Conferinta I-La Paduri Durabile (2008)

editura
SILVICA
ICAS 2008 Conference
October 23 25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Contents
Opening discussions
Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest management
Peter Veen .......................................................7
The history of Forest Research and Management Institute and its development prospects (in
Romanian)
Marian Ianculescu ........................11
The forest in a changing natural and socio-economic environment
Researches regarding the parametric objective approach of the climatic year structure in hilly
and mountainous regions, in the frame of climate changes
Viorela Huber ...................21
Effects of accidental fluorine pollution on Prahova Valleys forest stands
Marian Ianculescu, Ionel Popa, tefan Neagu, Cristina M. Mcrescu .......29
Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructification in the Western part of the Getic Plateau
Iulian Bercea .....................41
Research on structural variety of stands for three European beech forests with different ages,
located in middle and superior Valley of Arge River
Gheorghe Guiman, Virgil Scrltescu, Constantin Truic ...................53
Ecological reconstruction by regeneration of pine stands located on degraded lands in the SouthEastern Romania (in Romanian)
Cristinel Constandache, Sanda Nistor ......................65
Research on ecological reconstruction of the declining forests in embanked areas located in the
Danube flood plain and Delta (in Romanian)
Manole Greavu .....................79
Aerodynamic study of forest shelter belts (wind breaks)
Titus-Traian Ordean ....................89
Local networks of forest shelterbelts solution to achieve a national plan
Maria Magdalena Vasilescu, Cornel Cristian Tereneu .....91
Forest resources assessment, management, use
Evolution of the European concept of forest management and the incidence on the Romanian
silvicuture (in Romanian)
Petre Bradosche ............................99
Wood biomass resources of Romania an alternative source of energy (in Romanian)
3
Gavril Budu, Mihai Ispas, Mihaela Cmpean .......................................117

Current structure and growth in diameter of hornbeam stands in northeast Bulgaria
Hristo Tsakov, Alexander Delkov ...........................123
Considerations on some current problems of management in Romanias silviculture (in
Romanian)
Ion Machedon .....................131
Certification schemes a first step towards sustainable management of forestry in Romania
Corina-Ionela Dumitrescu, Beatrice Leutean....................139
Beech timber preservation during storage
Octavia Zeleniuc .....................145
Assessment of anthropogenic and climatic changes impacts on forest systems by satellite and
biogeophysical data
Maria Zoran, Mihaela Caian ...................151
Aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps in forest cadastre
Iosif Vorovencii ..................159
Integrated forest planning and management system: pathway to the future in Romania?
Eugen Iordache, Marius Petrila .................169
Inventory of primary and secondary forest ways using GPS/GIS in Romanian mountainous
forests
Eugen Iordache ...................177
Operational model for assessment of environmental impact in forest road construction (in
Romanian)
Valeria Alexandru, Rostislav Bereziuc, Valentina Ciobanu ....183
Possibilities of estimating discharge in small watersheds by means of TR-55 model
Cornel Cristian Tereneu, tefan Tama, I. Clinciu, Maria Magdalena Vasilescu .........189
Contributions to the kinematics study of the blade borers for seedling planting holes
Ilie Popescu, Rudolf Derczeni, Eugen Iordache, Horia otoc ...................195
Gully erosion in Suceava Plateau a case study
Ovidiu Iacobescu, Ionu Barnoaiea ....................203
Forest biodiversity assessment, monitoring, conservation, improvement
The importance of some endemic plant taxa in maintaining the identity of Dacian Beech forest
(Symphyto-Fagion)
Anca Punescu ....................211
Formation, development and early abscission of the Italian oak (Quercus frainetto) acorns during
vegetation season (in Romanian)
Marius Sorin Nic, Marcel Octavian Bdele, Constantin Neoiu, Ionel Cioc,
Cornel oanc ................................................................................................................219
Physiological aspects of Quercus species under chemical and integrated pest control in NorthEastern Romanias forests
Ligia Acatrinei ....................227
Management principles of fish populations in mountain waters (in Romanian)
Ioan Cristea .....................235
October 2325, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Preface
The proceedings is the result of the international conference Sustainable forestry in a changing
environment held in Bucharest, Romania, from October 23rd to 25th of 2008. The meeting was
organized under the auspices of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations
(IUFRO), the European Forest Institute (EFI), the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(MADR), the National Forest Administration (RNP-ROMSILVA) and the Academy of Agriculture
and Forest Sciences (ASAS), and hosted by the Forest Research and Management Institute
(ICAS).
The purpose of this conference was to bring together, on the occasion of the anniversary of 75
years of institute foundation, specialists from various areas - forestry sciences, biology, ecology,
wood industry, environmental protection, nature conservation, social and economic sciences, etc.
- to partake of their recent experience and achievements on sustainable forest management in the
context of socio-economic and natural environment changes.
The specific objectives of the conference were: presentation of scientific and technical aspects
regarding the priorities in forest research, management and policy in the context of the natural
and socio-economic environment changes; presentation of the latest achievements in scientific
forest research; strengthening contacts and scientific exchanges among the members of scientific
community; presentation of research and development activities of ICAS at its anniversary.
The conference was structured in a plenary session, three working sessions (Forest in the context
of natural and socio-economic environment changes; Forest resources - evaluation, management,
use; Forest biodiversity - assessment, monitoring, conservation and improvement), poster session
and a field trip to the experimental forest district Mihieti, Arge county.
193 participants from 10 countries joined the meeting presenting 6 opening speeches and 93
oral presentations and posters.
Acknowledgements
The editors wish to express their gratitude to all people involved in the preparation of the
meeting, for excellent organization of the scientific and field program, as well as for pleasant
atmosphere.
Special thanks go to the organization committee. We are indebted to Elena Avdnii, Pollyana
Prnu and Dana Mohor, who have done the technical editing and computer formatting of the
entire volume.
The Editors
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest

management
P. Veen
Veen P. 2009. Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest management. In:
Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 7-10.
Abstract. Forests are important habitat types within the Natura 2000 network and the
central task of forest managers should be the keeping of the favourable conservation status alive for all qualified habitats and species. Consequently, the EU Habitat
Directive stated several obligations for the forest managers: the conservation value
(species and/or habitats of European concern) should be the leading principle; for
every activity in the site it is necessary to do an assessment according the management plan or to do a case-to-case judgement, and conservation measures are needed
to support the Natura 2000 goals. The forest management should be seen not only as
management of forests as tree-stands, but also as places where species of European
importance live.
Key words: Natura 2000 sites, forest habitats, forest management
Author. Peter Veen - Royal Dutch Society for Nature Conservation, The Netherlands.
Myths about Natura 2000 and forestry

It was stated by EU that several myths exist concerning Natura 2000 sites and the possibility to
manage the site as a forest. Some selection of arguments:
- Natura 2000 sites all will become nature reserve: EU Membership Countries are free to choose
for the status of Natura 2000 sites. There are 3 possibilities to solve the status:
Statutory status like for example to make a nature reserve;
Contractual status like to sign a management agreement with the owner of the site;
Administrative status to give possibilities for management of the site.
- We will have to stop all our activities for the sake of nature: the conservation of species and
habitats can be quite compatible with well-managed human activities such as tourism, hunting
and forestry. Eventual restrictions must be based on a case-by-case judgement.
EU Habitats Directive and Natura 2000
Forests are important habitat types within the Natura 2000 network. Information from 2003
(before accession of the New Member State Countries) learned that within about 50% of the
designated Natura 2000 sites in the EU Member States forest is an important habitat (Figure 1).
7
Fig. 1 Number of Natura 2000 sites connected with presence of forest habitats (EU, 2003)
Even in 10% of the sites, the forests cover more than 80% of the total surface. It is expected that
in the New Member States this percentage will be higher.
The EU Habitat Directive (HD) provides the forest manager with several obligations. The
following obligations are to mention:
- Art.4: After designation of the Natura 2000 site, the site has to be managed according art.6 of
the HD.
- Art.6: This article is very important for management of the forests like:
The conservation value (species and/or habitats of European concern) should be the leading
principle.
For every activity in the site it is necessary to do an assessment according the management plan
or to do a case-to-case judgement.
Conservation measures are needed to support the Natura 2000 goals.
Central task for the forest manager is to take all necessary conservation measures in order to
keep the favourable conservation status alive for all qualified habitats and species.
For that art.6 HD foresees in:
- Identification of special areas for conservation (pSCI);
- To prepare appropriate management plans;
- To take all statutory, administrative, contractual measures to preserve all targeted habitats and
species.
Management plans for Natura 2000 sites
Every forester of Natura 2000 sites has to deal with habitats and species management. In
figure 2 a management strategy scheme has been provided based on the requirements of the EU
Habitats Directive. In the centre of the scheme are the conservation objectives of the species and
the habitats which are selected as qualifying habitats and species for the Natura 2000 sites (see
annexes of the Habitats Directive with lists of habitats and species of European importance). For
these habitats and species a Favourable Conservation Status (FCS) is obligated. For every habitat
and species it is needed to define a benchmark like number of species in the site or total area
covered by a habitat type. A good conservation status means that the species number or the habitat
area is stable or increasing compared with the total population in the country or the total coverage
8
Fig. 2 Management strategy based on conservation of species and habitats of European importance
of that habitat in the country. During the selection of the Natura 2000 sites it is necessary to
identify the benchmark for species and habitats.
The management plan starts with the conservation goals which can be based on these
benchmarks indicators. The objectives for the management plan follow these conservation goals
and give information about the FCS during the period of the management plan. Monitoring of
these species and habitats need to be done to deliver information about these status in time.
During the evaluation of the management plan the objectives should be evaluated also. Based
on these results it is necessary to follow a maintenance management or to develop a recovery
management strategy in order to improve the conditions for species and/or habitats.
Conclusions
Foresters have to deal in Natura 2000 sites with management of species and habitats.
Management of the forests means to create good conditions for nature. The knowledge for this
type of management means a challenge for forest faculties in the university. From now, forest
management is not only management of forests as tree-stands but also as places where species of
European importance live.
10
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Istoricul Institutului de Cercetari i Amenajari Silvice

i perspectivele de dezvoltare ale acestuia
M. Ianculescu
Ianculescu M. 2009. Istoricul Institutului de Cercetri i Amenajri Silvice i perspectivele de dezvoltare ale acestuia. [The history of Forest Research and Management Institute and its development prospects]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud
O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute
ICAS, pp. 11-20.
Abstract. The paper presents a short history of the Romanian forest research
institute, its achievements as well as its development prospects. The Forest Research and Management Institute was founded in 1933, but concerns on forest
experimentation animated Romanian sylviculturists much earlier, in the second
half of the 19th century. After 1933, the institute underwent a lot of organizational changes. However, with professionalism and devotion, the people working in all activities (research, designing and forest administration) contributed
significantly to the development of our national sylviculture. The main expectations for the institute concern its nomination as national institute, obtaining of an
unambiguous judicial status and acknowledging of its patrimony.
Key words: Forest Research and Management Institute, history, development prospects
Author. Marian Ianculescu - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bd.
Eroilor 128, 077190 - Voluntari, Romania.
1. Experimentatia
forestiera pna la institutionalizarea
cercetarii silvice n tara
,
,
,
noastra
^
n ordine cronologic prezentm principalele aciuni i promotorii acestora referitor la

experimentaia forestier, pn la instituionalizarea cercetrii silvice n ara noastr.
1845 ncercri pentru abordarea experimentaiei forestiere (D. Heyer, distins forestier german,
la un congres al silvicultorilor.
1868 la congresul silvicultorilor de la Viena s-a definitivat conceptul de experimentaie
forestier (Gustav Heyer, Judeich, Baur, Ebermayer, Oser).
n Romania, prinii experimentaiei forestiere pot fi considerai: Ion Ionescu de la Brad i
P.S. Aurelian, care au realizat n 1865 (deci cu 3 ani naintea silvicultorilor de la Congresul de
la Viena) primul proiect de cultur pentru exploatarea moiei Pantelimon proiect aprobat n ian.
1865 de Mihail Koglniceanu, ministru de Interne, Agricultur i Lucrri Publice.
1887 V. Crnu Munteanu prezint n cadrul Societii ,,Progresul Silvic, conferina intitulat
,,Rolul experimentaiunii n silvicultur, unde susine ideea efecturii de cercetri proprii pentru
11
fundamentarea unei silviculturi specifice condiiilor din ara noastr. Ideea a fost preluat de A.M.
Iliescu (1888), care propune nfiinarea de ,,Staiuni de experimentaie forestier, idee susinut
de N.G. Popovici (1901), D.R. Rusescu (1906), P. Antonescu (1907, 1911, 1915, 1922).
1918 Necesitatea nfiinrii unei instituii de cercetare tiinific forestier apare dup ntregirea
istoric a neamului. Pe arena silviculturii romneti apare, n acest context, figura proeminent
a prof. Marin Drcea ca ef al ocolului silvic igneti (1919-1920), unde sesizeaz necesitatea
cercetrilor n domeniu forestier.
1920 Teodor Cudalbu administratorul Casei pdurilor (azi RNP) decide nceperea unor
lucrri de cercetare la ocoalele silvice Sinaia i igneti.
1920 este semnat decizia (Mon. Oficial nr. 210 din 1920) de nfiinarea Staiunii experimentale
de la Sinaia sub conducerea lui Marin Drcea i V. N. Stinghe Din pcate, aceasta a funcionat o
perioad scurt de timp.
1929 Dup experiena din SUA, ca bursier i dup participarea sa la cel de-al VII-lea Congres
mondial al staiunilor de experimentaie forestier, Marin Drcea i contureaz concepia privind
organizarea unei instituii de cercetare tiinific forestier.
1930 Ia fiin CAPS (azi RNP). Marin Drcea n calitate de director general, organizeaz
n cadrul CAPS un birou de studii, unul de publicaii i trei laboratoare (soluri, entomologie,
botanic i fitopatologie forestier).
1932 decembrie, sub auspiciile Societii ,,Progresul Silvic, se nfiineaz ,,Cercul de studii
forestiere.
1932 Marin Drcea director general la CAPS, nfiineaz ,,Oficiul de studii n cadrul CAPSului, prin transformarea celor dou birouri i laboratoarele nfiinate n 1930. Oficiul cuprindea:
o secie de cercetri i experimentaie forestier i o secie de documentare i era condus de V.N.
Stinghe.
Pn la nfiinarea institutului nu mai era dect un pas.
^
2. nfiintarea
Institutului de Cercetari Forestiere
,
ncepnd cu nfiinarea Institutului de Cercetri Forestiere, n ordine cronologic, este de menionat
urmtoarea evoluie n structura acestuia:
1933 Prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Minitrii nr. 561 din 16 mai 1933, publicat n Monitorul
Oficial nr. 115 din 22 mai 1933 Oficiul de Studii al CAPS se transform n ,,Institut de Cercetri
i Experimentaie Forestier. Primul director al Institutului devine Marin Drcea. Sediul
Institutului str. Clopotarii Vechi nr. 1.
Membrii fondatori: M. Drcea, V.N. Stinghe, C. Chiri, C.C. Georgescu, Gr. Eliescu, I. PopescuZeletin, N. Rucreanu D. Drmb, M. Petcu, V. Sabu, D. Sburlan, I. Demetrescu, At. Haralamb,
N. Ghelmeziu, V. Dinu, T. Blnic, Tr. Ionescu-Heroiu, G. Toma, S. Pacovschi, E. Vintil, M.
Badea, M. Ene, A. Rdulescu, A. Constantinescu.
1935 Prin Decizia ICEF nr. 422 se nfiineaz staiunile experimentale Gurghiu i Timioara
(Casa Verde) condus de S. Pacovschi.
1936 Legea de organizare a Ministerului Agriculturii i Domeniilor, aprobat prin Decretul
nr. 986/1936 i publicat n Monitorul Oficial nr. 255 din 2 nov 1936, d o nou consfinire
Institutului de Cercetri i Experimentaie Forestier.
1938 Se nfiineaz Staiunea silvic experimental ,,Dobrogea cu sediul n Comorova,
condus de M. Petcu, apoi de I. Z. Lupe, prin decizia ministerial nr. 845 din 4 august 1938.
Staiunea silvic experimental ,,Dobrogea este nzestrat, prin Decizia ministerial nr. 1438 din
1942, publicat n M.O. nr. 226 din 26 sept. 1942, cu 808 ha din pdurea Comorova.
1939 Prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Ministrii din 12 aprilie se nfiineaz Cmpul de Experien
Bneasa. In prealabil, prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Ministrii din 12 aprilie 1935 s-a aprobat
cumprarea de ctre Institut a unui teren de cca. 15 ha de la locuitorii din comuna suburban
12
Localizarea n teritoriu a centralei i a subunitilor ICAS
Prof. Marin Drcea - fondatorul Institutului

de Cercetri i Experimentaie Forestier
Sediul actual al Institutului de Cercetri i

