic and general concepts and asotiated terms (VIM),
H. Rajhenbah, Raanje naune filozofije, Nolit, 1964.
H.Helmholtz, O poreklu i znaenju geometrijskih aksioma, u: N.Sesardi, Filozofija nauke, Nolit,
1964.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 111, Physics and chemistry.
, ,
.0.111, 1990.
M. Mlaenovi, Razvoj fizike, elektromagnetizam, Graevinska knjiga.
V. Vui, D. Ivanovi, Fizika II, Nauna knjiga, 1991.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 121, Electromagnetism / Electromagnetic
concepts and quantities.
D. Stankovi, Fiziko-tehnika merenja, Nauna knjiga, 1991.
. , , , 1967.
X. Borg, The ST system of units, http://www.blazelabs.com/f-u-intro.asp.
..,
,1973.
I.V. Aniin, Merenje, diskretni arm civilizacije, .
The International System of Units (SI), BIPM, 8.th edition, 2006.
The International System of Units (SI), NIST, special publication 330, 2008.
.., , ,1990.
SI units and recommendations for the use of their multiples and of certain other units, ISO 1000,
1992 (JUS ISO 1000).
Quantities and units, ISO 31, JUS ISO 31.
Mars Cllimate Orbiter Mishap, Investigation Board, Phase Report, Nov. 10, 1999.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 351, Control technology / General terms,
variables and signals.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 702, Oscillations, signals and related
devices / Signals, General terms.
I.S.Gonorovsky, Radio circuits and signals, MIR Publishers, 1981.
Oznake, jedinice, nazivi i fundamentalne konstante u fizici, Sveske fizikih nauka, broj 2, 1990,
IUPAP, Document 25. , 1981.
58
, .
, .
3.

.
.
.
, .

.
3.1
,
,
,

.
(1993)
[1].
, ,
, (1969),
:

[2].
()
1,
. , ,
: .
2,
() () ,
1
, ,

( , 1789).
, , , , ,
. ,
, .
, , ,
, ,
. , .
.
:
.
[3].
,
, ( )
, , () .
,
,
.

( ),
,
3 [4].
, ,
, 4.

. , ,
,
, .
M
[5]. ,
,
:

.
:
M
5.
, , ,

, , .
.
, :

,
( ).

,
( ).
K
.
, . ,

, .
, ,
(. ens, , ).
60
03

(
).
,
.
, Q() .
Q()
R0+,
m : Q(A) R0 [0,)
:
1.
(M Q(A)) m(M) 0 ;
2.
( M0 Q(A)) m(M0 ) 1 ;
3.
(M,N Q(A)) M N m(M) m(N) ;
4.
(M,N Q(A)) M N 0 m(M N) m(M) m(N) .
m(M) M.
,
(). ,

. ,
,
.
()
(indication of instrument).
6,
.

. , .
. ,
.
, , , , ,...
,
.
.
, ,
.
, ,
, .

.
. ,
:
.
.
61
3.2
.
(, , ) 7
(measurement principle).
(2.45), ,

[6].
.
(measuremnt method),
,
()
[5]. e
.
[7]:
(direct (method of) measurement),
(indirect method of measurement).

(subject) .

. ( )
e
.
:
dl,
I,
, ,
( 2.23):
F IBdl ;
,
, I
- ( 2.25):
I
.
2r
.
F
, ,
d,
I:
F 0
l 2
I .
2d
0 ( ).
.
(current balance)
.
, DIN 1319, .
62
03

(, )
. 8

. g

.
l
t :
gt 2
.
2
g
, , , ....

, ,

, .

(definitive method of measurement),

( 2.13).
, .

,
9. ,
, 10
(comparison method of measurement)
, [8].
3.2.1
,

,
(measurand)
(fundamental method of
measurement). (1969),
.
(1984), (
, ), .

() ,
, () ().
.

, .
10

[5]. , ,
, .
63
[7], [9], [10].

.
,
(correction) ,
,
. je
. ()
,
11 .

,
.

, ( 3.1.a):
V l w h.
(3.1)
w
S
l
3.1
( )
:
m
.
(3.2)
V
,
, . ,

( 3.1.):
l
.
RS
(3.3)
3.2 .
3.3,
, . ,
K

[11]:
J K .
() :
Nq .
N () , q
, .
11
. dilatatio, , .
64
03
12
[9]. ,
.
13 ( 3.2.).

, .

. ,

.
3.2
, mX
m .
(). 3.2.
mX :
mX m m .
(3.4)
m
.
, .
.

.
. :
m ktg ,
(3.5)
k .
( ,
) [12]. 3.5
m ,
, 14
. 15
, ,
, ,
.
12
13
14
15
(. terz).
( ), .
, (Tasse, ).
(. grad, ; graduare,
).
(gauging)
. , ,
(bacdar, , ).
65

.
.
16. ,
.
.
().
, g, 17.
(), g . ,
,
10-9 .

.
.

, .

. ,

, ,
, . ,
,
(, )
()
.
( Im
), ( Um , ,
, ).
3.3..
.
, (2.22),
RX.
+
U

Im
Um
RX
I
V
I
Um
RX
3.3
Im 18.
,

Um Im:
16
17
18

( ) .
, g , , .

(1901) 9,80665 ms2.

.
66
03
R X
Um
.
Im
(3.6)
,
( 3.3.),
, ,
. ,

.

19. ,
, ,
. ,

( , ),
( , ).

: ,
.
,
() , .
.
, ,
, ,
() a

.
.
,
,
. ,
:
,
, a 20
;
21,
() () .
19
20
21
Im , Um
RX .
, (. scale, , ).
(. comparator,
).
67
( 3.4),
,
22.

. ,
,
23.
10
20
30
40
30
3.4
M ,

, .
.
, .

, .
, , ,
, .
,
. , ,
( 2.45)
( 2.47).
.
, ,
. ,
(t) :
0 (1 t ) .
(3.7)
1 d
.
0 dt
(3.8)
.
24 .

.
22
23
24
.
(direct comparison
method of measurement).
[8].
(
. sensus, , ). ,
.
68
03

.
.
,

.

,
.

.
3.5 M

, , ,
(, , )
.
() .

.
25 .
() ,
.

. :
U f N.
(3.9)
, .
, , .

.
,
.26

.
27.
25
26
27
.

. , ,
.
,
..
69

U f , :
f kFU ,
(3.10)
kF
U/f . ,
REF
:
TREF
fTREF k FTREFU k UU ,
T
(3.11)
kU .

.
3.2.2

, .
.
(substitution method of measurement)
,
[7].
.
() .
, ()
.
. ,
,
.

.
,

.

, .
(complementary method of measurement)

28.
(differential method of measurement)

28
70
03
,
. .
, ,
( 3.2).

29.

, .

.
.
:
;
;
.
(null method of measurement)
.
.

( 3.6.). J
30.
U
RC
N
RX
RA
P
RB =RX
RD
RX RC RA RD
UPN
U
RA RC RX RC RA RD RB RD
RREF
V
R
3.6
O RA, RB RC UPN
, . UNP = 0 :
RX RC
RB
.
RA
U.
UNP
29
30
, ,
, .
.
71
N P ,
RA, RB RC.
RA RB ( 3.6.)
(resistance balance).
.
.
(beating)

[13].
. (beat method of measurement)
.
(resonance)

[7]. (resonance
method of measurement)
.
3.3
31 -.
.
.
: -,
(stimulus), (response),
(transfer function). 32 (black
box) . ,
, ,
. ,
:
.
( 3.7).
3.7 -

31
32

. , ,
.

,
(-) .
() .
72
03
(measurement model). ,
33,
:
F (Y , X ) 0
(3.6)
Y, (output quantity of measurement model),

(measurand).
Y X,
(input quantity of measurement model).
,
,
.
:
Y f (X ) ,
f . , f

.

( , response characteristics)
. -
, .
3.8 ,
,
. R , .
KTY 1000
R R25 [1 T (T ) ]
2
7,88 10-3 K -1;

1,937 10-5 K - 2
R/ R25
0,625
0,685
0,748
0,815
0,886
0,961
1,000
1,040
1,123
1,209
KTY1000
2,00
R/R25
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
25
30
40
50
1,50
1,00
0,50
-50
50
100
150
3.8
, R() ,
= 25 C,
. ,
,
33
73
R25,
34.
R/R25 , ,
,
.

.

,
.
: (frequency response)
(transfer function).
, , , ,
(, )
( )
35. , .
:
( 3.9.a).
()
. UAB UAB0
.
, .
()

( 3.9.). UAB0
, RE RI 36.
A
+
U
R1
R2
I R3
+
RE
UAB0
V UB
RV
a)
3.9
(influence quantity)
,
[5].
:
; (
,
).
,
,
34
35
36
R25 100 , 500 1000 .

(measurand)
(measured variable, value under measurement).
RE .
74
03
37. (influence coefficient)

,
(variation due to an influence quantity).
X1, , Xn ( 3.10),
, :
F (Y , X 1 , ...,X n ) 0 ,
Y
X1, , Xn:
Y f ( X 1 , ...,X n ) .

X

F (Y , X 1 , ..., X n ) 0
Y f ( X1 , ...,X n )
3.10
, .
3.4
,
38 , ,
( ).
, (measurement
result) ,
, ,
[5]. ,
, , .

.
(uncertainty of measurement)39. ,
, , ,
40.
(SI).
37
38
39
40
, ,
.
, , .
,
, .

.
75
M

. . ,
,
,
(reliability).
,
.

(metrological
traceability)
.
(conventional quantity value)
, . ,
-2
9,806 65 ms .
-1
KJ-90 = 483 597.9 GHz V .
CODATA41 o
23
-1
NA 6,022 141 79 10 mol [7].

.
.
, ,
:
;
;
;
.

:
, ;
;

;
( )
.
,
, ,
. ,
, 20 .
41
CODATA (Committee on Data for Science and Technology) je

(ICSU)
,
.
76
03
(measuremnt procedure)
,
,

.

.

().

,
, ,
, .
:
,
,
,
() ,
.
:
, .
. ,
,
( ,
, ).

1 1000. ,
2
2
, 1,23 km , 1 230 000 m .
,
, ,
.
2
3
4
International Vocabulary of basic and general terms in metrology, 1993, :

,
, 1996.
, , 1971.
.. , .Q. , , , 1986.
.. , , , ,
. 28-35, 1967.
77
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 112, Quantities and units, Metrology.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 311, Electrical and electronic
measurements, General terms relating to measurements, Methods of measurement.
, , , 1983.
International Vocabulary, of basic and general terms in metrology, 1984, :
, , ,
1985.
. , , , 2006.
M. Brezinak, Merenje i raunanje u tehnici i znanosti, Tehnika knjiga, 1971.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 301, Mathematics.
78

.

.
4.

,
. ,
,
.

,
.
.
.
.

.
.

().
,
. ,
, .
, ,
,
.

, (
), ,
().
, ,
: ,
.
.
,
,
, ,
.
.
, ,
.
, ,
,
.

. ,
.

, , , ,
. ,
,
[1],[ 2], [3], [4],
[5].
[ 6],
, ,
M [ 7].
.
4.1.
, ,
().
(measured quantity value)
(measurement
result). (),

.
,

(measurand).
(true quantity value)
.
.
, .
[8],
.
(),
. , (,
) ,
.
,
,
. (conventional quantity
value). , ,
1
. ,
CODATA o (NA)
23
-1
6,022 141 79(30) 10 mol [9].

(conventional true value of a quantity) [3].
80
04
-2
( ) 9,806 65 ms .
(assigned value).
, , ,
100,001 23 g.
.

. , ,
, ,
(, )
( ),
.
.
. ,
,
, .

.
4.2.
.

. 2
.
.

.
(measurement accuracy, accuracy of
measurement) 3
4.
.

5, .
(measurement precision)
,
, ,
.
2
3
4
.
.
,
, .
. praecisio, , , .
81

6, .
.
, 4.1.
. 4.1.
. 4.1.
, . 4.1..
.
4.1 a a

(7) .

: .

, ,
(measurement
repeatability).
(repeatability condition of
measurement). ,
(), ,
, ,
, .
,

(measurement reproducibility).

(repeatability condition of
measurement) , ,
, , 8.
4.3.
,
ISQ, , ,
.
6
7
8
. . synnymos, .
. dispergere, , ( ).
.
82
04
je
.
,
. Q QREF
:
QREF N REF [Q] ,
(4.1)
NREF a () QREF,
, [Q],
.
:
Q
,
QREF
(4.2)
Qm:
Qm NQREF NNREF [Q] .
(4.3)
, ,
, ()
.
(measurement error, error of measurement)
, Qm,
, Q:
Q Qm Q .
(4.4)
Q .
Q. e (. errare9, ) .
= -
O
(absolute error) [10], [11].
, .

(
,
).
().

10.
9
10
F (fehler).

[2].
83

,
, , . ()
, ,
, :
Qm Q Q Qm Q ,
(4.5)
Q Qm Q .
(4.6)
Q, (limits of error),
Q.
1

()
(). ()
1 cm.
, 1/5 (2 mm).
53,4 cm
43,2 cm, , hH,
, hL, :
53,2 cm hH 53,6 cm, 43,0 cm hL 43,4 cm,

:
(53,40,2) cm
9,8 cm h 10,6 cm,
(43,20,2) cm
:
h = (10,2 0,4) cm.
, ,
. 0,01 A
, , 12,34 A.
( ) ,

.
, 11 ,
0,01 A .

:
11

, .
10
. ~.
: 0,012 ~ 10-2, 123 ~ 102. PN
10 C. 100 C
( ).
84
04
-
=
,

12:
Qm Q Q
.
Q
Q
(4.7)
100
Qm Q
%,
Q
(4.8)
1000
Qm Q
.
Q
,
(ppm13).
106
(4.9)
Qm Q
ppm .
Q
(4.10)

, .
, , ,
. 10 mV
,
10 V , , ,
100 mV. ,
0,1 % . ,
, .
,
1%.
( ),
.
.
.
4.4.
.
, ,
,
. 14
12
13
14
er.
. pars-per-milion, ppm = 110 -6.
(. skeptiks, ).
85
. . ,
:
a (error of method),
a 15,
a 16.
. ,
:
() (intrinsic error of measuring
isntrument)
17;
(influence error);
(operating error)
() (rated operating
conditions).
,
,
:

.
.

. ,
, ,
,
.
. ,
, ,
. ,
.
4.4.1.
(systematic measurement error)
,
() .
15
16
17
() (error of a measuring instrument)

() (error of a material measue).
()
. (error of observation)
, ,
. (parallax
error),
, (interpolation error),
.

.
86
04
,
. :
18,
(nominal value) 1 kg
1,01 kg.

19;
0 C

20 C.
,
:
,
,
.

. ,
:
P U ef I ef cos ,
, Uef Ief,
()
. , , .
, , , ,
.
.
.

(instrumental errors).
, ,
. (zero error, offset),
(instrument constant) 20,
(nonlinearity) -.

, , , ,
(environmental errors).

. ,
18
19
20
.
1821. (Thomas Johann
Seebeck, 1770-1831). ,
.
, ,
.
87
. (static errors)
.
(dynamic errors)
. e e
e , j
, .
.

.
,

.

.
,
.
,
a
. (correction21)
, . , ,
.
= +

(correction factor) .
.
=
,
( 4.2.),
(, , )
(load effect).
( 4.2.), a
. ,
.
,

.
21
. correctio, .
88
04
RI
RI
U
RO
Um
RO
Um
RIN
)
)
4.2

:
,
,
,
.
(uncorrected result)
.
(corrected result)
.
4.4.2.
(random measurement error)
.

.
=

() .
. ,
, , ,

. ,
, .

.
( 4.1. 4.1.).
, ,
, .

.
89
4.4.3.

(
)
. ,
, .
a a (gross error)

. ( 4.3.).
, -
( 4.3.).

1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
4.3.

,
,
22.
,
.
,
.

().
.
().
.
,
.
( )
.
, ,
.
22
, .
, (gross error)

. .
90
04

. .
.
[12], [13].
4.5.

, ,
... 23.
4.5.1.
()
.

. ,
.

. .
,

.

( ), ( 4.4).
,
.
= 29,54321 !?
10
20
30
40
30
29,5
4.4.
(significant figures)
( ) ()
. , ,
.
. , 0,00012
.
. ,
.
23
91
0,001020
. , .

. , 123 000
: .
3
12310
3
, 123,00 10 .

:
,
.
2
3
4
1,1
1,10
1,101
0,11
11,0
11,00
0,0011
110
101,0
1110-3
11,010-3
110,010-2
1,110-3
0,1110-2
1,01010-2
4.5.2.

. ,
.
.
.
. ,
123,456 V,
0,1 %,
,
. , .
, ,
, , .
.
92
04
5,
. (
, rounddown).
5,
1. (
, roundup).
3
= 3,141592... :
~ 3,1416 ( ) , ~ 3,14 (
).
5,
, 1.
5,
, , 1
,
.
4
3,450001 ~ 3,5
3,450 ~ 3,4
45,675 ~ 45,68
,
.
5
123,456 ,
123,5. , 123.
,
, ,
124.
4.6.
, ,
24.
. ,

.
. ,
,
24

(. status, ),
.
,

.
93
,
(average value)
(arithmetic mean)
:
n
x x av
xi
i 1
(4.11)
xi i , n .

. ,
,
. , xt,
, ,
, :
n
xi
lim
i 1
xt .
(4.12)
, , es,

:
es x x t .
(4.13)
4.6.1.

. (deviation)
:
(4.14)
d xi x .
.
:
n
xi x
D i 1 i 1
.
(4.15)
n
n

(standard deviation)
(root-mean-square
deviation) 25:
25
2 (variance) .
, , .

, .
94
04
d2
i 1
( xi x) 2
i 1
(4.16)

,
, N, .
. ,
.
, xt,
, , .
,

26:
xt x e s .
(4.17)
(4.16)

.
s [14], [15]:
n
( x
i 1
x)2
n 1
(4.18)
xi i- , x n
.
(experimental standard deviation) 27.
.
,
.
4.7.

.
,
28 , , .
26
27
28
(4.14)
[14].
, , ,
.
, (true value).
95
d
.
,
.
(measurement error)

.
= -
:
(

29,
30)
;

, .
, ,
, ,
. .
.
(evaluation)
.
().
(measurement uncertainty),
, ,
, .
, , (
),
, .
,
.

.
,
.
29
30
, ,
, (conventional true value of
quantity).
(conventional true value of material
measure).
96
04
,
. ,
,
(definitional uncertainty).
[16]:
T (type A evaluation of measurement

uncertainty) .
T B (type B evaluation of measurement

uncertainty) .
(standard measurement uncertainty)
.

(combined standard measurement
uncertainty). (relative standard
measurement uncertainty) e
. ,
31
CODATA
o
23
-1
23
-1
(NA = 6,022 141 79(30) 10 mol , 30 10 mol ,
-8
5 10 [2].

(metrological compatibility of measurement results)
,
,
,
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
31
DIN 1319, Grundbegriffe der Messtechnik, 1963.

, , . 1970
, , 1971.
International Vocabulary, of basic and general terms in metrology, 1984, :
, , ,
1985.
M. Brezinak, Merenje i raunanje u tehnici i znanosti, Tehnika knjiga, 1971.
Committee on Data for Science and Technology.
97
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, IEC 60050, part 311, Electrical and electronic
measurements, General terms relating to measurements.
,
, 1996.
P. Mohr, B. Taylor, and D. Newell, CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical
Constants: 2006, Rev. Mod. Phys. 80, 633-730, 2008.
. , , , 1967.
P. Pravica, I. Bagari, Metrologija elektrinih veliina, Opti deo, Nauka, 1993.
R.P. Moreno, Steady State Detection, Data Reconciliation, and Gross Error Detection: Development
for Industrial Processes, Master thesis, University of New Brunswick, 2010.
R.M.B.Alves and C.A.O.Nascimento, Gross errors detection of industrial data by neural network and
cluster techniques, Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, Vol.19, No.04, pp. 483 489, 2002.
GUM, Evaluation of measurement data, Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement,
JCGM 101:2008.
. ,
, ,
, 2005.
98

,

Herman von Helmholtz
(ber den Ursprung und die Bedeutung
von geometrischen Axiome)
5.

