Chapter 1 Preliminary Prerequisites 1.1 Set Theory 1.1.1 Definitions + A Set is any well defined collection of objects (or elements). The order and the number of repetitions of elements in the set have no significance. We write a € A if a is an element in the set A. A set can be specified either by listing its elements or by specifying the conditions that have to be satisfied by its elements. eg. N = {z:2isa natural number } = {0,1,2,3,---} I = {y:y€ unit interval of real numbers } {y:0 (ze Borz eC), so that r€ Aand re Borze Aand re C Then « € AB or 2 € AC and sos € ABU AC Thus An (BUC) € (AN B)U(ANC) Let x € (AB) U(AC) so that 2 € AB or 2 € AC. When 2 AB then s€ Aand 2€B=>2¢ Aand 2 € BUC. Sinuay; when 2 € AC then 2€ A and 2.¢ C => 2@Aond x BUC Thus 1 ¢ AN (BUC) and ABUAC C A(BUC). Hence A(BUC) = ABU AC Example 1.1.5 Prove (AUB) NB’ = A if and only if ANB =o Solution Using Distributive laws, we find (AUB) B= AB'UBB' = AB’Ud= AB we are then to prove: AB’ = A iff AB=@ a. Suppose AB = ¢. Then AC Bi and ANB’=A b. Suppose AB’ = A. Then AC Bi and ANB = ¢ thus (AUB)NB' = A if (by(a)) and only if (by(b)) ANB=¢ Example 1.1.6 Prove that Ax (BUC) = (Ax B)U(AxC) Solution Ax (BUC) = {(v):2€4.ue BUC} {(.u) iz € Avy € B and/or y € C} {(ay) 12 € Avy € B) and/or (2 € AyeC)} {(e.y) : (zu) € Ax B and /or (2,u) € Ax CY ~ (Ax B)U(Ax C) 0Ser THEORY 7 Example 1.1.7 Prove by using laws of sets that i) (AB =AUB ii) A'-BI=B-A Solution i) (aBY = (Ayu(By De Morgan’s law AUB Complement law ii) A'-B A(ByY AB = BA'=B-A Example 1.1.8 Let W = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. Determine whether each of the following is a partition of W: i) ({1,3,5}, {2,4}, {3,6} ii) [(1,5}, {2}, (3, 6}] fii) [(1,5}, {2}, {4}, (3, 6}) iv) [{1,2,3,4,5,6}] Solution i) No ii) No iii) Yes iv) Yes Example 1.1.9 Find all partitions of V = {1,2,3} Solution (1.2.3) (1), {2,3} [€2}, (1, 3H) {3}, (1,2}) and [{1}, {2}, {3})- Example 1.1.10 Let A = BNC. Determine if either statement is true: i) AxA=(BxB)N(CxC) ii) Ax A=(BxC)N(CxB)CHAPTER 1: PRELIMINARY PREREQUISITES i) RHS = (BxB)NC@xe) {(y):2€ BY € B}N{(z,y):2ECyec} {(,y):2€ Band re C,y€ Bandy €C} = {(@y):2€BCyeBC} ..A=BC {(z,u):2 € Ay € A} = AxA= LHS AKA = (Bx B)N(CxC) ii) Similarly, you can show that Ax A=(BxC)N(C xB) Example 1.1.11 State, with prove, whether each of the following statements is true or false: i) AN(B-C) =(AnB) (Ane) ii) AU(B-C)=(AUB)-(Auc) iii) (A - B)N@ = (ANC) - (BNO) iv) (AUB)-C=(A-C)U(B-C) Solution i) LHS = ABC RHS = AB(AC) = ABC “AN(B=@) = (AnB)-(Anc) i.e. intersection is distributed over difference. ii) LHS = AU(BC*) = (AUB)N (AUC) RHS = (AUB)AUC) = (AUB)N (anc) since AUC® = {z:2€ A and /orz¢C}, ANC = {y:ygAandy¢C} © AUC® # AtNCe “. AU(B-©) # (AUB)~(AUC) i.e. union is NOT distributed over difference. Similarly, you can show that : iii) true, iv) trueSer THEory 9 1.1.5 Problems 1. Let ‘Sample space consisting of the integers 1,2... 10. ‘The set of all even elements of 3. ‘The set of all elements of A less than 5. ‘The set of all elements of S less than 5. = The set of all elements of S less than 7. vawan ‘hich of the following statements are true? (b) List the elements of each of the following sets i, AUB ii, AUD ii, AND iv. CUD v.OnD (c) List the elements of each of the following sets i ANB ii, AND AncnD iv. AUD® 2. Simplify the following expressions: (a) (A4.B)(A'+ BY) (b) (A+ B)(A+B) (c) (A+ B)(4' +0)(B' +C) 3. State whether the following statements are true or false, illustrate the true ones with Venn diagram. (a) (A+B)BC = BC (b) AB(B+C) = ABC (c) AB + BC > ABC10 CHAPTER 1: PRELIMINARY PREREQUISITES (a) (A+B)BI=A (e) A+ BDAB+BC+CA (f) ABCCA (g) A+ B=A'B+ABi+ AB (h) AB’ + A’ = A'+ BY If A and B are sets, then C = AB’ + A’B isa set containing those elements which are in A but not in B and those elements which are in B but not in A. Thus if z € C then x € Aor z € B, but not in both since (AB’)(4'B) = 9 If A and B are possible outcomes of an experiment or set of experiments, then (A'B + AB’) represents the event that one of the outcomes A or B will occur, but not both. If A and B are statements, the expression AB’ + A’B = J means either A isa true statement or B is a true statement, but not both A and B are true statements, with I the “universally” true statement. What sets involving unions, and jintersections describe the following situa- tions? (a) Both A and B but not C. (b) All of A, B,C. (c) At least one of A, B,C. (d) At least two of A, B,C. (e) At most one. of A, B,C. (f) Exactly one of A, B,C. (g) None of A,B,C. (h) Exactly two of A, B,C. (i) Not more than two of A, B,C. 5. Simplify the following expressions: (a) (A+B +C) +ABC'+ BC) (b) (A'+ BY(A+BY (©) (ABY + (A'BY 6. Let two coins and a die be tassed, give a definition of an appropriate sample space for each of the following: (a) The event that two heads and even number appears. (b) ‘The event that a 2 appears.Ser THEoRY ul (c) The event that exactly one head and a prime number appear. (4) Express explicitly the event that (a) and (b) occur, also express the event that only (b) occurs. 7. Prove the following: (2) BCCTACBSACO (bt) ACBSAB=A (c) AB=63AC B 8. Let W = { Mark,Bric,Paul } & V = { Brie, David }. Find: (a) WxV OOK Ww (c) V2=VxV 9. If (AUB) x B = {(1,2), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (3,2), (3,4), (4,2), (4,4)} and AN B= {4} Find the sets A, B. 11, Let $= {a,b,c}, T = {b,¢, d} and W = {a,d}. Construct the tree diagram of Sx Tx W then find Sx T x W. 2. Find the power set P(A) of A = \\,2,3,9) and the power sek PLB) oh B={i,{2,3},4). ee