Amenajri Silvice Bucureti
13
Bneasa, n vederea construirii pavilioanelor i laboratoarelor necesare I.C.E.F.-ului. n anii 1939

i 1940 s-au achiziionat 12,47 ha din cele 15 ha aprobate.
1942 Se nfiineaz Staiunea Experimental ,,Brgan prin Jurnalul Consiliului de Minitrii
nr. 736 din 14 iulie 1942, creia i se d n folosin 1200 ha din moia satului Jeglia.
1942 Prin Decizia ministerial nr. 1438 din 18 sept., publicat n M.O. nr. 226 din 28 sept.,
se nzestreaz I.C.E.F.-ul cu trei ocoale silvice experimentale: Sinaia, Carol I Miheti-Muscel
i Huffel igneti-Ilfov. Astfel se realizeaz nzuina institutului n dotarea cu ocoale silvice
experimentale.
1945 Se aduc modificri structurale importante I.C.E.F.-ului. Au fost sporite numrul seciilor
de la 5 la 8, apoi de la 8 la 10 i s-au creat noi organe de conducere i ndrumare. Denumirea
institutului s-a schimbat n ,,Institutul de Cercetri Forestiere al Romniei, conducerea fiind
ncredinat prof. C.C. Georgescu.
Pn n 1947 Institutul de Cercetri i Experimentaie Forestier (I.C.E.F.) a funcionat pe baza
legilor de organizare a Ministerului Agriculturii i Domeniilor i conform deciziilor ministeriale
de nfiinare i organizare.
El n-a avut o lege proprie, organic, de funcionare.
1947 Este promulgat Legea nr. 173 pentru reorganizarea Institutului de Cercetri Forestiere
al Romniei (I.C.E.F.) n Institutul de Cercetri Forestiere, republicat n M.O. nr. 129 din 9
iunie. Apariia acestei legi, cu sprijinul nemijlocit al acad. Tr. Svulescu, ministrul Agriculturii
i Domeniilor din acea perioad, a constituit o recunoatere oficial a strduinelor ndelungate
depuse de corpul silvic pentru binele pdurilor rii, tiinei forestiere romneti i economiei
naionale. Aceast lege fixeaz n coordonatele ei fireti cercetarea silvic romneasc, fixndui patrimoniul, considerndu-l inalienabil. Numrul seciilor se reduce de la 10 la 8, avnd
urmtoarele denumiri:
I - Cultura i exploatarea pdurilor;
II - Botanic, ecologie, genetic i fitopatologie;
III - Protecia pdurilor, fenologie, zoologie, entomologie i vntoare;
IV - Pedologie forestier;
V - Amenajri forestiere, cubaje, creteri i estimaiuni;
VI - Tehnologie i industrializarea lemnului i a altor produse forestiere;
VII - Construcii forestiere, instalaii de transport i cadastru;
VIII - Economie, administraie i politic forestier, studiul muncii.
Ca uniti exterioare, Institutul de Cercetri Forestiere, avea:
- staiunea experimental forestier i cinegetic ,,Banat;
- staiunea experimental forestier ,,Brgan;
- staiunea experimental forestier ,,Dobrogea;
- staiunea experimental forestier ,,Miheti;
- staiunea experimental forestier ,,Sinaia;
- staiunea experimental forestier ,,Snagov.
Institutul a primit un local propriu corespunztor (os. Kisselef nr. 55-65), care a permis, pentru
prima dat, gruparea n aceeai incint a tuturor laboratoarelor. A urmat dotarea cu aparatur
modern i trecerea la o nou etap de organizare a cercetrilor pe baz de planuri tematice
corelate cu cerinele economiei naionale.
1949 Se nfiineaz Staiunea experimental forestier ,,Cmpulung Moldovenesc.
1948-1976 Institutul sufer unele metamorfoze, fie prin contopirea lui cu activitile de
amenajare a pdurilor i proiectarea de investiii, fie cu activitatea de mecanizare a lucrrilor
silvice, fie prin revenirea acestuia la gruparea cercetrilor forestiere cu profil de cercetare complex,
dup cum urmeaz:
1950 Decretul 88 grupeaz activitatea de cercetare n dou noi sectoare, unul pentru silvicultur
i altul pentru exploatarea i industrializarea lemnului.
14
1951 Cele dou sectoare sunt transformate n institute de sine stttoare: Institutul de Cercetri
Silvice (I.C.E.S.) i Institutul de Cercetri pentru Industrializarea Lemnului (I.C.E.I.L.).
1956 Se nfiineaz Institutul pentru mecanizarea lucrrilor silvice i a exploatrii pdurilor
(I.C.M.S.E.), care n 1958 prin ordinul nr. 50 din 15 mai privind aplicarea HCM nr. 530/1958
se comaseaz cu I.C.E.S. formndu-se astfel Institutul de Cercetri Forestiere (I.C.F.), organizat
pe 5 secii de cercetare cu 22 laboratoare, 17 staiuni, 22 puncte experimentare i 12 puncte de
observaii, n cadrul crora activau 164 cercettori, din care 86 la unitile exterioare i 207 cadre
ajuttoare.
1960 Se revine la gruparea cercetrilor forestiere ntr-un institut cu profil de cercetare complex.
I.N.C.E.F. (prin HCM 765/1960 se unete I.C.F. cu I.C.E.I.L.) cu apte secii de cercetare
(secii noi: silvotehnica, vntoarea i produsele accesorii). La exterior se pstreaz organizarea
anterioar.
1969 - Silvicultura trece de la Ministerul Economiei Forestiere la Ministerul Agriculturii.
Ca urmare, prin HCM nr. 1110/1969 sectorul de cercetare din I.N.C.E.F. se unete cu cel de
amenajare a pdurilor i proiectare din I.S.P.F. (Institutul de Studii i Proiectri Forestiere),
formnd Institutul de Cercetri, Studii i Proiectri Silvice (I.C.S.P.S.). Astfel se face primul
pas spre integrarea de mai trziu a cercetrii cu proiectarea i producia, fapt care s-a dovedit
viabil i de mare actualitate i eficien i n prezent. n anii urmtori, i acesta a mai suferit
unele restructurri neeseniale, dar cu modificri n denumirea institutului: Institutul de Cercetri,
Proiectri i Documentare silvic (I.C.P.D.S.) i Institutul de Cercetri i Amenajri Silvice
(I.C.A.S.) legiferat prin Decretele nr. 297/1973 i nr. 139/1974, denumire care se pstreaz i azi,
fiind cea mai lung perioad din existena institutului cu aceast denumire, chiar dac, pe parcurs,
a suferit unele modificri structurale, de statut juridic i de relaii de coordonare i de subordonare
fa de diferite instituii.
1976 Modificri importante n structura organizatoric i n activitatea institutului. Prin
,,Programul naional pentru conservarea i dezvoltarea fondului forestier n perioada 19762010, aprobat prin Legea nr. 2/15.IV.1976, publicat n Mon. Ofic. Nr. 35/23.IV.1976 se prevede
organizarea I.C.A.S. pe ase filiale zonale cu profil mixt de cercetare amenajare producie,
subordonat Ministerului Silviculturii i n coordonarea tiinific a Academiei de tiine Agricole
i Silvice. n cadrul fiecrei filiale zonale funcionau staiuni de cercetare, staiuni de amenajare
sau staiuni mixte de cercetare, amenajare i proiectare de investiii. n scopul integrrii activitii,
de cercetare cu producia, institutul este dotat cu ase ocoale silvice experimentale (Tomnatic,
Vidra, Mihieti, Caransebe, Lechina i Scele).
1990 I.C.A.S. intr n structura Regiei Autonome a Pdurilor (devenit Regia Naional
potrivit Legii nr. 26/1996 Codul Silvic), conform HG nr. 1335/1990, pstrndu-i patrimoniul
cu cele ase ocoale silvice experimentale. Cu toate criticile aduse de o serie de personaliti
tiinifice din institut, vis-a-vis de apartenena acestuia la Regia Naional a Pdurilor, consider c
opiunea aleas, pentru acea perioad, a fost bun. n organizarea teritorial a cercetrii tiinifice
i a amenajrii pdurilor s-au fcut unele modificri de natur funcional n sensul c au fost
desfiinate filialele teritoriale iar activitatea ocoalelor silvice a fost trecut n subordinea staiunilor
de cercetare pentru a face o legtur direct ntre cercetarea tiinific i producie.
1992 Pe baza propunerilor Consiliului tiinific din ICAS, Regia Autonom a Pdurilor a
aprobat Strategiile de restructurare organizatoric a activitilor de cercetare tiinific, amenajarea
pdurilor i producie.
2002 O nou lege pentru ICAS Legea nr. 633/2002. Prin Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea
i funcionarea unitilor de cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniul agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei
alimentare i a Academiei de tiine Agricole i Silvice ,,Gheorghe Ionescu - ieti, I.C.A.S. a
fost inclus n anexa 1, n subordinea Academiei. Imediat, la o zi dup, Guvernul din acea perioad,
a dat Ordonana de Urgen nr. 62/2002 pentru modificarea anexei 1, n sensul c I.C.A.S. s
rmn, n continuare, n structura Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor, fr personalitate juridic.
15
Prin Legea nr. 633/07 decembrie 2002 de aprobare a Ordonanei de urgen nr. 62/2002,
Parlamentul Romniei, prin amendamentele aduse Ordonanei de urgen, a schiat o nou lege
pentru I.C.A.S. Din pcate nici pn azi nu s-a elaborat Hotrrea de Guvern care s defineasc
statutul juridic al I.C.A.S. i patrimoniul I.C.A.S.
Parlamentul Romniei
Lege nr. 633/2002 din 07/12/2002
privind aprobarea Ordonanei de urgen a Guvernului nr. 62/2002 pentru modificarea anexei nr.
1 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea i funcionarea unitilor de cercetare-dezvoltare din
domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare i a Academiei de tiine Agricole i
Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti
Publicat n Monitorul Oficial, Partea I nr. 896 din 10/12/2002
Actul a intrat n vigoare la data de 10 decembrie 2002
Parlamentul Romniei adopt prezenta lege.
Articol unic. - Se aprob Ordonana de urgen a Guvernului nr. 62 din 30 mai 2002 pentru
modificarea anexei nr. 1 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea i funcionarea unitilor de
cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare i a Academiei
de tiine Agricole i Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti, publicat n Monitorul Oficial al
Romniei, Partea I, nr. 369 din 31 mai 2002, cu urmtoarele modificri i completri:
1. Titlul ordonanei de urgen va avea urmtorul cuprins:
ORDONAN DE URGEN
pentru modificarea anexelor nr. 1 i 6 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea i funcionarea
unitilor de cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare i
a Academiei de tiine Agricole i Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti
2. Dup articolul I se introduce articolul I1 cu urmtorul cuprins:
Art. I1. - Anexa nr. 6 la Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea i funcionarea unitilor de
cercetare-dezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare i a Academiei
de tiine Agricole i Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti, publicat n Monitorul Oficial al
Romniei, Partea I, nr. 358 din 29 mai 2002, se modific, n sensul c poziia nr. 6, referitoare la
Staiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Acvacultur i Ecologie Acvatic Iai, se elimin.
3. Articolul II va avea urmtorul cuprins:
Art. II. - n urma modificrii prevzute la art. I, Institutul de Cercetri i Amenajri Silvice
rmne ca unitate cu personalitate juridic n structura Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor.
4. Dup articolul II se introduc articolele III-VIII cu urmtorul cuprins:
Art. III. - Autoritatea public central care rspunde de silvicultur coordoneaz, organizeaz i
ndrum activitatea de cercetare tiinific i inginerie tehnologic n domeniu, sprijin dezvoltarea
acestora i urmrete folosirea eficient a rezultatelor obinute n vederea fundamentrii tehnicotiinifice a msurilor de gospodrire a pdurilor.
Art. IV. - Institutul de Cercetri i Amenajri Silvice este n coordonarea tiinific a Academiei
de tiine Agricole i Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti i beneficiaz de facilitile prevzute
la art. 14-17 din Legea nr. 290/2002 privind organizarea i funcionarea unitilor de cercetaredezvoltare din domeniile agriculturii, silviculturii, industriei alimentare i a Academiei de tiine
16
Agricole i Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti.

Art. V. - Prevederile art. 13, art. 19 alin. (2) i ale art. 20 din Legea nr. 290/2002 rmn aplicabile
Institutului de Cercetri i Amenajri Silvice.
Art. VI. - Terenurile forestiere aflate n administrarea Institutului de Cercetri i Amenajri
Silvice evideniate n SILV 1 - EFF la data de 31 decembrie 2001 au regimul juridic prevzut de
art. 35 alin. (2) din Legea nr. 18/1991, republicat, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, i
de Legea nr. 213/1998 privind proprietatea public i regimul juridic al acesteia, cu modificrile
ulterioare.
Art. VII. - n urma modificrii prevzute la art. I1, Staiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru
Acvacultur i Ecologie Acvatic Iai trece ca unitate fr personalitate juridic n structura
Universitii Al. I. Cuza Iai i n coordonarea tiinific a Academiei de tiine Agricole i
Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti.
Art. VIII. - Staiunea de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Acvacultur i Ecologie Acvatic Iai
beneficiaz de facilitile prevzute la art. 14-17 din Legea nr. 290/2002.
Aceast lege a fost adoptat de Senat n edina din 18 noiembrie 2002, cu respectarea
prevederilor art. 74 alin. (1) din Constituia Romniei.
PREEDINTELE SENATULUI
NICOLAE VCROIU
Aceast lege a fost adoptat de Camera Deputailor n edina din 26 noiembrie 2002, cu
respectarea prevederilor art. 74 alin. (1) din Constituia Romniei.
p. PREEDINTELE CAMEREI DEPUTAILOR,
VIOREL HREBENCIUC
Bucureti, 7 decembrie 2002.
Nr. 633.
2004 Consiliul de Administraie al Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor, prin nclcarea flagrant a
art. 35 alin. (2) din Legea nr. 18/1991, republicat, a art. nr. 24 alin. (2), lit. h). din Ordonana
de urgen a Guvernului nr. 102/2001, aprobat prin Legea nr. 400/2002, a art. VI din Legea
nr. 633/2002 publicat n Mon. Ofic., Partea 1, nr. 896 din 10/12/2002 i art. 223 din Legea
nr. 147/2004, a luat unele terenuri forestiere din administrarea Institutului prin efectul legii nr.
2/1976 i date n administrare unor direcii silvice.
Ne punem ntrebarea de ce nu i se recunoate dreptul legal al ICAS de administrare a propriilor
baze materiale? Considerm c este cazul ca att ministerul de resort, ct i Regia Naional
a Pdurilor, s manifeste receptivitate pentru dotarea I.C.A.S. cu baze experimentale, fiind
benefice pentru silvicultura romn, dup cum arat marele silvicultor Marin Drcea, fondatorul
Institutului.
2008 Apare un nou Cod Silvic: Legea nr. 46/2008, n care, un capitol special, capitolul X,
cu articolele 74-77, este consacrat cercetrii tiinifice din silvicultur. Institutul de Cercetri i
Amenajri Silvice ,,Marin Drcea, reorganizat prin Hotrre de Guvern, are n administrare,
potrivit acestei legi, ocoale silvice experimentale i alte baze experimentale, n care se efectueaz
cercetri n vederea generalizrii rezultatelor n practica silvic.
Dar pentru ca acest lucru s devin realitate, autoritatea public central care rspunde de
silvicultur trebuie s promoveze proiectul de hotrre de Guvern, care s defineasc statul juridic
al I.C.A.S., patrimoniul I.C.A.S, organizarea I.C.A.S., etc. De ce oare se ntrzie cu realizarea
acestui deziderat? Ne-am fi ateptat, ca la acest moment aniversar din viaa I.C.A.S, 75 de ani de
17
existen, cel mai preios dar din partea ministerului de resort i a Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor, s
fie elaborarea i aprobarea actului normativ n cauz.
3. Perspectivele de dezvoltare ale I.C.A.S.
^
3.1. Realizari tiintifice