,

. .

.
, ,
,
.

.
,
.
, , ,
,
.
(1)
, . T
(meter) .

.
: (ampermeter), (voltmeter),
(ohmmeter), (wattmeter),...
: (frequency meter), e
(thermometer), (phase meter), (extensiometer),
2 (tachometer), , ...
:
(power factor meter), (earth resistance
meter), 3, ,
.
1
2
3
, ( . artefactum).
tachs, .
.
, :
(flowmeter), (level meter), 4 (thermometer),
(water meter), (gas meter),... ,
5: (sound-level meter),
(traffic meter)...
,
. , ,
. ,
:
,
,
.
:
(measuring element),
(component),
(part),
(device),
(apparatus),
(equipment),
(system),
(instalation).
,
.

.
[1]. :
( ),
,
,
,
,
.
,
,
.
, ,
.

(bold). .
,
, .
4
5
, . , .
() 1890. , ,
,
.
100
05
5.1
(measuring instrument) .
,
(), .
: .
(handheld digital
multimeter) je
.
,
, .
.
, .

(measuring system) (
) .
, ()
( ).

(),

.
,
.

()

.
(indicating measuring instrument)

( 5.1).
.
(record) o.
5.1

(displaying measuring instrument).
(display) ( 5.2).

(dispaying device). ,

.
101
5.2
(analogue measiring
instrument)
, .
,
.
(digital measiring instrument)
.
,
(). (
5.3). , , (48, 76, 96, 144
192 ). ,
, (
5.3.). ,
,
, (instrument constant).
a)
5.3
,

( 5.3.).
.
(material measure) ,
, ,
() . ,
().
a)
5.4
1 kg,
( 5.4.).
102
05
6
1,018 V ( 5.4.). ,
(
) ,
( 5.4.).
(signal generator)
, ,
,
. Diogen

,
.
LCD-,
, ,
(offset) .
, (measuring transducer7) e

. :
() , ,
...
.
, ( )
8 .
, ,

(, , , , ...)
[2].

(sensor)9. :
, ,
... ,
.
(detector)
, ()
.
10. (indicator).
-.
7
8
10

1908. . (Weston cell)
1911. 1990.
. Meumformer: . .
. (transducer)
. , ,

. sensus, , .
(transmitter, capteur, Aufnehmer, Mefhler, Geber, y
, ).
, .
103

(measuring chain). , ,
, , .
,
, .
(IEC) [3],
[4]. e
, a
. ,
,
().
11 (signal conditioner)
, ()
,
,

12.

(recording measuring instrument)
( ) (, ,
).
.
a)
5.5

(, 5.5.),
( 5.5.),

. (X-Y)
()
11
12
. conditio, . ,
.
,
. ,
,
,

.
104
05
. ( 5.5.),
, , ,
, .

,
,
.
data logger.

.

a .
,
(integrating measuring instrument)

. . ,
().

13
(
). : 14 (electrical energy
meter), (calorimeter, heat meter), ,
, .

(data acquisition - DAQ).

, .
, ,
,
,
,
,

. ,

, ,
.
13
14
. ()

: , , , , ...
, meter .
105
5.2

, ,
, .
,
,
.
(indication interval, range of indications)
,
. :
48 Hz 52 Hz.
(nominal indication interval, nominal range)
,

. (setting)
().
:
e
og
200 mV, 2 V, 20 V, 200 V 400 V.
(nominal quantity value, nominal value)
(),
,
. :
-20 C.
(measuring interval, measuring range)
,
, 15.
()
, (span).
, -5 mA 5 mA,
10 mA.
(rated operating conditions)

. ,
.
(limiting operating conditions)

.
15
106
05
(reference conditions)

(intercomparation) .

. ,
.

(intrinsic error of measuring isntrument).
(zero error).

(resolution)16.
(resolution of displaying
device)
. ,
(least signifivant digit) 17.
.
(discrimination threshold)
() ()
. ,
.
(dead band)
,
().
(stability of a measuring instrument)

.

,
.

(instrumental drift).

,
.
(, )
()
16
17
.
. resolutio,
.
, () , .
107
(sensitivity of a measuring system)18.

.
,

. -,
19. ,
10 kHz/V.
,
.
, ,
()
.

.
(accuracy class)

, [5].
. :
1, 0,2 S.
(maximum
permissible
measurement error)
() ,

.
20.

.

.
(reading).

. ()
(range)21. :
1% 0,5 % .
,
.
: 10 ,
18
19
20
21
sensitivitas, .
.
, a a a e
( limits
of permisssible error).
,
(full scale, FS).
108
05

:
3 % 7 ( ).
(datum measurement error)
,
.
(adjustment of a measuring system)

.
. ,
o. e
.
(zero adjustment)

.

.
(auto-zero).
(linearity of a measuring instrument)

. ,

.
(hysteresis22)
.
. : , ,
, .
,
, .
, ,

.
5.3
(measurement standard) , ,
,
.
22
. . ,
.
109
.
, .
1.
,
. , ,
(
),
,
, 3.
23.
,
. ,
,
[1].

,
.

- 24.

(calibration curve).
,
.
5.3.1
( )
.
:
(international measurement standard)

( )
.
(national measurement standard)
, ,
( ) .
23
24
(. calibration), , (qua libra, ,

, , ).
(calibration certificate) (calibration
report).
110
05

, ,
, BIPM- 1880. .
,
BIPM 1890.
, .
, 1891.
No 11,
.

() ,
. [6].
, ,
,
.
(primary measurement standard)
25
.
.
[7].

1880.
26.
, ,
[8].

,
.
, 17. (1983),

, .
(1989)
.
(secondary measurement standard)

.
(reference measurement standard)
,
25
26

.
(CGPM)
(CIPM) 1889. ,
1901. .
111
.
.
5.6

(working measurement standard).

.
005 ,

:

.

.
. . ,
,
. ( 5.7).

5.7.
a
,
, (
).

.

.
112
05
(traveling measurement standard) ,

, .
- (transfer measurement device)
.
-.
,
MSB, ,
1987.

, A
, [9], [10].
(reference material, RM)

,

27. , ()
()

() , ,
.

()
, ,
.
.

.

, . :

,
,
,
.
,
() , ,
,
(certified reference material, CRM).
()
.
, ()
.
27
o (nominal property) ,
(). ,
.
113
Electrical measuring transducers for converting a.c. electrical quantities to analogue or digital
signals, IEC 60688, Ed 2.2, 2002.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050, part 314, Electrical and electronic
measurements - Specific terms according to the type of instrument.
3
4
http://stf.iec/ch/glossary.
ccuracy classes of measuring instruments, OIML, R34, 1979.
P. Pravica, I. Bagaric, Metrologija elektrinih veliina, Nauka, 1993.
SI Brochure, Appendix 2. Practical realisation of the definitions of same important units, BIPM, 2006.
A. Wallard, The future of scientific metrology, BIPM (IMEKO 2009).
P. Miljanic, B. Stojanovic, and P. Bosnjakovic, The development of a high precision time-division

power meter, in Dig., CPEM 84, 1984, pp. 6768.
10 W. J. M. Moore, E. So, N. M. Oldam, P. N. Miljanic, and R. Bergeest, An international comparison

of power meter calibrations conducted in 1987, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 38, pp. 395401,
Apr. 1989.
114

Moris Cohen
(An introduction to logic
and scientific method)
6.

, , ,
,
() .
. , ,
, ,
. ,
.
, ,

.

. .
.

,

, 1.

.

.

.
,
, .
,
.
.
.
, .
, .

. , ,
.
().
(, , ,
, , ,...)
. ,
,
.
6.1

.
, , e

( ). ,
,
. ,
.

2. 1820.
(Hans Oersted, 1977-1851),

[1].

.

( ).
, 3 ,
, .
.
, ,
. , ,
,
.
.
4,
.
.
2
(Gian Domenico
Romagnosi), , 1802. , .
(. pointer, . Zeiger)
().
, 2.14.
116
06

, .
,
, .
,

( ),
.
.
[2].

.
.
6.1.1
(moving magnet instrument)

[3].

,

.

(Johan Schweiger, 1779-1857)
1820. [4].

(coil).
.
,

.
,
,
.

.

,
. (a) :
tg kI ,
(6.1)
k
, 5.
o
.
: (Nobili, 1825), (Pouillet, 1837), (1858) .
117
6.1.2
(moving-iron instrument)
6

.
.
1884.
(Friedrich Kolrausch, 1840-1910)

[5].
,
.
.
.

i
[6].
l .
l kli 2 ,
(6.2)
kl .
, , ,
l:
l l av
1T 2
2
2
k l i dt k l i k l I ef ,
T 0
(6.3)
, Ief .
.
, 7,
i(t).

. 6.1.
.
.

.
(magnetically soft material)

. (soft iron), .

. ,
(true root-mean-square value, true RMS).
118
06
Me
Mm
6.1.

. .
, ()
. 8
. [7]
6.1.3
(permanent magnet
moving-coil)
.
, .

( 2.43). , ( 6.2.),
,

B ( 6.2.), :
F NIlB
(6.4)
N , I ,
.
d
I
I
Bc
I
I
N
B
Fe
6.2
, ,
,
,
, (deflection method
of measurement) [7].
119
9.
( 6.2.).
Me:
M e NIBS ,
(6.5)
S (S = ld), Ms,
.
:
M s k s ,
(6.6)
ks . :
Ms Me,
(6.7)
si I
(6.8)
si ()
;
si
NBS
.
ks
(6.9)

(1870).
` (Jacques d`Arsonval, 1851-1940),
,
() , 1881.

[8]. , ,
.

10.

( 6.3.):
U
U
,
(6.10)
Rr R
r . R
.
Im
10
.
Bc .
.

.
(Luigi Galvani),
(1771),
(1836).
[2].
,
.
120
06

( 6.3.).
Rx:
U
Im
.
(6.11)
R r Rx
r . (Rx = 0),
R
.
.
mA
+
U
R
Im
mA
R
Im
RX
6.3

:
- (---).
( 6.4.).
. ,
.
i(t)
im
+
im(t)
mA
6.4 -

. ,
11 ( 6.4.).
, .
.
im(t).
6.1.4
(electrodynamic instrument) ,
,

11
121
12.
( 6.5).
,
, ,
,
().
i2
N
F
i1
6.5
Me
:
M e ki1i2 cos ,
(6.12)
k .

, ,
Me .
.
.
6.1.5

(displayinng measuring instrument).

: , , () .
( )
[9].
.
,

,
, (ferrodynamic
instrument).
(induction instrument)
,
,
.
12
122
06
(electrostatic instrument)

.

() .

( ).
. .
,
, .

13 .
14
.
( 6.6).
I
Ut
R
Im
mA
6.6

.
.

, [4], [5], [6], [10], [11].

. , ,
.
(Johann Christian Poggendorff, 17961877)

(1827). ,
. ( )
(1858), ,
, .
6.2
,
13
14
,
,
.

. ,
oj.
123

, ,
.
.
.

(vacuum-tube voltmeter). ,
,
.

.

.
(). ,
,
,
.

,
,
( 6.7.).
fm
Um
6.7

: ,
, .
.
()
15, .
,
.

,

,
.
.

mA
V/
+
Um
COM
15
124
06
.
, ,
( ),

. 16

[12].

.

.
( , , ,
, )

.
,
.

(), ()

.
6.3
6.3.1
, (electric circuit)
17 [13]. (circuit
element) ,
. / ()
/ (terminal).
,
: , , , . ,
. :
u i.

. . ,
, , (port),
.
( 6.8).
i1
i
i2
u
u1
u2
i
i1
i2
6.8.
16
17
, . dilatatio, , .
.
.
125

:

(, , 18).
.
.
, ,
.
(). (voltage source)

. (current source)
.
.
(ideal element)
() .
( 2.31).
( 2.30 2.48).
,
. .
.
()

.
, ,
. ,
,
6.9.
6.9.

,
[14]. ,
,
,
.
,
. -,
, 6.10..
(uIN) (uOUT) ( )
.
( 6.10.).
iIN
uIN
iIN
iIN
iOUT
uOUT
iOUT
iOUT
uIN
uOUT

a)
)
6.10. -
,
19 , .
.
, ,
.

-. 20:
18
19
20
.
(. therma) .
. superpositio, ,
126
06
, ,
[15].

.
[16].
:
21. ,
a ,
,
.
() . , ,
. .
.
6.3.2
, 22 -
, ,
.
e .
( 6.11.).

.

.
,
(
6.11.): (input) (output).

() / [17].
input
y=Ax
output
a)
6.11.
(voltage amplifier) ()
uOUT
uIN ( 6.12).
(voltage controlled voltage source - VCVS).
21
22
()
.
(amplifier, Verstrker, ), ,
(, )
. ,
,
.
127
Au
uIN
uIN
uOUT = Au uIN
uOUT = Au uIN
6.12.
:
u
Au OUT .
uIN
(6.13)
Au
() .
, , .
Au .
uOUT
.
, (
6.13.). , -
Au.
,
( 6.13.).
(small signal voltage gain) :
Au
u OUT
.
uIN
(6.14)
UOUT
UOUT
UIN
UIN
a)
6.13. -

:
u OUT Au uIN U 0 .
(6.15)
U0, (voltage offset).

, U0
.
(current amplifier)
. ,
(current controlled current source
- CCCS). (current gain):
Ai
iOUT
.
iIN
(6.16)
128
06

.
(transconductance amplifier) ()
-,
. -
:
Ag
iOUT
.
uIN
(6.17)

(votage controlled current source - VCCS),
(U/I , votage-to-current converter). Ag
23.
(transresistance amplifier)
.

:
Ar
u OUT
.
iIN
(6.18)
(current controlled
votage source - CCVS), (I/U ,
current-to-votage converter). r
( 24).
6.3.3
(differential amplifier)
.

.
:
u O AuD ,
(6.19)
, uD .

, 6.14.
+ (noninverting input),
- je (inverting input).
, uD, uP uN:
uD uP uN .
23
24
(6.20)
, (transconductance).
, (transresistance).
129
+
_A
uD
uP
uN
uO = (uP uN)
()
6.14.
(uP = uN),
(uD = 0),
, .
,
uD, uP uN.
u .
je :
uD,
uP uN.

. (common mode voltage),
uP uN:
u CM
uP uN
,
2
(6.21)
,
. ,
u ,
uD, u:
u O u O (u D )
u CM 0
u O (u CM )
uD 0
Au D ACM u CM .
(6.22)
ACM
( ).
(ACM =0).
A ACM
(common mode rejection ratio - CMRR):
CMRR
A
.
ACM
(6.23)

. , .
(dB) :
CMRR 20 log10
A
dB .
ACM
(6.24)
130
06
6.3.3.1
,

(
6.15.).

, ( 6.15.).
U
uP (t)=U +u(t)
UO = U - UREF
_ =1
+
U
UREF
A U
uN (t)= u(t)
6.15.

. ,
: (instrumentational amplifier, INA).
( 6.16.),
, x,
, f. , e,
.
25 [18].
uO
A
f
uF
6.16.
6.16.,

:
AF
uO
A
, 1 A 0 .
u
1 A
(6.25)

, F, , .

, F, , . ,
F (
), .
25
. discriminare, .
131
6.3.4
(operational amplifier)
. ,
, .
.

. , ,

,
.

26.

.

.
( 6.17.):
uO AuD A(uP uN ) ,
(6.26)
(>>1).
uP
uN
P
uO
uIN
uP
uOUT = AuD
uN

N N
6.17. O
, ,
, ,
( 6.17.).

, , :
u
A
AF O
, 1 A 0 .
u 1 A

>>1, -
( F)
().
26
132
u
uF
uO
A
06
()
, ( )
. (,
),
.

.
,
,
. 106
10-4 V.
10-6 , 106 .

.
6.3.4.1
6.18.
, RI
RF .
() .
(inverting amplifier).
u
RI
RF
uO
uN
()
6.18.
,
RI RF.
:
u O AuN ,
u O uN RF i ,
u uN ,
i
RI
(6.27)
A . :
uN
RF
u,
RF RI (1 A)
uO
ARF
u.
RF RI (1 A)
( , u, u)
:
AF
uO
R
F
u
RI
.
A
RF
1
A
RI
(6.28)
133
, A, ,
R
A 1 F , :
RI
AF
RF
.
RI
(6.29)
uO A:
uO
RF
u,
RI
uN ( , virtuel zero).
,
.
,
, RI.
RF RI.

RI RF
.

:
uOGF uGI 0 .

- .
6.3.4.2
6.19.a.
R R
. (noninverting
amplifier). uO u.
.
i
RA
uO
RB
A
RB
uN
uO
uN = uO
RA
6.19.

, R
R. :
u O A(u uN ) ,
134
06
uN RA i ,
uO
,
i
R A RB
(6.30)
A . :
uN
RA A
u,
RB R A (1 A)
uO
( R A RB ) A
u.
RB R A (1 A)

) :
AF
uO
R
RA A
.
(1 B )
u
R AI RB R A (1 A)
(6.31)

( 6.19.) :
AF
RA
A ,
.
1 A
R A RB
,
RA A RA RB , :
AF (1
RB
).
RA
(6.32)
uO A:
u O (1
RB
)uI ,
RA
uN u.
(uD = 0).
(
).
.
AF .

(unity gain amplifier), RB/RA = 0.

u uF.

uO :
uO u .

.
135
uO
6.3.4.3
,
-
A, .

, :

,

:
A uD 0 .

. ,
j
.

, ( 6.20.).
u O (
R
R
u1
u2 ) .
R1
R2
(6.33)
R1, R2 R .
R1 = R2 = R .
R2
u2
uO
RA
RB
u2
u1
uO
u1
RC
RD
R1
a)
6.20.
, 6.20.
, ,
.
:
uO
RD
RC RD
R
R
1 B u1 B u 2 .
RA
RA
(6.34)
R A RC
,
RB RD
():
136
06
uO A(u1 u2 ) ; A
RB
.
RA
(6.35)
, uD = u1 u2,
()
( ).
,
. 6.21,
ZF
. ,
(, ).
ZF ZI. ,

.
I
ZI
ZF
U O Z F I ,
U
UO
U
ZI
6.21.
, W( ), :
W (j )
U O (j )
Z (j )
F
,
U (j )
Z I (j )
(6.36)
UO( ) U( )
, ZF( ) ZI( )
. ZI ZF
. 6.22
,
.
U
C
UO
R
UO
1
W (s) jRC
jRC
6.22.
W (s)
6.3.5

.
,
137

.
.
, ,
.
- ,
.
(filter). -
(frequency response), W( ),
[19]:
W (j )
U O (j )
W ( )e j ( ) .
U (j )
(6.37)
,W( ),
.
. , ( ),
.
.
(ideal filter)
- 27
,
28
[15]. ()
() .
(low-pass filter)
g
( 6.23.). (high-pass filter)

( 6.23.).
W()
W()
)
g
W()
W()
6.23.
(band-pass filter)

( 6.23.):
27
28
(attenuatiion).
. pass (stop) band, . Durchlasband (Sperrband), . ().
138
06
L H
1
W ( )
.
0 L H
(6.38)
(band-stop filter)

( 6.23.).
(cut-of frequency)
.
:
W ( g )
2
0,707 .
2
(6.39)
6.4

. ,
, .
,
.
: .

[5], [6], [7], [20], [21].
, .
, ,
.
(cathode ray tube,
CRT). (beam),
,
29 () ( 6.24.).

uY
uX
6.24.

.
29
(fluorescence)
( ).
139

(Y) (X) ( 6.24.).

XY-.
y-, x uy:
y kyuy
(6.40)
ky .
x-, y-
ux:
x kxux
(6.41)
ky
.
6.40 6.41,
, y(x) .
ux uy ,
:
u x (t T ) u x (t ) , u y (t T ) u y (t )
(6.42)
uy(ux).
.
30 , ,
.
y
ux(t) uy(t)
:
x(t ) k x u x (t ) k xU x sint Xsint ,
y(t ) kyuy (t ) kyU ycost Ycost .
:
y2
x2
2 1.
2
Y
X
Y
x
-X
O
-Y
uy(t)
. ux(t)
(sweep):
u x (t ) kt .
(6.43)
k ux(t),
a uy(t).
k .
30
. persistentia: , .
140
06
uy ,
k.
, k
, .
,
.
.
()
.
uy ,
,
uy , ky. uy
,
uy(t).

