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Concrete CHAPTER5 PDF
Concrete CHAPTER5 PDF
Concrete CHAPTER5 PDF
Chapter 5 Concrete
5.1
Introduction
Cement paste
+
fine aggregate
mortar
+
concrete
coarse aggregate
Here we should indicate that admixtures are almost always used in modern practice
and thus become an essential component of modern concrete. Admixtures are defined as
materials other than aggregate (fine and coarse), water, fibre and cement, which are added
into concrete batch immediately before or during mixing. The widespread use of
admixture is mainly due to the many benefits made possible by their application. For
instance, chemical admixtures can modify the setting and hardening characteristic of
cement paste by influencing the rate of cement hydration. Water-reducing admixture can
plasticize fresh concrete mixtures by reducing surface tension of water, air-entraining
admixtures can improve the durability of concrete, and mineral admixtures such as
pozzolans (materials containing reactive silica) can reduce thermal cracking. A detailed
description of admixtures will be given in latter sections.
5.1.2
55
Advantages:
a)
Economical: Concrete is the most inexpensive and the most readily available
material. The cost of production of concrete is low compared with other engineered
construction materials.
Three major components: water, aggregate and cement. Comparing with steel,
plastic and polymer, they are the most inexpensive materials and available in every
corner of the world. This enables concrete to be locally produced anywhere in the
world, thus avoiding the transportation costs necessary for most other materials.
b).
c)
Ability to be cast: It can be formed into different desired shape and sizes right at
the construction site.
d)
Energy efficiency: Low energy consumption for production, compare with steel
especially. The energy content of plain concrete is 450-750 kWh / ton and that of
reinforced concrete is 800-3200 kWh/ton, compared with 8000 kWh/ton for
structural steel.
e)
Excellent resistance to water. Unlike wood and steel, concrete can harden in
water and can withstand the action of water without serious deterioration. This
makes concrete an ideal material for building structures to control, store, and
transport water. Examples include pipelines (such as the Central Arizona Project,
which provide water from Colorado river to central Arizona. The system contains
1560 pipe sections, each 6.7 m long and 7.5 m in outside diameter 6.4 m inside
diameter), dams, and submarine structures. Contrary to popular belief, pure water
is not deleterious to concrete, even to reinforced concrete: it is the chemicals
dissolved in water, such as chlorides, sulfates, and carbon dioxide, which cause
deterioration of concrete structures.
f).
High temperature resistance: Concrete conducts heat slowly and is able to store
considerable quantities of heat from the environment (can stand 6-8 hours in fire)
and thus can be used as protective coating for steel structure.
g).
h).
Ability to work with reinforcing steel: Concrete and steel possess similar
coefficient of thermal expansion (steel 1.2 x 10-5; concrete 1.0-1.5 x 10-5).
Concrete also provides good protection to steel due to existing of CH (this is for
normal condition). Therefore, while steel bars provide the necessary tensile
strength, concrete provides a perfect environment for the steel, acting as a physical
barrier to the ingress of aggressive species and preventing steel corrosion by
providing a highly alkaline environment with pH about 13.5 to passivate the steel.
i)
56
Limitations:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f).
g).
Working with cracks: Most reinforced concrete structures have cracks under
service load. (Improvements : Prestressed concrete).
5.1.3
Classification of concrete
Based on unit weight
Ultra light concrete
Lightweight concrete
Normal-weight concrete
Heavyweight concrete
<1,200 kg/m3
1200- 1,800 kg/m3
~ 2,400 kg/m3
> 3,200 kg/m3
57
58
59
5.3
Fresh concrete
5.3.1
Definition
Fresh concrete is defined as concrete at the state when its components are fully
mixed but its strength has not yet developed. This period corresponds to the cement
hydration stages 1, 2, and 3. The properties of fresh concrete directly influence the
handling, placing and consolidation, as well as the properties of hardened concrete.
5.3.2
Workability
a) Definition
Water content: Except for the absorption by particle surfaces, water must fill the
spaces among particles. Additional water "lubricates" the particles by separating them
with a water film. Increasing the amount of water will increase the fluidity and make
concrete easy to be compacted. Indeed, the total water content is the most important
parameter governing consistency. But, too much water reduces cohesiveness, leading to
segregation and bleeding. With increasing water content, concrete strength is also reduced.
Maximum aggregate size: For a given w/c ratio, as the maximum size of
aggregate increases, the fluidity increases. This is generally due to the overall reduction in
surface area of the aggregates.
. Aggregate properties: The shape and texture of aggregate particles can also affect
the workability. As a general rule, the more nearly spherical and smoother the particles,
the more workable the concrete.
. Cement: Increased fineness will reduce fluidity at a given w/c ratio, but increase
cohesiveness. Under the same w/c ratio, the higher the cement content, the better the
workability (as the total water content increases).
60
Also,
workability decreases with time. These effects are related to the progression of chemical
reaction.
c). Segregation and bleeding
61
62
63
64
5.3.4
Setting of concrete
a). Definition: Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh concrete. It is
different from hardening, which describes the development of useful and
measurable strength. Setting precedes hardening although both are controlled by
the continuing hydration of the cement.
of C3A. This is a rapid set with the development of strength and thus is more
severe than false setting. However, as we mentioned before, flash setting can be
eliminated by the addition of 3-5% gypsum into cement.
Thixotropic set is due to the presence of abnormally high surface charges on the
cement particles. It can be taken care of by additional mixing.