mai importante
,
Etapa 1933-1947. n aceast perioad de pionierat au fost puse bazele cercetrii tiinifice
romneti n domeniul silviculturii. Preocuprile de baz s-au axat pe iniierea primelor
experimentri de durat i pe necesitatea evidenierii specificului cadrului natural i al silviculturii
naionale. Contribuiile tiinifice aduse de cercettori de marc, membrii fondatori ai institutului,
publicate n Analele institutului i n alte publicaii ale acestuia, prezint i astzi interes pentru
tiin i practic, demonstrnd astfel din plin eficiena institutului, nfiinat n anul 1933.
Etapa 1948-1960. Cele mai remarcabile progrese s-au nregistrat n domenii ca: silvobiologie,
inclusiv pedologie forestier, silvotehnic, protecia pdurilor, biometria forestier, amenajament,
biologia vnatului, exploatarea forestier i industrializarea lemnului. Au fost elaborate numeroase
lucrri tiinifice originale de mare valoare practic n baza crora au fost ntocmite instruciuni
i norme tehnice de cea mai mare importan pentru conturarea silviculturii n ara noastr. n
toat aceast perioad s-a mpletit n mod armonios munca de creaie tiinific a dou generaii
distincte de cercettori: cea a membrilor fondatori ai institutului care au atins maturitatea lor
sub raportul creativitii i cea a tinerilor cercettori. Acest lucru a constituit un exemplu de
conlucrare n interesul progresului ntre dou generaii ptrunse de acelai devotament fa de
pdurile rii.
Etapa de dup 1960. La nceput silvicultura s-a aflat sub presiunea cererilor crescnde
ale industriei de prelucrare a lemnului pentru care s-a angajat n aciunea de cretere rapid a
produciei pdurilor. n acest context, cercetarea tiinific i amplific preocuprile n direcia
creterii productivitii pdurilor, n care sens s-au fcut unele greeli prin curentele i modele
adoptate. Astfel, conceptele de baz ale silviculturii tradiionale (naturalistice) sunt n parte
prsite, n favoarea intereselor economice pe termen scurt. Pe prim plan se nscriu preocuprile
privind mpduririle pe cale artificial.
Mai trziu, ncepnd cu deceniul al noulea, cercetrile din silvicultur sunt reorientate n sensul
unei armonioase mbinri a concepiei naturalistice (ecologice) cu cea economic, acordndu-se
importan speciilor autohtone valoroase, n special stejarilor i fagului, inclusiv ameliorrii lor
pe cale genetic, regenerrii naturale a arboretelor, combaterii biologice i integrate a bolilor i
duntorilor, funciilor de protecie exercitate de pduri, ocrotirii naturii i a mediului nconjurtor,
valorificrii complexe i raionale a tuturor resurselor forestiere. Prin aceasta se trece ntr-o nou
etap de dezvoltare a cercetrii silvice romneti se face un pas nainte pe linia mijloacelor de
investigaie, trecndu-se la aplicarea pe scar larg a tehnicii moderne experimentale, bazate pe
modele matematice evoluate i pe prelucrarea automat a datelor.
Baz material i dotarea laboratoarelor se amplific considerabil. Peste 25 de lucrri de
cercetare sunt premiate de Academia Romn. Cercettorii institutului reprezint cu cinste
tiina silvic romneasc la congrese IUFRO, simpozioane i consftuiri internaionale. Peste
15 cercettori tiinifici devin membri titulari i membri corespondeni ai Academiei de tiine
Agricole i Silvice ,,Gheorghe Ionescu ieti i ai Academiei Romne. Cercettorii romni
preiau conducerea unor compartimente I.U.F.R.O., aducnd astfel partea noastr de contribuie
la propirea tiinei universale, realizndu-se obiectivul enunat de fondatorul Institutului,
profesorul Marin Drcea.
n perioada de dup 1990, Institutul s-a confruntat i nc se mai confrunt cu dificulti
financiare evidente. Totui, cu toate greutile inerente unei economii aflate n perioad de
tranziie, Institutul a fost dotat cu tehnic nou de calcul, practic fiecare cercettor dispunnd de
18
cel puin un calculator. Au fost dotate laboratoarele de cercetri pedologice, fiziologice, ecologice,
cu aparatur performant, unele din acestea de ultim generaie. Tot mai muli cercettori devin
doctori n tiine silvice i predau cursuri la diferite universiti.
3.2. Perspective. I.C.A.S. este necesar s aib statut de Institut naional. Acest lucru este posibil
prin promovarea unei Hotrri de Guvern, potrivit noului Cod Silvic Legea nr. 46/2008 n
care s se stabileasc statutul juridic i patrimoniul ICAS (cldiri, ocoale silvice experimentale
i alte baze materiale). Pentru nfptuirea acestui deziderat, principalii interesai ar trebui s fie
ministerul de resort i Regia Naional a Pdurilor.
Cercetarea silvic romneasc trebuie reconsiderat n contextul schimbrilor climatice. Cu
dotarea existent i cu specialitii si de nalt clas, I.C.A.S. a dovedit c este capabil s efectueze
lucrri complexe de anvergur, aa cum a demonstrat n cazul realizrii studiilor de necesitate,
studiilor de fezabilitate i a proiectelor tehnice pentru realizarea Sistemului naional al perdelelor
forestiere de protecie n ara noastr, potrivit Legii nr. 289/2002.
I.C.A.S. trebuie s se fac respectat i s fie respectat, s se impun opiniei publice i ateniei
lumii forestiere internaionale prin realizri de prestigiu n folosul pdurii i al silviculturii
romneti, spre binele ntregii societi!
Bucureti, 20 oct. 2008
19
20
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Researches regarding the parametric objective approach of the climatic year structure in hilly and mountainous regions, in the frame of climate changes
V. Huber
Huber V. 2009. Researches regarding the parametric objective approach of the climatic year structure in hilly and mountainous regions, in the frame of climate changes. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference
Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest,
Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 21-28.
Abstract. The paper presents the results of the researches carried out in the region of
Carpaii de Curbur with regard to the structure of the climatic year in mountain
and hill regions. The researches started from the well known truth, according to
which mountain seasons rarely coincide with calendar seasons. This is the reason
why the mountain climate has been analyzed by dividing the climatic year into
its real, natural components and by identifying those homogenous temporal segments, individualized through distinct features and delimited on objective scientific
criteria: daily climatic data throughout a period of 35 years (1962-1996). Thus, there
has been framed a structure of the climatic year made of four seasons these seasons are not similar to calendar seasons, except for their denomination as well
as 12 climatic stages clearly delimited on climatic layers. For instance, beyond the
borders of the three months of the calendar year considered, the winter mountain
climatic season lasts for 5 months and a half (165 days). In conclusion, under the
conditions of climate changes and, implicitly, of structuring forestry on layers, our
researches bring contributions to developing the mountain climatology and set he
bases for the elaboration of a unique phenoclimatic calendar of forestry works, on
phytoclimatic layers.
Key words: the structure of the climatic year, mountainsseasons, phenological calendar.
Author. Viorela Huber - Transylvania University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture
and Forest Engineering, irul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 - Braov, Romania.
Introduction
In mountainous regions the researcher deals with a geographical complexity characterized by a
diversity of climatic conditions which are not found in any other region.
The mountainous relief generates the most complex changes in the assembly of latitudinal and
altitudinal bio-geographical zonality.
Local climatogenesis, so complex in mountainous regions, may be best deciphered under the
conditions of a spatial-temporal research, under seasonal aspect, throughout the whole year.
21
Notwithstanding, in our country, the issue of structuring the climatic year, the climatic seasons
has not drawn the attention of researchers. The studies, which have been carried out so far,
have considered only the framework of calendar seasons, except for the studies upon the winter
season when a certain approach was brought to the months of this season (last December and this
January-February).
Three basic issues are put forward when scientific research approaches climatic seasons:
meteoclimatic genesis of seasons, their structure and inter-seasonal connections that actually aim
at delimiting and structuring climatic seasons.
In this paper: (i) Climatic seasons were conceived as divisions of the astronomic year,
characterized by a relative meteoclimatic homogeneity, by a particular evolution of atmospheric
processes and phenomena, expressed through certain (phenological) aspects of landsaft of the
vegetal layer; (ii) The climatic stage is that part of the climatic season which is distinguished
through either the weakness tendency of the preceding season or the accentuation tendency
of the following season, with obvious changes of the active surface aspect. The stages of the
climatic season may be individualized within seasons as well, when they are characterized by
a rhythm of different intensities of meteorological processes and phenomena, for instance the
mid-summer stage, which expresses a distinct regime, relatively more constant, calmer of the
weather, as compared to the other stages of the season.
Research location. Research material
Researches were carried out under the conditions of a mountainous system of great complexity
in the sector of Carpaii de Curbur (Fig. 1) made up of mountainous massifs Postvaru and
Piatra Mare and a great depression Depression of Braov the greatest intra-mountainous
depression in the Romanian Carpathians. Meteorological data were provided by a network
of meteorological stations that operated in the whole Postvaru massif, on climatic layers, at
Fig. 1 Map of Carpaii de Curbur Mountains. Territorial subunits
22
altitudes of 534-1724 m, during the period 1912-2007 (main meteorological station Braov
609 m), and during the period 1962-1996 the other meteorological stations as shown in figure
2. (i) Meteorological station from Ghimbav (534 m) for Brsa depression plain, belonging to
the Transilvanian plateau hills layer; (ii) Meteorological station from Braov city (609 m) for
sub-mountainous sector, belonging to the same layer of Transilvanian hills; (iii) Meteorological
station from Poiana Braov (1026 m) from the lower mountainous layer; (iv) Meteorological
station from Cristianu Mare (1724 m) situated at the limit between upper mountainous layer and
sub-alpine layer.
Research results
To objectively delimit climatic seasons and their stages, daily meteorological and phenological
data were required. Essentially, objective (parametric) criteria and phenological (observational)
criteria have been considered.
The fulfillment of objective criteria resided in daily meteorological data regarding: (i) daily
mean temperature (inter-diurnal variation of daily mean temperatures: (i.i) intense increasing
spring; (i.ii) rapid decreasing autumn; (i.iii) relative stability winter and summer. (ii)
daily maximum mean temperatures; (iii) absolute maximum temperature; (i.v) absolute minimum
temperature; (v) cumulative sums of daily mean temperatures >0C; (v.i) mean duration of the
first and last frost (tmin < 0C); (v.ii) mean and maximum daily duration of insolation; (v.iii) mean
and maximum depth of the snow layer.
The observation-oriented criteria stem from the data provided by the daily observations
regarding: (i) formation and disappearance date of stable and unstable snow layer; (ii) beginning
date of the snow layer partial melting; (iii) date of first and last snows; (iv) aspects of the
geographic and phenological landscape (phenosignals): (iv.i) apparition (blooming) of some
plants and succession of the other phenophases; (iv.ii) long-lasting snow water stream; (iv.iii)
autumn coloring and leaves falling etc.
The above enumeration shows that most of the objective criteria considered belong to the air
thermal regime on account of the fact that: (i) air temperature is surely the most representative
and important climatic parameter (atmospheric air impresses through its temperature); (ii) it is
Fig. 2 The network of weather stations that operated in the whole Postavaru massif, on climatic layers, at
altitudes of 534-1724 m.
23
the climatic element that best synthesizes the action of all weather and clime generating factors
(solar radiation, atmospheric circulation and subjacent surface) and that is characterized by a
well-expressed seasonal variety; (iii) it best conditions the phenological rhythm of both organic
and anorganic world.
Figure 3 illustrates that the daily mean temperature, during its evolution throughout the whole
year, expresses not only the general rhythm, in waves of meteoclimatic processes, but also the
various intensity of these processes throughout the year.
Starting from these parametric and phenological criteria, 4 seasons and 10 stages of the climatic
year were delimited. They are presented in figure 4 and show as follows: (i) in upland regions of
the mountain, meteorological seasons are not similar to calendar seasons; they are delayed and
have a variable altitudinal duration; (ii) spring stages delay on highest summits by 30-40 days,
and winter stages are 46 earlier as compared to lowland regions; (iii) spring, summer and autumn
seasons, on mountain summits, have a duration of about two months each; (iv) whereas Brasov
summer at the foot of the mountain lasts for about 100 days, the mountain summer on the
highest tops of the massif lasts for only two months; (v) the duration of the winter season presents
the greatest altitudinal difference: from a duration of 94 days in Braov, to 5 months and a half
(167 days) at the altitude of 1724 m.
The real and objective practical utility of the data provided by phenological observations in
delimiting and characterizing climatic seasons and layers is shown in the data presented in figure
4 Phenoclimatic calendar of Carpaii de Curbur.
As for the possibilities to use the elements provided by the phenological calendar to plan
forestry works, we state, in the first place, the fact that in production it is very important to know
the best time for carrying out various works. Therefore, the first two stages of spring indicate
exactly the periods when spring works must be carried out.
The best period to start the afforestation works, especially on slopes exposed to early snow
melting, is the period that comes just after the blooming of the nut tree, Alnus incana and prevernal
herbaceous plants.
The altitudinal variation of the climatic stages duration between the altitudes of 600 to 1800
meters.
The data regarding the buds blossom indicate the moment when the afforestation works must
be finished in the respective phytoclimatic layer. The shrubs and the arborescent species that have
an early vegetation must be planted around the date when the snow is to melt and racemosa buds
blossom.
The phenomena characterizing summer and autumn layers indicate the dates for harvesting the
forest fruits and forest seeds.
The works for fir cone (Abies alba) harvesting may be planned around the dates in the
phenoclimatic layer when autumn crocus (Colchychum autumnale) blossoms and just after the
first autumn frosts.
Conclusions
Our researches have emphasized that mountain seasons are rarely similar to calendar
seasons.
This is the reason why, by dividing the climatic year in its real, natural and relatively
homogenous components, the researchers have structured the climatic year in 4 seasons and 12
climatic stages, clearly delimited, on objective criteria, on climatic layers. By framing the real
phenoclimatic calendar, within the framework of anticipated climate changes and, implicitly,
within the framework of forestry specialization, on phytoclimatic layers, researchers bring
contributions to the development of the Romanian mountainous climatology and set the bases for
the elaboration of a unique calendar of forestry works, on phytoclimatic layers.
24
25
Fig. 3 The climatic year structure and the interdiurnal evolution of daily average temperatures in the inferior level of the mountain
26
Fig.4 The climatic year structure in the Carpaii de Curbur Mountains
References
Arlery, R. 1973. Climatologie. Editura Gauthier-Villars, Paris.
Barry, G.R. 1981. Mountain, Weather and Climate. Metheuen, London and New York, 313 p.
Bzc, Gh. 1983. Influena reliefului asupra principalelor caracteristici ale climei Romniei. Editura
Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 179 p.
Cadz, M. 1957. Sur une clasification des types de temps. La Mtorologie, nr. 1-6, Paris.
Donn, L.W. 1965. Dinamica atmosferei. Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 475 p.
Huber, Viorela 2001. Cercetri asupra regimului meteoclimatic al spaiului montan. Tez de doctorat,
Universitatea din Bucureti, 217 p.
Malberg, H. 2001. Meteorologie und Klimatologie. Ed. Springer, Berlin, 364 p.
Marcu, M. 1971. Cercetri topoclimatice i fenologice in masivul Postvarul. Tez de doctorat, Institutul
Politehnic, Braov, 210 p.
Velcea, V. 1964. Relieful ca element de baz in cercetrile fizico-geografice. Natura nr. 3.
27
28

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Efects of accidental fluorine pollution on Prahova

Valleys forest stands
^ ^
M. Ianculescu, I. Popa, t. Neagu, C. M. Macarescu
Ianculescu M., Popa I., Neagu t., Mcrescu C. M. 2009. Efects of accidental fluorine pollution on Prahova Valleys forest stands. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing
environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management
Institute ICAS, pp. 29-40.
Abstract. The accidental pollution with fluorine from Azuga Valley was investigated by dendroecological techniques. The effect of this pollution event is reflected in a significant loss of relative volume growth differentiated by the degree
of damage. The maximum loss of radial growth is recorded one year after the
ecological accident and varies form 45% in heavily affected spruce stands to
27% in the moderately damaged stands.
Key words: fluorine pollution, dendroecology, growth loss
Authors. Marian Ianculescu, Ionel Popa, tefan Neagu, Cristina Mihaela
Mcrescu - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bd. Eroilor 128, 077190
- Voluntari, Bucharest, Romania.
Introduction
Between December 2003 and June 2004, during a relatively short time, there was an environmental
accident in Azuga Valley because of an accidental pollution with fluorine from the refractory brick
factory, readjusted for processing of waste ore enriched with fluorine. Following the discharge
of fluorine, in concentrations higher than the allowable limit, without the existence of restraining
filters, the forests surrounding the source of pollution alarmingly coloured in red on over 1700
ha.
Materials and methods
Auxological (dendrocronological) researches have been carried out in the forest stands of the
Azuga Forest District, which have been in the period December 2003 - June 2004 under the
influence of accidental pollution with fluorine resulted from the calcination of ores rich in fluorine
in the former refractory brick factory in the town Azuga. It was analyzed the annual ring width,
in chronological sequence, using core samples for long time series extracted from average trees
of the forest stands located in the permanent sample plots which are presented in Table 1. After
29
measuring the width of annual rings from 10-15 average trees of the forest stands in permanent
sample plots, the following data were calculated: the series of statistical parameters of growth
obtained with the Hugershoff function of the generalized growth (Ianculescu 1975, 1977, 2005;
Popa 2004), the average radial increment series - Ir (mm) for the average trees in the research
area, average growth index of the stands affected by pollution with fluorine in relation to the
growth indexes of unaffected stands (Table 2).
In order to determine the growth losses of the tree stands which were affected by pollution, it
was used a method described in the scientific literature (Ianculescu 1975, 1977, 1987, 2005). This
method consists mainly in research into the chronological sequence of annual rings from average
trees of the stands mapped according to the extent and area of injury. The general rule that the
average tree of the stand is also the average tree of diameter increment, within the even- and
relative even-aged stands, is used for determining diameter increment of forest stands based only
on 10 to 15 core samples taken from trees with approximate average diameters, estimated based
on inventory of trees in permanent sample plots and located in damaged and undamaged forest
stands. Because the forest stands are not homogenous (practically unlikely to find in real life)
the increment was compared against their relative values, using annual ring width index (growth
index).
These values are the relative expression of the variation curve of the annual rings against the
ideal increment curve and the result of the relation between the actual width of annual rings
and the normal value, given by the compensated value of the increment curve, multiplied by
a hundred. In these situations, annual rings indices allow comparison of increment variations
both for different forest sites and for different ages. They also facilitate the mutual comparison
between different time intervals of increment curve. In order to compensate the actual diameter
increment for beech and spruce stands in Azuga research area, a complex exponential function,
which does not contradict the properties of the development curve, is proposed by Hugershoff as
follows:

(1)
being easy to see that it is obtained by merging a parabolically degree m function and an
exponential function.
The relative growth indices (ICi) are determined, for the forest stands that are unaffected by
pollution and for those in various damage categories, as a relative ratio of the annual increase in
diameter (id) and the compensated value of the diameter increment (idc), multiplied by 100.