.
31
(storage tube) 32.

.
.
: , ,
, , ...
TFT-.
.
,

33 [22]. ,

,
.
(channel)
, MODE,
(CH1 CH2), (DUAL),
(ADD).
31
32
33

(fosforescence).
:
.
,
.
, .
141
6.25. 34
6.4.1
35 .
, ,

( 6.25).
, :
x(t ) k t t ,
(6.44)
kt
.

. y-
u:
y kyu .
(6.45)
,
,
. y
.
y
k u y ,
ky
(6.46)
ku .
y-. , ,
3,6 ,
ku 50 mV/,
180 mV.
ku,
y.
u(t) , ,
,
.
34
35
Copyright October 2011 Agillent Technologies Inc., Reproduced with permission.

(wave) , ,
. (waveform)
.
142
06
y-

y = 3,6
x = 8,4
x-
x = 8,7 .
N=3
6.26
(trigger) ux(t)
(time base) 36.
(trigger
level).
( // ,
//
).
, ,
(auto)
, ,
. u(t) ,

.

, x:
t k t x .
(6.47)
kt ,
(time-scale factor).
( : 1 ms/).
, ,
8,4 ,
kt 10 s/,
84 s.
kt, x.

37.

:
( 6.26.).
36
37
,
sweep generator.

.
143
t k t x
.
N
N
(6.48)
1
N
.
T k t x
(6.49)
(cathode-ray tube, CRT)

-3% +3%. , ,
[23].
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
M. Mlaenovi, Razvoj fizike, elektromagnetizam, Graevinska knjiga, s. 73.

measurements - Types of electrical measuring instruments / Detecting and indicating instruments.
measurements - Specific terms according to the type of instrument.
. , , , 1967, . 236.
V. Bego, Mjerenja u elektrotehnici, Tehnika knjiga, 1975, s. 174.
. , , II, , 1983.
, , , 1983.
. , , , 1967, . 93.

, , 49-80.
. , , , 1952.
V. Vui, D. Ivanovi, Fizika II, Nauna knjiga, 1991.
S. kundri, D. Kovaevi, Elektromehanike vage, Acta Metrologica, 1995.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 131, Circuit theory, Circuit elements nad
their characteristics.
, , . 0. 131, 1990, (Electric and
magnetic circuits, Terms and definitions, IEC 131, 1978).
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 351-21: Control technology /General
terms, variables and signals.
M. Stoji, Kontinualni sistemi automatskog upravljanja, Graevinska knjiga, 1973.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 151, Electric and magnetic circuits,
Particular electric devices..
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 351, Control technology / Functional
units of control systems.
. , , , 2011.
A. Helfrick, W. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, Prentice
Hall, 1990.
W. Schmusch, Elektronische Messtechnik, Vogel Buchverlag, 1993.
,
, 1996.
. , 2, , , 2010.
144

,
.
Frederick Engels
(Dialectic of Nature)
7.

,
,
. , ,
.
.

,
, .
1 [1]. ,
.
,
.
j
,
.
.
.
.

.
. ,
,
.
e e
.
,

. .

.
.
7.1

.
2. :
,
, ,
() .
, ,
.

. ,
()
, , , , ,
, ,
() (). ,

, , ,
. . 2345,
, :

(, , ...).
,
(), , ,
(Roman Numerals): I, V, X, L, C, D, M.
() .

(numeric system).
,
.
, ,
.
,
,
.
, ,
() . ,
, ,
() .

.
,
(580 500 ..) ,
. a je
(), .
,
.
146
07

.
,
, ,
, .
,

. (3),
, .
, ,
. 4
.

, 5.
6.

.
,
,

[2].
, ,
: ().
.
, ,
.
,
.

: 0 1.
(0, 1 2 -1, 0 +1) 7.
, ,
(vigesimal system).
3
4
5
. radix, .
. ifr, , .
. dka, .
, -
(decimal position system). - ( . decem) , ,
. ( ), a
.

(Somon Stevin, 1546-1620.
, ,
.
: m1<m2, m1=m2 m1>m2.
147
8. 60
.
.

, ()
.

.

[3].
, .

. ,
.
7.1.1

() .
,
.
.
, (
) ,
.

, ( ).

, :
10101111 = 1+0+1+0+1+1+1+1 = 6,
12345670 = 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+0 = 28.

9.

.
n ():
sn1sn2 ...s1s 0
R N
:
8
9
, (sexagesimal) .
(weighted) , [1].
148
07
N sn1 R n1 sn2 R n2 ... s 2 R 2 s1R s0 ,

:
n1
N s i R i , 0 si R 1, i 0...n 1 .
(7.1)
i 0
sn-1,
(Most Significant Digit - MSD),
. s0,
(Least
Significant Digit - LSD). n
R :
maxN R n 1 .
(7.2)
7.1 (, )
. i < 0,
.
( ) :
0, s 1s 2 ...s m1s m .
(,) 10. Q
:
m
si
i 1R
s 1 s 2
s m1 s m
2 ... m
.
R
R
R 1 R m
, :
sn1...s2 s1 s 0 ,s1 ,s2 ...sm

R
n , m .
:
n1
N si R i .
(7.3)
i m

.
.
7.1.1.1
, ()

. .
() ()
. ( 0 9) .
10
(.)
( ).
149

() .
:
n 1
N di 10i; di {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} .
(7.4)
i0
4321,
, , ,
. , ,
n m , :
n1
N di 10i ; di {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} .
(7.5)
i m
, 123456,789 :
N123456,789 1 105 2 104 3 103 4 102 5 101 6 100 7 101 8 102 9 103 .
7.1.1.2
, 2
2. n :
b n1b n 2 ...b1b 0
b i {0, 1}, i 0, 1, 2,...n 1
:
n 1
N bj 2j .
(7.6)
j 0
bn-1 , b0 .
, ,
:
14110 = 100011012.
:
n 1
N b j 2 j , b j {0, 1} .
(7.7)
j 0
() :
8
-1
-2
(...,256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, , ,...) = (...,2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , ...).
, n m ,
:
n1
N b i 2 i ; di {0, 1} .
i m
, 101010,101
:
150
07
N 101010,101 1 25 0 24 1 23 0 22 1 21 0 20 1 21 0 22 1 23 42,625.
7.2

.

() .
.
11, (character).
(word) .
12
. 30
(). () ,
13 ()
( ,
).
.
7.2.1

,
.

. ,
,
.

, . ,
(Claude Edwood Shannon, 1916-2001)
,
(binary digit).
, () ,
. 8,
16, 32 64 . (),
(byt). (nibble).

11
12
13
()
.
.
.
,
. 30 .
.
151
( ).
, , ,
:
001111111

14 (1+1+1+1+1+1+1=7);
001000000
1 15
( ):
000000111
(22 + 21 + 20 = 7).
() ,
() , .
, ,
. , : 110011112 11110,
(),
( )
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9). ,

, ,
, .
,

, .
,

, [4], [5]. ,
. K
. .

(codec)16.

. ,
() , .
. .
17 ,
, . (Samuel
Morse,1791-1872)
14
15
16
17
.
( )
( 7.10).

encoding [7].
.
(Andr Marie Ampre, 1775-1836)
.
, , ,
() ,
.
152
07
.
, e, t a, : ., .
(natural binary)
:
n 1
N bj 2j .
j 0
bn-1 (Most Significant Bit - MSB), b0

(Least Significant Bit - LSB).
7.2.2
,
. , ,
, . ,
, ,
, ,
18. ,
,
.
.
BCD (Binary Coded
Decimal). .
() ,
, .
19. ,
, 7.1.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
NBCD
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001

0000
0001
0011
0010
0110
0110
0101
0100
1100
1101
7.1.
-
(Natural Binary Coded Decimal - NBCD).
,
:
18
19
, ,
, (Blaise Pascal, 1624-1662)
.
16!/6! 3 1010 .
153

n 1
j 0
i 0
N 10 j bi 2 i .
(7.8)
, ,
NBCD- . ,
, NBCD-
, :
12910 = 0001 0010 1001BCD = 100000012.
e
: N , .
.
BCD-, ,
,
NBCD-. BCD-20 ,
. , ,
,
,
.

: ,
$, , &, %. ASCII-21
, .
.
7.2.3

:
,

,
,
.

:
(sign)
(mgnitude), () .
()
.
, + , -
.
, +12310 -12310,
20
21
BCD NBCD.
ASCII : (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange). .
154
07
(sign plus mgnitude) 8 , :

+12310 = 011110112,
-12310 = 111110112.
. -N,
N, .

.
(signed binary),
, .
(offset binary)
,
- - .
A,
AMAX + AMAX,

, AMAX,
( )
n-1
. 2 ,
n-1
2 -1.
( )
( ).
:
010 = 000000002.
, n ,
n
n-1
2 , 2 -1,
n-1
-2 .
,
:
+1, 0, -1,
,
.
,
,
.
, :
. .

, ,
.
( ) ,

22 ( 7.1) [6].
,
22
155
( 7.1).
0111 1000,
, 1111, 15,
0000 0. ,
( )
. ,
, .
7.1.
7.3

.
, ,
()
.
. ,

. , r,
() , , ,
. :
, , .
, .

( 7.2).

rOFF =
I=0
U
rON = 0
I = U/R
U
7.2.
, (,
open). ,
. ,
, (closed),
.
: ,
23. ,
( )
.
23
()
OFF, () ON. ""
.
156
07
()
24. ,
(/).
:
?, (
) () () .

(). ,
.
,
25,
(, 384 ... 322 ...).

. ,
(principium identitas)
(principium contradictions). ,
Organon (. rganon, , , ),

( ),
.
, , ,
26 ( 7.3.a).
7.3. .
(ON) , B,
. , C ()
: A B
. ( C )
(27) a . c (
C ) ( A
) b ( ) . ,
c, .
A
C
)
ON
ON
ON
c ab
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
OFF
7.3.
,
()
( A )
24
25
26
27
.
. , lgos , , .
.
,
, . aequi-valens, ,
, ().
, , . conjunctio, .
157
. (truth table)

().
7.3..
(true), (false).
( 7.4.)
28. D ,
, , , , . d
( D )
b . , d
o .
7.4.. ab , b, ,
.
A
B
ON
ON
ON
T
T
d ab
ON
OFF
ON
OFF
ON
ON
OFF
OFF
OFF
7.4.

.
() .
7.5.
.
, .
29,
30. , ,

.
A
a)
OFF
ON
ON
OFF
7.5.
K ,
, ,
, ,
. ,
0, 1.
31
.
28
29
30
31
, , . disiunctio, .
(normally open - NO) .
(normally closed - NC) .
.
158
07

, .
0 1.
, ,
.
(George Boole,
1815-1864)

().
,

.
()
.
,
() .
: , .
() ,
()
. , + ,
.

(
).
.
.
( ).
( ,
).
.
,

(, ).
.
, . ,

,
.
, -
j , .
7.6
( ) .
O e .
,
. , , ,
, 0, 1.
159
7.6.,
:
A B AB AB .
(7.9)
7.6. -
- ( 7.7)

-.
A
0
)
7.7. -
a 7.7.

.
32
. O e .

.
7.4
,
:
(, ), () ().

33
.
,
, , - -.
(NOT gate)
.
.
32
33
, . aequi-valere, . a b
, a b, .
- .
,
( ) : .
160
07
7.8.
, .
, ,

, ( 7.8.a). K
. j IEC
IEEE/ANSI
34 ( 7.8.).
a)
7.8 o
7.9 ,

.
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
C
C
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
C
0
1
1
1
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
C
1
0
0
0
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
C
&
C
C
&
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
C
0
0
0
1
A
0
0
1
1
B
0
1
0
1
C
1
1
1
0
7.9
- (OR gate),
,
. - (AND gate),
,
.

( /)
, (
/).
.

. ,
.

.
[7].

. ,
, ,
34
161
.
: . ,
(encoder) ,
, ,
(), (decoder)
[8]. ,
m (X0, X1, , Xm-1) n
(Y0, Y1, , Yn-1),
35
.
()
, ,
. 7.10 ,
, NBCD.
Q2
Q3
9
+
0
Q0
Q1
D9
D8
D7
D6
D5
D4
D3
D2
D1
7.10 10 4

(LED display) BCD-
36 ( 7.11).
4
DCBA
a
e
d
abcdefg
7
7.11. BCD 7-
35
36
. , ,
, ,
( ,
) .
, (encoding)
( ) ,
() (coding).
( ) , (codec)
( ,

, ).
(BCD-to-7-seven-segment
decoder), , , .
162
07
, ,
.
- 37 ( 7.12.).
. n
n
- - n ( 7.12.).

, , .
8- , 74HC688.
E
A
B
n-1
n-1
A { Ai }, B { Bi }
E 1 A B Ai Bi
1
1
0
0
7.12.
, ,
, , ,
. , : ,
? : = , > < .
, 7.13.,
, .
QA>B > . = 1 = 0.
QA=B = . QA<B
. To
= 0 = 1.
QA B A B
QA>B
QA B A B AB A B A B A B
QA=B
QA B A B
QA<B
7.13. K

.
7.5

a () .

37
- .
163
, ,
( ).

.
( , memory cell)
() .
.
,

()
.

. -,
7.14,
(R S) ( ).

RS-38 + +
.
R
A+
B+
X =
A+ B+
B A
7.14. -
-,
7.15.
. -
(R S).
-
.
S
B+
B A
=
+ B+
7.15 -
38
, (flip-flop),
-, -, - (flip ,
, ; flop , ). S R set
() reset ( ). : -
.
164
07
7.16..
,
.
()
( 39 ) (
40 ). 41
.
(-42). Q Q.
T
Q
T+
Q+
D
C
Q
Q
Q+
7.16
7.16..

(clock)
.
D (data) .
D-. J :
Q D .
,
().
[9].

, (/) 43.
39
40
41
42
43
(/)
.
(/)
.

. . snchronous, .
. ,
, (toggle)
( toggle flip-flop). ,
trigger, :
.
, ()
. , ,

.
, (latch, , ).
165
,
, .
.

. :

() ,
,
,
,
.

:
(data register),
(shift register)
(counting register).
, , .
: ,
, , ,
.
() ().
, .

,
,
.
.
7.17. - e e
7.6
, n ,
2n
.
, ,
166
07
, ,
44,
.
() ().
.
,
(, , ,
) (, ),
.
[10].
() (clock)
,
.
()
.
n 2n
N 0 2n-1.
,
( Nmax= 2n-1), ()

(N = 0). ,
,

.
, .
() .
n Nmax = 2n-1,
2n.
2n. ,
N, , n
, 2n.
10 ( ). 7.18
. 45
.

(parallel inputs)

(parallel load,
preset enable)

(master reset,
clear)
PL
MR
CL

(clock)
CE

(clock enable)
U/D

(up/down)
TC

(parallel outputs)

(terminal count
carry/borow)
7.18.
44
45
CLK (clock), CL, CP (clock pulse).

.
167
.

(counter/timer). ,
46 (,
) ( ,
, ).
,
( ).
,
,
.
. ., , , 1984
.., , ,
1991.
D. Jovanovi, Komponente digitalnih sistema, Graevinska knjiga, 1974.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 101, Mathematics, Concepts related to
information.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 701, Telecomunications, channels and
networks, Use and operation of circuits and networks.
.., .., , , 1984.
S. Tei, D. Vasiljevi, Osnovi elektronik, Graevinska knjiga, 2000.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 702, Oscillations, signals and related
devices, Discrete signals and digital signals; Coding.
P. Horowitz, W. Hill, The Art of electronics, University Press, 1989.
10 D. ivkovi, M. Popovi, Impulsna i digitalna elektronika, Akademska misao, 2004.
46
. totalis, , .
168
,

.
8.
,
,
, , ,
,
.

: ,
, .
je ,
.

.

.
8.1
(quantization)
,
1
.
.
,
.
, () .

.
,
,
a min max,
aQ, AQ = aj
:
a [ Amin, Amax ] aQ {a j } .
(8.1)
( . quantum, )
,
.
. O
a[min, max], e,
, .
. a,
,
.
8.1.
max
min, max]
aQ
a+1
a
a-1
A+1
A
min
aQ AQ
AQ = a
8.1.

.
a
aQ (
).
(quantizer) [1]. 8.2
(t),
Q
( ). , a
aQ,
.
a[Amin, Amax]
a(t)
aQAQ
aQ(t)
8.2.
:
q aQ a ,
(8.2)
(quantization error) a
aQ. q

. aaQ ,
. , aQ ,
.

.
2
,
(quantization noise).
Digital signal processing, DSP.
170
08

() .
,
(t) Q(t)
. , ,
:
.
.

.
(uniform)
[2]:
A
Amin
A max
.
(8.3)
J
. .
:
Aj Amin j A , j 0,1,...J .
(8.4)
{j} a. 8.4.
+1 .
, ,
, ( 8.3.).
, 8.3.,
,

.
aQ(t)
aQ(t)
8.3.
, ,
,
aaQ [3].
. , ,
a[min, max]. AQ 3
.
aQ: a0, a1,... a .
3
(countable)
. .
171
,
A, a:
A {a [ Amin, Amax ]} ,
(8.5)
N :
N {0,1,2,...J 1} .
(8.6)
NN a ,
, :
Amin NA a Amin (N 1)A .
(8.7)
, :
a - min = N A.
(8.7)
(2.55),
a
. AN = N
a.
.
8.2
.
a, A
, aQ,
AQ .
[4]:
a ( )
, ,
;

4;

a .
a
. ,
.
( 8.4).
, .
172
08
j-
Amin
Amax
j-
Amin
Amax
a
A0 A1
Aj-1 Aj
Aj+1
a
A0 A1
Aj-1 Aj
Aj+1
a)
8.4.
( 8.4.)
A-1 - .
a a [ Aj-1, Aj ) a j a j [ Aj-1, Aj ) .
,
a, Amax = AJ,
. Amax
().
() .
( 8.4.)
A - .
a a ( Aj-1, Aj ] a j a j ( Aj-1, Aj ] .
,
a, Amin = A0, ,
() .
a
. ,

. ,
.
)
a j Aj ; j 0, 1,... J - 1.
(8.7)
a
aQ,
:
a Aj a Aj1 Aj ; j 0,1, ... J 1 .

)
a j Aj ; j 1,... J .
(8.8)
(8.9)
a
aQ,
:
173
a Aj a Aj1 Aj1; j 0,1, ... J 1 .
(8.10)
,

( ). 8.5.

:
a a [ Aj , Aj ) a j Aj ; j 0, 1,...7.
max= 8
7
6
7
6
5
4
3
2
5
4
3
2
1
min= 0
1
0 = 0
8= 8
7
6
7
6
5
5
4
3
2
1
min= 0
a)
max= 8
4
3
2
1
aQ
Amax= A8
A7
a7
a6
a5
A6
A5
A4
A3
A2
A1
a4
a3
a2
a1
Amin= A0
a0
8.5. Q
,

a ( ).
8.5. :
a a ( Aj - , Aj ] a j Aj ; j 1, 2...8 .
.

.
aQ.
. 8.5.
.

(quantization distortion). (
a aQ)
.
8.2.1
-
a,
min = 0 max, :
A
a
aQ
A , A max ,
J
A
(8.11)
174
08
aQ ; , J
.
, 5.
- , Q
, 8.6. aQ(a)
, L min H max.
aQ
min = 0
max
8.6.
()
.
min < max (truncation error)

:
A q 0 .
(8.12)
q(a) 8.7.a.
( min max) q() :
q(a A) q(a) .
(8.13)
q() = aQ - a
0
p(q)
1/
8.7.
, .
.
p() ,
q (-A,0] , 8.7..
.
, 0 < A, q()
:
q(a) a .
(8.14)
(integer part function) .