As the hydration reaction progresses with time, the concrete becomes less flowable,
and the slump value will naturally decrease. However, if the slump value
decreases at an abnormally fast rate, the phenomenon is called slump loss. It is
often due to the use of abnormal setting cement, the unusually long time taken in
the mixing and placing operations, or the high temperature of the mix (e.g., when
concrete is placed under hot weather, or when ingredients have been stored under
high temperature). In the last case, ice chips can be used to replace part of water to
lower the temperature.
66
5.3.5
67
5.4
68
5.4.2
Chemical admixtures
This includes soluble chemicals that are added to concrete for the purpose of
modifying setting times and reducing the water requirements of concrete mixes.
5.4.2.1 Water reducing admixtures
Water reducing admixtures lower the water required to attain a given slump value
for a batch of concrete. The use of water reducing admixture can achieve different
purposes as listed in the following table.
Once they are adsorbed on a cement particle, strong negative charge is introduced on the
particle surface. The surface tension of the surrounding water is hence greatly reduced and
the fluidity of the system is significantly improved. In normal applications, the dosage of
superplasticizer ranges from 0.6 to 3.0% the weight of cement.
Superplasticizers are used for two main purposes:
a). To produce high strength concrete at w/c ratio in a range of 0.23-0.3.
b). To create "flowing" concrete with high slumps in the range of 175 to 225 mm.
(useful in applications involving: rapid pumping of concrete, areas with congested
reinforcements or poor assess placing can be done with reduced vibration effort )
Associated with the reduced w/c ratio, additional benefits on hardened concrete
include better durability and lower creep and shrinkage.
The major drawbacks of superplasticizer are:
(i). retarding of setting (especially at high dosage)
- introduction of surface charges makes it more difficult for hydration products to
bond together
(ii). cause more bleeding
- dispersion of cement grains releases trapped water
(iii). entrained too much air
- reduced surface tension of water makes it easier for bubbles to form.
5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures
a).
Mechanism
The setting and hardening phenomena of Portland cement paste are derived from
the progressive crystallization of the hydration products. As discussed before,
setting, or the start of significant crystallization of hydration products, occurs at the
end of the induction period, when the concentration of ions (calcium, aluminate
and silicates etc) has reached a critical state. Since the solubility of ions is
sensitive to the presence of other ions in solution, it is possible to change the
dissolution rate of ions from the cement, by introducing other ions. This is the
principle behind retarding and accelerating admixtures. Retarding admixtures are
chemicals that can slow down the dissolution of ions from the cement, thus
extending the induction period and delaying initial set. However, the overall
strength development (during stages 3 and 4) may not be much slower than that
without the retarder. Accelerating admixtures have opposite effect to retarding
admixtures. They often reduce the induction period, and also increase the
hardening rate at stages 3 and 4.
b)
Applications
i) Retarding admixtures: Mainly used to: 1. Offset fast setting caused by ambient
temperature particularly in hot weather; 2. Control setting of large structural units
to keep concrete workable throughout the entire placing period. Examples include:
70
lignosulfonic acids and their salts, hydroxycarboxylic acids and their salts as well
as sugars and their derivatives.
ii)Accelerators: Used for plugging leaks, emergency repair, shotcreting and winter
construction in cold region. They are mostly soluble inorganic salts. Calcium
chloride is by far the best known and most widely used accelerator, and its effect is
illustrated in the figure below. However, the introduction of chloride ions can
accelerate the corrosion of steel. Other common accelerators include calcium
acetate and calcium formate.
71
5.4.3
Air is entrained into concrete to provide resistance against frost action, or the
freeze/thaw of water in the capillary pores. When freezing occurs, there is a net increase
in volume. If the saturation of the pores is below 91%, the volume increase can be
accommodated. With a higher saturation, however, the volume of ice will be larger than
the pore size. Internal stresses are hence introduced, and cracking may occur. With the
presence of closely spaced air bubbles in the hardened cement paste, when ice starts to
form and grow, the remaining water in the capillary pore can move (through smaller
channels in the paste) into the air bubbles. The air bubbles thus act as a water reservoir
and help to relieve internal stress arising from water freezing. The effectiveness of airentrainment depends on the spacing among the air bubbles. As shown in the following
figure, the smaller the spacing factor (which is defined as the average maximum distance
from any point in the paste to the edge of a void), the more durable the concrete. For
spacing factor beyond 0.3 mm, the entrained air has little effect on durability.
The presence of entrained air also reduces the effective modulus of the hardened
cement paste. With a more flexible paste, the resistance to internal expansion is improved.
The concrete is hence more durable against expansive reactions in general. Also, small air
bubbles act like bearings between aggregates. Their size compensates for the lack of
fine particles in sand. Air-entrainment can hence improve both consistency and cohesion.
72
(Note: durability factor is defined as the percentage of original Youngs modulus retained
after 300 freeze/thaw cycles)
With entrained air, the improved workability allows the reduction of w/c ratio.
This can partly compensate for the reduced strength due to the presence of air bubbles. In
normal air-entrained concrete, the strength loss is in the order of 10-20%.
With increasing entrained air content, the internal stress due to freezing is reduced.
However, the strength of the concrete itself is also decreasing, making it easier for damage
to occur. Hence, there exists an optimal air content that provides the highest durability.