(2)
According to the work methodology presented by Ianculescu (1975, 1977, 1987, 2005),
knowing the relationship between indices of growth in forest stands affected by noxious influence
and those of witness stands, denoted symbolically by IRi, the growth loss in diameter (Pid) will
result from the following relation:
Pid = 1 IRi, where
Pid = growth loss in diameter,
IRi = ratio between increment indices,
i = damage extent.
From research conducted by Ianculescu (1977, 1987, 2005), it results that the basal area growth
loss (Pig) is higher with maximum 2% than the diameter increment loss (Pid), and consequently
we are able to approximate the following relation: Pid Pig.
Because the reduced hight growth loss (Pihf) is regarded as negligible, we consider the
following approximations: Pid Pig Piv, where Pig = basal area growth loss and Piv =
volume growth loss.
In case of fluorine pollution from Azuga, growth samples (core samples) obtained from average
30
31
VII. Azuga
VI. Obria
Azugii
VI. Obria
Azugii
II. Valea
Cerbului
III. Valea
Grecului
IV.
Clbucetul
Taurului
IV.
Clbucetul
Taurului
IV.
Clbucetul
Taurului
U.P.
Site
Management
Unit
4.0
1.5
3.7
3.2
1.0
11A
9B
31D
45A
54C
0.5
8.5
68A
1C
13.0
Distance
to
pollution
source
( km )
21A
u.a.
Compartment
unit
Azuga Forest District
Spruce
Spruce
Spruce
Spruce
Beech
Beech
Spruce
Spruce
Main
tree
species
50
95
105
90
70
S
P
P
P
P
150
70
P
S
90
(years)
Age
Regime
476
357
435
276
1160
144
312
566
Number
of trees
per ha
N.ha-1
46.381
44.985
59.98
32.656
33.936
37.378
52.476
71.731
Basal
area per
ha
G.ha-1
(mp)
35.2
40
41.9
38.8
19.3
57.4
30.68
40.16
Average
diameter
of the
main tree
species
Dg
(cm)
34.3
30.9
33.8
31
20.9
35.4
28
31.1
Average
height
of the
main
species
hg
(m)
0.82
0.80
1.04
0.57
1.08
0.79
0.98
1.27
Density
index
Table 1 Biometrical data of the forest stands in permanent sample plots located in Azuga area affected by fluorine pollution
707.14
598.17
881.75
424.5
381.64
2
2
698.24
671.95
940.426
Volume
per
hectare
V.ha-1
(mc.
ha-1)
Site
class
strong
low
low
low
strong
low
witness
witness
Damage
degree
AZUC
AZUD
AZUB
AZUA
AZUE
AZUF
Identification
batch
Table 2 Ratio between the growth index of forest stands affected by pollution and control stands in mana-
gement unit 21A U.P. VI
Softly
Softly polluted/
Moderately polluted/
Strongly polluted/
Year
polluted/
witness
witness
witness
witness
2006
92.22
127.13
101.52
79.97
2005
108.70
111.63
72.07
55.22
2004
85.10
94.52
68.65
54.02
2003
94.49
114.79
151.51
82.83
2002
81.58
80.87
95.65
72.57
2001
84.71
115.63
118.10
98.05
2000
64.12
94.94
112.79
95.52
1999
78.93
102.43
114.10
101.62
1998
66.35
77.57
90.79
77.13
1997
89.75
97.42
120.59
105.88
1996
84.87
90.05
112.70
97.99
1995
112.35
94.27
130.98
127.56
1994
106.00
104.80
127.59
116.25
1993
104.78
100.44
118.46
118.69
1992
107.67
106.24
111.39
111.75
1991
88.74
73.11
92.24
84.15
1990
99.14
81.75
74.95
82.40
1989
106.40
92.72
99.56
100.00
1988
106.50
101.59
91.18
125.14
1987
86.40
69.94
70.97
97.60
1986
97.30
91.00
73.90
108.70
1985
100.40
86.91
82.32
109.99
1984
101.22
80.16
86.16
93.79
1983
86.18
66.47
75.77
92.92
1982
81.15
72.66
69.53
82.71
1981
86.71
86.35
82.82
85.53
1980
94.17
94.17
82.91
92.49
trees of the stands in permanent sample plots, after drying, were polished with abrasive belt of 200
to 800 in order to enhance annual tree rings. Measuring the width of annual rings was achieved
with the TSAP program LINTAB, with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. Series of growth were crossdated by graphical method with logarithmic scale, the program Carota v.2.1 and verified with
COFECHA (Holmes 1983, Cook et al. 1997) by analyzing the correlation of 50 years dated time
segments (Holmes 1983). For each series of growth were calculated specific statistics parameters
(Douglass 1941, Frits 1976, Cook & Kairiukstis 1990, Popa 2004).
All individual growth series were standardized with Hugershoff function in order to eliminate
age effect for the dendrochronological series. Average series of standardized growth indices was
obtained through robust biweight average (Kairiukstis & Cook 1990). For this purpose it was
used the ARSTAN software (Grissino-Mayer et al. 1996) and the standard dendrochronological
type of series (STD).
Results and discussion
In the Figures 1, 2 and 6, 7 are given indications on growth, ICi, calculated both for spruce and
beech witness stands, unaffected by the pollution with fluorine, and for those in various degrees
32
of damage, according to the formula (2).

The use of growth indices allows comparison, in terms of growth, for forest stands of different
age, density, climate and site conditions, leaving only the resultant influence of fluorine pollution.
This is evident not only in comparing the indices of growth for 2004 and 2005, years that followed
immediately after excessively strong pollution with fluorine during the period December 2003 June 2004. In the Figures 2, 3 and 6, where the growth indices for forest stands that were strongly,
intermediate and softly polluted are in a descending trend, being below the 1.00 value index of
growth compared with forest stands that are considered witness in terms of the effects of pollution
by fluorine, where the growth indices values are over 1.00. Specifically, it is to compare Azuc,
Azud curves with Azua and Azub curve in Figure 2 and 3 (see correlation in Table 1) and Azue
curve (representing beech stands heavily affected by pollution with fluorine) with Azuf curve, a
witness stand, theoretically (Fig. 6).
The results are much clearer if we analyze the details of the growth indices in Figures 3 and 6.
Thus, in Figure 3 is clearly seen that for the years 2004 and 2005, the indices of growth are below
the 1.00 average in stands that are strongly and moderately affected by pollution with fluorine
(Azuc and Azud compared with Azua - presumably as witness). The same comment is valid for
Figure 6: Azue (heavily polluted) with Azuf, assumed as witness.
It is worth mentioning that since 2006 it has started a growth recovery of strongly and
moderately affected stands, because of the shutdown in 2004 of the uncontrolled burning of
waste ore enriched in fluorine, but is still maintaining at a lower value, compared with the growth
of stands considered without fluorine pollution.
Considering the Figures 4, 5 and 7 and data in tables 2 and 3, the resulting variation of the
growth indices of spruce and beech stands, in the stands with various degrees of damage and
the growth indices of unaffected stands, presumed to be a witness and symbolically denoted
as IRi. It is noted here that for the years 2004 and 2005, years that followed to the discharge of
high atmospheric concentrations of fluorine, in all spruce and pine stands affected by strong
environmental and noxious influence, the ratio of growth indices of the polluted against the
unaffected forest stands, alleged witness, is below the value of 100% and that for 2006 it has been
found a process of recovery of these increments, due to the elimination of pollution sources, but
Fig. 1 Average growth series for spruce stands (1947-2007)
33
Fig. 2 Average growth index for spruce stands (1947-2007)
Fig. 3 Average growth index for spruce stands (1996-2007)
34
Fig. 4 Variation of the ratio between growth index of spruce stands affected by pollution and

those unaffected in management unit 21A-U.P. VI (1980-2007)
Fig. 5 Variation of the ratio between growth index of spruce stands affected by pollution and

those unaffected in management unit 21A-U.P. VI (1996-2006)
35
Fig. 6 Average growth index for beech stands
Fig. 7 Variation of the ratio between growth index of spruce and beech stands affected by

pollution and those unaffected (witness)
36
Table 3 Ratio between growth index of beech stands affected by pollution and those unaffected
Species
Year
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1980
Beech
Strongly polluted/witness (Azue/Azuf)
74.07
73.72
82.98
108.99
102.34
161.75
121.10
102.68
88.09
106.16
111.35
79.39
98.62
123.22
133.61
136.59
118.51
137.49
173.81
142.06
101.09
99.69
91.09
93.40
109.02
93.68
97.26
still under the witnesses reference values, considered 100%.

In Table 4 are presented the values of the relative growth losses in diameter (Pid), which often
are equal or approximately equal with the volume growth losses (Piv).
From the data presented in Table 4 we conclude the following:
- maximum loss of diameter increment was recorded in 2004 and 2005, one year after the ecological
accident in the period December 2003 - June 2004, registering 45.98% and respectively 44.78%
to spruce stands strong affected, 31.35% and 27.93% in the moderately affected, and 26.28% in
the beech stands strongly affected.
- in 2006, two years after stopping the burning of waste ore enriched with fluorine, it continues
to register losses in relative diameter increment by 20.03% to spruce stands affected and 25.93%
in beech stands considered affected by the phenomenon of reddening of leaves, but considered
moderately affected by the growth loss. However, it is acknowledged the recovery process,
meaning the decrease in the percentage of loss in diameter increment, after stopping the pollution
source in 2004. Future research could reveal a return to a normal growth of the forest stands in
question;
- in the spruce stand heavily affected by pollution from fluorine (u.a. 1C, UP VII Azuga, located
near the source of pollution (azua), there have been registered losses in relative diameter growth
37
Table 4 Relative growth losses in diameter Pid for forest stands in permanent sample plots affected by

fluorine pollution (Azuga Forest District)
Relative growth losses in diameter
Piv Pig Pid
Ratio between growth index of forest stands that

were affected and those unaffected (witness) IRi
Spruce
Years
Beech
Spruce
Beech
Softly
affected
(IR1)
Moderately
affected
(IR2)
Strongly
affected
(IR3)
Strongly
affected
(IR3)
oftly
affected
1-IR1
Moderately
affected
1-IR2
Strongly
affected
1-IR3
Strongly
affected
1-IR3
2006
109.66
101.52
79.97
74.07
20.03
25.93
2005
110.17
72.07
55.22
73.72
27.93
44.78
26.28
2004
89.81
68.65
54.02
82.98
10.19
31.35
45.98
17.02
2003
104.64
151.51
82.83
108.99
17.17
2002
81.22
95.65
72.57
102.34
18.78
4.35
27.43
2001
100.17
118.10
98.05
161.75
1.95
* Average of the ratios between growth index of softly affected stands and growth index of the witness stands (Management
unit VII, compartment unit 21A)
Table 5 Volume growth losses Iv, during 2004-2006 period,in spruce stands affected by fluorine

pollution Azuga Forest District
Damage
degree
Years
Relative volume
growth losses
Piv Pig Pid
(%)
Softly damage
Moderately
damaged
Strongly
affected
2004
2005
2006
2004
2005
2006
2004
2005
2006
10.10
31.35
27.93
45.98
44.78
20.03
Current volume growth

in Azuga Forest District
stands*
- Iv
(m3an-1ha-1)
7.2
Current volume
growth losses -Iv
(m3an-1ha-1)
0.73
2.26
2.01
3.31
3.22
1.44
* From Forest management planning, 1999
also in previous years, before the environmental accident, of 27.43% in 2002 and 17.17% in 2003.
This might be due to the influence of the fire brick factorys normal activity, that caused the release
in the atmosphere of some amounts of air pollutants, such as fluorine, with negative consequences
for the forest vegetation, especially in the immediate vicinity of the pollution source.
In Tables 5 and 6 are presented the growth losses in volume (Iv) for spruce and beech species,
on damage degrees, in terms of loss of relative growth in diameter, (Pid), according to the current
annual growth in volume of all forest stands, extracted from the General Study for Management
Planning of the Azuga Forest District, from last edition, in 1999.
38
Table 6 Volume growth losses Iv, during 2004-2006, in the beech affected stands with accidental fluorine
pollution Azuga Forest District
Damage
Years
Relative volume
Current volume growth
Current volume
degree
growth losses
in Azuga Forest District
growth losses
stands*
- Iv Piv Pig Pid
- Iv (m3an-1ha-1)
(m3an-1ha-1)
(%)
Strongly
damaged
2004
17.02
2005
2006
26.28
25.93
1.23
7.2
1.89
1.87
* From Forest management planning, 1999
Conclusions
The auxological investigations in forest stands of Azuga Forest District have highlighted the
significant loss of relative volume growth, depending on the degree of damage as a result of
the influence of fluorine pollution resulting from waste incineration of ore with rich content of
fluorine in the former factory of refractory brick.
The results confirm for the first time in our country the influence of fluorine pollution on growth
of forest stands, which results in a significant damaging process. By law such damages should be
recovered from those who have produced it. In this way the investigations undertaken with the
financial support of National Forests - Romsilva are justified.
References
Cook, E.R., Kairiukstis, L.A. (eds.) 1990. Methods of dendrochronology. Applications in the environmental
sciences. Kluwer Academic Publischers. Dordrecht. 394 p.
Cook, H.R., Holmes, R.L., Bosch, O., Grissino, M.H.D. 1997. International tree-ring data bank program
library. http:www.rgdc.noaa.gov/paleo/treering.html. (accessed in 2003).
Douglass, A.E. 1941. Crossdating in dendrochronology. Journal of Forestry 39: 825-831
Fritts, H.C. 1976. Tree rings and climate, Academic Press London, 567 p.
Garrec, J. P., Haluwyn, Ch. 2002. Biosurveillance vgtale de la qualit de lair, Londra, Paris, New Zork.
117 p.
Grissino Meyer, H.D., Holmes, R.L., Fritts, H.C. 1996. International Tree Ring Data Bank program library
version 2.0 users manual. Laboratory of Treering Research, University of Arizona. Tucson, Arizona.
Holmes, R.L. 1983. Computer assisted qualitycontrol in tree ring dating and measurement. Tree Ring
Buletin 43: 69-75.
Ianculescu, M. 1975. Aspecte metodologice privind determinarea pierderilor de cretere n diametru la
arboretele poluate. Studii i Cercetri, Seria I, ICAS, 33: 141-149.
Ianculescu, M. et al. 1977. Influena polurii asupra creterii pdurilor. Centrul de material didactic i
propagand agricol, Seria II, ICAS, 47 p.
Ianculescu, M. et al. 1987. Cercetri privind dinamica fenomenului de poluare industrial a pdurilor din
zona Copa Mic. Manuscris, Referat tiinific final. ICAS, 182 p.
Ianculescu, M., Costea., C. 1989. Bewertungs methoden fr die durch Lufverungreinigungen Bedingten
Waldschden. Berichte aus der Abteilung fr Rechnungswesen und Forstliche Marketlehre. Institut fr
Forstliche Betriebswirtschaft und Forstwirtschaftspolitik der Universitt fr Bodenkultur, Wien, Heft 8, pp.
165-169.
Ianculescu, M. 2005. Aspecte ale relaiilor dintre pdure i poluare. In Giurgiu V, (ed.): Pdurea i modificrile
de mediu, Editura Academiei Romne, pp. 92-125
Popa, I., 2004. Fundamente metodologice i aplicaii de dendrocronologie. Editura Tehnic Silvic,
Bucureti, 200 p.
39
Ulrich, E., Bonneau, M. 1994. Etat nutritionnel des peuplements du reseau RENECOFOR. La sante de
foret.
UN/ECE CEC 1994. Manual on methods and criteria for harmonized sampling, assessment, monitoring
and analysis of the effects of air pollution on forest. PCC, Praga, 177 p.
De Vries, W., et al. 2000. Intensive Monitoring of Forest Ecosistems in Europe. CEC-UN/ECE, Brussele,
Genova.
40
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructification in the