( : a , floor function),
.
175
A
.
2
(8.15)
q2
(A) 2
.
3
(8.16)
a[ min, max] :
Amax Amin
a Amin
a Q Amin
.
A , A
J
(8.17)
8.2.2
a[0, max],
,
.
8.8. -
, Q
.

q() = aQ - a
p(q)
A
1/
max

a)
8.8.
a
aQ,
6
. .
,
( 8.8.):
0 q A , q(a A) q(a) ; 0 a Amax .
(8.18)
(ceiling function, upper integer part function, least integer)

: a .
(post-office function),
.
176
08
. p(q)
, ( 8.8.).
q(x) :
A
,
2
(8.19)

(8.16).
8.2.3
,
aQ

a .
( ,
). , q(a)
,
( )
.
-
, Q ,
8.9..

p(q)
q() = aQ - a
A
A/2
0
-A/2
1/A
- A/2
0 A/2
max
a)
8.9.

(nearest integer function).
(round up) :
A
1
a
aQ
A , A max
J
A 2
(8.20)
. O je:
A
A
q
.
2
2
(8.21)
(round down) :
177
1
a
aQ
A .
A
2
(8.22)
O je:
A
A
q
.
2
2
(8.23)
, q() :
q(a ) q(a) .
(8.23)
8.9. , q()
, ,
. :
q2
(A)2
.
12
(8.25)
, ,
. ,
,
.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 702: Oscillations, signals and related devices/Linear
and non/linear networks and devices.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 704: Transmission/Quantizing in pulse code

modulation (in PCM).
I. Stojanovi, Osnovi telekomunikacija, Graevinska knjiga, 1985.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 723: Broadcasting: Sound, television, data / Digital
television.
178
,

,
,

,

,
,
, .
9.
E

,

.
, .
, ,
.
. , ,
.
. ,
, .
( ). .
1.

.

. , , ,
.
.
2, ,
,
.

.
3. , 4
, ,
, , . ,
, .
(sundial), (. , gnmn , )
.
o o , (, ),
. - ,
, ,
, .

(. oscillare, , ).
5. ,
, , .
(pendulum clock)
[1]. ,
.
, 6

. , ,
, .

.
,
.
.
9.1.
?
[2], [3]. , ,
,
. ,
.
7.
.
, , , , ,
, ,
.
. , ,
.
. (8),
, . ,
.
.
, ,
. ,
.
- : .
() .
(),
, ( ,
)
.
. , ,
.
(), ,
, ...
. intervallum, , , , .
180
09
.
,
.
.
.
-
,
. , ,
, .
- ,
. ,
, , .

, q, .
,
,
t . q=f(t) ,
-1
, t=f (q).
,
, , ,
. , DP DK

tP tK,
, tK > tP DP
DK. , tK = tP, .
:
tK tP (tK t S ) (t S tP ) ; tK t S tP .
(9.1)

t. , o :
a) ,
)
.
,
() q t(q):
[t ] t(qK ) - t(qP ) .
(9.2)
,
q,
. :
[t ] t(qi1 ) - t(qi ) ,
(9.3)
qi qi+1 q,

.
181
.
,
.

9 (period). () .

.
,
.
,
. y
x :
y( x X ) y( x); - x ,

(9.4)
X y.

.

,
. , , (pulse width),
, , (delay)
...
,
:
(9.5)
y( ) Ysin ,
Y , (amplitude), (angle)
(phase). y() , 2:
(9.6)
y( 2 ) Ysin .
, :
d ,
(9.7)
dt
10
(angular velocity). [4].

. 9.6 :
(9.8)
a(t ) Asin(t ) ,
, . (t) :
a(t T ) a(t ) , T
(9.9)

. ,
(frequency11).
[5]:
9
10
11
per, , ods, , (. periodus, ).

SI, je a .
, [1].
. frequentia, .
182
09
1
.
(9.10)
T
-1
, (Hz):
1
(9.11)
1 Hz s 1 .
s
f
, ()
. ,
, ,
.
,
, :
N
f
.
(9.12)
tK tP
, ,
:
N
.
(9.13)
f
t
9.2.
, ,
. 86 400
12 [6], [7].
,

. , 1956.
(CIPM),
31 556 925, 974 7 13 1900 0 12
14 , (SI)
1967. [3].
.

.

12
13
14
,
1889. ,
, .

. 0,5
.
.
, ,
.
, .
( ).
12 31. 1899.
.
183
.
-9
10 [8].
. ,

-15
10 [9], [10].
,
9 192 631 770
133,
15[11]:
(hfs Cs) = 9 192 631 770.
(9.14)
(hfs Cs)
0 .
,

[7].

. ,
, , .
, , ,

:
W
.
(9.15)
f
h
h je , a W .
,
,
.
, ()

133 . ,
,
, ,
.

[12].
,
.
(cesium-beam atomic
clock),
. , ,
14
10 .
15
, , , [12].
184
09
16
1,420 405 751 778 GHz,

. , ,
1015.
(quartz
clock). ,
5 MHz 20 MHz. ,
.
-10
24 h 10 .
a (Global Positioning System,
GPS)
, ,
.
,
, .
9.3.

,
q,
. , q(t),
,
. q .
q(t)
.
9.3.1.
,
:
a(t ) A0 k(t t 0 ) , A0 a(0) ,
(9.16)
k , a(t):
da
.
dt
(9.17)
t, t,
t, a
:
t t K t P
16
A a(t K ) a(t P )
.
k
k
(9.18)
, ,
: Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
185
t
a. a(t) = 0, a(t ) k (t t 0 ) :
t t K t P
a(t K )
.
k
(9.19)
9.1. -
T,
,
. (ramp generator)
a(t) ,
, .
(t)
KO
9.1. - /

9.16. :
da
(9.20)
const .
dt
a(t)
:
a(t ) const dt .
(9.21)
, , ,
o .

. ,
( 9.2.).
. SW1
. t,
IREF, SW2 1,
. t,
, SW2 2. ,
.
, SW1 ,
SW2 1,
.
SW2
SW1
-UREF
R
IREF
SW1
tk tp C
SW2
u C (t k )
I REF
t k t p RC
9.2. tu
186
u C (t k )
U REF
ut
09
9.2.
. , ,
17, SW1 SW2.
, . SW1
t,
R. SW2 se o
t, .

SW2.
.
t u .
(time base)
( 6.44).
sweep-,
x,
[13].
.
9.3.2. O
, ,
.
, , ,
[14].
.

.
.
9.3.
TCL
TX
N
CE
CL
INI
9.3.

() , ,
.

.
,
. ,
17
187
() (initiation, INI).

(clock, CL).

(count enable, CE) .

. , ,
.
.
(CL) ,
.
, ,
(-).
( N = 0),
, T,
CL,
18:
TX
f CL TX ,
TCL
(9.22)
TCL .

CL.
, (
)
.
( 9.4).
.

T.. (tP) , , .
.
(tK) .
TX
p(q)
1/TCL
TCL
tP
tK
-TCL
TCL
9.4.
18
() .
188
09
, q:
q t p t k ,
(9.23)
, .
19:
(9.24)
TCL q TCL .

9.4..
. .
:
q2
2
TCL
.
6
9.4.
(9.25)

.

20. ,

21, .
[15].
9.4.1.

.
, ,
[15], [16].

.
, f/U
. FM-
.

.

19
20
21
,
1 count 1 digit.
,
(frequency domain).
( , ,
)
.
189
(frequency-to-voltage converter, FVC).

.
9.4.1.1.

,
u(t), Uf,
9.5.
u(t)
u(t)
uN(t)
KO
Uf
9.5. - f/U
, ,
u(t) ()
22.
, uN(t), :
t 0
uN (t )dt const J .
(9.26)
t0
f
.
je je:
uN ( t )
1T
J
uN ( t )dt J f ,
T 0
T
(9.27)

U, :
U f k A uN ( t ) k A
J
kF f ,
T
(9.28)
k .
f/U , kF,
, kF .
(low-pass filter LPF).
.
.
f/U
( 9.6).

( 9.6.).
22
, ()
one-shot , single-shot multivibrator monostable multivibrator univibrator.
190
09

.
23
( 9.6.).
UR
UR
u(t)
()
u(t)
SW
()
uN(t)
uN(t)
RR
iN(t)
9.6.
9.6..
24, ,
.
U ;0 t TR
u N (t ) R
.
(9.29)
0;TR t T
UR . :
T
TR
J u N (t )dt U R dt TRU R ; T TR .
(9.30)
, R,

.
= R.
R
.
9.7. (/)
FF-A.

FF-B. R,
, 0,
. TC
(terminal count)
(reset, R).
CLK FF-A
R
FF-B
CLK
Q
R
R
CLK
TC
T0
9.7.
23
24
Ko (charge pump).
.
, , ,
, , .
191

9.6..
. iN(t),
RR,
UR RR.
(
),
.
, ,
:
T
J iN (t )dt Q CU R .
(9.31)
9.4.1.2.

:
.
:
N
f
,
(9.32)
TN
N , TN, .
, (cathode-ray tube,
CRT)
3%. , ,
. :
,
.
,
, .

, . ,
.
.
.
,
, 25.

[17].
, u1(t) u2(t).
u2(u1).
25
, , .
.
192
09
, .
, .
.
,
().
.
-7
10 .

.
,
, . ,

. ,
,
().
.
,
().

. , ,
:
1
f
.
(9.33)
TK

.

26.

:
f2
N
.
f1 M
(9.34)

-
, -.

, x(t)
.
26
() .
193

- - .
, (X-Y mode).
-
, a y- .
,
u1(t)
u2(t),
:
x(t ) k x u1(t ) k xU1sint Xsint ,
(9.35)
y(t ) k y u2 (t ) k yU 2 sin(t ) Ysin(t ) ,
-X

X Y,
9.8. XY-
. X = Y

|| = 90 .
u1(t) u2(t),
2:1:
x(t ) Xsin2t , y(t ) Ysin(t ) ,
(9.36)
, ,
,
, . = k (k = 0, 1, 2,)
:
(9.37)
y 2 4( x 2 x 4 ) .
u1(t) u2(t),
, f1 f2, :
(9.38)
f1 Mf 0 ; f 2 Nf 0 ,
()
/N .

f2 f1 .

-

Y-. ,
XY- 9.9, :
fy
fx
f2
N 3
.
f1 M 4
(9.39)
N =3
M =3
9.9.

,
. XY-,
X- Y-
f1 = fx f2 = fy.
194
09
, y(x)
:
x(t ) k x u1 (t ) ,
y(t ) k y u 2 (t ) .
(9.40)
u1(t) u2(t)
.
y(x),
:
x(t ) XsinMt ,
y(t ) Ysin( Nt ) ,
9.10 N,
= k (k = 0, 1, 2,).
N:M
1:2
2:3
1:4
3:4
N:M
2:1
3:2
5:4
4:3
9.10.
9.4.2.
:
(),
;
,
27.

,
. ,
.
.

.
[18],[19].
. ,
27
, per definitionem,
[5].
195
9.4.2.1.

9.11.
TX
CL
CE
INI
TREF
9.11.

TREF,
.
(N0 = 0), , N,
TREF,
, :
T
N REF f XTREF .
(9.41)
TX

TREF .
1/TREF.
,
,
f TREF:
TREF
N f X (t )dt TREF f X (t ) .
(9.42)
.

.
,
(frequency devider). 9.12.
T1
CL
CLR
T2
9.12.
196
09
28:
T
Q f1
.
N CE
TCL
P f2
(9.43)
9.4.2.2.

.
, .

. -
9.13.
TCL
CL
INI
CE
TCE

9.13.
, .
,

. ,
(clock, CL),
(count enable, CE)
. INI (initialization) .

TC,
CL.
, , N,
TCE :
T
N CE ,
(9.44)
TCL
TCL .

fREF (TCL = 1/ fREF)
T (TCE = T):
T
TREF
f REFT .
(9.45)

, f , CL (TCL = 1/f).
28
CL CE .
197

TCL = TREF:
T
N REF TREF f .
(9.46)
T
, A
B,
(CL) (C) .
(
9.43). :
QTB
Q fA
,
(9.47)
PTA
P fB
P ,
CL (TCL = PT), Q
B, C
(TC = QT), .
N
.
,
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
J.G.Webster. The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, IEEE Press, 1999.
G.J.Whitrow. The Nature of Time, Pelican Books, 1975.
H. Rajhenbah, Raanje naune filozofije, Nolit, 1964.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 101, Mathematics/Quantities dependent
on a variable.
B. W.Petley, Time and frequency in Fundamental Metrology, Proc. of the IEEE, Vol. 79. No 7, 1991.
I. Bagari, Metrologija elektrinih veliina, merenja i merni instrumenti, Nauka 1996.
NIST, Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock, http://www.nist.gov.
Practical realization of the definition of the unit of time, SI Brochure Appendix 2.
Oznake, jedinice, nazivi i fundamentalne konstante u fizici, Sveske fizikih nauka, broj 2, 1990,
IUPAP, Document 25. , 1981.
K.Szymaniec et al. Operation of the cesium fountain frequency standard NPL-CsF2 at the collisional
shift cancellation point, Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements,Digest, p. 46
CPEM 2010.
. , 1, , , 2011.
J. Kalisz, Review of methods for time interval measurements with picosecond resolution,
Metrologia, 41 (2004), 17-32.
. , , , 1967.
. , , , 1967.
V. Vui, D. Ivanovi, Fizika I, Nauna knjiga, 1990.
P.Bonjakovi, B.okic, M.Dohevic-Jeroti, Uniform Sampling of Periodic Signals Using
Successive Conversions, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., Vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 56-60, July 1998.
P.Bonjakovic, M. Dohevic-Jeroti, D. Raenovic, A Wide-Band Uniform Sampling of Periodic
Signals, Facta Universitatis, Vol 12., No 1, pp 15 -23, 1999.
198
.

.
Steve Chy,

, 1997
10.
-

,
, , .

- 1 [1], [2].

, ,
, , ,
. ,
, .

,
N.
- .
/ ,

,
[3], [4], [5], [6].
, ,
-
(U/N ).
,
, ,
.

. ()
, .
(conversion), (conversio, ,
). (Umsetzung,
, ). , ,
.
. ,
.
,
[2].
. .
,
.
, .
10.1.
, /
,
(measurand), [7].
, .
(quantization)
a[min, max], aQ,
j .
a aQ
( ). .

( 10.1.). .
aH 0; a aREF
.
aQ
aL 0; a aREF
(10.1)
, (signum-,
10.1.). ,
( 10.1.).
a
+
aQ
aQ
REF
)
)
)
10.1.
(coding)
.
. ,
,
: + (sign+magnitude).
, ,
, .
-
.
, , .
, N, , a,
() , REF:
a
AREF
(10.2)
200
10
REF
a. N
, .
,
.
().
(t) ,
.
2 (sampling).
- /
10.2. s(ti),
ti
p(tj).
. A N
, .
p(tj)
a(t)
AREF
as(tj)
aq(tj)
N(tj)
10.2. - /
/ ,
3, :
a(t )
N (t i ) i ,
(10.3)
A
,
. ,
(-)
(ti). N(ti) -
.
/
.
,
4 [8], [9].
.
/
() (samples per second, sps).
,
,
2
3
4
.
.
.
()
( ). , / , ,
.
201
, .
. ,
.

.
. ,

8 ,
16 [10].
8- [8].
10.2. /
,
a min max,
aQ, AQ = aj :
a [ Amin, Amax ] aQ {a j }, j 1, 2,...J
(10.4)
AQ.
,
e.
aQ. a, ,
AQ.
:
Amax Amin
.
J
.
:
Aj Amin j A , j 0,1,... J .
A
(10.5)

(10.6)
{j} a. 10.6.
+1 .
, ,
aj, [11].
Q

max= 8
.
7
7
6
6
,
5
5
4
4
. a
3
3
2
2

1
1
aj,
min= 0
0 = 0

.
10.3.
202
10
, , aaQ,
aQ . ,
A,
a:
A {a [ Amin, Amax ]} ,
(10.7)
N :
N {0,1,2,...J 1} .
(10.8)
NN a
:
Amin NA a Amin ( N 1)A .
(10.9)

a . :
aN = min + N A,
(10.10)
a ( 10.3).
/ :
a
;
;
a
a .

,
,
. :

AN ( );

AN, ( )
, ,
( ).
()
( 10.4.).
().
, ,
N = 0. ,
.

( 10.4.).
()
(). 10.4.
203
,
5.
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
20
40
10
30
0
20
-10
10
10.4.
, / ()
a
,
aQ, -1 .
a
; = 1, 2,....
.
( )
( ),
( 10.5).
.
10.5.

( 10.5.), , .
( 10.5.), .
N
( 10.5.):
MN Mi .
(10.11)
,

( ),
( ).
.
.
N,
( 10.5.).
204
10

.
N
. ,
( 10.6.).
, , .
.
- ,
.
.
10.6.

-, ,

. ,
, - .
, , M = {}
. , 1 g, 2 g
5 g, , ,
9 .
, , {1, 2, 2, 4}. ,
, ,
, 99
.
.
{1, 2, 3, 3}, {1, 2, 2, 4}.
.
,
.
- 1023
.
10.7.
.
N
5+4
5
4
1
5+4+3+2+1
5+4+3
5
4
5+3
4+3
3
10.7.
205
, ,
-.
,
. .
-,
-.
, , [12].
, , aN
A, .
( 10.8),

.
10.8. /

:
.
aN
.
, ,
. .
,
aN, .
/
, (
) , .
()

. N n-
n
, 2 1 . A N
.
,
- .
N
aN A i NA, Ai A .
(10.12)
i 0
.
n
206
10
,
, aN().
n-1
aN A b j 2 j NA .
(10.13)
j0
n ,
.
. , ,
,
, ,
-,
.

. , ,
.
.
10.3.
(simultaneous comparison)

e 6.
-1 ,
.
10.9. U/N U,
UL UH, ,
.
R10 U9
UH
K9
WR
R9
K8
R8
K7
U7
R7
K6
U6
R6
K5
U5
R5
K4
U4
R4
K3
U3
R3
K2
U2
R2
UL
K1
R1 U1
U < 0,1 UREF

000000000
0,1 UREF U < 0,2 UREF
000000001
000000011
000000111
000001111
000011111
000111111
001111111
011111111
111111111
(UL =0, UH = UREF)
U8
DATA
U 0,9 UREF
a)
10.9. U/N
, ,
direct conversion ADC, parallel encoder, simultaneous converter flash ADC.
/
.
207
U1U9

7. K1 K9

9-
,
, ,

WR (. write).
UH UL, e
.
, ,
8. ,
( ). :
U j jU ; j 1, 2,...J 1,
(10.14)
U :
UH UL
.
J
(10.15)
.
10.9. UL = 0,
UH = UREF, UREF .
J
,
. n- U/N

n
2
n
2 -1 .
:
Uj j
U REF
2
, j 1, 2,...2n 1 .
(10.16)
10.10. U/N .

U,
U.
. -U +U.
, n- ,
, :
Uj
7
8
U REF
2
1
( j - ) ; j 1, 2,...2n 1.
2
(10.17)
.
UREF U.
208
10
3R
K7
UREF 2R
K6
1
U REF
16
1
3
U REF U U REF
16
16
3
5
U REF U U REF
16
16
5
7
U REF U U REF
16
16
7
9
U REF U U REF
16
16
9
11
U REF U U REF
16
16
11
13
U REF U U REF
16
16
13
U REF U
16
U
b2
2R
2R
K4
2R
K3
K5
b1
2R
K2
2R
b0
K1
0000000
000
0000001
001
0000011
010
0000111
011
0001111
100
0011111
101
0111111
110
1111111
111
10.10.
,
, ,
, .
.
, .
,
. 4-
32 Gsps.
10.4.
- /
10.11. ,
-
.
N
/ .