73
The volume of air required to give optimum durability is about 4-8% by volume of
concrete as observed from the above figure. The actual fraction depends on the maximum
size of aggregate. With larger aggregate size, the required air content is reduced (see the
Table below). This is because less paste is required to provide workable concrete with
larger size (and hence smaller surface area per unit weight) of the coarse aggregates.
Maximum
aggregate size
63.5 mm
38
19
9.5
Recommended
Air Content
Concrete
Mortar
Paste
Spacing
factor (mm)
4.0%
5.0
6.0
7.5
4.5%
4.5
5.0
6.5
9.1%
8.5
8.3
8.7
16.7%
16.4
16.9
19.7
0.18
0.20
0.23
0.28
If entrained air is added into cement paste, the formula for the gel space ratio has to
be modified as follows.
volume of gel (including gel pores)
volume of gel + volume of capillary pores + entrained air
0.68
=
0.32 + w / c + entrained air
X =
5.4.4
Mineral admixtures
Mineral admixtures are finely divided siliceous materials that are added into
concrete in relatively large amounts (above 10% the weight of the cement). Industrial byproducts are the primary source of mineral admixtures. Common mineral admixtures
include fly ash, condensed silica fume and blast furnace slag. Typical oxide compositions
are given in the table below:
Oxide
Fly Ash
Blast Furnace
Silica Fume
Portland
Low Ca
High Ca
Slag
Cement
_____________________________________________________________________
(% by weight)
SiO2
48
40
36
97
20
Al2O3
27
18
Fe2O3
0.1
MgO
11
0.1
CaO
20
40
---
64
Na2O
---
---
---
0.2
K2O
---
---
---
0.5
_____________________________________________________________________
74
When low-calcium fly ash (<10% CaO) and silica fume are added to cement, the
following reaction occurs.
S + CH + H C-S-H
The pozzolanic reaction given by the above equation is of great significance in
concrete technology. The chemical reaction between silicon dioxide (S), and calcium
hydroxide (CH) results in the formation of additional C-S-H. In other words, a weak
phase is converted into a stronger phase. As a result, the ultimate concrete strength is
improved. Materials with no cementing property on its own, but can react with CH at
ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds, are called pozzolans. It should be
noted that the conversion of CH to C-S-H is also beneficial to concrete durability, as the
permeability of concrete is reduced (due to a denser microstructure) and the resistance to
acidic chemicals and alkali-aggregate reactions is improved (as there is less alkalis).
With high calcium content, blast furnace slag is mainly cementitious on its own.
High calcium fly ash has both cementing and pozzolanic properties. In the following, our
discussion will focus on silica fume and low-calcium fly ash. Behaviour of concrete with
high-calcium fly ash and blast furnace slag is intermediate between that of portland
cement concrete and concrete with low-calcium fly ash.
A)
Condensed silica fume
Silica fume is a by-product of the induction arc furnaces in the silicon metal and
ferrosilicon alloy industries. Reduction of quartz to silicon at temperature up to 2000oC
produces SiO vapours, which oxidize and condense in the low temperature zone to tiny
spherical particles consisting of noncrystalline silica. The material removed by filtering
the outgoing gases in bag filters. A size distribution of silica fume, relative to portland
cement and fly ash, is shown in the following figure.
75
More accurately, the size distribution of a typical silica fume product is provided as:
20% below 0.05 micron
70% below 0.10 micron
95% below 0.20 micron
99% below 0.50 micron.
The surface area is around 20 m2/g and its average bulk density is 586 kg/m3.
Compared with normal portland cement and typical fly ashes, silica fume is two orders of
magnitude finer. With such a small size, the pozzolanic reaction can occur very fast. The
incorporation of silica fume in concrete can hence increase concrete strength at both early
age (due to rapid pozzolanic reaction) and later stage. Besides the pozzolanic reaction, the
development of a denser C-S-H structure through better packing (achievable with the
small silica fume particles) also contributes to the strength improvement. Indeed, the use
of silica fume is an effective way to produce high strength concrete. For strength over 100
MPa, the addition of silica fume is mandatory. The small size of silica fume creates
problems of handling. It is often mixed in water to avoid inhalation, which is detrimental
to human health. Also, with its large surface area, the water requirement to make
workable concrete is significantly increased. A superplasticizer must be used together
with silica fume.
B)
Fly ash
Fly ash (pulverized fuel ash) is a by-product of electricity generating plant using
coal as fuel. During combustion of powdered coal in modern power plants, as coal passes
through the high temperature zone in the furnace, the volatile matter and carbon are
burned off, whereas most of the mineral impurities, such as clays, quartz, and feldspar,
will melt at the high temperature. The fused matter is quickly transported to lower
temperature zones, where it solidifies as spherical particles of glass. Some of the mineral
matter agglomerates to form bottom ash, but most of it flies out with the flue gas stream
and thus is called fly ash. This ash is subsequently removed from the gas by electrostatic
precipitators.
Fly ash can be divided into two categories according to the calcium content. The
ash containing less than 10% CaO (from bituminous coal) is called low-calcium fly ash
(Class F) and the ash typically containing 15% to 30% of CaO (from lignite coal) is called
high-calcium fly ash (Class C).
By replacing cement with low calcium fly ash, the cohesiveness is improved (small
particles are always helpful to prevent segregation). The water requirement to achieve the
same consistency is reduced, as the near-spherical fly ash particles makes it easier for the
concrete mix to flow. As the pozzolanic reaction does not occur until later, the early
strength of concrete is reduced, with a corresponding reduction in heat of hydration. Fly
ash can hence be used in mass concrete construction. The ultimate strength is higher than
that for concrete without fly ash replacing part of the cement. This is due to the
conversion of CH to C-S-H in the long term.