Western part of the Getic Plateau
I. Bercea
Bercea, I. 2009. Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructification in the Western part of
the Getic Plateau. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of
the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25,
2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 41-52.
Abstract. The ecosystems with Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto Ten.) and Turkey
oak (Quercus cerris L.) have formed stable structures along the time, but they have
been seriously affected since 1989 until 1994 by a long drought, followed by massive drying. The behavior of the two species differed, especially in what may concern the fructification process, because the Hungarian oak didnt fructify anymore
and the Turkey oak continued to fructify with the known periodicity. The research
has focused on assessment of fructification periodicity and intensity in the Hungarian
and Turkey oak, under the changes of the present climatic conditions. Fructification
periodicity of the Hungarian oak was very different from that of the Turkey oak
during the last three decades. The Hungarian oak had very abundant fructification in
1981 and 2003 and only one weak fructification in 1995. These data together with
the information on fructification in the first half of the 20th century imply that the
Hungarian oak fructification period is between 8 and 11 years. The fructification
periodicity of the Turkey oak remains unchanged and it comprises a 2 to 5 years interval. Climatic changes, manifested through very dry years, with high temperatures
for a long time and very large amplitudes in a short period of time, have resulted in
changing the fructification periodicity for the Hungarian oak and also in a massive
drying phenomenon. This determines differentiated carrying out of the cuttings for
rejuvenation and approaching a new strategy to maintain and perpetuate Hungarian
oak on its territories. Exhibiting a great endurance for climatic changes, the Turkey
oak fructifies normally, with the normal periodicity. This fact ensures an easy natural regeneration and a tendency of the Hungarian oak elimination from the mixed
stands.
Keywords: Quercus frainetto Ten., Quercus cerris L., climatic changes, fructification periodicity
Author. Iulian Bercea - Filiai Forest District, Radateanu St. 277, 205300 - Filiai,
Romania.
Introduction
Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto Ten.) and Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) forests are ecosystems
with stable structures that can be found in the hot and dry regions in South Europe and mostly in
the Balkans and in our country, where they reach the northern and north-eastern extremes of their
natural ranges.
41
In our country, these species occupy 4.8% of the national forest territory with an area of 304
thousand hectares. They dominate the hilly plain of Oltenia and Muntenia, reaching altitudes from
70 to 200 m, with small horizontal and vertical fragmentation. In Oltenia and Muntenia, Hungarian
and Turkey oak can be found on low hills, their territory reaching to the north especially on the
Jiu Valley and the Olt Valley. The widest extension can be found on the Getic Plateau where the
largest Hungarian oak forests in our country are located. Seaca de Pdure forest, positioned to
the west of Craiova and especially Seaca-Optani forest, located to the south-west of Pitesti, are
considered to be the largest Hungarian oak forests in Europe.
The Hungarian and Turkey oak forests have a special socio-economic importance, due to the
wood they produce, as well as an ecological importance as they modify the terrestrial active
surface facing the hot and dry air masses that reach Oltenias Plain from the south and south-west
of Europe. The forests form a buffer area having a strong effect on the environmental equilibrium
of the region they occupy, especially on the climatic conditions.
The ecosystems with Hungarian and Turkey oak have formed stable structures along the time,
but they have been seriously influenced since 1989 until 1994 by a long drought followed by
massive tree dying. The intensity of dying phenomenon was quite different in the two species,
being more intense in the Hungarian oak stands of different ages.
Hungarian and Turkey oak decline has determined the start of some research activities that have
extensively evaluated the stand situation and to which extent the trees were affected. The drying
effect appeared while regeneration works were being applied in different stages to the exploitable
stands. Due to the extraction of dried trees from the stands, a disturbance of the normal course
of works and consequently of the regenerations took place. The behaviour of the two species
differed, especially in what may concern the fructification process, because the Hungarian oak
didnt fructify anymore and the Turkey oak continued to fructify with the known periodicity.
Our research aimed at determining the fructification periodicity, its intensity and its dissemination
way in order to direct the cuttings for regeneration that will be performed in the Hungarian and
Turkey oak stands. Consequently it focused on the following aspects: establishing the favourable
natural environment for the Hungarian and Turkey oaks, evolution of the periodicity and intensity
of the Hungarian and Turkey oak fructification, and the influence of the fructification on the
assuring the natural regeneration of these tree species.
The territory chosen for the research is located in Oltenia and it comprises Motru Hills, Jiu Hills,
Gilort and Amaradia Hills, the northern area of the Blcia Plateau, Segarcea Plain north-eastern
area, the north-western part of the Leu-Rotunda Field, geomorphologic units that can be found
in the Jiu area.
The location for conducting the research was limited to areas with large spreading of Hungarian
and Turkey oak: for the southern part of the territory - Bucov and Seaca de Pdure forests in
the forest departments of Craiova, and for the central and northern part - Argetoaia, Rzboinicu,
uia, Motru, Crbuneti, Murgeti forests in the forest departments of Filiai, Strehaia, Motru,
Turceni and Crbuneti.
All observations were made in the following forest departments: Segarcea, Craiova, Filiai,
imian, Corcova, Strehaia, Motru, Tarnia, Trgu-Jiu, Peteana, Crbuneti, Turceni, Hurezani
and Amaradia, in 49 Production Units.
These representative forests with maximum spreading of the Hungarian and Turkey oak were
chosen in order to observe the standard conditions in which the two species vegetate, with the
aim of not influencing the conclusions that are generally applicable for this territory. In order
to assess the diversity of the conditions in which Hungarian and Turkey oak fructification takes
place, 77 observation plots have been placed. The plots were positioned within the most spread
42
types of forests, where the stand was at exploitability age and where regeneration had started due
to various reasons, and the study of fructification was appropriate.
The research territory was chosen as to comprise the most diverse conditions for the determinant
ecologic factors influencing Hungarian and Turkey oak fructification. The territory should
also have displayed the evolution through time of the destabilizing factors in the area, having
consequences over the stands and, implicitly, over their fructification.
In order to achieve the objectives, a wide range of research that took place both outdoors (in
the field) and indoors (at the office) was initiated. Studies were conducted in order to establish
fructification intensity, dissemination distance, as well as Hungarian and Turkey oak acorn
viability, under normal vegetation conditions and under great oscillation of the determinant
ecologic factors condition as well.
Results
Fructification periodicity
The fructification periodicity in the Hungarian oak until 1955 is presented in the literature and it
was revealed that the species had a very good fructification in 1932, 1936, 1942, 1951 and 1955
(Marcu 1965). There is no specification related to the fructification years after that. Taking into
account both the information gathered from the forest districts within the investigated territory
and my personal observations, we can conclude that very good fructification took place in 1981
and in 2003.
Fructifications took place at 4-13 years intervals until 1955, but the periodicity significatly
increased (u to 23 years, during the recent decades. Between the abundant fructifications of the
period 1923-1955, there were also moderate fructifications during the years 19231936 and
19371942 (Marcu 1965), but only one weak-moderate fructification during the period 19812003, in 1995. Periodicity of middle fructification is about 8 years.
Seedlings of Hungarian oak of various ages, raised from seeds, were found in the testing areas
that were set for the research. This proves that the Hungarian oak had frequent weak fructifications
from which the seedling grew.
Taking into account the very long period without fructification in the Hungarian oak during the
last decades, we can conclude that the favourable periods for regeneration are very rare, and that
the Hungarian oak was in decline throughout the last period, the stability and continuity of the
pure Hungarian oak stands that reached the age of exploitability being at risk.
Consequently, this situation led to the reduction of areas naturally regenerated from seeds and
also to a declining quality of Hungarian oak regeneration. At the same time, it is really necessary
that the local sylviculturists optimally render profitable every year with moderate or abundant
fructification, in order to reach a natural, but also an artificial regeneration, by directly sowing and
by producing seedlings from the gathered acorns.
The existence of some regeneration groups and pre-existing usable or unusable seedlings in the
Hungarian oak stands that can be harvested is due to the intermediary very weak fructifications.
Between 1981 and 2003, week and very week fructifications contributed to the installing of some
seedlings in the stands that comprise Hungarian oak trees.
In comparison with the Hungarian oak, the Turkey oak had, since 1981, six very abundant
fructifications in the following chronological order: 1982, 1986, 1989, 1994, 1998, 2005, at
intervals of 4-7 years, which means a fructification periodicity of 4-5 years. Between the years
with abundant fructification, there were also moderate fructifications in 1995, 2002 and 2004.
If we take into consideration the intermediary moderate fructifications, we conclude that the
favourable periods for natural regeneration from seeds of the stands that comprise Turkey oak
occur quite often, from 2 to 5 years (Bercea 2007).
43
Quantity and quality of the Hungarian oak disseminated acorn
The related research was conducted during the years 2002-2005 in the area of the following
forest districts: Craiova, Strehaia, Filiai, Turceni, Crbuneti, Peteana and Trgu-Jiu, in order to
include different intensities of fructification for the two studied species. For this purpose, testing
areas were placed under the tree crowns and around them; all acorns were gathered periodically
and their quality was determined by sectioning.
Hungarian oak had very weak fructification in 2002, 2004 and 2005, but a very good fructification
in 2003, an exceptional year. In 2003, also the old debilitated trees with dead tops fructified;
acorns were abundantly found on various offshoots of different ages. For the Turkey oak, 2002
and 2004 were years with moderate fructification. In 2003, the Turkey oak didnt fructify, while
in 2005 fructification was very good.
For the studied territory, and not only, Hungarian oak fructification was of great interest,
especially through the mechanism of adaptation in order to ensure regeneration and perpetuation
on the occupied territories, taking into consideration the lack of fructification or its very low
intensity for a long period of time.
The following were noticed based on the observations made within Hungarian oak forests,
Turkey and Hungarian oak forests, Turkey oak forests and normal mixtures of common oak,
Hungarian and Turkey oak forests. In 2002, the Hungarian oak fructified very weakly, and the
dissemination period lasted between the 3rd of September and the 10th of November. During the
first period of dissemination, the acorn deteriorated by Balaninus glandium (20-45%) and the
dried or mouldy fell down (55-85%). The mean density was 3.7 acorns/m2 (Table 1), out of which
only 28% healthy acorns.
In the same testing areas, the seedlings raised after the weak fructification of 2002 were
inventoried on February 18th, 2004. A proportion of 53% of these was installed, as compared to
the fallen acorns.
This represents a very high percentage in comparison with the proportion (28%) of sound
acorns fallen in the testing areas. The only explanation is that the seedlings installing had resulted
in the auto cutting seedlings. We should mention the fact that the testing areas were placed on
grass-free areas, having a thin layer of litter and forest soil favourable for seed germination in
optimal conditions.
Hungarian oak fructification was very good in 2003, the acorn dissemination starting at the
beginning of September, as the dried and deteriorated acorns fell. Measurements taken on
September 5th and 6th 2003 resulted into 2.2% and 5.3% fallen sound acorns.
The next measurements made on September 19th and 20th 2003 showed that the percentage
of the fallen sound acorns was between 11.4% and 43.2%, also noticing a slight latitudinal
differentiation, as 11.4% was recorded in the southern part of the territory in u.a. 124 A, U.P. III
Seaca de Pdure, and 43.2% in the central part of the territory (Table 2).
The dissemination period ended on November 1st 2003, when the Hungarian oak acorn fell
entirely. The percentage of sound acorns was between 75.1% and 84.9%, thus being noticed a
latitude differentiation: the smallest percentage of sound acorns 75.1% was located in the southern
part, while in the middle the percentage increased to 84.9% on some areas, but on others decreased
by 25% than in the central part of the studied territory. The number of sound acorns that were
disseminated during a year with a very good fructification under the protection of tree crowns
and around them was on average of 181 units on a square meter, varying between 142 and 206
units; this was considered to be an exceptional year for Hungarian oak fructification as a result
of the research. In many stands a great variation of the acorn quantity and quality was noticed,
depending on the site conditions, on the stand condition, on the age and individual characteristics
of trees. Within the research territories, parts of stands with as much as 420 acorns/m2 could also
44
Table 1 Average number of acorns on 1 m2 area under the crown of the old Hungarian oak trees in 2002,
after a very weak fructification, and the number of seedlings one year later
Total
Number of seedling after one

year of vegetation
11 13 15 85
100
11 45 55
100
12 16 25 75
100
11
29 40 28 72
100
21
Forest type
Healthy
Hungarian oak plateau forest

middle productivity
Hungarian 10.11
Hungarian oak plateau forest
u.a.79 I
oak
middle productivity
Turkey oak and Hungarian
11.11
u.a. 124 A oak plain forest middle
productivity
Total
10.11 u.a. 80 H
Healthy
Area
Percentages
Total
Date
Dried & deteriorated
Species
Dried & deteriorated
Number of
acorns
be found (u.a. 112 B in U.P. II Argetoaia).

The dissemination of Hungarian oak sound acorns takes place after September 20th, with a peak
between October 1st and October 15th. This is closely related to the great temperature variation
between daytime and night time and especially to the first white frost day. The change in leaves
colour and the beginning of the leaf falling for the Hungarian oak coincides with the largest sound
acorns dissemination.
Knowing the period, the dissemination rhythm and the acorn quantity fallen in the years with
fructification is useful in order to schedule and put in practice the forest workings necessary for
helping natural regeneration. In the years that preceded the exceptional fructification of Hungarian
oak in 2003, observations related to tree vegetation condition were made, in relation with season
weather in 2001 and 2002. The purpose was to notice the external factors that can influence the
Hungarian oak and that can determine fructification periodicity and intensity.
In the spring of 2002 trees started their vegetation late and the development of leaves was
very weak; the Hungarian and the Turkey oak leaves had very reduced dimension, between 1/3
and 1/2 of the normal leaf dimension. The abnormal developing of the leaves was determined
by rain rhythm in 2000, 2001, and 2002. The year 2000 was dry; 339.2 mm were recorded at
the meteorological station in Craiova and 359.2 mm at the meteorological station Bcle. When
looking at the rainfall, the first 9 months of 2001 were normal. The last three months were dry as
37.7 mm cumulated were recorded at the meteorological station in Craiova and 48.7 mm at the
meteorological station in Bcle.
The drought continued in the first half of 2002, as 120.3 mm cumulated precipitations were
recorded at the meteorological station Craiova and 128.5 mm at the meteorological station
Bcle. Practically, in a period of nine consecutive months (October 2001-June 2002) only 158
mm cumulated precipitations were recorded at the meteorological station Craiova and 177.2
mm at the meteorological station Bcle (Tables 3-4). The extremely reduced precipitation
was accompanied by high temperatures during spring and summer. This led to a much reduced
development of leaves in Turkey and Hungarian oaks.
By analyzing the total precipitation in 2001 and 2002, we can claim that the values were normal,
45
Table 2 Average number of acorns disseminated on 1 m2 areas under the crown of Hungarian oak trees,
in 2003, after very good fructification
Number of acorns
06.09
Hungarian
oak
06.09
Mean
19.09
20.09
20.09
20.09
Mean
30.10
01.11
01.11
01.11
Mean
Turkey oak and Hungarian oak

plain forests middle productivity
82 M oak plateau forests middle
productivity
Hungarian oak plateau forests
112 B
middle productivity
112 C
hills forests middle productivity
124 A
124 A
82 M
112 B
112 C
124 A
82 M
112 B
112 C
13.1 13.4 2.2 87.8
100
0.7
12.6 13.3 5.3 94.7
100
0.6
14.5 15.1 4.0 96.0
100
0.7
16.4 17.1 4.1 95.9
100
0.6
2.1
22.9
27.1
25.1
19.3
142
180
206
196
181
14.1
16.3
30.1
40.6
36.3
30.8
47
32
45
40
41
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
14.7
18.4
53.0
67.7
61.4
50.1
189
212
251
236
222
Healthy
0.3
Total
Total
06.09
Forest Type
Dried &
deteriorated
05.09
Area
Dried &
deteriorated
Date
Healthy
Species
Percentages
4.1
11.4
43.2
40.0
40.9
38.5
75.1
84.9
82.1
83.1
81.5
95.9
88.6
56.8
60.0
59.1
61.5
24.9
15.1
17.9
16.9
18.5
Fig. 1 Hungarian oak abundant fructification in 2003 autumn
but the distribution on months and seasons was not regular. Starting with July 2002, abundant
precipitations begun to fall and they continued during the first three months of 2003, as well. This
helped the leaves to develop normally and flower-buds to differentiate, a fact which led to the
abundant fructification in the autumn of 2003. This matched to the extremely small production
46
Table 3 Monthly and annual rainfall amount (mm) during the years 2000-2005
Station
I
II
III
IV
Craiova 37.4 30.4 11.7 61.8
Bcle 22.5 10.7 10.7 88.9
2000 Tg. Jiu 17.7 18.0 39.3 50.5
V
9.7
12.5
43.4
Months
VI
VII
12.9 64.6
7.3 102.2
5.5
44.5
VIII
1.8
3.7
3.2
IX
72.5
60.9
64.1
X
0.3
1.2
0.0
XI
28.1
15.0
14.1
XII
7.8
23.6
33.1
Annual
339.0
359.2
333.4
Craiova 22.8 32.1 79.7 98.6

Bcle 22.7 32.3 44.3 101.3
2001 Tg. Jiu 55.5 25.0 58.5 93.8
43.2
43.3
50.8
150.3
110.6
143.0
75.7
49.6
96.6
36.2
3.1
18.3
68.5
97.1
91.8
1.7
10.0
7.7
24.6
25.6
45.3
11.4
13.1
9.2
644.8
553.0
695.5
Craiova 15.2 0.8

Bcle
7.4 1.0
2002 Tg. Jiu 1.1 1.9
28.8
47.8
50.5
36.3
39.3
73.8
134.4 106.5
146.1 100.0
204.6 112.7
80.9
94.2
73.2
65.0
76.3
77.8
43.8
25.0
41.4
109.2
82.0
119.4
660.1
652.1
796.1
Craiova 51.6 11.6 11.7 103.2 76.9

Bcle 89.6 15.8 4.5 78.1 103.5
2003 Tg. Jiu 83.4 20.7 4.8 113.0 70.8
14.0
16.9
7.2
59.4
58.7
68.2
9.2
4.3
26.6
121.0 132.1
91.1 114.5
128.8 174.1
39.0
43.6
49.7
51.8
23.4
33.2
681.5
644.0
780.5
Craiova 65.5 27.5 33.9 17.6

Bcle 39.3 42.5 35.1 49.4
2004 Tg. Jiu 91.0 66.3 44.1 69.5
66.9 123.4 31.7

53.4 97.5 44.1
102.2 150.2 135.6
27.6
60.8
85.9
55.6
39.2
67.5
17.5
33.5
40.4
99.2
90.4
131.8
35.7
11.6
35.2
602.6
596.8
1019.7
Craiova 71.8 55.7 34.7 57.8

2005 Bcle 45.5 45.6 15.1 54.8
Tg. Jiu 71.1 91.3 66.2 60.0
117.9 104.5 170.5 215.8 113.7

73.5 30.3 202.0 219.7 92.3
76.6 63.8 251.8 160.2 118.6
22.0
24.8
12.6
66.9
45.0
58.2
51.0
60.4
91.5
1082.3
909.0
1121.9
Year
5.6
4.3
1.4
33.6
28.7
40.3
Table 4 Average air temperature (oC) at Craiova, Bcle and Trgu-Jiu during the years 2000-2005
XI
XII
Annual
mean
Craiova
Bcle
2000 Tg. Jiu
-3.8 -3.5 6.5 14.4 18.8 22.8 23.9 24.7 16.5 11.9 8.4
-4.3 2.4 5.4 13.4 17.5 21.9 22.5 23.5 15.4 11.0 7.5
-4.1 2.1 5.6 14.0 17.4 22.1 22.9 23.5 15.7 11.1 7.2
2.6
1.8
1.3
11.9
11.5
11.6
Craiova
Bcle
2001 Tg. Jiu
0.9
0.3
0.9
3.0
2.2
2.8
8.8 11.1 17.1 19.1 23.4 24.3 17.3 14.2 4.7 -3.2
7.9 10.0 16.1 17.8 22.2 23.4 15.6 13.0 3.4 -4.1
8.0 11.3 16.5 18.5 22.1 23.0 15.6 12.1 4.0 -3.3
11.7
10.7
11.0
Craiova
Bcle
2002 Tg. Jiu
-0.8
-1.1
-0.9
6.7
5.9
5.1
9.1 10.6 19.2 22.8 24.1 20.7 16.5 10.5 6.8 -3.5
8.5 9.8 18.2 22.0 23.0 20.1 15.8 9.9 6.7 -3.7
8.4 10.7 19.0 21.9 23.7 20.5 15.4 10.2 6.4 -2.7
11.9
11.3
11.5
Craiova
Bcle
2003 Tg. Jiu
-1.7 -4.3 3.2 10.0 20.4 23.2 22.6 24.9 16.3

-2.0 -5.3 3.4 9.0 19.5 22.3 21.8 24.3 15.3
-1.6 -4.0 4.3 10.0 19.8 22.6 22.3 23.6 16.0
Craiova
Bcle
2004 Tg. Jiu
-3.5
-3.5
-3.2
1.3
0.7
0.6
6.2 11.7 15.1 19.4 22.4 21.9 17.1 12.6 6.5