N.
AN
10.11. / /
.
, N,
/ ,
N
/ .
/ N A:
AN N A ,
(10.18)
209
AN A A ,
N .
. ,
, N = :
A
N
.
A
10.4.1
(counting) , ,
. -
/ 10.12..
CL
fCL
RESET
COM
START
CLK
aN(t)
TCL
aN
N = 100102
a(t)
DAU
1
f CL
10.12. /
.
( START),
() ( RES).
, , ,
.
, -
9.
N ,
.
( N
),
( ). 10.12.
/ , N(t). ,
. ,
, N(t)
(counter ramp ADC).
10 [13].
,
/ .
10
.

, / , ,
(staircase-ramp).
210
10
. N
.

,
() ,
(t),
, . N < ,
. N > , .
/ 10.13..
(t)
a(t)
fCL
aN(t)
N
N(t)
10.13. -
, (up-down) , /
(loop)
, N, ,
. ,
(tracking) 11 [14]. / ,
, .
:
dA
f CL A ,
dt
(10.19)
fCL ,
( 10.13.).
G, /

- 10.14.
A
AE
AG
AN
kAD
AN
NA
kD
10.14. - /

11
AG GAE ,
(10.20)
N k AD AG ,
(10.21)
,
.
.
211

AN k DA N ,
(10.22)
AE A AN ,
(10.23)
kAD kDA A N N A,
. :
AN (1 Gk AD kDA ) Gk AD kDA A .
1 Gk AD kDA 0 , :
Gk AD k DA
A
1 Gk AD k DA
Gk AD kDA 1 , :
AN A ,
(10.24)
AN
(10.25)
:
A .
(10.26)
N
k DA
N
N A.
.
, ,
( 10.15).
kAD
A
AE
AN
G
kDA
AN
10.15. / /
10.23 10.25 N,
, :
Gk AD
(10.27)
N
A,
1 Gk ADkDA
( 6.25).
(kADG) , ,
,
.
N A. ,
, /
:
: / .
.
10.4.2

.
- N.
(succesive-approximation ADC) 10.16.
N, n- :
n 1
N bk 2 k
k 0
212
10
n . 12,
(MSB).
aN
N:
n 1
aN NA bk Ak , Ak 2 k A ,
(10.28)
k 0
/ . , ,
aN . aN(t)
10.16.. ,
.
CL
max
START
DAU
aN
11000
5+ 4
COM
N(t)
10100
10000
0
b3=0
10010
b2=1
10011
b1=0
b4=0
b5=1
10.16. /
,
A,
. / ,
8 16 , U N
(Msps).
10.5.
.

,
, .
, /

[15].
10.17 -

[16]. m-
(flash) / / .
N . , 1
m
2 .
m N. , 2
12
( ).

213
m
m- / , .
A
+
m-
Am
m-
MSB
m a
AREF2
A2
m-
m a
LSB
AREF1
A1
2m a
10.17. /
(pipelined) 13

12 , 40
[17].
10.6.
,
,

.
: .
,
.
.
10.6.1
-
ATN 10.18. :
A/T
T/N
+
R(t)
CL
NA
aR(t)
TCL
INI
CE
COM
RES
SADC
a)
10.18. TN
A/T ,
A,
TA;
13
, ,
half-flash subranging quantizer.
214
10
T/N
T;
ATN .
A/T :
aR (t ) k A t ,
(10.29)
kA ( ) R(t). T/N
.
, RES INI, A/T T/N
, R(0)=0 NA = 0. SADC,
,
(count enable, ).
, R, A.
,
.
. (TCL<<TA),
, :
aR (TA ) k A TA A ,
(10.30)
NA A:
NA
f
TA
A
CL A .
TCL k A TCL
kA
(10.31)
, TCL, T/N
. ATN ,
14
TA, R(t) (
10.18.). / :
,
() ;
;
( NA)

.
/T/N
(counter-ramp) 10.4.1. / (
10.12) ,
A TCL:
A
(10.32)
kA
f CL A ,
TCL
kA, / /
, 10.31
/ .
10.19
U N
.
14
, /N single-slope
ADC ramp-type ADC.
215
:
t
uC (t ) U REF ,
(10.33)
, .
DAU
SADC
N
INI
(-)
CL
Q
R
CE
CL
COM
U
+
RES
T/N
UREF
u(t)
U/T
10.19. UTN
.
,
. ( SADC)
(N = 0), - Q = 1,
UREF
. DAU ,
(data unavaliable).
, .

, uC(t), U.
je .
, , N, :
U .
N
(10.34)
TCL U REF
10.6.2
FN
- -
AfN 10.20. A/f

A , f ,
.
10.20. AfN

. ,
.
,
216
10
,
.
, , , , ,
(, , ...),
.
,
:
t0 TM
1 t0 TM
(10.35)
N f (t )dt k f TM
a(t )dt k f TM a(t ) .
TM t0
t0
10.6.2.1

.
( ) .
, :
t
aI (t ) AI (t 0 ) k I a(t )dt .
(10.36)
t0
kI , (t) .
A,

AI, :
AI
T
.
(10.37)
kI A

( ),
A:
1
A
f kI
.
(10.38)
T
AI
,
,

, = AI/kI. 10.38
:
A
(10.39)
f ,
J
, , .

:
dN
.
(10.40)
f
dt
f ,
[t0, t] :
217
N f (t )dt .
(10.41)
t0
, N = 1, :
t 0 T
f (t )dt 1 ,
(10.42)
t0
,
(t):
f (t ) ka(t ) ,
:
t 0 T
(10.43)
a(t )dt k const .
(10.44)
t0
, Af
, ,
, . A/f
.
10.6.2.2
A/F
A/f
15
.
,
.
.

. A/f

.
, ,

. ,
Af
.
A/f .
- A/f
10.21. ,
, ,

( 10.44). ,
15
218
10
,
.
(t)
I(t)
K(t)
10.21. Af
:

I(t);

, .

.
,
.
,
. ,
. ,
.
/f
Af , f A,
.

, ,
U/f . 10.22.

. ,
,
.
UK
u0
uI
U
uI(t)
KOM
0
RES
Tr
TI
UH
u(t)
UL
a)
10.22. U/f

, uI(t), :
219
uI (t ) k I u(t )dt ,
(10.45)
kI .
uI(t) U.
, r,
16
.
r, .
,
( 10.22.).
, TI,
U:
U
TI K .
(10.46)
k IU
r
, TI, :
1
U
f kI
.
(10.47)
TI
U I
r << TI , U/f
. T ,
:
1
U
f
kI
(1- ) ,
(10.48)
TI Tr
UK
,
(10.47), Tr:
(10.49)
kITr U .

.
f .
[18].

U/f ,
, 10.23..
, ,
. ,
uS(t) u(t). ,
uS(t) -u(t):
u S (t ) sgn uK u(t ) ,
16
(10.50)
220
10
1; u K U H
.
sgn u K
1; u K U L
(10.51)
UG
UG
u0
uS
uI
KOM
UD
uK
uI(t)
UD
TP
TN
UH
u(t)
UL
a)
10.23. U/f
, uI, UG,
u UH. uI UD
UL. UD UG,
17
. ,
UH,
, uI UD.
UL. ,
uI UG.
, u(t) >0,
. uI(t)
UD UG u(t).
uI(t) UG UD
-u(t). ,
.
,
18
( 10.23.). ()
19
. :
kI
1
U , U I U G U D .
TP TN 2U I
(10.52)
Uf
, .

, f(U)
.
17
18
19
. ()
. , -
. ,
.
, dual-slope
voltage-to-frequency converter.
. ,
, , u(t),
. .
221

(bias)
( 10.24.).
UG
UG
u0
uS
uI
KOM
UD
uI(t)
uK
UD
TP
TN
U+UB
uS(t)
-U+UB
a)
10.24.
, U,
,
TP TN ( 10.24.):
U I
,
TP
kI (U U B )
TP
U I
.
kI (U U B )
:
kI
1
f
U (1- B ) ,
TP TN 2U I
, U:
2
U
B B .
U
:
U
B B .
U
, U
uI(t), 10.24., , ,
.

/f ,

20
, 10.25.
, I(t) .
,
. , ,
,
I(t) . ,
,
20
, VFC with
impulse feedback loop.
. , .
, charge balancing.
222
10
.
, , ,
.
.

(t)>0
+
E(t)
I(t)
K(t)
(t)
F(t)

10.25. U/f

, F(t),
:
aF (t )dt const J ,
(10.53)
,
, .
F(t)
.
, I(t),
, I(t+T) = I(t), :
T
aE (t )dt 0 .
:
T
a(t )dt aF (t )dt ,
:
T
aF (t )dt J
1
0
a
(
t
)
dt
T0
T
T
T
,
.
.

,
.
:
1 a
f .
(10.54)
T J
f

. , F(t)
223
.
.
,
.

UREF:
J Q CU REF ,
(10.55)
.
,
, .
:
0 t TREF
A
,
(10.56)
aF (t ) REF
0
TREF t T
REF REF . = REF REF, :

1
f
a(t ) .
(10.57)
TREF AREF

[19].
/f , ,
,
. ,

,

10.57.

,

.

, U/f
.
, ,
Uf . ,

( 10.26.),
. U/f
10.26.
224
10
zy
y (x )
+
1
y (x )
UF
w ( y)
yw
a)
10.26. U/f
,
, ,
U f
f U. ,
, f/U ,

[20].
- U/f ,
, 10.27.
(voltage controlled oscillator, VCO) U/f
f .
U f ,
.
U
+
uF(t)
UREF
uF(t)
UREF
TREF
T
TREF
10.27. - U/f a
uF(t)
( 10.27.) UREF,
TREF, M f:
uF(t) :
uF
UREF TREF
M
f .
(10.58)
uF (t ) u(t ) ,
(10.59)
M
u .
UREF TREF
(10.60)
UREF
225
TREF ,
.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 314: Electrical and electronic measurements Specific terms according to the type of instrument, Section 314-02: Digital instruments.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 351: Automatic control, section 351-32, Specific
functional units in control technology.
Susskind A. Notes on analog-digital conversion techniques, M.I.T. PRESS, 1963.
Hoeshele D. Analog-to-Digital/Digital-to-Analog Conversion Techniques, John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
E.R. Hnatek, A user's handbook of D/A and A/D Converters, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
.., .., - , , 1981.
Electrical and electronic measurements - Specific terms according to the type of instrument / Digital
instruments, IEC, 314-02-01.
8. National Semiconductor, ADC082500, High performance, Low Power, 8-Bit, 2.5 Gsps A/D
converter.
9. P. Crisp, A generic DMM test and calibration strategy, CAL LAB Magazine, 1997.
10. Agilent 3458 Multimeter, Data sheet.
11 International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 704: Transmission/Quantizing in pulse code
modulation (in PCM).
12 B.D.Smith, Coding by Feedback method, Proceedings of the I.R.E., Aug. 1953, pp 1053-1059.
13 D. ivkovi, M. Popovi, Impulsna i digitalna elektronika, Akademska misao, 2004.
14 J.A.Irvine, D.A.Pucknell, A Wide-range Fully-automatic Digital Voltmeter, The Journal of Brit. I.R.E.
Vol 20, No.7, 1960.
15 S. Tei, D. Vasiljevi, Osnovi elektronike, Graevinska knjiga, 2000.
16 P. Horowitz, W. Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. 622.
17 National Semiconductor, ADC12020, 12-Bit, 40 sps A/D converter.
18 P.Bosnjakovic, J.Kon, A new voltage to frequency converter with
Electronic Leters, 1977, Vol 13 No 1, pp 5-6.
the nonlinearity correction,
19 N. Kirianaki et all, Data acquisition and signal processing for smart sensors, John Wiley, 2002.
20 . , . , . , . ,
, XLVIII -, 2004.
226

...

.
Alfred North Whitehead

(Science and the Modern World)
11.
-

, ,
.
, ...
, ,
. ,
. -
(digital-to-analog converter - DAC) [1].
, 1,
,
, (process
computers). , ,
2 ,
, / 3
[2]. -

,
, a
.
/
,
.
. , /
, .
,
, ( . processus, ,
).
(real-time)
.
. (
,
)
.
, (interface) , ,
. ,
()
, (human
mashine interface - HMI). ,
.
, -o
4 .

(),
.

( 11.1).
T0
ti
Nt

Nwi
NW(Nt)
UREF
N/U
NG
u(t i )
11.1.

/ .

,
. /
.
,
.
/ .
11.1.

, ,
.
,
N:
A N A , N 0, 1, 2, ...N MAX ;
(11.1)
. /
. ,
() /
() . ,
, ,
/ :
(signal recovery), o ( . regeneratio,

, ).
228
11
dA A dN ,
(11.2)
dN ,
dA.
,
5.
11.2 :
A( N ) Amin A N .
(11.3)
, , /
, ,
, (continuous-time).
/ :
a(t ) N ( nT )h(t - nT ) ,
(11.4)
h(t) (step) 6, T
() , n 0 .
, a(t) ()
.
/

. , 7
/ [3]. / ,

[4]. , /
. ,

(output span) N.
/ , ,
. ,
. (output step),

.
11.2. /
- N
.
, / .
() ,
N .
, h(t)
0 ; t 0
h(t )
1 ; t 0
.
.
229
()
.

.
, /
8. ,
. .
,
: ,
.
.
, , ,
, .
, /
(N/I )
(N/U ).
,
.
11.3. /
,
() , ,
( 11.2). , ,
,

.
TH
TH , T TH TL , f
TL
TH
TH
,
T
TH TL
1
1
,
T TH TL
TH TL
.
TH TL
11.2.
a
, N
.

. 11.3. N/

230
11
.
. TRIGGER
()
.
CLK
CLK
PL
T0
TRIGGER
TC
TC
RESET
TRIGGER
()
SET
N=4
11.3. N/
(down-counter).
TRIGGER PL (parallel load, preset enable) N
(SET)
. , CE (count enable),

CLK (clock input).
.
, TC (terminal count)
(RESET) .
Q
.
, 0, N ,
, .
11.3..
, , ,
N0.

, 11.4.
PL
+
TRIGGER
CLK FF-A
CLK
Q
FF-B
D
CLK
Q
FF-C
C
CLK
TC
T0
11.4. N/
FF-A TRIGGER

FF-B. FF-A ,
FF-B.
FF-B , 0, N
(PL), FF-D
.
= N0 .
231
,
N , . 11.5
. -
N0.
CLK
TN
PL
T0
11.5. N/

,
:
TH
.
(11.5)
T
, ,
. N/ 11.6.
T0
LK
PL
N
=NT0

TC
LK
RSET
=MT0
=MT0
SET
11.6. N/
, .
:
T MT0 .
(11.6)
C (carry out)
N. ()
, :
TH NT0 .
(11.7)
11.6 11.7 :
N
.
M
(11.8)
0 (
), N > N.
:
1
1
f
0,
T MT0 M
(11.9)
232
N .
11
.
9
N .
11.4. /
/
. ,
() ,
10 .
,
, ,
.
11.4.1
(electronic switch)
RSW .
, (, open).
(closed).

, UAB A

.
UAB
, A
.
B
IAB = 0
UAB = 0
,
, , .
(, ) .
OFF ON.
.
b. (b = 0),
. (b = 1),
.
b=0
b=1
11.7.

.
je o
.
9
10
(microcontroller)
.
(switch) ,
, .
233
.
, ( 11.8).
, ,
. ON
Y Z. OFF ,
11.
Y
11.8.

(ON) , rON
. , ()
( ,
, UOS) ( 11.9).
Cp
b=1
rON
Cp
b=0
UOS
ROFF
OFF
ON
CS
IL
11.9.
(OFF),
. , , (ROFF), e
(Cp), 12 (IL).
11.4.2
-,

, / .
,
AQ .
N, ,
( 11.10).
J

AN
{A}
j = 0,1,J-1
J

N
AN AQ
11.10. N/
11
12
,
. () ,
, .
(leakage) PN-.
234
11

13. ,

(), 11.11.,
( 0 J-1)
( ). ( 11.11.)
14 (
N), n , J.
, s0 s-1, (),
.
-3
-2
2n
-1
A2n 1
A3
A2
3
2
A1
A0
s2n 1
s3
s2
s1
A(N )
s0
11.11.
N/
. AQ
(
N).
. AQ
15.

,
-
I , ,
AQ. , ,
11.12.
N
{Aj}
11.12. N/
.
, 16
. ,
13
14
15
16
, (multiplexer, mux)
, , . . multiplex .
.
, (N) , , N().
. selectio , .
235
N, .
N -.
11.4.3
/ , ,
() .

(, )
.
()
. ,

(, , )
, .
,
,
.
17.
,
18, ().
-
NR NG .

-.
N/R
11.4.3.1
11.13 N/R .
, ,
N.
N R.
R0 R-1 .

11.13., , 11.13..
s-1
R-1
sJ1
s1
s2n 1
(2n-1)R
s0
s3
R3
s3
3R
s2
s2
R2
s1
R1
s0
R0
B
R-1
R2
R1
R0
s2
2R
s1
R
s0
11.13. N/R
17
18
(relay)
O .
selectio , .
, ,
.
236
11
N R :
RAB NR ,
(11.10)
R , ,
R ( 11.13.).
R() 19.
- ,
- ,
11.14.. .
B
RP = JR
RAC JR .
11.14. N/R
, , , ( 11.14.).
RAB ( N )
R j NR;
R j R;
j 0
j 0, 1, 2...J- 1 ;
(11.11)
RCB ( N ) ( J N )R .
(11.12)

( 11.15.).
, 10:1,
( 11.15.), ,
, 100 .
8
8
6
5
4
3
A
0
6
5
4
3
10
4
3
8
9
11.15. N/R

,
-. 11.16. N/R
16 ,
11 110 , 20 [5].
19
20
,
.
.
237
50
20
20
10
5
2
2
5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100
11.16. N/R

, 1
10 ( 11.17).
B
s1
s10
s100
s1k
s10k
s100k
90
900
9 k
90 k 900 k 9 M
s1M
s10M
11.17.

( 11.18.), ( 11.18.).
U
k=1
U = k U
900R0
k=0.1
k=1
90R0
k=0.01
9R0
k=0.001
U = k U
k=10
k=100
R0
k=1000
900R0
90R0
9R0
R0
11.18.
N/R , ,
,
-
N. , n,

N. N/R ,
(weighted-resistor network) 11.19.
bn-1
2 n-1R
b0
b1
2R
2R
11.19. N/R
:
bj ,
n-1
n-1
j0
j0
RAB bj Rj bj 2 j R NR , Rj 2 j R .
(11.13)
238
11
N/G
11.4.3.2
, N/R N/G ,
. N/G
( 11.20.). -
N :
Rj
1
; j 1, ..., J 1 .
Gj
(11.14)
s-1
bn-1
2n-1G
G-1
s3
G3
bn-2
b3
2R
4G
s2
b1
b1
G2
2n-2R
2G
s1
G1
bn-1
b0
b0
2n-1R
11.20. N/G
N/G ( 11.20.)
-
N:
G AB
n-1
j 0
j 0
b j G j b j 2 j G NG , G j 2 j G .
(11.15)
( 11.20.),
, (MSB)
(LSB)21:
Rj
2 n-1
(11.16)
R.
2j
A B N:
R AB
1
2 n-1
R.
G AB
N
(11.17)

. a e
. (ladder-network),
11.21.. .
b3
2R
N
B
A
b2
R
2R
2R
b=1
GAB
b1
b=0
2R
b0
2R
GAC
11.21. N/G R-2R

21
239
22 , , ,
11.21.,
:
N
1
N
(11.18)
G AB n , G AC n .
R 2 R
2 R

, ,
, . , :
-, N.
, .
[6].
N/G
() . 11.22
, 1:2:5:10:100.
, , ,
.
, (
) (
).
100
R/99
10
R/9
5
R/4
2
11.22. -
11.4.4
, /
. ,
/ .
,
- .
,
( )
. N,
( 11.10),
( 11.12).
N A
, N
22

, .
240
11
.
REF,
N ( 11.23):
AN AREF k ( N ) ,
(11.19)
k(N) . ,
REF .
k .
N
AREF
A(N)
11.23. /
, /
, :
(voltage-controled current-source),
(current-controled current-source),
(voltage-controled voltage-source),
(current-controled voltage-source).