76
5.5
Hardened concrete
5.5.1
5.5.1.1 Introduction
A). Definition
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The
failure of concrete is due to cracking. Under direct tension, concrete failure is due to the
propagation of a single major crack. In compression, failure involves the propagation of a
large number of cracks, leading to a mode of disintegration commonly referred to as
crushing. The strength is the property generally specified in construction design and
quality control, for the following reasons: (1) it is relatively easy to measure, and (2) other
properties are related to the strength and can be deduced from strength data.
The 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a standard uniaxial
compression test is accepted universally as a general index of concrete strength.
5.5.1.2 Compressive strength and corresponding tests
a). Failure mechanism
a.
a.
b.
c.
d.
b.
c.
d.
The development of the vertical cracks result in expansion of concrete in the lateral
directions. If concrete is confined (i.e., it is not allow to expand freely in the
lateral directions), growth of the vertical cracks will be resisted. The strength is
hence increased, together with an increase in failure strain. In the design of
concrete columns, steel stirrups are placed around the vertical reinforcing steel.
They serve to prevent the lateral displacement of the interior concrete and hence
increase the concrete strength. In composite construction (steel + reinforced
77
concrete), steel tubes are often used to encase reinforced concrete columns. The
tube is very effective in providing the confinement.
The above figure illustrates the case when the concrete member is under ideal
uniaxial loading. In reality, when we are running a compressive test, friction exists
at the top and bottom surfaces of a concrete specimen, to prevent the lateral
movement of the specimen. As a result, confining stresses are generated around
the two ends of the specimen. If the specimen has a low aspect ratio (in terms of
height vs width), such as a cube (aspect ratio = 1.0), the confining stresses will
increase the apparent strength of the material. For a cylinder with aspect ratio
beyond 2.0, the confining effect is not too significant at the middle of the specimen
(where failure occurs). The strength obtained from a cylinder is hence closer to the
actual uniaxial strength of concrete. Note that in a cylinder test, the cracks
propagate vertically in the middle of the specimen. When they get close to the
ends, due to the confining stresses, they propagate in an inclined direction, leading
to the formation of two cones at the ends.
(b)
Note that the cube specimen is popular in U.K. and Europe while the cylinder
specimen is commonly used in the U.S.
i)
Cube specimen
BS 1881: Part 108: 1983. Filling in 3 layers with 50 mm for each layer (2
layers for 100 mm cube). Strokes 35 times for 150 mm cube and 25 times
for 100 mm cube. Curing at 205 0C and 90% relative humility.
ii)
Cylinder specimen
ASTM C470-81. Standard cylinder size is 150 x 300 mm. Curing condition
is temperature of 231.7 0C and moist condition. Grinding or capping are
needed to provide level and smooth compression surface.
78
(c).
5.5.1.3
Tensile strength and corresponding tests
a). Failure mechanism
a.
a.
b.
c.
b.
c.
It is important to notice that cracks form and propagate a lot easier in tension than
in compression. The tensile strength is hence much lower than the compressive strength.
An empirical relation between ft and fc is given by:
79
80
The splitting tensile strength can be obtained using the following formula:
f st =
2P
LD
BS 1881: Part 118: 1983. Flexural test. 150 x 150 x 750 mm or 100 x 100 x 500
(Max. size of aggregate is less than 25 mm). The arrangement for modulus of rupture is
shown in the above figure.
From Mechanics of Materials, we know that the maximum tension stress should
occur at the bottom of the constant moment region. The modulus of rapture can be
calculated as:
f bt =
Pl
bd 2
This formula is for the case of fracture taking place within the middle one third of
the beam. If fracture occurs outside of the middle one-third (constant moment zone), the
modulus of rupture can be computed from the moment at the crack location according to
ASTM standard, with the following formula.
3 Pa
f bt =
bd 2
However, according to British Standards, once fracture occurs outside of the
constant moment zone, the test result should be discarded.
81
A
B
1.5 ( w / c )
82
Aggregates
For the same w/c ratio, mixes with larger aggregates give lower strength. This is
due to the presence of a weak zone at the aggregate/paste interface, where cracking will
first occur. With larger aggregates, larger cracks can form at the interface, and they can
interact easier with paste cracks as well as other interfacial cracks.
With the same mix proportion, rougher and more angular aggregates give higher
strength than smooth and round aggregates. However, with smooth aggregates, a lower
w/c ratio can be employed to achieve the same workability. Therefore, it is possible to
achieve similar strength with smooth and rough aggregates, by adopting slightly different
w/c ratios.
For a fixed w/c ratio, the strength increases slightly with the aggregate/cement ratio.
This is because aggregates are often denser than the cement paste. With less paste in the
concrete, the overall density is increased.
For normal strength concrete, the aggregate strength is seldom a concern.
However, in the development of high strength concrete, it is important to select aggregates
with strength higher than that of the hardened paste.
Admixtures
Air-entraining agents decrease concrete strength by incorporation of bubbles. Setretarding and accelerating agents affect the early strength development but have little
effect on ultimate strength. Incorporation of mineral admixtures increases ultimate
strength through the pozzolanic reaction.