5.2 10.9 14.3 18.8 21.3 21.1 16.0 11.9 5.8
6.4 12.0 15.0 19.3 21.7 20.8 15.7 11.7 6.2
1.3
1.0
1.3
11.0
10.3
10.6
Craiova
2005 Bcle
Tg. Jiu
1.1
0.5
1.0
-2.8 3.9 11.2 16.8 19.3 21.8 20.3 17.0 11.1 4.2
-3.1 3.0 10.2 16.2 19.0 21.1 19.4 16.5 10.4 3.8
-2.7 3.6 11.1 17.2 19.1 21.1 19.9 16.5 10.8 4.0
1.7
1.2
1.2
10.5
9.9
10.2
Year
Station
II
III
IV
Months
VI VII
VIII
IX
9.2
8.0
8.9
6.7 -0.4
6.4 -0.6
6.2 0.1
10.8
10.2
10.7
of corn in the same zone, generating an unfavourable situation for Hungarian oak regeneration in
the stands located near populated areas, because the acorns were gathered by the peasants to feed
their pigs, being consumed by abusive grazing.
Hungarian oak acorns dissemination under the crown of the trees and outside it is not
homogeneous. For this reason, measurements were made on the direction of the four cardinal
points, around the seed-bearing trees in the area of acorns falling, installing on the testing areas
47
Table 5 Hungarian oak acorns dissemination on 20th of September 2003 in u.a. 124 A U.P. III Seaca de
Pdure
Direction from
the seed-bearing
tree
North
East
South
West
Total
Percentage of the total number of

acorns fallen on the direction
on the testing area number ..
1
2
3
4
Total
59
34
8
0
100
17
31
44
8
100
22
35
40
3
100
80
20
0
0
100

acorns fallen on the testing area
number. ...
1
2
3
4
Total
6
3
1
0
10
8
16
21
3
48
8
12
14
1
35
5
2
0
0
7
27
33
36
4
100
on the directions north (N), south (S), east (E) and west (W), with the size of 1 m2, one near the
other, from which all the acorns fallen were gathered on the specified dates (Table 5).
Most acorns fell on eastern and southern areas, 48% and 35% respectively of the whole
disseminated acorns quantity. At East, most of them fell on the testing area no. 3 (21%) and no.
2 (16%) and at South, most of acorns fell on the testing area no. 3 (14%), followed by the testing
area no. 2 (12%).
The lowest percentages of acorns were recorded at west and north, 7% and 10% respectively,
and most acorns were on the testing areas no. 1 on both directions.
The greatest proportions of disseminated acorns were found on the testing areas no. 3 and no. 2
for the projection of the entire crown of the seed-bearing tree - 36%, respectively 33%, followed
by areas no. 1 and no. 4 (area no. 4 is usually found outside the projection of the crown of the seed
bearing tree).
Quantity and quality of the Turkey oak disseminated acorns
The research was conducted in the testing areas placed in the exploitable stands of u.a. 46 B (U.P.
II Bucov), 124 A (U.P. III Seaca de Pdure), u.a. 44 B (U.P. I Gogou). The fructifications of
the years 2002-2005 were investigated. The investigations led to some conclusions having local
importance.
Turkey oak fructification in 2002 was of a middle intensity; acorn dissemination took place
between September 7th and October 31st, being a year of clear phenological differences, caused
by the abundant rainfall during July, August and September, that delayed the ripening, and by the
reduced dissemination period at the end of October, caused by the sudden cooling of weather,
negative daily average temperatures being frequently recorded in November. Acorns had smaller
dimensions than normal ones. This was caused by the long drought during the last quarter of 2001
and the first quarter of 2002.
During the first period of dissemination, low quality acorns, dried ones, those touched by
Balaninus glandium and some of those with split tegument - as a result of the great precipitation
variations in the growing period - fell down. Around September 15th, 4.5% were healthy acorns,
the others were dried (55-80%), deteriorated by Balaninus glandium (15-42%) or with split
tegument in the middle part of the acorn (8-12%) (Table 6).
The small percentage of the disseminated healthy acorns maintained until October 16th (1012%), growing to 69% by October 24th, and then to 97% by October 30th. The dissemination
finished at the end of October, being accelerated by the low temperatures and by the early white
frost.
Turkey oak fructification during 2002 was not homogeneous, neither in quality, nor in quantity,
with regard to the site conditions, to individual tree characteristics, but especially to tree
48
Table 6 Average number of disseminated acorns over 1 m2 under the crown of Turkey oak trees in 2002, a
year with a medium fructification
Turkey
oak
07.09
06.09
Mean
31.10
31.10
31.10
30.10
Mean
80 H
81 D
82 A
153 B
1.33
1.49
5.6
94.4 100
0.08
1.75
1.83
4.4
95.6 100
0.08
1.5
1.58
5.0
95.0 100
0.05
1.75
1.80
2.8
97.2 100
0.07
3.9
12.7
11.8
15
10.9
1.58
1.7
1.9
1.8
2.3
1.9
1.65
5.6
14.6
13.6
17.3
12.8
4.45
70.0
86.9
86.8
86.7
82.6
95.55
30.0
13.1
13.2
13.3
17.4
Total
Dried &
deteriorated
07.09
0.08
Forest Type

middle productivity
Normal mixture of sessile oak,
81 D Hungarian oak and Turkey oak
plateau forests (m).
82 A
hills forests middle productivity
153 B
middle productivity
80 H
Healthy
07.09
Area
Total
Date
Dried &
deteriorated
Species
Percentages
Healthy
Number of acorns
100
100
100
100
100
100
positioning on the slope, being better for the trees at the base of the slope, placed in less sunnier
exposures.
In 2004, the acorn dissemination started at the beginning of September and ended on November
12th. Dried, rotten and deteriorated by Balaninus glandium acorns fell first and this lasted until
October 16th. A more intense dissemination of healthy acorns took place by October 31st (80% of
the sound acorns), followed by a period of less intense dissemination by November 10th for trees
placed on the northern sides and at the base of the hill.
Acorn quantity and quality shows variations depending on the stand condition, on previous
exploitation technique, on the site conditions and on the species variability. Due to the abundant
precipitations and their homogeneous distribution throughout the vegetation season, there were
no differences that year regarding acorn quantity between the trees on plateaus and southern sides
and those at the base of the hill or placed on northern sides.
In 2005, Turkey oak fructification was very good; within the investigated areas placed under
the seed-bearing trees, there were around 86 healthy acorns per square metre (53 to 141 acorns
per sq m). The acorn dissemination started on September 5th and ended on November 12th. During
the first stage, which ended around October 15th, the dried and deteriorated acorns fell; then the
healthy ones until November 5th, while the last acorns fell around November12th, at the same
time with the massive leaf falling start of the Turkey oaks trees. This was another year with nonhomogenous tree fructification, its intensity being different from one place to another, and even
from one tree to another, depending on site conditions, tree age, stand current condition, tree
individual characteristics, as well as on crown shape and developing.
The rhythm of dissemination is accelerated between October 15th and November 5th for the
healthy acorns (over 80%). Previous to this period, helping works for natural regeneration should
be conducted, especially those related to soil mobilization on the grassy areas and to removing of
under-brushes and overwhelming species seedlings.
Turkey oak dissemination is not homogenous for the acorns under the seed-bearing trees and
outside them. This is the reason for which measurements were made on the directions of the four
49
Table 7 Average number of disseminated acorns over 1 m2 under the crown of Turkey oak, in 2004, a
year with a medium fructification
Turkey
oak
06.09
07.09
Mean
24.10
16.10
04.12
Normal mixture of sessile

47 C oak, Hungarian oak and
Turkey oak forests
46 B
oak plateau forests
82 L
oak hill forests (s)
100 100
0.1
6.1
1.6
98.2 100
0.07
2.07
3.4
96.4 100
0.06
5.1
0.8
10.9
4.7
2.3
7.2
7.4
4.76
7.4
8.0
18.3
1.67 98.33 100

68.9 31.1 100
10
90 100
59.6 40.4 100
82 L
47 C
46 B
Total
Forest Type
Dried &
deteriorated
Healthy
05.09
Area
Total
Date
Dried &
deteriorated
Species
Percentages
Healthy
Number of acorns
Table 8 Average number of disseminated acorns over 1 m2 under the crown of Turkey oak, in 2005, a
year with a very good fructification
07.09
Turkey oak
08.09
06.09
Mean
01.11
07.11
12.11
09.11
Mean
5.9
1.7 98.3 100
0.2
5.4
5.6
3.6 96.4 100
0.3
8.7
9.0
3.3 96.7 100
0.15
84
53
141
67
86
6.0
8
26
6
28
17
6.15
92
79
147
95
103
2.4
91.3
67
95.9
70.5
83.5
Total
4.8
Dried &
deteriorated
0.1
Forest Type
Normal mixture of sessile oak,

81 D Hungarian oak and Turkey
oak plateau forests (m).
153 B middle productivity
124 A plateau forests middle productivity
44 B oak silvostepa forests (m)
153 B
124 A
81 D
44 B
Healthy
05.09
Area
Total
Date
Dried &
deteriorated
Species
Percentages
Healthy
Number of acorns
100 100
97.6
8.7
33
4.1
29.5
16.5
100
100
100
100
100
100
cardinal points. The seed-bearing trees selected for assessing the intensity of the Turkey oak
dissemination and the dissemination distance can be found in u.a. 81 D from U.P. II Argetoaia on
a northern side and a 50 slope.
Most Turkey oak acorns 33% can be found in the southern part of the seed-bearing trees,
followed by the eastern part - 31%, the smallest quantities falling in the northern and western part
- 18% (Table 9).
Turkey oak acorns disseminate two meters outside the projection area, the greatest quantity of
50
acorns falling within the testing areas on the first three meters at the base of the tree, as it follows:
35% within the first, 32% within the next one and 22% within the third square meter (sq, m).
The southern and eastern parts, where most acorns fell, are relatively close as the proportion of
the acorns fallen within the first three square meters of the base of the seed bearer tree is between
21% and 33%, as compared to the western and northern parts, where the least quantity of acorns
fell (18%), and the greatest percentage of fallen acorns was within the first square meters from
the base of the tree.
The largest distances where Turkey oak acorns were disseminated can be found in the southern
(4 m) and eastern (5 m) areas, where most acorns fell.
By analyzing tree acorns, we can observe a slight trend of going south-east, explained by the
phototropism phenomenon. This matches the larger dissemination distance of the crown. The
more intense light and heat influenced the biochemical processes of differentiating the leaf-buds
to a higher extent, as well as the fecundation and preserving of the fruit until their dissemination
in the autumn of 2005.
The acorn dissemination for trees on sloping plots was investigated separately, in order to
emphasize the differences compared to the flat plots. For this reason, testing areas were positioned
in u.a. from U.P. I Gogosu on a sloping side of 260 and southern exposure. It was noted that the
greatest quantity of acorn is disseminated to the south of the seed-bearing trees (60%); acorn
dissemination to the west and east of the seed-bearing trees is quite uniform, 20% and 16% of the
number of the fallen acorns respectively (Table 10). The smallest quantity of acorns is found to
the north of the seed-bearing trees (4% of the number of the fallen acorns).
The distance to which dissemination took place is strongly influenced by the plot slope.
Therefore, in the northern part acorns are found only on the first testing areas placed on this
direction, most acorns being within the first square meter from the tree base, while in the eastern
and western parts, the acorns were disseminated within the first four meters of the tree base, the
highest proportion being on the testing areas placed within two and three meters from the tree
base.
In the southern part, the distance of dissemination reaches even 9 meters from the tree base, the
Table 9 Turkey oak acorns dissemination on 12.11. 2005 in u.a. 81 D, U.P. II Argetoaia
acorns fallen on the direction
on the testing area number ..
1 2 3 4 5
Total
45 33 20 2 0
100
23 30 21 22 4
100
32 33 26 7 2
100
54 34 10 2 0
100
Direction from the

seed-bearing tree
North
East
South
West
Total
Percentage of the total number

of acorns fallen on the testing
area number
1 2 3 4 5
Total
8 6 4 0 0
18
7 9 7 7 1
31
11 11 9 2 0
33
9 6 2 1 0
18
35 32 22 10 1
100
Table 10 Turkey oak acorns dissemination in u.a. 44 B, U.P. I Gogosu in 2005 autumn
Direction from the of acorns fallen on the direction
seed-bearing tree on the testing area number
North
East
South
West
Total
1
36
16
2
17
2
24
35
5
39
3
30
22
5
27
4
6
27
13
17
5
4
0
14
0
6
0
0
14
0
7
0
0
28
0