. /
.
,
REF .
, N ,
REF .
, , :
AREF
,
J
(11.20)

. , N, n
:
n 1
N bi 2 i ,
(11.21)
i 0
J = NMAX +1 = 2 , :
N
2n
AREF .
(11.22)
, :
AMAX
2n 1
AREF .
2n
(11.23)
241

REF. (A
) 23 ( 11.24).
N
A=A0+NA
AN=NA
/
AREF
A0
11.24. /
N/I
11.4.4.1
N/I
. , ,
,
( 11.25.), . ,
() .
bK
+UCC
b2
I2
b3
b1
UREF
I1
I0
b2
b0
b0
T2
T3
R
b0
+UCC
IK
b3
b2
b0
b0
2R
2R
2R
2R
UREF
T0
T1
4R
2R
8R
-UEE
11.25. N/I
11.25.
.
.
11.25. R-2R
.
N I
N /G .
11.26., UREF
N:
I N U REFG( N ) .
(11.24)
N
UREF
I = NG0 UREF
UREF
G(N)
G = NG0
IN
a)
11.26. N/I
23
(. bias) , , ()
,
.
242
11
.

11.26., N.
N/U
11.4.4.2
.
24.

N/U ( 11.27.).

N/U . 11.27.
[7].
UREF
UREF
b2
b1
b0
bi=1
bi
bi=0
sJ-1
R
UN
s2
R
s1
s0
R
R
UN
11.27. N/U
,
, ,
. 11.28. .
) ) .
IREF
UN
UN
R(N)
U N I REF R( N )
N
UREF
R(N)
RREF
U N U REF
R( N )
RREF
RREF
UREF
UN
G(N)
UN UREF RREFG( N )
11.28. N/U
N/U
11.29..
24
243
GN:
n-1
N
(11.25)
GN b j G j n .
2 R
j0
bn-1
GN
bn-1
-UREF
UREF
2R
2R
bn-2
R
4R
R
b1
b1
R
R
2n-1R
2R
b0
b0
2nR
2R
2R
11.29. N/U
:
U
U RGNU REF N REF
.
2n
, U, :
U REF
.
2n
UREF:
maxU
2n 1
2
U REF U REF (1
1
2n
) U REF .
(11.26)
(11.27)
(11.28)
11.29. N/U
R-2R .
.
N/U
:
UN
UREF N
.
NMAX 1
(11.29)
11.29., R GN
, ( 11.30):
UREF
RR
UN
GN
1
2n
U REF
RGN
NU REF
11.30. N/U
244
11
11.4.4.3
N//
/
.
. 11.31. N //
.
H
N/
b(t)
a(t)
11.31. N//A
N .

b(t) ()
, H, , , N:
TH
N
;
T
NMAX
(11.30)
NMAX N.
b(t)
a(t)
( = AH) ( = AL).
:
a(t ) ( AH - AL ) AL
N
NMAX
( AH - AL ) AL .
(11.31)
()
:
AH AH
.
NMAX
(11.32)
AH = AREF i AL = 0, :
A a(t )L
N
NMAX
AREF .
(11.33)
(pulse amplitude
modulator - PAM) .

(low-pass filter LPF). 11.32
N//U (C). N
. u(t)
RC- ,

.
245

+
C
UREF
UO
LPF
PAM u(t)
11.32. N//U
, ,
,
, ,
,
.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 351: Automatic control, section 32, Specific
functional units in control technology.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, part 351: Automatic control, section 30, Process
computer systems.
3. National Semiconductor, DAC0800, 8-Bit Digital-to-Analog Converter.
4. International vocabulary of metrology Basic and general concepts and asotiated terms (VIM),
2007.
5
.., , , 1967.
HS 3140, Monolitic 14-bit MDAC, Hybrid systems..
P. Horowitz, W. Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. 624.
246
,

..
12.
E

,
.
, ,

.

.
,

. .
12.1

(electric charge).
, .
, .
1
.

. F
, q,
:
F q E .
(12.1)
,
. ,
, ,
.

. (potential energy)
, M ,
M,
.
() 1891.
(Johnstone Stone).

(Joseph John Thomson).
1906. .
, R,
:
R
WM F d r q E d r .
(12.2)
W,
M , , q,
(electric potential):
VM
WM R
Edr.
q
M
(12.3)
,
, WN, :
WMN qVM VN .
(12.4)
, M N,
() (voltage). 1:
N
U MN VM VN E d r .
(12.5)

. 12.2 12.5 :
We qU .
(12.6)
, ,
(),
(charge carrier)
. ,

. (
)
(free electron). ,
.
, .
, .
,
. ,
. ,
, .
,
( ) ,
( 12.1.).
,
.
)
)
12.1.
2
, ,
,
, , ,
( 12.1.). ()
. superpositio, , .
248
Me
12

(conduction current)3.
()
: (current intensity)
(current density).
i.
:
dq .
(12.7)
i
dt
, ,
, .
.

. I
4:
I dI J d S
S
S
dS
J
(12.8)
12.2.

() v:
J nq v .
(12.9)
n
(), q 5. 6,
E,
:
(12.10)
vE.
, , (mobility)
[2]. ,
.

E:
(12.11)
J E .
(conductivity)
() [1]. n
.
q :
qn .
(12.12)

:
(12.13)
E J .
(resistivity):
1
(12.14)
.
()
.
.
3
4
(drift current).
, I
S.
, ,
, , .
( . homogens, ,
).
249
()
, 10-7 m 1018 m [3].
10-4 m 7.
.
(
).
, .
() 105 m.
,
.
( ),
8.

. ,
, ,
.
.
.
,
. (hole)
9.
, ,
, .
( )
.
(impurity).
,
.
,
-. N-
.
.

.
(12.7).
10 ( 12.3),
E .
, .
I :
I J S ,
S .
10
(12.15)
, (conductor)
() [1].
. ,
( ).
,
.
(dielectric)
[1].
(semiconductor)
[1].
, ()
. ,

.
, .
250
Me
12
.
, S S,
l :
xB
(12.16)
U AB Edx El .
xA
12.3.
12.11, 12.15 12.16 :
S
(12.17)
I U AB ,
l
, , . UAB , A
B, ,
I, :
U AB RAB I .
(12.18)
R (resistance).
, (

).

( ). (power)
. (12.6)
:
dW
dq
(12.19)
P
U
UI .
dt
dt
:
W Pt UIt .
(12.20)
W U I t .
(12.21)
, I
R, a , :
P RI 2
U2 .
R
(12.22)
12.2
,
, ,
, .
() ,
[4]. , : , ,
, ( 1881.
),
,
,
251
[5]. , ,
1948. .

. ,
.
,
.
, ,
.
,
()
,
,
.
11. ,
.

() ,
.
, ,
,
,
()
,
. ,
,
, , ()
, .
,
,
12.
( 12.4)
,
(CIPM), .

,
, :
c 02 0 0 1 .
11
12
(12.23)
,
, 1893 [4].
, 1908. ,
.
, :
1,11800 mg [5].
,

. ,
(1948), .
(IEC)
1950. [5].
252
Me
12
e
: c0 = 299 792 458 ms-1, 0 = 4 x 10-7 NA-2.
0
kg
Hz
12.4. SI-
12.3

,
, ,
,
,
, 2 x 10-7
[6].
[7]. , ,
.
,
13. ,
,
.
SI ,

,
d,
I:
l
F 0
I2,
2d
0 (
).

,
[8].
13
,
.
253
,
, 14.

15
,
.

, , , .
, ,
,
()
.
, ,
16.
12.3.1

. (voltaic pile)
(1800). ,
, , ,
.
(Daniell) (1836), (Clark)
(1872)
(1893). 1908.
(1893). ,
(- 40 V/C)17
-6
( 2 10 ),
[9].
1911. 1990. ,
(Weston cell)
20
18 1,01865 V. ,
.
14
15
16
17
18
, ,
[4].
.
(Rayleigh) - (Ayrton-Jones) .

, , 1881. . , ,
,
.
. 3 V/C,
.
13 (IEC),
20
1,01854 V 1,01873 V.
254
Me
12

, ,
.
12.3.2

. , (solid-state)
, , ,
. ,
, -
.

.
.

7
10 10.

.

(CIPM).
.
, ,
( 12.5).
,
.

A
Hz
W
12.5.
12.3.2.1 -
,

.
, ,
.
(valve), ,
255
12.6.. 19
(),
(), ( )
[11].
12.6..
IAK
IAK
R=
UAK
UAK
12.6.
12.6. .
,
, .
, r, U(I):
dU AK ,
(12.24)
r
dI AK
(PN-).
, -
N-,
.
:
U AK
I AK I S (e U T 1) .
(12.25)
IS , IS = I(-).
,
.
PN-,
, U-I ( 12.7.).
20.
IZ
I
U
-U(BR)
40
30
20
10
A
2
UZ(V)
)
)
12.7. U-I PN-

. (avalanche)
( )
. ,
,
-. ,
, ,
-.
(avalanche multiplication)
19
20
()
.
"" (breakdown)
, ,
PN-.
256
Me
12
. (Zener breakdown)
, PN-
.
21.
U-I ,
, ( 12.7.).
U
I .
.
(breakdown diodes) -,
. -
7,5 V [3]. -
12.7..

- 12.8. IZ
UN UZ.
,
.
+UN
IZ
UZ
U O U Z (1
RA
RA
)
RB
RB
12.8. -
-
,
.

. UO
1 ppm/C [12]. , ,
UZ
[13]. ,
10 V,
0,1 ppm/C [14]. ,

. -
(-),
. ,
,
, ,
.
21

(potential barrier) . ,
, .
, .
257
12.9.
(long term stability)
- .
1000 , V/V.
,
. 140
, , ,
0,2 V/V [15].
12.3.2.2
.
, (t) .
22.
.
, ,
23, .

.
, ,
.
.

[1].
,
.
,
(Kamerlingh Onnes) je
(1913).

, ,
.
22
23
, ,
.
,
, -.
258
Me
12

24.
, 25
,
() .
(insulating barrier),
( 12.10.),
.
(superconducting current), ,
.
(Josephson junction),
.
UJ
Al2O3
UJ
UJ
h
fi
2e
h
fi
2e
12.10.
- 26 .
UJ,
. f
UJ :
2e
(12.26)
f UJ ,
h
e , h .
,
, .
U/f .
.

f
fi :
f nfi , n 1, 2 , 3,....
24
25
26
(12.27)

, .

""
.
(. )
- ..

(insulated gate field efect transistor, IGFET),
JoFET.
259
UJ fi:
nf
(12.28)
U J i nU ,
KJ
. ,
,
. ,
.
( 12.10.).
(weak link)
.
()
, .
(SI)
9
-7
483 597,9 10 GHz/V, 4 10 [6] .
10 GHz
20 V.
.
.
12.10..

.
-10
10 16, 17, 18, 19, 20.
,
10 V, a
,
12 mm x 17 mm
21.
12.3.2.3
,

[22].
, , ,

( 12.11).
12.11.
260
Me
12
- 12.12.
-
.
/ .
,
N.
N
UREF
UN
12.12. /
.
.
U/I ( ).
HO
+
UCAL
HS
RL
LS
LO
12.13.
, 12.13,

RL.

,
()
27.
12.3.2.4
(),
80- , ,
,
. a
1 V 10 V [23].
1 nV 10 mV [24].

, 24 h
, (
27
N/U .
Kelvin-Varley voltage divider.
261
23 1 ).
2 ppm/C, 8 ppm
.
12.14. 28

, [25]. 24 h
,
(23C1C)
-6
15 10 . 1 pA (
) 1 . 100 1
500 /.
12.4

. (leakage current)
.
. ,
.
, .
, ,
, ,...

, , ,
,
, .
,
.
() .
. ,
,
. ,
.
[26].
28
Copyright October 2011 Agillent Technologies Inc.

Reproduced with permission.
262
Me
12
(Willem Einthoven,
1860-1927) 1903.
,
()
(string galvanometer). 8 m
1 mm 75 nA.

.
, 1924.
.
,
, ,
, ( 12.15).
U
IL
IL
RL
RL
12.15.
,
R, .

.
10 100 .
.
, 29
( 12.16.a). ,
, 50 .
R
I I M (1 A ) .
(12.29)
RS
I
IS
IM
RS
RA
+
)
12.16.

( 12.16.). , ,
,

(make-before-break).
12.16. (Ayrton shunt)
. 12.17.
29
(. shunt) (.
Nebenschluwiderstand) [14].
263

,
.
3000
22,5
0,475
0,025
A
100 mA
50 A
2000
10 mA
500 mA
+
+ 10 A
12.17.

,
.
4 %.
1 %
(full scale deflection).
0,05.
12.4.1
,
, .
,
:
(12.30)
U RM I .
R
( 12.18.). ,
.
, U, U/N
.
H
I
L
)
12.18.
R .
, ,
, .
R,
, .
,
:
264
Me
12
PJ RMI 2 ,
(12.31)
.
( 12.18.).
, , .
U ,
R ,
.
I/U ( 12.19).
.
, ,
.
I
RM
U O RM I
12.19. I/U
12.4.2
(Hall-effect)
, ,
.

( ) B
.
,
, FL
( )
, v, , B:
(12.32)
FL q v B ,
q ( 12.20.a). ,
,

( 12.20.).
(Hall field) FE
FL:
(12.33)
FE q EH .
Z
FL
d
Y
J
J
)
12.20.
265

q EH q v B 0 ,
(12.34)
:
1
EH ( J B ) ,
qn
:
J nq v ,
(12.35)
(12.36)
n
.
B (
),
UH (Hall voltage) I
B:
IB
U H kH
.
(12.37)
d
d 30, kH (Hall coefficient),
(
).

,
.
, 31.
(Hall Edvin Herbert, 1855-1938)
o ,
.

.

,
.

.
12.21..

.
.
12.21..
I
UO
U
RM
12.21.
30
31
.
.
.
.
266
Me
12
(closed
loop Hall effect current sensor).
12.21.. ,
,
32. ,

. R
I.
12.5
, ,
- .
33 RM, U
IM, ( 12.22).
+
U
R
I mA R
U IM( RM RA )
12.22.
RM .

.
,
,
120 V.

20 V
10 : 1.

10. ,
.
10
120 V
= 10
,
. ,
, L ( 12.23),
(open-circuit potential difference), .
, .
() (R)
. U
,
34.
32
33
34
.
() [14].

.
267
H
+
U
RO
RL U
U U M (1
RV
RO
)
RE
12.23.

( 12.24.).
.
.
15 M
4 M
800 k 150 k
48 k
50
250
50 A
2000
10
10 V
3V
2,5
1000
90 k
6 M 2,1 M 600 k 210 k
1V
+
)
30 V
U/I
100 V
12.24.
,
, , , ,
, ( 12.24.).
,
, U/N ,
- .
12.6

.
, ,
.
- .
(t),
:
N k
1
Ti
t0 TI
a(t )dt
t0
AREF
a(t )
.
AREF
(12.38)
(t) ,
, , ,
~(t):
a(t ) A a ~ (t ) ,
(12.39)
268
Me
12
, ~(t)
,
TI. , , :
t 0 TI
a ~ (t )dt 0 .
(12.40)
t0
N k
1
Ti
t0 TI
a(t )dt
t0
AREF
A
.
AREF
(12.41)
, (rejection)

( 12.25).
(dB)
0
-10
20
-20
dB
dec
-40
-60
I
2I
4I
12.25.

.
TI
() .
/N
. ()
.
,
.
.
.
/f ,
. , , ,
, f
.

N .

TI. ,
. ,
, .
(dual slope).
269

/
.
12.6.1
- U/N
12.26.
SW
u(t) 0
1
2
uS
IC
CL
MR
uI
+
uK
-UREF
CE
12.26. U/N
U N .
uI(t)
1:
TI
J u(t )dt .
(12.42)
1 .
, 2,
, ,
:
T1 T2I
U REF dt J .
(12.43)
T1
.
MR (master reset) . IC (initial
condition) .
SW 1,
. , MR IC,

(CL). , 1,
, ,
:
T1 MTC ,
(12.44)
; .
1, SW 2,
,
.
.
2,
. ,
:
270
Me
12
T2 NTC ,
(12.45)
. 12.42 12.43
:
TI
T2
J
U REF
u(t )dt
U REF
(12.46)
2 1 :
1 TI
u(t )dt u(t ) T
T1 0
T2
1
.
T1
U REF
U REF
(12.47)
N
:
u(t ) T1
U REF
M.
(12.48)
, uI(t),
,
12.27.
us = U
us = -UREF
uI(t)
2
12.27.
U/N
12.28. 12.29
.
SC
CLK
SWC
DAV
SW2
u(t) 0
1
2
SW1
uS
C
+
MR
OFL
uI
-UREF
INI
COM
uK
+
12.28. U/N
, uI(t)
:
uI (t )
1 t
Ut
uS (t )dt RC .
RC 0
(12.49)
271
( )
:
uI (T1)
UMTC .
UT1
RC
RC
(12.50)
1, SW1 2,

.
.
2
. , , N,
:
T
(12.51)
N 2 .
TC
T2
. uI(T1),
UREF RC. :
uI (T1)
U REFT2
0,
RC
(12.52)
:
u (T )
T2 I 1 RC ,
U REF
:
U
T2
MTC .
U REF
:
U
N
M.
U REF
(12.54)
(12.55)
SC (oscillator output) -
OSC
SC
(12.53)
TC
SC (start command)
- e
DAV (data valid)
INI (initialization)
SW1 (switch control)
- SW1,
uI
- ,
DAV
INI
,
SW1
CC
OFL
1 = TC
uI
2 = NTC
OM (comparator)
- ,
CC (counter clock)
OFL (overflow)
- .
,
COM
12.29.
,
. U,
Q C
1. , R,
I, C
1.
272
Me
12
.
,
.
Q,

C IREF.
UREF R,
I .
2 .
, , Q N,
U Q. , :
TCL, M
R
U I
Q
R, UREF
TCL
T N ,
,
:
Q
R
R
R U
Q
IT1
MTC
T2
I REF U REF
U REF
U REF R
U
N
M.
TC
TC
TC
TC
TC
U REF
(RC) (fC = 1/TC)
.
( ),
, ,
. fC
. R C
() .
12.6.2

35. 12.30.
U.
H
UE
U
UE
UM
U/N
UM
U/N
12.30.
( 12.30.).
, U1, :
35

. , (contact
potential difference) ,
(thermal electromotive force).
273

U M1 U U E .
(12.56)
,
U:
U M2 U U E .
(12.57)
U1 UM2
U:
U M1 U M1
.
(12.58)
2
.
.
,
, .
U
12.31. 36
12.6.3
, U/N , UREF,
,
U UREF.
37.
N .
, ,
( )
( 12.32.).
, ,
,
, , :
36
37
U
,
UE
(12.59)
Copyright October 2011 Agillent Technologies Inc. Reproduced with permission.

(lgos) , , .
, (quotiens, ) [14].
.
(. ratio, , , )
274
Me
12
U
, U
.
U.
H
UREF
UE
0.50005
U = a UE
1.00005
UE
UREF
R1
r
R2
U
L
12.32.

( 12.32.). R1 R2 ,
,
(1,000 000) i R1, R2 U.