5.5.1.5 Rate effect on concrete strength and creep rupture
83
The strength of concrete is found to decrease with decreasing loading rate. At slower
loading rates, more time is allowed for the crack to propagate, and hence a lower stress
is required for the joining of cracks to cause failure. Indeed, concrete failure can occur
if loading is increased to 70-80% of the ultimate short-term strength and then kept
constant for a period of time. This phenomenon is referred to as creep rupture or static
fatigue.
Minimum
stress as a
percentage
of static
strength
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
Maximum
stress as a
percentage
of static
strength
106 cycles
20
20
For a life of 106 cycles, if the minimum stress is zero, the allowable maximum
stress is 50% the static strength. If the minimum stress is non-zero, the allowable
maximum stress can be found in a way illustrated by the arrows in the figure. Note that
the above diagram gives conservative estimates of life time.
84
(ii)
V
Vp
Ec = a +
Ea Ep
(iii)
Paste
alone
Unit length
Va0.5
Paste and
Aggregate
in Parallel
Paste
Aggregate
85
Paste
alone
Concrete modulus predicted from this model is found to agree much better with
experimental results than predictions from the parallel and series models.
Concrete modulus generally increases with strength. To achieve higher strength,
the water/cement ratio is reduced, and hence the hardened cement paste is denser and
stiffer. The composite modulus will therefore also increase. For high strength concrete,
the higher modulus is also due to the use of high quality (and hence strong and stiff)
aggregates in the mix.
In practice, the concrete modulus is usually not measured, but estimated from the
concrete compressive strength using empirical formula. According to the British Standard
for the structural used of concrete (BS 8110: part 2), the Young's Modulus of concrete (in
GPa) can be related to the cube compressive strength (in MPa) by the expression
E c = 9.1 f c0.33
for concrete with density of 2320 kg/m3, i.e. for typical normal weight concrete.
If the density of concrete is between 1400 and 2320 kg/m3, the expression for
Young's modulus is
E c = 1.7 2 f c0.33 10 6
86
5.5.3
Drying shrinkage
After concrete has been cured and begins to dry, the excessive water that has not
reacted with the cement will begin to migrate from the interior of the concrete mass to the
surface. As the moisture evaporates, the concrete volume shrinks. The loss of moisture
from the concrete varies with distance from the surface. The shortening per unit length
associated with the reduction in volume due to moisture loss is termed the shrinkage.
Shrinkage is sensitive to the relative humidity. For higher relative humidity, there is less
evaporation and hence reduced shrinkage. When concrete is exposed to 100% relative
humidity or submerged in water, it will actually swell slightly.
Shrinkage can create stress inside concrete. Because concrete adjacent to the
surface of a member dries more rapidly than the interior, shrinkage strains are initially
larger near the surface than in the interior. As a result of the differential shrinkage, a set of
internal self-balancing forces, i.e. compression in the interior and tension on the outside, is
set up.
In additional to the self-balancing stresses set up by differential shrinkage, the
overall shrinkage creates stresses if members are restrained in the direction along which
shrinkage occurs. If the tensile stress induced by restrained shrinkage exceeds the tensile
strength of concrete, cracking will take place in the restrained structural element. If
shrinkage cracks are not properly controlled, they permit the passage of water, expose
steel reinforcements to the atmosphere, reduce shear strength of the member and are bad
for appearance of the structure. Shrinkage cracking is often controlled with the
incorporation of sufficient reinforcing steel, or the provision of joints to allow movement.
After drying shrinkage occurs, if the concrete member is allowed to absorb water,
only part of the shrinkage is reversible. This is because water is lost from the capillary
pores, the gel pores (i.e., the pore within the C-S-H), as well as the space between the C-SH layers. The water lost from the capillary and gel pores can be easily replenished.
However, once water is lost from the interlayer space, the bond between the layers
becomes stronger as they get closer to one another. On wetting, it is more difficult for
water to re-enter. As a result, part of the shrinkage is irreversible.
Gel pore
Interlayer space
Internal Structure
of C-S-H
87
Creep
88
75-80% of strength, creep rupture can occur. It is therefore very important to keep in mind
that in the design of concrete column, 0.8 fc is taken to be the strength limit.
Factors affecting Creep of concrete
a). w/c ratio: The higher the w/c ratio, the higher is the creep.
b). Aggregate stiffness (elastic modulus): The stiffer the aggregate, the smaller the
creep.
89
5.5.4 Durability
Almost universally, concrete has been specified principally on the basis of its
compressive strength at 28 days after casting. Since reinforced concrete structures are
usually designed with a sufficiently high safety factor, it is rare for concrete structures to
fail due to lack of intrinsic strength. However, gradual deterioration caused by the lack of
durability reduces the safety margin of concrete structures to an extent that serious
concerns have been raised. The extent of the problem is such that concrete durability has
been recently described as a "multimillion dollar opportunity". In the U. S. A., the cost of
repairing the interstate highway bridges alone is 20 Billion U.S. dollars. In developed
countries, it is estimated that over 40% of the total resources of the building industry are
applied to repair and maintenance of existing structures. In Hong Kong, steel corrosion
and chemical attack on concrete have created a lot of problems. Some new pipelines can
not even last for five years. Steel corrosion has led to the collapse of canopies, resulting in
death and injury of people.
Durability of concrete can be defined as its ability to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration, and hence to retain its
original shape, dimension, quality and serviceability.