of acorns fallen on the
testing area number
8 Total 1 2
0 100 2 1
0 100 2 6
19 100 1 3
0 100 3 8
8 18
3
1
4
3
6
14
4
0
4
8
3
15
5
0
0
8
0
8
6
0
0
9
0
9
7
0
0
17
0
17
8 Total
0
4
0
16
11 60
0
20
11 100
51
greatest quantity of acorns (28%) being within testing area placed at seven meters from the tree,
followed by the testing areas placed at eight meters (19%) and at 4-5-6 meters (13-14%). In the
southern part of the seed-bearing trees we can also find the greatest quantity of healthy acorns
(29%), especially within the testing areas placed at 8-7-6 and 5 meters from the tree base. The
healthy acorns are the heaviest and the rolling distance is depending on the acorn weight.
After analyzing the measures taken, the conclusion is that the acorn dissemination happens on
distances between 4 and 9 meters from the massive edge towards the interior of seeding felling
area, depending on the projection size of the tree crown, on the plot slope.
Conclusions
Fructification periodicity for the Hungarian oak was very different from that of the Turkey oak
during the last three decades. The Hungarian oak had very abundant fructification in 1981 and
2003 and only one weak fructification in 1995. These data, together with the information on
fructification from the first half of the 20th century, suggest that the Hungarian oak fructification
period is between 8 and 11 years.
The fructification periodicity for the Turkey oak remained unchanged and it is of 2-5 years. The
ripening and dissemination of the Hungarian oak acorn starts during the first days of September,
by the falling of the dried and mouldy acorns, just the same as for the Turkey oak. Starting with
September 20th in the Hungarian oak, and with October 1st for the Turkey oak, the proportion of
the disseminated acorn increases, reaching the maximum between October 1st and 15th for the
Hungarian oak and after October 15th for the Turkey oak, and finishes towards the end of the
month for both species.
The dissemination of Hungarian and Turkey oak acorns takes place under the seed-bearing
trees crown and within no more than 2 meters outside their crown projection on flat or with slight
sloping plots. Within the plots with high sloping, the dissemination takes place downstream on a
distance no larger than 9 meters from the base of the seed-bearing the tree, and on the level curve
up to a distance of 6 meters from the base of the tree.
The quantity of the acorn fallen in the seeding felling areas usually decreases from the edge of
the areas towards the centre, especially for the large ones.
In the seeding felling areas with the dimension of 0.5 H, the surface of the seeding felling area is
entirely covered by acorns, while in the seeding felling areas with the dissemination exceeding
1.0 H, the central part often remains unsown with acorns.
References
Badea, O., Tnase, M. 2002. Starea de sntate a pdurilor din Romnia n anul 2001. [The health condition of the Romanian forests in 2001]. Revista Pdurilor 2: 6-10.
Bercea, I. 2007. Cercetri privind regenerarea arboretelor de grni i cer din partea vestic a Podiului
Getic. [Research on regeneration of the Hungarian oak and Turkey oak tree stands in the western part of
the Getic Plateau]. Tez de doctorat. Universitatea Transilvania Braov, Facultatea de Silvicultur i
Exploatri Forestiere, 224 p.
Marcu, Gh. 1965. Studiul ecologic i silvicultural al grnietelor dintre Olt i Teleorman. [Ecological and
sylvicultural study of the Hungarian oak forests between Olt and Teleorman rivers]. Editura Agro-Silvic,
Bucureti. 320 p.
52
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Research on structural variety of stands for three European beech forests with different ages located in
middle and superior valley of Arge River
^
^ ^
Gh. Guiman, V. Scarlatescu, C. Truica
Guiman Gh., Scrltescu V., Truic C. 2009. Research on structural variety of stands
for three European beech forests with different ages located in middle and superior
valley of Arge River. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings
of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25,
Abstract. Researches concerned the structure of two European beech unevenaged stands which are cultivated one in uneven-aged regeneration system and
the other in even-aged system with progressive regeneration fellings during
a long period. For comparison, we studied the structure of a virgin European
beech forest too. The main objective was to alsoidentify the structural and functional similarities and differences among analyzed stands, in order to establish
the management measures for forests biodiversity preservation, as a component
of sustainable management. Identification and description of structures was accomplished using vertical and horizontal structure of the three analyzed stands.
At this stage, the research of stands structure had, as objectives, the following
components: to determine the experimental distribution for trees number and for
basal area, to analyze the distributions using the accepted theoretical distributions; the volumes and basal area allocation on elementary surfaces (10 m x 10
m); the analysis of structural homogeneity using the texture homogeneity index
Camino (1972) and the presentation of structure for stands having different
ages, using the two-dimensional profiles. Herewith, it has been ascertained that
beech stand cultivated and managed by treatments with a long or continuous regeneration period have many structural similarities with virgin and quasi-virgin
natural stands. These findings provide further scientific arguments for drawing
the conclusion that managing stands through intensive treatments ensures forest stability. Under these circumstances, the ecological, social and economical
functions of the forests are accomplished with the maximum efficiency, ensuring
in this particular way the forest sustainable development and, on the whole, the
sustainable development of the society.
Key words: European beech forest, structural diversity
Authors. Gheorghe Guiman, Virgil Scrltescu - I.C.A.S. Bucharest, Research
Station Miheti, 117470 - Miheti, Arge, Romania; Constantin Truic Piteti
Forest District, Trivale St. 84, 110058 - Piteti, Romania.
53
Introduction
Biodiversity conservation and improvement, a part of forest sustainable management, is
manifested in some European Union countries (Prosilva trend) trough management tools applied
according with specific structural laws of the natural forests. These developments are of great
interest also to Romanian forestry, and our research takes into account the latest concerns in the
field worldwide, with real positive influence on forest management.
Material and methods
The structure diversity of the two managed stands, compared with the structure diversity of the
natural virgin stand was observed in three 1 ha experimental areas (one for each type) (Guiman
2007). The inventory was conducted on elementary areas of 100 m2 (10 m x 10 m). The stand
locations in which the research was carried out and the main dendrometric elements are presented
in the Table 1.
The analysis of horizontal and vertical stand structure was conducted by processing the
information collected in the 300 elementary areas (each 0.01 ha). Through the rectangular
coordinates system, the position of each tree was determined, also two crown perpendicular
diameters, overall height and the height of natural pruning. For each elementary area the basal
area and the volume were calculated. In this way, experimental distributions of the elementary
areas on basal area classes and volume classes were obtained.
Results
Diversity analysis of horizontal structure in multi-aged stands
In a first stage, after determining the basal area and the tree volumes for each elementary area
(0.01ha), the experimental distributions of the basal area and volume classes were established.
Thus, 16 basal area classes with the value of 0.10 m2 and 34 volume classes with the value of
1 m3 were formed. These experimental distributions were analyzed using statistical parameters:
minimum, maximum, magnitude, average, variation, standard deviation, variation coefficient
(%), average standard deviation, asymmetry coefficient and excess coefficient (Table 2).
The horizontal structure of the three stands was represented in relation with the allocation of
tree basal area and the tree volume for the 300 elementary areas. It was found that the graphic
division of the two distributions is similar. This fact is well defined in Figures 1-3, where the
distribution of volume in elementary areas is presented for the experimental surfaces installed in
the three analyzed stands.
Experimental distributions of the number of experimental areas in relation to the basal area and
volume classes were analyzed and adjusted through commonly used distributions. According to
Table 1 The stands dendrometic characteristics in which structure research was conducted
No
1
2
3
54
Forest
District
Production
Unit
Miheti
(S.G.I.)
Vidraru
(U.P. I
Muteti
(U.P. IV)
The stand
(u.a.)
Production
class
Composition
(%)
Canopy
cover
Volume
(m3)
Surface
(ha)
213A
II
100 beech
0.8
477
15.3
50A
II
100 beech
0.7
520
17.8
15
II
100 beech
0.7
627
17.8
Table 2 The statistical parameters for the experimental distribution of elementary surfaces in relation with
the basal area classes (a) and the volume classes (b)
Statistical parameters
Minimum (cm)
Maximum (cm)
Magnitude (cm)
Average (cm)
Variation (cm2)
Standard deviation (cm)
Variation coefficient (%)
Average standard deviation (cm)
Asymmetry coefficient
Excess coefficient
Vidraru
a
Tree stand
Miheti Muteti
Vidraru
b
Tree stand
Miheti Muteti
0.00
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.05
0.23
67.19
0.02
0.65
0.08
0.00
0.75
0.75
0.28
0.05
0.22
77.37
0.02
0.50
-0.68
0.00
20.50
20.50
5.32
17.01
4.12
77.53
0.41
0.98
0.83
0.00
13.50
13.50
4.68
14.73
3.84
82.11
0.38
0.55
-0.80
0.00
1.45
1.45
0.32
0.11
0.33
101.96
0.03
1.01
0.29
0.00
32.50
32.50
6.36
52.82
7.27
114.27
0.73
1.30
1.32
Fig. 1 Volume distribution for elementary areas (100 m2) in a virgin stand from Muteti Forest District,
U.P. IV Vlsan Gorge, u.a 15
Fig. 2 Volume distribution for elementary areas (100 m2) in a managed stand from Miheti Forest
District, S.E. I Rul Trgului, u.a. 213A.
data entered in the adjustment test for the experimental distribution of the number of elementary
areas in relation to the basal area classes (Table 3), the adjustment is done with very good result
using normal distribution, exponential distribution, Beta distribution, Gamma distribution (in all
cases experimental 2 < theoretic 2). The studies produced so far have pointed out that the volume
and basal area distribution are following the normal distribution law (Parde 1960, Dissescu 1958,
55
Table 3 The experimental distribution analysis for the number of elementary area on basal area
classes in relation with normal distribution, exponential distribution, Beta distribution, Gamma
distribution (adjustment test)
Forest
stand
(u.a.)
Vidraru
u.a.
50
Miheti
u.a.
213A
Muteti
u.a.
15A
Theoretical
Distribution
Normal
Exponential
Beta
Gamma
Normal
Exponential
Beta
Gamma
Normal
Exponential
Beta
2
Experimental
value
1.143
6.484
0.778
0.954
1.495
5.111
1.177
3.183
5.664
3.588
4.427
Statistic Test
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Theoretical
Experimental
Theoretical
value
value
value
18.307
0.077
0.364
21.026
0.025
0.364
19.675
0.011
0.364
18.307
0.047
0.364
12.592
0.085
0.424
0.12
0.424
15.507
14.067
0.003
0.424
12.592
0.11
0.424
22.362
0.233
0.331
24.996
0.008
0.331
23.685
0.015
0.331
Fig. 3 Volume distribution for elementary areas (100 m2) in a multi-aged stand with its first intervention
of progressive treatment in Vidraru Forest District, U.P. I Aref, u.a. 50.
Giurgiu 1968). The following show that normal distribution is done in particular conditions and
the empirical relations are fitting into more comprehensive models.
The graphical representation of adjustment test of the experimental distribution for the number
of elementary areas in relation with the basal area classes (Fig. 4) and the volume classes (Fig. 5)
is achieved trough normal distribution. The two graphs are similar, a known fact in the literature,
and the following can be concluded:
- the normal distributions for the number of elementary areas in relation with the basal area and
volume classes for the managed tree stands (Miheti u.a 213A and Vidraru u.a. 50) are similar,
the only difference being that for Vidraru, the number of volume classes is greater. From this
point of view, we believe that by restriction trough a limit diameter in stand management may be
a limiting factor particularly for the stand diversity and generally for the biodiversity;
- the normal distribution for the number of elementary areas in relation with the basal area
56
Fig. 4 The experimental distribution adjustment in relation with the distribution for the number of
elementary areas (100 m2) on base surface classes, in Miheti forest stand (213A), Vidraru (u.a.
50) and Muteti (u.a. 15A)
Fig. 5 The experimental distribution adjustment in relation with the distribution for the number of
elementary areas (100 m2) on volume classes, in Miheti forest stand (213A), Vidraru (u.a. 50)
and Muteti (u.a. 15A).
and volume classes from natural virgin stand Muteti (u.a. 15A) is distinguished by a greater
magnitude and a lower frequency as the number of elementary areas.
The analysis shows a great diversity in the structure of natural and cultivated multi-aged beech
stands and an obvious resemblance between managed structures and natural virgin structures.
Analysis of structural uniformity in multi-aged beech stands
In our country, especially in the mountains there were and still are old virgin forests made of
pure or mixed multi-aged beech stands (Giurgiu 1978a, 1978b, 1995, 1999a). These forests
are characterized by an optimal diversity and maximum stability. Their behavior is generated
according to specific and complex cybernetic rules: self-adjusting, self-control, self-regeneration,
57
self-cleaning (Zlei 2006). Such forests present a maximum multi-functionality and preservation
concerns for all these resources are within the range of forestry priority actions, without which
their future will be seriously threatened or compromised (Giurgiu 1978a, 1978b).
The tree stand homogeneity characterized by the homogeneity index (H) is established as the
number of trees in a percentage relation with the volume on different diameter categories (Camino
1976, Barbu & Cenu 2001).
The graphic expression between the tree number and their volume in percentage values, on
diameter categories is represented trough a curve, Lorentz curve. For an uniform stand, in which
all the trees should have the same volume, Lorentz curve is a diagonal. The degree of structural
uniformity is defined as a violation of Lorentz curve related to the diagonal, meaning that the
value of 10 indicates a high uniformity, and the 2 shows the lack of uniformity (Barbu & Cenu
2001). In heterogeneous stands (e.g. managed in uneven-aged systems), a high percentage of thin
trees have a small volume and thick trees small percentage share - have a large volume.
Fig. 6 Lorentz curve and the uniformity index value for managed stand in u.a. 213A (Miheti Forest
District).
Fig. 7 Lorentz curve and the uniformity index value for managed stand in u.a. 15A (Muteti Forest
District).
58
Fig. 8 Lorentz curve and the uniformity index value for managed stand in u.a. 50 (Vidraru Forest
District).
Camino showed that managed stands with good growth have a lower uniformity thn in low
productivity stands. Managed stands have a heterogeneity coefficient between 1.4 and 2.8.
The uniformity can also supply information on the type and intensity of the intervention: tree
extractions in the lower floor decreases the uniformity, while in the middle and top floor raises
the uniformity.
The uniformity coefficient analysis and the construction of Lorentz curve for studied stands is
achieved in Figure 6 - for the stand managed in uneven-aged system (u.a. 213A, Miheti Forest
District), Figure 7 - for virgin beech stand (u.a. 15A, Muteti Forest District) and Figure 8 - for
the beech stand which underwent the first progressive felling (u.a. 50, Vidraru Forest District).
As it was expected, the multi-aged virgin beech stand has the largest heterogeneity (the
structural uniformity index Camion is 2.42). Multi-aged managed beech stands have also a
great heterogeneity, resulted mainly due to the presence of large trees in the superior limit of the
experimental distribution and whose volume is a large proportion from the total volume. The
structural uniformity index Camino is 2.64 for the stand treated with the first progressive felling,
and 2.91 fothe stand managed in uneven-aged system.
The same as the value of structural diversity index, the Lorentz curve (Fig. 28-30) describes
Table 4 Structural profile indexes for the studied tree stands
Tree stands
(u.a.)
Structure
Type
Muteti
15A
Miheti
213A
multi-aged
virgin
multi-aged
managed
Vidraru
50
multi-aged
progressive I
Ia
Ic
Id
(m)
_
b
(m)
_
/b
_
b/d
(mcm-1)
_
he
(%)
2.24
0.78
0.82
12.5
12.0
1.04
0.23
66.5
2.07
0.74
0.78
12.2
11.5
1.06
0.19
64.1
1.6
0.82
0.85
10.5
9.0
1.17
0.17
67.5
Note: soil covering rate index - Ia; closing crown rate Ic; density index Id); the biometric crown characteristics
length - l; diameter - b; crown rate l/b; developing rate b/d, and the height of natural pruning - the.
59
b3
b2
b1
Fig. 9 The vertical and horizontal structure of the managed beech stand in Valea Cireului experimental
area (Miheti Forest District, S.E. I Rul Trgului River, S.G. I, u.a. 213 A); a Horizontal
structure 60-80 m section; b Vertical structure (b 1- 60-70 m section ; b 2 70-80 m section; b 3
60-80 m section
very similar forms for the three studied stands, the deviation of the last one being very large in
relation with the diagonal. From this point of view, the studied stands are within the category of
various structured stands with a high degree of heterogeneity.
The structure of multi-aged beech stands defined through two-dimensional profiles
The graphical representation of the stand spatial structure models was done with the help of
PROARB v. 2.1. software (Popa 1999).
The characterization of stand structure diversity using structural profiles has recently become
of a wider usage, and despite of the schematic graphics models, they can still give informations
regarding:
- the vertical structure highlight in relation with stand level distribution, maximums, crown depth
and the height of natural pruning;
- the way of forming stand bio-groups in relation with the trees biometric characteristics;
- the soil roughly covering rate and the canopy closure index;
- different aspects of forest design, and also the ecosystems space and time evolution paths.
A major difference has emerged between the soil covering rate index (table 4) and the other
3 indexes of canopy closure for each analyzed situation. This fact reconfirms the great beach
60
Fig. 10 The horizontal structure of the managed beech stand in Valea Cireului experimental area
(Miheti Forest District, S.E. I Rul Trgului River, S.G. I, u.a. 213 A); a Stand placement
in the experimental area. b Stand placement and horizontally crown projection
b3
b2
b1
Fig. 11 The horizontal and vertical beech structure in normal stands (progressive regeneration treatment)
in Aref experimental area (Vidraru Forest District, U.P. I Aref, u.a. 50); a Horizontal structure
0-20 m section; b Vertical structure (b 1- 0-10 m section; b 2 10-20 m section; b 3 - 0-20 m
section)
versatility for growing branches to cover the free space in its crown. In relation with the coefficient
values its has been noticed that the values for managed stand its between the values for the other
two arboretum types. From this point of view, managed arboretum is closer to natural virgin
61
b
Fig. 12 The horizontal structure in normal beech stands (progressive regeneration treatment) in Aref
experimental area (Vidraru Forest District, U.P. I Aref, u.a. 50); a - Stand placement in
the experimental area. b Stand placement and horizontally crown projection.
Fig. 13 The vertical and horizontal structure of the virgin beech in Zoruleasa experimental area (Muteti
Forest District, U.P. IV Vlsan Gorge, u.a. 15A); a Horizontal structure 020 m section; b
Vertical structure (b 1- 0-10 m section; b 2 10-20 m section; b 3 0-20 m section).
arboretum, fact that leads to forming the conclusion that managed stand treatment helps create
diversified structures closer to unregulated stand treatment similar to nature, a subject widely
discussed in the last period in foreign literature.
In conclusion, the structures presented in fig. 13-14 show regeneration patterns used by nature in
62
b
a
Fig. 14 The horizontal structure of the virgin beech forest in Zoruleasa experimental area (Muteti
Forest District, U.P. IV Vlsan Gorge, u.a. 15A); a Stand placement in the experimental area.
b Stand placement and horizontally crown projection.
relation with the uneven-aged stand regeneration system (Fig. 910) and that lead by progressive
regenerations (Fig. 1112), very similar with the regeneration methods used in uneven stand
treatment with diversified horizontal structures. This type of management places managed stands
in very similar bunches, even identical with the patterns promoted by the European organization
Pro Silva and sets the focus on the importance of managing Romanian forest in the near future,
thus this principles unite the ecological and economical demands (Schtz 1997, Teuffel & Hein
2004).
The management of multi-aged beech stands in uneven-aged system in bunches is in accordance
with the latest European regulations regarding biodiversity preservation and improvement.
Regarding this aspect, an intervention can be very easily conducted, with great success in
reaching the established goals (preserving and improving the biodiversity), the main component
in long-lasting management trough: maintaining a limited number of old trees; setting limits to
age areas; ecological corridors; specific management for the forest skirt and forest strips along
rivers, creeks and voids, and also removing from regeneration highly valuable stands in relation
with the biodiversity (virgin ecosystems).
Conclusions
The conducted research confirmed that natural regeneration is the efficient solution for the
preservation and establishing highly stable stands, like multi-aged stands managed in unevenaged systems.
The research regarding transformation works conducted on managed stands was also targeted
on experimenting with wood harvesting in relation with the number of extracted trees. For
the analyzed situation, the harvesting of two, at most three trees that form groups or bunches
on surfaces of maximum 1500 m2, favors the development in time and space of uneven-aged
structures, obtained trough the accumulation of pure and even-aged bio-groups, placed in all the
age classes.
The conducted experiments have shown that the beech stand management at the tree group
level assures the following fundamental characteristics: always an uneven profile; a sustained
efficiency on a relatively small surface; managing valuable trees.
The horizontal and vertical structure profile obtained trough this researches prove that the ideal
stand managed in uneven-aged system has the appearance of a chess table, and his profile is build
from columns of all height categories. This profile is specific to the stand scale, but is regulated
at the bunch scale.
63
References
Barbu, I., Cenu, R. 2001. Regenerarea natural a molidului. Staiunea Experimental de Cultura Molidului,
Seria: Lucrri de Cercetare, Cmpulung Moldovenesc, 238 p.
Dissescu, R. 1958. Cercetri asupra procedeelor de inventariere n arboretele pluriene. Analele INCEF , vol.
XIX, Bucureti.
Giurgiu, V. 1968. Cercetri privind inventarierea statistic a arboretelor. Centrul de Documentare Tehnic
pentru Economia Forestier. Bucureti, 215 p.
Giurgiu, V. 1978a. Zonarea economic a pdurilor cu asigurarea optim pe zone a funciilor de producie i
protecie a mediului nconjurtor. Refererat tiinific final. Manuscris I.C.A.S. Bucureti.
Giurgiu, V. 1978b. Conservarea pdurilor. Editura Ceres, Bucureti, 308 p.
Giurgiu, V. (sub redacia) 1995. Protejarea i dezvoltarea durabil a pdurilor Romniei. Editura Arta
Grafic, Bucureti, 400 p.
Giurgiu, V. 1999a. Biodiversitatea i manageamentul diversitii biologice a ecosistemelor forestiere pentru
o silvicultur durabil. Revista pdurilor 1: 11-19.
Guiman, Gh. 2007. Optimizarea structurii arboretelor prin aplicarea tratamentului codrului grdinrit n
fgete din bazinul mijlociu i superior al Argeului. Tez de doctorat, Universitatea tefan cel Mare,
Suceava, 214 p.
Pard, J. 1960. Recherches sur lapplication aux futaie rgilires des inventaires par la mthode statistique.
Ann de lecole Nat. D. Eaux et Forts et de la Stat de Rech.et Exp.Tome XVII, Fasc. 2.
Popa, I. 1999. Aplicaii informatice utile n cercetarea silvic. Programul Carota i Programul Proarb,
Revista pdurilor 2: 41-42.
Shtz, J.P. 1997. Sylviculture 2, La gestions des forts irrgulires et mlanges. Presses Polytechniques et
Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne, Suisse, 178 p.
Teuffel, K., Hein, S. 2004. Silviculture du Htre proche de la nature en Baden-Wurtemberg. Revuie forestire
franaise 6: 519-528.
Zlei, G. 2006. Analiza omogenitii structurale specifice arboretelor potenial productoare de lemn de
rezonan. Revista pdurilor 5: 28-32.
64
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Regenerarea (reconstructia
, ecologica) pinetelor de
pe terenuri degradate din zona de sud-est a tarii
,
^
C. Constandache, S. Nistor
Constandache C., Nistor S. 2009. Regenerarea (reconstrucia ecologic) pinetelor