. , ,
(RTD, ) ( 12.33).
, U,
,
.
(U).
,
U/U.
A
R1
C
R2
U
B
1.01234
U UREF
UE
R4
H
D
R3
12.33.
,
.
() -. ,
( 12.32 12.33) ,
(, UX,
UREF):
N (U X )
.
N (U REF )
(12.60)
275
International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, IEC 60050, part 121, Electromagnetism, Terms and
defionitions.
2. International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, IEC 60050, part 111, Terms in physics and chemestry
used in electrotechnics, Terms and defionitions.
3. ., , , 2006.
5. . , , , 1967.
6. The International System of Units (SI), BIPM, 8.th edition, 2006.
7. A.D.Helfrick, W.D.Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement techniques,
Prentice Hall, 1990.
8 International vocabulary of metrology Basic and general concepts and asotiated terms (VIM),
9. J. Panteli-Babi, V. Jankovi, P. Bonjakovi, A Virtual Instrument Based System for Electromotive
Force Standards Comparison, IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meaus, vol IM-51, pp 1295-1299, Dec 2002.
10 www.bipm.org/si/si_broshure apendix2.electrical.html
11 , , . 0. 131, 1990, (Electric and
magnetic circuits, Terms and definitions, IEC 131, 1978).
12. National Instruments, LM399, Precision reference.
13. Burr-Brown, REF 102, Precision voltage reference.
14. FLUKE 734A, DC Reference Standard.
15. D. Slomowitz et all, Long term behavior of a multi-Zener 10 V standard, Conference on Precision
Electromagnetiv Measurements, CPEM, 2010, p 211.
16 . Niemeyer, Redna veza Dosensonovih elemenata kao potenciometar i naponski etalon, Acta
Metrologica, 1990.
17 D. Stankovi, J.Panteli-Babi, Nova dostignua savremene metrologije elektromagnetskih veliina i
stanje metrologije u naoj zemlji, Kongres metrologa Jugoslavije, Zbornik radova, 1998.
18 E. R. Williams et all, Absolute Determination of the Ampere, 2001.
19 A. S. Katkov et all, State primary standard for the unit of direct current, the ampere, Measurement
Techniques, Vol. 38, No. 1, 1995.
20 Y.Tang, Automation of Direct Josephson Voltage Standard Comparison and an Application
Conference on Precision Electromagnetiv Measurements, CPEM, 2010, p 4.
21 History of NIST Quantum Voltage Standards 2000 and later, www.nist.gov/pml/history.
22. FLUKE 6195A, Calibrator.
23. KEITHLEY, Nanovoltmeter 181.
24. Agilent 34420 Nanovolt/Microohm meter.
25. Agilent 3458 Multimeter, Data sheet.
26. ,
, 49/80.
276

.
Hans Reihenbach
(The rise of scientific philosophy)
13.

(resistance) je
.

.
,
. M , ,
, ,
, . ,
, .
(conductivity)
. ,

1.

.
.
, , , ...
, , ,
() .

(
,

, ).
(,
, ), ().

: . ,
,
,
.

. ,
e a
.
-
.
.

.
13.1.
( )
,
.
.
, , ,
(dissipation)

.

1 .

[2].

. (conductor)
.
(semiconductor) e
2 [3].

[4]. (dielectric).
()
.
, ,
.
,
, ,
u, , i
:
u
(13.1)
R AB .
i
,
[5].
3.

(resistor).
.
. ,
, ,
,
( , ).
,
1
O
.
(free electron)
.
(hole)
.
, ().
, ,
.
278
13
( ) ()
(-).
, ,
,
. 13.1
, ,
. ,

. [2]:
F [u(t ), i(t ), t ] 0 .
(13.2)
u-i ,
( 13.1). .

(, ).
I
R
U
)
)
)
)
13.1.
:
u(t ) Fu [i(t )] ,
(13.3)
. i(t)
u(t). u-i
S ( 13.1.),
.
:
i(t ) Fi [u(t )] ,
(13.4)
. u(t)
i(t). u-i
N ( 13.1.),
.
, Fu
( 13.1.).
, .
:
u(t ) R(t ) i(t ) .
(13.5)
R :
R
u (t ) .
i( t )
(13.6)
U-I
. PN-, ,
u-i . (variable resistor)
.
,
:
.
, ,
l, S:
279
l
,
(13.7)
S
(resistivity)
.
R

(n) ():
1
.
(13.8)
qn
. , .
(t) , , :
0 [1 (t t 0 )] .
(13.9)
,
(
), TC, :
TC
1 dR
.
R dT
(13.10)
(%/C)
4
(ppm/C).
.
,
,
ppm/C.

0,1 ppm/V ,
, 300 ppm/V .

.
0,01 %,
0,25 %.
(stability, load life)

( 0,1%/1000 h @70 C).

.
13.2.
()

(shelf storage).
1 ppm = 10-6 , . pars per milionen.
280
13
R/R
t (h)
102
103
104
13.2.

.
.
,
.
5 6
(film), ,
, (, ), (, ),
.

, .
( 13.3). , C,
, L, .
Rg
. : L = 80 nH,
C = 0,5 pF, Rg = 3 M@1 MHz.
, .
R
Rg
13.3.
13.1.1

.
0,05 % ,
, 1%.

.
(7)
,
( 13.4).
.
5
.
(10 ppm/ 30 ppm/).
, ,
( 400 ppm/). (
),
.
, (
).
,
( 11).
281
x
2
xmax
3
1
13.4.
R
, x.
R12 aR13 , 0 a 1 ,
a :
x
a
.
xmax
(13.11)
(13.12)
R(x), ()
( 13.5).
Rx/RP 1
RP
Rx
x
0
x/xmax
1
13.5.

, ,
,
. ,
,
(50 ) [6], [7].
e e
13.2.

, ,
, 8
[8]. , 1946 9
, , a
.
1935. ,
.
282
13
.
, ,
,
10.
,
1881. , , ,
,
,
, .

1 mm2 0 . ,
1884. 106
1 mm2. 1893.
.

, 14,4521 ,
106,300 .
,
. -
11 12.

, ()
, ,
.
.
, (
13.6.), .

. , ,
,
( ) 13.
-
. 13.6. (
Ayrton-Perry),
,
.
A
C
13.6. -
.

( 13.7).
10
11
12
13
, .
,
( 10 ppm/),
( 2 V/). (1892).
, ,
( 1 ppm/), .
, , .
283
( ),

( ).
,
AuA BBu , ,
RAB
.
U
I
BU
A
BI
13.7.
-
0,1 ppm/C. 0,2 ppm
2 ppm [9]. ,
,
, ,
n/ [10].
13.8. -

. (100 n 1 )
( /),
( 13.9) [11], [12].
13.9. -
284
13
13.2.1
,
,
, .

(
) .
,
UH
:
IB
,
(13.13)
d
I , B , d
, kH (Hall coefficient),
( ).
U H kH
UH (Hall
resistance):
RH
UH
B
kH .
I
d
(13.14)

14 ,
. K
(quantum Hall-effect)
. RH() .
:
RH
U H ( n)
h
2 , n 1, 2, 3, ... ;
I
ne
(13.15)
UH(n) n- , n , h ,
.

. h/
(R).
CODATA je 25 812,807 557(18)
[13]. ,

9
10 [10].
14
285
13.3.
, R
I
(), U, :
U
(13.16)
R .
I
O R
, , U I. M
,
, : (
13.10.).
+
A
V
+
UREF
+
R
IREF
13.10.

,
, ( 13.10.).
.
,
.
,
- .

( 13.10.). ,
.

,
,
. 15.

, ,
.

: 100 n 100 . ,
10 0.001 %.
3 ppm ,
10 ppm [12].
15
, .
286
13
13.3.1
, ,
:
UM , RX,
, , a , IM,
.
:
U
(13.17)
RX M .
IM

[14] U-I [15].
, ,
13.11.
+
U
V U
H
RX
+
U
A
H
V U
RX
I
L
13.11.
13.11.
, RX
. RM
( 13.17) RX.
U
RM M R X R V ,
(13.18)
IM
RV () . ,
RV , RX
:
R R
U
R X M V RM R M R ,
(13.19)
R V RM
IM
R 16 :
RM2
R R X RM
.
R V RM
(13.20)
, ,
, RX, , RV:
R RX
RX
R
c M
X .
(13.21)
RX
RV RX
RV
13.11. IM
,
16
R , ,
, .
287
. :
U
RX M RA ,
IM
(13.22)
RA ,
. :
R
v A .
(13.23)
RX
, , 13.22
. 13.11.
17. 13.11.
18.
, ()
, .
, ,
.
13.11. ,

. 13.11.
,

.

.
UI- :
R X U I
,
RX
U
I
(13.24)
U/U , I/I
.

H L ,
.
13.3.2
,

.
. 13.12.
17
18
, , (current error).
.
(voltage error).
.
288
13

(serial-type ohmmeter).
+
U
mA
RX
IM
L
+
U
mA
RX
L
13.12.

:
U
sI
,
(13.25)
RX RA R
RA , a sI
( 6.9). (RX) . M
U
19.
()
(
13.12.). .
(RX = 0), R
. ,

U [16].
13.13
(shunt-type ohmmeter).
,
,
U.
+
U
R
I
RX
mA
L
13.13.

H L (RX = 0) IM,
, . H L (RX = )
IM . R
.
19
289

, U, .
:
UR X
U RA RX R
.
(13.26)
sI
sI
R A R X R( R A R X )
R
RA

.

(
).
.
13.3.3
, a
UM
, RX, IREF 20.
( 13.14).
H
19.9999 k
IREF
RX
IREF
UM
13.14.
U M I REF RX .
(13.27)
IREF
, L H,
. IREF
,

RX . ,
UM, ,
.
,
.

, , N
() , :
UM
,
U
U / :
N
20
290
(13.28)
13
U REF
.
(13.29)
N MAX 1
NMAX
. :
R I
N x REF ( N MAX 1) .
(13.30)
U REF
U
IREF
UREF:
U REF
,
(13.31)
RREF
RREF , , N
UREF:
R
N X (N MAX 1) .
(13.32)
RREF
I
.
:
R
N X .
R
:
RREF
R
,
N MAX 1
.
(13.33)
(13.34)

RX
.
( ).

IREF ( 13.15).
(
),
SH SL .
SH
rH
H
IREF
RX
L
rH
SL
19.9999
IREF
13.15.
13.3.3.1
UM ( 0,1 V),

.
13.16 U U0.
291
U 21
. U0

.
SL
H
U0
IREF
RX
UM
U
L
SH
13.16.
.

L. U, , :
U M U MP RX I REF U T U 0 .
(13.35)
,
:
U M U MN Rx I REF U T U 0 .
(13.36)
UP UMN
:
U U MN
.
(13.37)
R X MP
2 I REF
,
,
.
13.3.4
,
,
. ,
. ,

.
13.17. UX UR
R R, I
U, .
22.
21
22
(contact potential difference)

(thermal electromotive force).
13.17. ,
UX UR.
292
13
RR
UR
RX
UX
I
V
RR
U
U
I R X
RR
RX
UR U X RR RX
U
R
13.17.
, , ,
RR,
R, :
U
U
(13.38)
I
R.
RR RX RR
, :
U
(13.39)
U X RX I RX R .
RR
,
, UX UR:
U
(13.40)
RX X RR .
UR

UX UR, ()
RR:
R X U X U R RR
.
RX
UX
UR
RR
(13.41)
UX UR , R RR.

. UX UR
( 13.17.). UX UR
. RR
UX = UR, R RR .
,
,
, 23.
13.18. IX IR
R R. ,

. (
13.18.).
23
,
, () .
293
U IR
RR
RR
IX
RX
RX
IR
RR
IX
IR I X RR RX
+
RX
13.18.
,
U.
13.4.
,
13.19, (bridge).
, .
( 13.19.).
. ,
D , -.
ZD
ZD
ZA
ZA
B
ZD
D B
ZB
ZC
ZA
ZC
ZB
ZB
ZC
13.19.
,
,
.
13.4.1
,
13.20,
. ,
U
( 13.20.), ( 13.20.). D
.
RD
RA
RD
RA
D
RC
D
RC
RB
RB
13.20.
, , UBD,
:
294
13
RB RD R A RC
U.
(13.42)
R A RD RB RD R A RC RB RC
UBD .
13.46 :
(13.43)
RA RC RB RD .
U BD
, , UBD,
:
RB RD R A RC
U BD
I.
(13.44)
R A RB RC RD
(13.47).

24.
.
.
( 25).
RB RC
,
(13.45)
RA RD
:
R
(13.46)
RX RB RA C .
RD
, R
- .
N/R 26.
RC RD
R R.
- , ( 13.21.).
,
27.
28 (
13.21.).
B
RD
D
RC
RA
RX
RA
D
0,1
RB = RX
10
13.21.
24
25
26
27
28
[6].
,
(ratio, , , ).
11.
, .
.
295
, R
R
. .
a
(13.47)
RX
RA kRA .
l a
,
,
(Charles Wheatstone, 1802-1875) 29
("Differential Resistance
Measurer", 1843). ,

,
.
- (1840).
13.4.1.1
13.47 , .

.
13.22 :
U PN R
U
4R
1
.
R
1
2R
(13.48)
UO
U
RC = r
N
RD= r
RA= R
RRIR
-RR
0
RR
R = RX = R +R
-RRIR
13.22.
UPN(R/R) . ,
R/R (R<<2R), :
R
U.
(13.49)
4R
, R
R, R.
U PN
13.4.2
, ,
R,
29
(Samuel
Hunter Christie, 1833).
296
13
R
( 13.23.a).
, ( 13.47).
,
30.
, ,
13.23..
(UBD = 0) [15]:
RX RA
RC
RK Ra
R R
( C - b ),
RD Ra Rb RK RD Ra
(13.50)
R R,
, R,
. :
Ra RC Rb RD ,
(13.51)
R . ,
[7].
RD
RA
RD
RB
Ra
B
G
RC
RC
RA
RK
R
Rb
13.23.
13.5.
(R/U )

.
U O kR X
(13.52)
, k, . O
V/ V/k.
R/U .
( 13.24.a)
30
13.23 . RC RD,
R R, ,
, .
297
.

. (floating).
R
UREF
+
UO
A(R)
UO
13.24. R/U
( 13.24.)
()
. ,
,
, . R/U
() .
13.5.1
R/U
13.5.1.1

( 13.25), , UO,
RF :
U O kRF ,
(13.53)
U
.
R
(13.54)
RF = R
U
-U
UO
RX
R
0
1
13.25. R/U
, RF
, , U
R, I.
R, RF,
UO, U R
:
U
(13.55)
RX O R .
U
U R ()
U
298
13
, R, . I
, 1 V/k.
(maxRX/R)
.
13.5.1.2
(, )
- (
13.26). .
P0, .
IH IL (RX = 0), UO
.
, , ,
I
:
U O IR X .
(13.56)
U
.
R
(13.57)
-U
IL
P0
P1
IH
R1
13.26. R/U
R1,
1,
RREF
( ).
U , ,
RREF, k.
13.5.2
R/U
, 13.27.,
,
U
RB RA = RREF.
299
U
RC = R
RA=RREF
RA= RREF
RB
UO
U
UO
1/2
RC = R
RB = RX = RREF+R
RD = R
-1
RD =R
+1
R
RREF
0
-1/2
UO
a)
13.27.
RA = RB, .
( 13.27.).
U
U. ,
:
R
UO
U.
(13.58)
2 RREF
R = 0, U U/2. R = 2R, U
-U/2. U(R/RREF) , ,

.
13.28. R/U

RX RREF.
RX > RREF, RX < RREF ( 13.28.).
RA
IR
UO
IL
-U
P1
RC
RX
-RREF
IH
P0
OH
RD
RREFIR
RREF
OL
-RREFIR
)
a)
13.28. R/U
:
U O I R ( RX RREF ) ,
(13.59)
IR RX
. RREF IR
0 1. IR
, .
U , ,
R RREF,
.
300
13
RX . Ta je R = - RREF,
( 13.28.).

.
13.5.2.1

U RX:
U O minU O I R RX ,
(13.60)
minU .
.
RREF,
, , IR:
minU O I R RREF .
(13.61)
U
RC RD.
minU O
U
RD .
RC RD
(13.62)
U(R)
.
, IR:
U O minU O I R R ,
(13.63)
U minU O
.
(13.64)
RA
R/U
. ,
(R = 0, 13.29.),
0 minUO
13.65.
IR
RA
-U
-U
IR
IL
RC
IH
RX = 0
IL
P1
IH
P0
RD
minU
U =minU = - RRIR
= - RREFIR
U =0
a)
13.29. R/U
301
RX = RREF
,
RREF ( 13.29.). 1
31.
13.5.3
R/U
,
, .
13.30.
. R U
UL RL, .
RL:
(U U O ) U O U
.
R
R
(13.65)
US = U+U
-U
=1
U = UO+U
R
UL
UL
RL
RL
a)
13.30.
13.30.
.
, I,
RL
R.
U R, RL,
.
U.
RIN
OUT
OA1
UO
U O IR X ,
RREF
RX
OA2
R
-U
UO
GND
U
,
RREF
RX
U.
RREF
13.31. R/U
31
, RREF,
, RR.
. 1
IR (RREF - RR). , , RREF - RR,
-minUO = IR RR.
302
13
R/U
13.31. 2
. 1
o ,
, R ,
R.
R.
13.6.

, ,
, .

() 32.
.
, , .

33 ( 13.32).
.
+
U
RO
U RL
RO
OH
U RL
OL
13.32.
13.32., UO
U .
, ,
, RO, RL:
U O ( RL ) U
RL
.
RO RL
(13.66)
U
U(RL), RO RL e.
(a 13.32.)
:
RO
I O ( RL ) I
.
(13.67)
RO RL
I
32
33

.
.
303

I(RL), RO RL e.
13.32
,
:
(open-circuit potential difference):
U OO U O
RL
(13.68)

(short-circuit output current):
I OS I O
RL 0
(13.69)
:
U OO
RO
.
(13.70)
I OS
, , 13.74

. ,
,

( 13.70). , ,
34,

13.32..
U
.
(13.71)
I OS
RO U O 0
,
,
( 13.71).
,
,
13.32..
U OO RO I
IO 0
(13.72)
13.6.1

( 13.33.):
34
, ,
.
304
13
1) ( )
2) RL .
IH
OH
UOO
SW
UM
U
RL
U
OL
IH

IOS
-RO
IO
13.33.
SW
, .
IH IL :
U M1 U OO U .
(13.73)
SW ,
:
U M2 U O ( RL ) U RO I O ,
(13.74)
I :
IO
U M2
.
RL
(13.75)
RO
U O
U M1 U M2
RL
RL .
U M2
U O ( RL )
(13.76)
13.33. U(I)
. U(I) , RO.
,
. ,

,
:
RO
U O U O1 U O2 U O1 U O2
.
U O2 U O1
I O
I O2 I O1
RL2
(13.77)
RL1

[17]. je
( 13.34). UM1
IH IL
() IR :
U M1 U RO I R .
(13.78)
305
OH
IH
1
2
2
IR
OL
IL
13.34.
.

.
(H L) IR .
,
.
IH IL :
U M2 U .
(13.79)
:
U U M2
RO M1
.
IR
(13.80)

,
.
()
.
13.6.2
,
. ,
.
,
,
35.

( 13.35.).
1
R1
IO
UOO
RO
UO
R2
UO
13.35.
35
306
13

,
1 :
U O1 I
RO R1
,
RO R1
(13.81)
, 2:
U O2 I
RO R 2
.
RO R 2
(13.82)
U O2 U O1
R1R2 .
R2U O1 R1U O2
(13.83)
13.35. I(U)
. I(U) :
IO I
UO
.
RO
(13.84)
RO. ,
.
,
,
:
U O
RO
,
(13.85)
I O
U O U O2 U O1 , I O I O1 I O2
U O1 U O2
.
R1
R2
1
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
, , 1996.
B. Reljin, Teorija elektrinih kola 1, reavanje kola u vremenskom domenu, Nauka, 1992, 3.
. , , , 2006.
, , . 0. 121, 1990, (Electromagnetism, Terms
and definitions, IEC 121, 1978), 121-02-04.
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu, IEC 60050: part 131, Circuit theory, Circuit elements nad
their characteristics.
. , , , 1967.
V. Bego, Mjerenja u elektrotehnici, Tehnika knjiga, 1990.
SR-102, Transportable Resistance Standard, IET Labs, Inc.
307
10. W. Porer, F. Schopfer, Resistance metrology based on Quantum Hall effect, The European Physical
Journal, Special Topics, 172, 2009.
11. Agilent, NanoVolt-Micro-Ohm Meter 3442, Data sheet.
12. Agilent, Digital voltmeter 3458, Data sheet.
13 P. Mohr, B. Taylor, and D. Newell, CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical
Constants: 2006, Rev. Mod. Phys. 80, 633-730, 2008.
14. . . , , , 1976.
15. W. Schmush, Elektronische Metechnik, Vogel, 1993.
16. A. Helfrick, W. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, 1993.
17. Digital voltmeter 3456, Operating and service manual, Hewlet Packard Co, 1980.
308

.
,

14.