Chemical causes:
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Sulphate attack
Steel corrosion
The most severe durability problems always involve the penetration of water (with
corrosive agents) into the concrete. Physical action (e.g., water freezing) or chemical
reaction (e.g., alkali-aggregate reaction) will then lead to internal expansion, resulting in
significant cracking/spalling of the concrete. Durability of concrete is hence related to the
ease of ingress of water and chemicals. Concrete permeability and diffusivity are hence
important parameters to be considered.
90
h
x
where ux is the velocity of flow in the x-direction, h the pressure head and K the
coefficient of permeability.
Obviously the permeability is a function of pores inside materials. It is affected by
both the percentage of porosity and size distribution of pores.
Porosity(%)
Permeability coefficient
Hardened
Cement
Paste
40
30
20
100 nm
Agg.
3 - 10
10 m
Concrete
20 - 40
nm-mm
Diffusivity is defined by Fick's law, and it is the rate of moisture migration under a
concentration gradient at the equilibrium diffusion condition.
Q = D p
C
x
wher Q is the mass transport rate (kg/m2.s); Dp the diffusion coefficient (m2/s); C the
concentration of a particular ion or gas (kg/m3).
The two parameters apply to different situations. When water is flowing through a
piece of concrete, or from one part to another part under a hydraulic gradient, permeability
is the governing parameter. When gases (e.g. oxygen) move through concrete (either dry
or wet) or ions (e.g. chloride) move through the pore solution, the process is governed by
the diffusion coefficient (or diffusivity). Note that the diffusion coefficient varies for
different diffusing substances. Generally speaking, since both the permeability and
diffusivity are related to the pore structure of concrete, concrete with low permeability will
also possess low diffusivity. Means to reduce permeability and diffusivity (e.g. use lower
w/c ratio to reduce capillary porosity, specification of cement content high enough to
ensure sufficient consistency and hence proper compaction, proper curing to reduce
surface cracks) are generally helpful to concrete durability.
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5.5.4.3
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR) is the reaction between alkalis from cement and
constituents present in some aggregates. It can be further classified into alkali-silica
reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction. The small amounts of Na2O and K2O
present in the cement clinker are responsible for the reaction. In the cement paste, these
form hydroxides and raise the pH level from 12.5 to 13.5. In such highly alkaline
solutions, reaction can occur for some aggregates. ASR occurs if an aggregate contains
glassy silicates. Examples include chert, flint, opal, cristoballite, chalcedony and volcanic
glasses. The reaction products absorb water and expand. Stresses induced by the
expansion lead to cracking and spalling. Alkali-carbonate reaction occurs for dolomite. In
this case, the reaction products do not expand, but the reaction exposes clay minerals that
tend to absorb water and expand. Cracking will then occur. In Hong Kong AAR has only
been observed for one source of aggregates from mainland China used in some projects in
Northern New Territories.
Although it is possible to tell (through mineral identification) if an aggregate will
react with cement, it is impossible to predict whether its use will result in excessive
expansion or not. Various tests for AAR have therefore been developed. In the chemical
test (ASTM C289), powdered aggregate is put into sodium hydroxide, and the solubility is
measured to assess the reactivity of aggregate with an alkali. Since the presence of
various minerals may affect the solubility, the result is not reliable. In the mortar bar test
(ASTM C227), crushed aggregates are used to cast mortar bars of standard size. The bars
are stored moist at 38 oC to accelerate the reaction. Expansion should not exceed 0.05%
after 3 months or 0.1% after 6 months. Since significant expansion may start after 6
months, the test should ideally be continued further. However, the time involved may
make it impractical. Recently, a few rapid testing methods have been developed, such as
dynamic modulus test, and gel fluorescence test. Dynamic modulus, measured from pulse
velocity (Note: v = (E/)1/2) is a good indication of deterioration due to AAR. The
measurement can even detect deterioration before any expansion and visible cracking
occurs. In the gel fluorescence test, 5% solution of uranyl acetate is applied on the
specimen surface, and the specimen is then viewed under ultraviolet (UV) light. A
yellowish green fluorescent glow means that reaction products from AAR are present.
The new rapid testing methods are promising but they are yet to be standardized.
To minimize the risk of AAR, one can:
A) Use non-deleterious aggregate when the alkali content of the cement is high;
B) Use low-alkali cement (<0.6% Na2O equivalent) when the silica content of
aggregate is high
C) Keep concrete dry (relative humidity of the concrete < 80%).
The choice on types of cements and aggregates at a construction site is usually
very limited, and the environment surrounding the concrete is obviously unchangeable.
Therefore, the above guidelines may not be practical in a real world. In such cases, the
only effective way to reduce the risk of AAR is to control moisture migration in the
concrete. No AAR will occur in dry concrete even if reactive aggregates are present.
Control of moisture flow can be achieved with external coating on the structural member,
92
or local diffusion coating around the aggregates (formed by placing the aggregates into a
slurry of the protective material before casting).
5.5.4.4
Sulphate Attack
93
Fe(OH)2 formerly exists. This type of corrosion is referred to as pitting corrosion, and it
is more dangerous than uniform corrosion, as large reduction in steel cross section can
occur locally with little loss in total mass.
Once steel is depassivated, corrosion occurs through an electrochemical process,
consisting of both oxidation and reduction reactions. Four components must be present for
corrosion to occur. The four components include anode, cathode, electrolyte and metallic
path. The anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs. Oxidation involves the loss of
electrons and formation of metal ions. Hence, material is lost at the anode. The cathode is
the electrode where reduction occurs. Reduction is the gain of electrons in a chemical
reaction. The electrolyte is a chemical mixture, usually liquid, containing ions that migrate
in an electric field. A metallic path between anode and cathode is essential for electron
movement between the anode and cathode. For steel corrosion in concrete, the anode and
cathode are both on the steel and the steel itself is the metallic path. The electrolyte is the
moisture in concrete surrounding the steel. The specific reactions are given below.
At the anode:
Fe Fe++ +2eAt the cathode:
4e- +O2 +2H2O 4(OH)In the electroyte:
Fe++ + 2(OH)- Fe(OH)2
4 Fe(OH)2 + 2 H2O + O2 4 Fe(OH)3
(further reaction with sufficient water supply)
As steel oxidizes, the corrosion products occupy a higher volume. The unit volume
of Fe can be doubled if FeO is formed. The unit volume of the final corrosion product,
Fe(OH)3 . 3H2O, is as large as six and a half times of the original Fe. Expansion leads to
cracking and surface spalling of concrete. Once the concrete cover spalls and steel is
exposed to the atmosphere, the corrosion rate will increase significantly. Eventually, the
excessive loss of steel area, if left unnoticed, can lead to collapse of the structure.
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Based on the above discussions on the corrosion process, various approaches for
corrosion control can be proposed. The most cost-effective corrosion control method is to
use a low w/c concrete and a relatively thick cover on the steel. (Note: the cover cannot be
excessive thick as this will significantly increase the member size. Also, a thick
unreinforced cover can easily crack due to shrinkage or thermal effects.) With thick cover
and low concrete diffusivity, it takes a long time for carbon dioxide or chloride ion to
reach the reinforcing steel. Corrosion initiation is therefore greatly reduced. Also, with
low water permeability associated with low w/c ratio, once water is used up in the
corrosion reactions, it takes a longer time for it to be replenished. In other words, the
electrolyte, a critical component in the electrochemical reaction, is removed. Similarly,
with low oxygen diffusivity, the replenishment of reacted oxygen is slow. The corrosion
rate after initiation is hence reduced.
Another approach to stop corrosion is to isolate the anode and cathode from the
electrolyte. This is the principle behind epoxy-coated rebars (reinforcing bars). In general,
epoxy-coated rebars have performed well in bridge decks and parking garages. When
epoxy coated rebars are used, it is important to minimize damage to the coating during the
casting procedure. Training is thus necessary for proper handling of epoxy-coated bars.
Recently, notable problems with corrosion of epoxy-coated bars were reported for bridge
columns in Florida. Epoxy coating, though intact, was found to separate from the steel.
Further research is hence required to understand the degradation mechanism and to
improve the coating performance.
Instead of isolating steel from the electrolyte, one can also connect steel to either a
voltage supply, or a metal higher in the electrochemical series (and hence have a higher
tendency to oxidize, e.g. zinc), so the whole piece of steel becomes the cathode. This
technique is called cathodic protection. Further discussions on cathodic protection will be
given in the section on steel.
Corrosion can also be controlled through chemical means, through the
incorporation of corrosion inhibitors. The most common corrosion inhibitor is calcium
nitrite. Its presence facilitates the conversion of Fe(OH)2 to FeO.OH. In other words, it is
competing with chloride ions for Fe (II) ions. If the nitrite/chloride concentration is high,
the chloride cannot react with Fe(OH)2 to turn it into a water soluble compound.
Therefore, pitting will not occur.
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5.6
In the previous chapters, we have discussed the various concrete properties and the
factors influencing the properties. Now, we are ready to apply this knowledge to design a
concrete mix. Mix design, or mix proportioning, is a process by which one arrives at the
right combination of cement, aggregate, water, and admixtures to produce concrete to
satisfy given specifications. It should be indicated that this process is considered an art
rather than a science.
5.6.1. Principal requirements for concrete
The main purpose of mix design is to obtain a product that will perform according
to predetermined requirements. These requirements include the following concrete
properties:
i). Quality (strength and durability)
Strength and permeability of hydrated cement paste are mutually related through
the capillary porosity that is controlled by w/c ratio and degree of hydration. Since
durability of concrete is controlled mainly by its permeability, there is a relationship
between strength and durability. Consequently, routine mix design usually focuses on
strength and workability only. When the concrete is exposed to special environmental
conditions, provisions on durability (e.g. limit on w/c ratio, minimum cement content,
minimum cover to steel reinforcement, etc) will also be considered.
ii).Workability
As we mentioned earlier, workability is a complicated concept for fresh concrete
and embodies various properties including consistency and cohesiveness. There is still not
a single test method that can fully reflect workability. Since the slump represents the ease
with which the concrete mixture will flow during placement, and the slump test is simple
and quantitative, most mix design procedures rely on slump as a crude index of
workability. Sometimes, the Vebe time may be employed.
iii).Economy
Among all the constituents of the concrete, the admixture has the highest unit cost,
followed by cement. The cost of aggregates is about one-tenth that of cement. Admixtures
are often used in small amounts, or they are required to achieve certain properties. To
minimize cost of concrete, the key consideration is the cement cost. Therefore, all possible
steps should be taken to reduce the cement content of a concrete mixture without
sacrificing the desirable properties, such as strength and durability. The scope for cost
reduction can be enlarged further by replacing a part of the portland cement with cheaper
materials such as fly ash or ground blast-furnace slag.