,
.

.
,

.
,
,
.
,
.
.
.

.
.
14.1.
(legal metrology)
,
, , ,
1 [1].
. K oa je
, ,
. ,
(public service), , ,
, (surveying)
. ,
.

.
,
(legal
metrology services).

, , ,
. ,
, ,
.
, .
,
,
. ,

, , (
),
. ,
, ,
,

.
, ,
.

.
,
, .
,
.
, , 2.
,
.

.
,
, .

, , .
.
:
.

, ,
,
, , .

.
.
2
310
14

,

.
,
.

, .
, ,
, ,
. :

,
,
.

. 3
, . , [2]:

;
,

;

,
;
;

.
(national institute of legal
metrology) ,
.
,
.
14.2.
,

.
,
.
(National service of legale metrology) [2].
311
,
(low on metrology) ,
,
.
() (, ,
) .
,

(metrological assurance).
(legal metrological control)
.
, .
(legal control of measuring instruments),
, (legal operation),
, , , 4 .
(type approval)

.
, .

(type approval certificate).
(conformoty assesment of a measuring instrument)
(testing) (evaluation)
,
.
(verification of a measuring instrument)
(marking) /
(verification certificate),
.
.
,
, ,

[3]. (metrological
supervision) ,
, , ,

.
,
, . ,
( , , a)
( ),
.
312
14

5.
.
(metrological assessment)

6.
, ,
. , ,

. ,

. ,
,
(Measuring Instruments Directive, MID). ,
,

MID- [4].
, 2010. ,

[5]. :
,
,
,
,
,
.

.

.

, ,
.

.

,
SI-.
(pre-packaged products)
,
, .
(. expertus, , , ).
313
SI,
[ 6]. , ,
( , 1 dpt = 1/m) (1 Kt = 0,2 g).

. , , : , .
, .
(1 = 100 m2),
7 [7], 2006.
[8]. SI.
,
(1 mmHg = 133,322 Pa). [9]
:
;
;

.

, .
14.3.

, ,
, ,
,
.

, ,
, .

. 8,

, ,

,
, [3].
e (ar) (hectar)
1795. [7]. 1879.
[5].
(
)

,
.
314
14
,

,
. , .
,
. ,
.
. ,
[ 10].
, .

.
,
,

, ,
.
,
, ,
, , , .
14.4.

,
1875. .
(1879).

.
(BIPM)

. (harmonisation)

.
, .
,
,
.

BIPM
(calibration), (approval)
(verification) . ,
BIPM-
315
.

1937. . ,
,
1939. , .
,

.
(International Organisation of Legal Metrology, OIML).
, ,

(1955). 24 - .
,
116 , 59 - 57 .
- (Memeber States)
9.
(Corresponding Memeber)
OIML,
[11]. OIML
,
, ,
. o
(OIML
Development Council).
(International
Conference of Legal Metrology)
. -. ,
,
OIML
.
(International Commitee of
Legal Metrology, CIML)
-.
. ,
,
.
. OIML-
[12].

.
:
, ,
, , ...;
- OIML.
316
14
, , , ...;
, ,
...;
(International Documents, OIML-D)
[13],
[14].
(International Recommendations, OIML-R)

,
, .
OIML R 76-1
[15].
(International Bureau of Legal
Metrology, BIML) .

:
(European cooperation in
legal metrology, WELMEC),
10

(Mutial recognition arrangement, R)
(Mutial
Acceptance Arrangement A)
.
14.5.
,
.
(,
) (
),
(,
, ), ,
, ,
, .
10
WELMEC-.
317
,
,
- ,
, .
, ,
(
),
( ) (
).
,

,
. ,
.

. , ,
,
. , ,
.
, .

,
. ,
,
(
),
,
, ,
, ,
,
.
.

, [16], [17], [18],
[19], [20].
14.6.

.
, ,
, .

(1859) [21].
() [22].

318
14
.
(1865)

.
.

, .
. 11.

,
(1873),

,
1799.
( ). ()
,
1791.
12.

.

(1879)
() ().
(1889)
13 N11,
1 kg + 0,008 mg N30,
1 m + 2,60 m. 1891.
.
,
1910. 1911.
.
(1 117 g)
.
,
. ( 1915.),
,
.
. , .
11
12
13

( 1282,8
1000 . ,
, .
J je .
+4 .

(90%) (10 %) [7].
319
N11
,
1925. N29.

2 g
.
, 1941. ,
.
, N29,
, .

1961. .

1960. .
()
1956. . 1964.
14,
.
, , - .

15.

, 1956. , BIPM-.
17.
1983. ,
, ,
- 633 nm.
1989. BIPM-.
14.6.1
,
()

.
,
.
,
(SI).
14
15
.
1966.
, . 4. .
320
14
:
; , ,

;
, ;
; ;
;

; ;

;
.
,

(OIML).

.

(MRA), . ,

,
.

[23].
Vocabulare de metrologie legale, termes fondamentaux, OIML, 2000.

Vocabulare de metrologie legale, termes fondamentaux, OIML, 1978, prevod: Renik zakonske
metrologije, Savezni zavod za mere i dragocene metale, 1983.
3. , -01, 2010.
4. The Measuring Instruments Directive, 2004/22/EC, Official Journal of the EU.
5. , 30/2010.
6. , 10/2006.
7. The International System of Units (SI), BIPM, 5th edition, 1985, p 76.
8. The International System of Units (SI), BIPM, 8th edition, 2006.
10. , 32/2003.
11. B. Athane, Trends in legal metrology and relevant activities of the International Organisation of
Legal Metrology (OIML), , 1998.
12. http://www.oiml.org
.
13. Elements for a Law on Metrology, OIML, D 1, 2004.
.
1.
2.
321
14. General requirements for electronic measuring instruments, OIML, D 11, 2004.
.
15. Non- automatic weighing instruments, Part 1, metrological and technical requirements-Test, OIML,
R76-1, 2006.
16. R. Schwartz, Software interfaces and requirements for freeprogrammable nonautomatic weighing
instruments, OIML Bulletin, Vol XXXVII, No 1, 1996, pp 10-14.
17. U. Grottker, et al, Software verification for measuring instruments: a European approach, OIML
Bulletin, Vol XXXVII, No 4, 1996, pp 5-13.
18. J.F.Magana, Security of computerized instruments, OIML Bulletin, Vol XL, No 3, 1999, pp 16-23.
19. Software Requirements on the Basis of the Measuring Instruments Directive, Welmec 7.1, 1999.
20. Software Guide (Measuring Instruments Directive 2004/22/EC), WELMEC 7.2, 2008.
21. . , , , 1998.
22. . , . , .,
1873-1998, , 1998, .144.
23. http://kcdb.bipm.org/AppendixC/EM/RS/EM_RS.pdf.
322

SI
SI
rad
mm-1
sr
m2m-2
Hz
s-1
mkgs-2
, ,

Nm
m2kgs-2
J/s
m2kgs-3
m-1kgs-2
Pa
lm
lx
Bq

( )
Gy
J/kg
m2 s-2

( )
Sv
J/kg
m2 s-2
kat
N/m
K
cdsr
lm/m2
m-2cdsr
s-1
s-1mol
.1.1.
J/V
SI
sA
W/A
m2kgs-3A-1
S
F
H
Wb
T
V/A
A/V
C/V
Wb/A
Vs
Wb/m2
m2kgs-3A-2
m-2kg-1s3A2
m-2kg-1s3A2
m2kgs-2A-2
m2kgs-2A-1
kgs-2A-1
,
(),

.1.2.

, SI , .
.1.4.
min
h
d
'
"
ha
l, L
t
1 min = 60 s
1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
1 d = 24 h =86 400 s
1 = (/180) rad
1' = (1/60) =(/10800) rad
1" = (1/60)' =(/648000) rad
2
2
4
1 ha = 1 hm =10 m
2
-3 3
1 L =1 l =1 hm =10 m
1 t =103 kg
.1.3. SI
SI
eV
Da
ua
1 eV = 1,602 176 53(14)

1 Da = 1,660 538 86(28) x10-27 kg
1 ua = 1,495 978 706 91(6) x10-11 m
.1.4. SI
,
( .1.5).
()
bar
mmHg
M
b
kn
Np
B
dB
1 bar = 100 kPa

1 mmHg = 133,322 Pa
1 = 10 pm
1 M = 1852 m
1 b =1 hm2=104 m2
1 kn =10-28 m2
1 dB =10-1 B
.1.5. SI

,
2, . : L X m dB ,
0, :
X .
m 10 lg
X0
SI .
() ()
.1.6 .1.7.

1 V .
(
).
324
.1.8.
(submultiple prefix).
.
(deca)
(centi)
(milli)
(micro)
(nano)
(tera)
(peta)
(exa)
(zetta)
(yotta)
da
h
m
M
G
T
P
E
Z
Y
10 = 10
2
100 = 10
3
1 000 = 10
6
1 000 000 = 10
9
1 000 000 000 = 10

12
1 000 000 000 000 = 10

15
1 000 000 000 000 000 = 10

18
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10

21
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10

24
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 10
.1.6.
(210)1
(210)2
(210)3
(210)4
(210)5
(210)6
(210)7
(210)8
(kibi)
(mebi)
(gibi)
(kibi)
(kibi)
(exbi)
(zebi)
(yobi)
Ki
Mi
Gi
Ti
Pi
Ei
Zi
Yi

1 024
1 048 576
1 073 741 824
1 099 511 627 776
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 152 921 504 606 846 976
1 180 591 620 717 411 303 424
1 208 925 819 614 629 174 706 176
.1.7.
(deci)
0,1 = 10
(centi)
0,01 = 10
(milli)
0,001 = 10
(micro)
0,000 001 = 10
(nano)
0,000 000 001 = 10
(pico)
0,000 000 000 001 = 10
(femto)
0,000 000 000 000 001 = 10
(atto)
0,000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10
(zepto)
0,000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10
(yocto)
0,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10
-1
-2
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
-24
.1.8.
- ( . decem) .
( ), a
. ,
. .
325
1.
2.
3.
4.
P=UI.
:
mv 2
, .
2
:
CU 2
WC
, .
2
kWh.
SI (). .
WM mgh
5.
6.
7.
8.

,
,

.
9.
10.
11.
10
RH
RL
+
U

(UBD=0) :
=?
A
V U
H
RX
I
L
RD
RA
B
RC
RD
RB
RA
B
D
RC
326

,
,

.
RA RC RB RD .
RX

,

.

(UBD = 0) :
V U
RA RC RB RD .
12.
RB
13.
14.
15.
,
,
R
:
Ra RC Rb RD .
RD
RV
, U(UM),
U
UM.

.
: Up = 218 kV, Uk = 209 kV, .

, Up U,

1 %.
G
RC
Ra
RA
RK
R
Rb
RI
U
RO
RV
Uk
Up
16.
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
17.
(t)
t
T
18.
19.
T
0
T/4

:
q
20.
.
2

:
327
q2
(A) 2
.
3
21.
22.

:
(A) 2
.
12
/

?

.
q2
23.
24.
UP = +10 V
UREF = -10 V
b3
b2
b1
b0
10 k
R3
20 k
R2
40 k
R1
10 k
R
10 k
R
bi=1
bi
bi=0
U
80 k
R0

U/N
,
10 V.

: a) 5 V;
) 1 V.
t
uI(t)
U =10 V
25.
36,3 F; 3,85 F; 34,002 F

850 nF; .
, ,
.
26.
, 150 V,
83 V. ,
1%
.
27.
100 0,2
2.00 m 0,01 mA.
.
328
alternating current
automatic gain control
Analog-To-Digital Converter
amplitude modulation
American National Standards Institute
average
Binary Coded Decimal
Bureau International des Poids et Measures
Bipolar Junction Transistor
European Committee for Standardization
European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization
Conference Generale des Poids et Measures
CGPM
Comitee International des Poids et Measures
CIPM
CODATA Committee on Data for Science and
Technology
cathode-ray tube
CRT
Digital-To-Analog Converter
DAC
direct current
dc, DC
digital-phosphor-oscilloscope
DPO
Digital Signal Processing
DSP
electrocardiograph
ECG
electroencephalograph
EEG
electromagnetic compatibility
EMC
electromotive force
EMF
EURAMET European Association of National Metrology
Institutes
EUROMET European Collaboration in Measurement
Syandards
European Telecommunications Standards
ETSI
Institute
Field-Effect Transistor
FET
flip-flop
FF
frequency modulation
FM
full-scale range
FSR
foot
ft
General Purpose Interface Bus
GPIB
Guide to the expression of uncertainty in
GUM
measurement
high frequency
HF
high voltage
HV
Integrated Circuit
IC
International Electrotechnical Commission
IEC
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
IEEE
Engineers
International Electrotechnical Vocabularu
IEV
International Federation of Clinical
IFCC
Chemestry
International Laboratory Accreditation
ILAC
Cooperation
International Organisation for Standardization
ISO
International System of Quantities
ISQ
International Telecommunication Union
ITU
International Union of Pure and Applied
IUPAP
Physics
ac, AC
AGC
ADC
AM
ANSI
avg, AVG
BCD
BIPM
BJT
CEN
CENELEC
329
IUPAC
in
IR
IMEKO
lb
LF
JVC
LED
LSB
LSD
LSI
MAA
MID
MMI
MOS
MRA
NBS
NMI
NIST
NPL
NRC
OIML
PAM
PCM
PDM
ppm
PRR
PRT
PTB
QHE
QHR
rms, RMS
RTD
SCADA
SET
SI
SNR, S/N
sps
SSB
TAI
TC
UHF
UTC
UV
VFC
VHF
VCO
VIM
International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemestry
inch
infrared
International Measurement Confederation
pound
low frequency
Josephson voltage standard
Light-Emitting Diode
Least Significant Bit
Least Significant Digit
Large-Scale Integration
Mutial Acceptance Arrangement
Measuring Instruments Directive
Man Mashine Interface
metal-oxide semiconductor
Mutial recognition arrangement
National Byreau of Standards
National Metrology Institute
National Institute of Standards and
Technology
National Physical Laboratory, UK
National Research Council, Canada
Organisation
Internationale de Mtrologie Lgale
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
Pulse Duration Modulation
pars per milionen
Pulse Repetition Rate
platinum resistance thermometer
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
quantum Hall effect
quantum Hall resistance
root-mean square
resistive thermal device,
resistance temperature detector
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
single electron tunneling
International System of Units
signal-to-noise ratio
samples per second
single sideband
International Atomic Time
Temperature Coefficient
ultrafigh frequency
coordinated universal time
ultraviolet
voltage to frequency converter
very high frequency
voltage controlled oscillator
International vocabulary of metrology
A/
ABO-
AT

-
-

/
`
199
121
35
151
262
33, 152
19
28
55
4, 42
83
37
254
157
19
13
65
151
151
55
153
33
273
159
22
41
42
42
296
71, 294
29
180
181
120
46
46
31
22
24
65
82, 96
83
90
86
170
87
86
86
84
86,
86, 89
222
209, 227
120
162
330
52
42
4, 42
55
23
295

o o
68
189
190
29
19
3
21
252
273
227
55
47
42
82
46
273
12, 59
45
46
44, 248
43, 248
34, 47, 270
247, 274
152, 162
60
116
8
182
16
17
148
33
22
34
69
73
71
70
169
175, 200
7
169
174, 176
174, 177
177
174
()
/
/

171
153
152
37
278
245
180
152
153
154
154
155
153
28
118
67
30
271
177
85
29
54
35
273
14
18
59
45
56
58
77
41
78
77
8
7, 8,
72
73
101
104
103
101
12, 62
71
70
72
193
70
62
71, 266
63
62
72
193
7
11
13
9
233, 246
331
4, 145
65, 68
16
191,
248
151
271
201, 204
26
308
247
201
308
31
31
179
202, 274
65, 107, 274
308
153
182
47
123,
127
57
242
250
87, 269
82
66
63
69
248
29, 247
271
73
76
8
159
33
34
122
65
122
81
62
31, 250
211
121
61
171
82
106
227
82
15
107
42, 107, 193

68
67
68, 103, 273

203
19
248
44
55
55
52
55
52
165, 188
72
146
147
147
45
45, 253
46, 47, 313
46, 253, 254
36, 67
38, 43, 49
36
203
43
36, 43, 49
249
202, 204
17
17
147
81
36
222
61
269
203
37
308
74
34
34
259
35
35
266
265, 274, 281
27
258
32
32, 251
117
151
332
274
ANSI
BCD
BIPM
CEN
CENELEC
CGPM
CIPM
CODATA
EURAMET
EUROMET
ETSI
FET
flash ADC
IEC
IMEKO
ISO
ISQ
Kelvin-Varley voltage divider
pipeline
RMS
SCADA
sampling
shunt
SI
PN-
ppm
154
153
10
19
19
10
10, 183, 252
72
10, 15
10
19
258
207, 213
18
11
18
39
261
214
118
14
201
263
47
256
276

Umece Merenja

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Umece Merenja

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

,

Lord Kelvin of Largs

0,1 nm 100 nm.

() (SCADA = supervsory control and data

(Georg Simon Ohm, 1789-1854),

(James Joule, 1818-1889)

IRMS (RMS = root-mean-square).

(electromotive force, e.m.f)

y() (luminosity function),

dj-1 dj dj+1 dJ-1

c = f = 299 792 458 ,

9 192 631 770

1' = (1/60) =(/10800) rad

Mars Climate Orbiter, 1998.

(M,N Q(A)) M N m(M) m(N) ;

(M,N Q(A)) M N 0 m(M N) m(M) m(N) .

[7], [9], [10].

(complementary method of measurement)

Y, (output quantity of measurement model),

7,88 10-3 K -1;

R25 100 , 500 1000 .

37. (influence coefficient)

CODATA (Committee on Data for Science and Technology) je

International Vocabulary of basic and general terms in metrology, 1993, :

QREF N REF [Q] ,

Qm NQREF NNREF [Q] .

9,8 cm h 10,6 cm,

() (error of a measuring instrument)

T (type A evaluation of measurement

T B (type B evaluation of measurement

DIN 1319, Grundbegriffe der Messtechnik, 1963.

Committee on Data for Science and Technology.

(indicating measuring instrument)

(integrating measuring instrument)

(sensitivity of a measuring system)18.

(linearity of a measuring instrument)

(. calibration), , (qua libra, ,

(traveling measurement standard) ,

(reference material, RM)

ccuracy classes of measuring instruments, OIML, R34, 1979.

P. Pravica, I. Bagaric, Metrologija elektrinih veliina, Nauka, 1993.

A. Wallard, The future of scientific metrology, BIPM (IMEKO 2009).

P. Miljanic, B. Stojanovic, and P. Bosnjakovic, The development of a high precision time-division

10 W. J. M. Moore, E. So, N. M. Oldam, P. N. Miljanic, and R. Bergeest, An international comparison

(moving magnet instrument)

(magnetically soft material)

U0, (voltage offset).

Copyright October 2011 Agillent Technologies Inc., Reproduced with permission.

(cathode-ray tube, CRT)

M. Mlaenovi, Razvoj fizike, elektromagnetizam, Graevinska knjiga, s. 73.

N sn1 R n1 sn2 R n2 ... s 2 R 2 s1R s0 ,

sn1...s2 s1 s 0 ,s1 ,s2 ...sm

(...,256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, , ,...) = (...,2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , ...).

bn-1 (Most Significant Bit - MSB), b0

(sign plus mgnitude) 8 , :

CLK (clock), CL, CP (clock pulse).

D. Jovanovi, Komponente digitalnih sistema, Graevinska knjiga, 1974.

.., .., , , 1984.

S. Tei, D. Vasiljevi, Osnovi elektronik, Graevinska knjiga, 2000.

P. Horowitz, W. Hill, The Art of electronics, University Press, 1989.

10 D. ivkovi, M. Popovi, Impulsna i digitalna elektronika, Akademska misao, 2004.

Digital signal processing, DSP.

Amin NA a Amin (N 1)A .