As mentioned earlier, under normal conditions, it is sufficient to consider
workability and strength for concrete design. For special conditions, additional
considerations on dimensional stability and durability have to be taken.
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5.6.2
Fundamentals of mix design
i) w/c ratio
Water/cement ratio is the most important factor influencing various kinds of
concrete properties. For the strength of concern, the Abrams's law states:
A
f c = 1 .5 ( w / c )
B
where fc is the compressive strength, A is an empirical constant (usually about 100 MPa),
and B is a constant depends mostly on the cement properties (usually 4).
In practice, tables or charts are available for the determination of fc from w/c, as
well as cement and aggregate type.
ii) cement content
At a given w/c ratio, increasing the cement content will increase workability and
durability. However, the cost and hydration heat will also be increased. To solve such a
problem, part of the cement can be replaced with fly ash or slag.
iii) major aggregate properties
a)
maximum aggregate size:
The maximum aggregate size influences the paste requirement and optimum
grading. The larger the maximum size, the lower the paste requirement to achieve a given
workability. However, the larger the maximum aggregate size, the lower the strength.
The following considerations should be taken into account when choosing
maximum aggregate size: (a). For reinforced concrete, the maximum size should not
exceed one-fifth of the minimum dimension, or three-fourths of the minimum clear
spacing between bars. (b) For slabs on grade, the maximum size may not exceed one-third
the slab depth.
b)
aggregate grading
The grading of aggregate is important to concrete because a good grading will
decrease the cement content and void in concrete and thus produce economical and better
concrete. For practical purpose it is adequate to follow grading limits specified by various
organizations (e.g. British Standards, ASTM), which are not only broad and therefore
economically feasible, but are also based on practical experience.
5.6.3 Weight method and volume method
Usually the unit weight of fresh concrete can be known from previous experience
for the commonly used raw materials. Thus we have,
W(wet concrete) = W(cement)+W(water)+W(aggregate)+W(sand)
The unit weight of wet concrete is usually ranged from 2300 to 2400 kg/m3.
In the case of the absolute volume method the total volume (1 m3) is equal to the
sum of volume of each ingredient (i.e., water, air, cement, and coarse aggregate). Thus we
have
Wcement Wwater Wsaggregate Wsand
+
+
+
+ volume%(air ) = 1
cemen water aggregate sand
Since the weight of each ingredient is easy to measure than volume, the design proportion
of concrete is usually expressed as a weight ratio. Hence, the proportion obtained in
volume method have to be converted to weight units by multiplying it by the density of
material.
97
where k is a factor dependent on the failure percentage and s is the standard deviation. k
and s can be obtained from the following table and figure.
98
Step 2.
Step 3.
Determine the w/c ratio according to the following empirical table and figures.
To do this, first get a predicted compressive strength according to the type of
cement and type of coarse aggregate for a w/c ratio of 0.5 from the following
table. Then, plot this value on the following figure on the w/c =0.5 vertical line.
Draw a curve through this point, parallel to the printed curves, until it
intercepts a horizontal line passing through the ordinate of predetermined mean
strength. The value of the w/c ratio corresponding to mean strength can then be
obtained.
99
Step 4.
Specify the slump value. Usually, slump values of the concrete to be designed
will be specified according to the job nature of the concrete construction. For
an inexperienced person, the following table shall provide sufficient
information.
100
Step 5. The free water content is then obtained from the following table according to the
type of aggregate and the specified workability.
Step 6
The cement content can then be calculated by dividing the water content by w/c
ratio.
Cement content / m 3 =
Water content / m 3
w/c
Compare this value with the specified minimum required cement content
determined by durability consideration. If it is below such a value, the value
specified must be used and the modified w/c ratio calculated.
101
Step 7.
The total aggregate content is then obtained by estimating the wet density of
the fully compacted mix from following figure. The total SSD aggregate
content is then equal to (wet density - cement content - free water content) for 1
m3 concrete.
Step 8.
102
103
104
105
Step 9.
The proportion of coarse aggregate is then the total aggregate content minus
the amount of fine aggregate.
Step 10.
Obtain the mix proportion for the standard material conditions. Usually, take
cement as 1 and other materials and the ratio of the weight of cement.
Step 11.
Step 12.
Calculate the quantities in kg per cubic meter for the raw materials.
Step 13.
Make the trial batch to check the validity of the concrete design.
The calculated mix proportions should be checked by making trial mixes. Only a
sufficient amount of water to produce the required workability should be used, regardless
of the amount calculated. Trial mix should be tested for flow ability, cohesiveness,
finishing properties and air content, as well as for yield and density (unit weight). If any
one of these properties, expect the last two, is unsatisfactory, adjustments to the mix
proportions are necessary. For example, lack of cohesiveness can be corrected by
increasing the fine aggregate content at the expense of the coarse aggregate content. The
rules of thumb are as follows:
(a) If the correct slump is not achieved, the estimated water content is increased (or
decreased) by 6 kg/m3 for every 25 mm increase (or decrease) in slump.
(b) If the desired air content is not achieved, the dosage of the air-entraining admixture
should be adjusted to produce the specified air content. The water content is then
increased (or decreased) by 3 kg/m3 for each 1 per cent decrease (or increase) in air
content.
(c) If the estimated density (unit weight) of fresh concrete by mass method is not
achieved and is of importance, mix proportions should be adjusted, allowance being
made for a change in air content.
Step 14.
Finalize the mix proportion based on the adjustment of the trial batch.
106