de pe terenuri degradate din zona de sud-est a rii. [Ecological reconstruction by
regeneration of pine stands located on degraded lands in the South-Eastern Romania] In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference
Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest,
Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 65-78.
Abstract. Forest plantations with multiple protective roles established before
1990 on degraded land in the South-Eastern part of the country are generally
built, with only few exceptions, of European black pine (Pinus nigra) and/or
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). In time it has been acknowledged a larger and larger area of such pine stands under decline (affected by the snow breaks, dieback
or simply because of lack of management under old stands age), but recently was
also noticed the initiation of a natural regeneration by seedlings of natural indigenous forest species. Despite high promising ecological and economic value
of occurring succession, it is not sufficiently capitalized in practice. Research
objective was to identify the appropriate means and ways for the promotion and
improvement of natural regeneration based on characteristics of the stands, seedlings and sites, in order to ensure the transition from provisional, pine based
stands, to natural type ecosystems, in the concerned area. Research has been
conducted in pine stands with different openings across concerned geographical
area. In sample plots of 10 m2 an inventory and biometrical description of existing seedlings was achieved. In most cases, in opened pine stands existing on currently improved and stabilized lands, there are seedlings of various local indigenous forest species (oak, sessile oak, common beech, sweet cherry, sycamore,
etc.), which reflects both success of land improvement measures and succession
tendency of vegetation toward the natural type. Carried research conducts to
the finding that the seedlings of valuable forest tree species strives in those pine
stands which are established on successfully improved degraded lands, under
both moderate to strongly eroded or mildly fragmented sliding soils, placed in
the middle and lower third of slopes, coupled with open pine stands mixed with
broadleaved or in presence of neighboring of broadleaved trees or stands.
Key words: natural regeneration, opened pine stands, degraded lands
Authors. Cristinel Constandache, Sanda Nistor - Forest Research and Menagement Institute, Research Station Focani, Republicii St. 7, 620018 - Focani,
Romania.
65
Introducere
n contextul schimbrilor climatice cu care ne confruntm, realizarea unor structuri stabile a
culturilor forestiere de protecie de pe terenurile degradate i asigurarea continuitii pdurii
pe aceste terenuri reprezint un obiectiv principal. Se constat existena unor suprafee mari de
terenuri degradate cu arborete de pin destructurate (cu vrst naintat sau afectate de rupturi de
zpad, de uscare) n care sunt necesare lucrri de reconstrucie ecologic n vederea exercitrii
funciilor de protecie (Constandache 2003). Aceste arborete sunt destinate s ndeplineasc,
n primul rnd, funcii de protecie a mediului inconjurtor, fapt pentru care alterarea, ntr-o
msur mai mare sau mai mica, a echilibrului realizat de arboretele n cauz, ar putea conduce la
perturbri n viaa economic i social a zonei.
Necesitatea cercetrilor decurge din faptul c n anumite arborete de pin instalate pe terenuri
degradate s-a declanat regenerarea natural, de regul cu specii foioase autohtone de valoare
ecologic i economic ridicat, dar care nu este suficient valorificat.
Scopul cercetrilor a fost identificarea modalitilor de promovare/valorificare a regenerrii
naturale n raport cu caracteristicile arboretului i ale seminiului, n vederea asigurrii tranziiei
de la ecosisteme provizorii ctre ecosisteme zonale, pe terenuri degradate din zona de sud-est a
rii.
Materiale i metode
Teritorial cercetrile s-au desfurat n arborete de pin instalate pe terenuri degradate din raza
de activitate a direciilor silvice: Focani (O.S. Focsani perimetrul Andreiau, O.S. Dumitreti,
O.S. Nereju), Bacu (O.S. Tg. Ocna, O.S. Oituz), Vaslui (O.S. Vaslui - perimetrul Valea Caselor),
Buzu (O.S. Rm. Srat perimetrul Livada), Tulcea (O.S. Mcin perimetrul Cheia, O.S.
Babadag, O.S. Casimcea), Constana (O.S. Bneasa) i I.C.A.S. (O.S.E. Vidra perimetrul Valea
Srii, Brseti, Colacu).
Pentru atingerea scopului propus au fost efectuate observaii i msurtori privind caracteristicile
arboretelor, respectiv: i) investigaii referitoare la particularitile biometrice, biologice i
structurale ale arboretelor de pin de pe terenuri degradate, factorii destabilizatori ai arboretelor
care fac obiectul cercetrilor; ii) inventarieri privind speciile forestiere instalate natural sub
masiv sau la adpostul arboretului, n benzile sau ochiurile deschise natural i/sau prin lucrrile
efectuate anterior; iii) urmrirea evoluiei culturilor experimentale instalate n anii anteriori
(ajutorare i dirijare a regenerrii sub masiv sau la adpostul masivului, n goluri create anterior
prin extragerea arborilor vtmai de zpad i vnt, n perimetrele de ameliorare a terenurilor
degradate Brseti, Ruget-Colacu i Valea Srii).
Pentru inventarierea i determinarea caracteristicilor seminiului au fost instalate suprafee
de cercetare de 10 m2, amplasate n trei zone diferite ale unei parcele, fiind efectuate determinri
asupra urmtorilor parametrii: specia, numrul de puiei, modul de rspndire, starea de sntate
a puieilor, nalimea, diametrul coroanei .a.
Rezultate
n lucrarea de fa sunt prezentate rezultate privind caracteristicile regenerrii naturale n
arborete de pin instalate pe terenuri degradate n diferite zone fito-climatice din sud-estul rii
(Constandache et al. 2003-2007).
Regenerarea natural s-a realizat diferit n funcie de: condiiile staionale, caracteristicile
(structura) arboretului, existena unor arbori maturi (din specii de interes) care fructific, poziia
fitoclimatic .a.
66
Fig. 1 Distribuia puieilor provenii din regenerare Fig. 2 Distribuia numrului de puiei (Pi.n) n raport
natural, pe categorii de nlimi i pe specii
cu nlimea n goluri specii (ua 8a, UP VI,
(ua 8a, UP VI, Os Babadag)
Os Babadag)
^
Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale n arborete de pin din silvostepa
n zona de silvostep procesul de regenerare natural n arboretele de pin de pe terenuri degradate

a fost semnalat pe suprafee reduse, datorit condiiilor pedo-climatice dificile.
Totui s-a remarcat regenerarea pinului negru, stejarului pufos, cerului sau altor specii xerofite
(mojdrean, jugastru, arar ttrsc, viin turcesc .a.), n condiii de terenuri moderat la puternic
erodate, favorizate de anumite topoclimate locale.
Astfel, a fost analizat arboretul din u.a. 8A, UP VI, OS Babadag, instalat pe teren puternic
erodat, cu substrat calcaros, cu urmtoarele caracteristici: compoziie 4 Pi.n 6 Mj, consistena 0,8,
vrsta de 35 ani. Sub masivul rrit datorit uscrii mojdreanului, au aprut puiei de pin negru,
mojdrean i stejar pufos. Au fost identificai 2-3 puiei/m2, cu nlimea ntre 5 i 20 cm (fig. 1).
n goluri mai mari, rezultate n urma extragerii arborilor uscai sau cu defecte, s-a regenerat
Fig 3. Regenerare natural de pin negru n goluri (O.S. Babadag U.P. VI, u.a. 8 A)
67
pinul negru. nlimea puieilor variaz de la 0,20-1,50 m (fig. 3), nlimea medie fiind de 0,52
m, cu aproximativ 3 exemplare/m2, din care 1-2 exemplare/m2 sunt viabile (semini utilizabil).
Diferena mare de nlime a puieilor de pin negru arat c acetia provin din cel puin 2-3
generaii succesive. Legtura corelativ ntre nlimea puieilor regenerai natural i numrul
acestora este puternic (fig. 2) rezultnd un coeficient de determinare R2 = 0,9462.
Regenerarea natural a aprut la adpostul arboretului care favorizeaz acumularea zpezii i
meninerea umiditii solului, n zonele unde panta terenului este de maxim 10 grade i stratul de
sol fertil are cel puin 5-10 cm iar scheletul este mrunit.
O situaie asemntoare a fost ntlnit i n perimetrul Livada, unde la marginea masivului
(u.a 20, U.P. II, O.S. Rmnicu Srat) s-a regenerat natural pinul negru (regenerare n margine de
masiv). nlimea puieilor variaz de la 0,40-1,90 m iar starea de vegetaie este foarte activ. Pe
terenuri moderat erodate, n arborete de pin negru, pin silvestru sau strob, pure sau n amestec
cu ulm, paltin, frasin, stejar .a. cu vrsta de peste 50 de ani, cu consitena redus neuniform, n
goluri s-au regenerat speciile foioase existente n amestec cu pinul.
ntr-o alt situaie analizat n zona de silvostep (u.a. 44 B, U.P. II - O.S. Bneasa), ntr-un
arboret de pin negru i pin silvestru cu vrsta de 40 de ani pe teren cu eroziune moderat, dup
inventarierea seminiului (fig. 4) se constat c ponderea cea mai mare o nregistreaz cerul
(34,29%) i stejarul pufos (31,43%). Mai apar i alte specii regenerate natural: viinul turcesc
(17,14%), crpinia (11,42%), pinul negru i jugastru avnd procente sczute (fiecare cu cte
Fig. 4 Repartiia seminiului pe specii n u.a. 44 B,

U.P. II, O.S. Bneasa
Fig. 5 nalimea puieilor pe specii n u.a. 44 B,

Fig. 6 Distribuia puieilor pe categorii de nlimi n u.a. 44 B,

68
2,86%).
Regenerarea natural este semnalat n ochiuri cu diametrul de aproximativ 10 m, avnd forma
mai mult sau mai puin eliptic, rspndite neuniform n arboret. Sub arboretul de pin apare
frecvent cerul i stejarul pufos din regenerare natural. Puieii inventariai ai speciilor ntlnite
prezint variaii ale nlimilor, regenerarea fiind din generaii succesive. nlimea medie a
puieilor variaz ntre 15 i 35 cm (fig. 5). nlimi medii comparabile nregistreaz stejarul pufos
i cerul; viinul turcesc i crpinia.
Legtura corelativ ntre nlimea puieilor rezultati din regenerare i numrul acestora este
relativ puternic (fig. 6) rezultnd un coeficient de determinare R2 = 0,8051.
^
Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale n arborete de pin din subzona stejarului
n subzona stejarului (perimetrele Valea Caselor Vaslui, Livada Rm Srat, ifeti-Vrancea),

n pinete rrite de pe terenuri moderat la puternic erodate i alunecatoare, prin regenerare natural
s-au instalat: stejar, cire, frasin, paltin, pin negru.
Astfel, n perimetrul Valea Caselor (O.S. Vaslui, UP IV Floreti, u.a. 78), pe terenuri moderat
la puternic erodate i alunectoare, acolo unde n modul de grupare a exemplarelor de pin au
aprut goluri din diverse motive, regenerarea s-a instalat n urm cu circa 4-5 ani, avnd o stare
de vegetaie foarte activ. Speciile participante la regenerare sunt paltinul (62%), cireul (22%),
stejarul (16%) (fig. 8a, 7a). nlimea puieilor provenii din regenerare natural variaz de la 0,2
la 1,5 m, fiind identificai 3-5 exemplare/m2, cu stare de vegetatie foarte activ. Cele mai mari
nlimi medii le realizeaz cireul (1,37 m) i paltinul (0,59 m), iar stejarul 0,38 m. Legtura
corelativ ntre nlimea puieilor participani la regenerare i numrul acestora este foarte
b
a
Foto 7 a,b Regenerare de cire n goluri (a); stejar i cire sub arboret de pin negru (b); (Perimetrul Valea
Caselor jud. Vaslui)
69
Fig. 8 Caracteristicile regenerrii naturale n u.a. 78 (Perimetrul Valea Caselor)

a repartiia seminiului pe suprafa, n ochiuri; b distribuia puieilor pe categorii de nlimi,
n ochiuri; c repartiia seminiului pe suprafa, sub arboretul matur de pin; d distribuia
puieilor pe categorii de nlimi, sub arboretul matur de pin.
puternic (fig. 8b) rezultnd un coeficient de determinare R2 = 0,9773.

n aceleai condiii staionale, dar sub arboret de pin avnd consistena 0,7-0,8, regenerarea
natural este rspandit relativ uniform (fig. 7b). i aici procesul de regenerare s-a declanat
n urm cu civa ani, dar datorit umbririi au rezistat puine exemplare. n prezent compoziia
seminiului instalat este: 35 Pa.c 30 St 15 Ci 15 Fr 5 Fa (Fig. 8c). Aproximativ 80% din numrul
total de puiei au nlimea de 0,1-0,3 m, provenind din fructificaii din ultimii ani. nlimile
medii ale puieilor nu variaz mult situandu-se ntre 0,18 m n cazul paltinului (valoarea minim)
i 0,53 m la cire (valoarea maxim) iar legtura corelativ ntre nlimea puieilor regenerati
natural i numrul acestora este relativ puternic (fig. 8d) rezultnd un coeficient de determinare
R2 = 0,8582.
^
Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale n arborete de pin din subzona gorunului
n subzona gorunului cercetrile au fost efectuate n arborete de pe terenuri degradate din cadrul
O. S. E. Vidra. Inventarierea seminiului din u.a. 61A, UP III Valea Srii (arboret cu compoziia
6 Pi.n 1 Pi 1 Sc 1 Mo 1 Fa; consistena 0,6; vrsta 48 ani, pe teren puternic erodat), a evideniat
existena regenerrii naturale rspndit relativ uniform pe toat suprafaa. Rspndirea speciilor
participante la regenerarea natural pe suprafa este prezentat n fig. 9 a, constatndu-se c cea
mai mare parte din suprafa este ocupat de puiei de gorun (44%), urmat de cire (31%) i fag
(25%). nlimea puieilor variaz de la 0,2-1,8 m la gorun, la 0,5-2,5 m la fag. Diferena mare
70
Fig. 9 Caracteristicile regenerrii naturale n u.a. 61 a repartiia seminiului pe suprafa; b nlimea

medie a puieilor pe specii.
Fig. 10 Regenerare natural de gorun, cire i fag sub arboret de pin negru/silvestru rrit
(O.S. Exp. Vidra, U.P. III, u.a. 61A)
de nlime la gorun i fag arat c seminiul provine din cel puin 2-3 generaii succesive (fig.
9b, 10).
ntr-o alt situaie analizat, n u.a. 64B, n arboret de pin silvestru (10 Pi), cu consitena 0,7,
vrsta de 62 ani, pe terenuri puternic spre foarte puternic erodate, cea mai mare parte a suprafeei
este regenerat natural. n acest caz s-au inventariat puieii din dou suprafee de prob (10 m2
fiecare prob) n poziii diferite pe versant: (i) n treimea superioar a versantului: compoziia
seminiului 22 Go 33 Fa 12 Ci 15 Sc 15 Pi 3 Me. n aceast suprafa s-au identificat puiei
de diferite vrste cu un procent al puieilor utilizabili de peste 70% i o regenerare uniform
rspndit pe aproximativ 80% din suprafaa studiat; (ii) n treimea mijlocie a versantului:
compoziia de regenerare este 25 Go 43 Fa 18 Ci 5 Sc 9 Pi, procentele fiind diferite de cele din
treimea superioar a versantului. nlimile medii ale puieilor pe specii din aceast suprafa sunt
mai mari dect cele din treimea superioar a versantului, fiind cuprinse ntre 0,6 m la cire i 3,0
71
m la fag.
Pe terenuri cu eroziune puternic (u.a. 101 B) ntr-un arboret cu compoziia 5 Pin 2 Pi 2 Ci
1 Dt, cu consistena medie 0,8, vrsta 40 de ani, s-a constatat regenerarea cu preponderen a
foioaselor. Numrul de puiei la hectar rezultai din regenerare natural este diferit n cele trei
parcele analizate (P1 - 12497; P2 - 14000; P3 - 21665). Vrsta puieilor provenii din regenerare
natural difer (1-6 ani), deoarece provin din fructificaii succesive, la fel i nlimile medii pe
specii (fig. 11).
n staiuni de terenuri foarte puternic erodate (u.a. 105A, UP III Valea Srii) cu erodosoluri tipice,
pe versani cu nclinare peste 15 grade, n substrat de marne cu gresii, cu textur luto-argiloas
la argiloas, oligotrofice i distrofice, ntr-un arboret cu compoziia 9 Pi.n, 1 D.t, consistena 0,8,
vrsta 40 ani, regenerarea natural este semnalat n treimea mijlocie i inferioar a versantului,
pe circa 50% din suprafa. n treimea superioar a versantului regenerarea se semnaleaz izolat,
eroziunea fiind foarte puternic.
Inventarierea seminiului n 6 suprafee de prob i distribuia speciilor participante la
regenerarea natural prezentat n fig. 12 a, arat c i n aceste condiii cea mai mare parte din
suprafa (cca. 60%) este ocupat de puiei din specii valoroase: gorunul i paltinul cu cte 19%;
cireul - 16% i fagul - 6%, diferena fiind reprezentat de mojdrean i zarzr.
nlimea puieilor variaz de la 0,1 la 1,5 m; pe specii nlimea medie variaz de la 25 cm la
exemplarele de gorun i fag, la 85 cm mojdrean. Celelalte specii au valori intermediare, Ci - 55
cm, Pa.c. - 60 cm, Zz - 80 cm (fig. 12 b). Diferena mare de nlime arat c seminiul provine
din cel puin 2-3 generaii succesive. n ceea ce privete starea de vegetaie a seminiului, s-a
a
Fig. 11 Repartiia seminiului natural pe suprafa n parcelele din u.a. 101 B

a repartiia seminiului pe suprafa n P1; b repartiia seminiului pe suprafa n P2;
c - repartiia seminiului pe suprafa n P3; d variaia nlimilor medii pe specii i pe parcele.
72
Fig. 9 Caracteristicile regenerrii naturale n u.a. 105 A

a repartiia seminiului pe suprafa; b - variaia nlimilor medii pe specii.
constat c majoritatea speciilor au o stare de vegetaie foarte bun.

^
Caracteristicile regenerarii naturale n arborete de pin din subzona fagului i amestecurilor de

fag cu rainoase
^
n perimetrul Andreiau O.S. Focani, UP IV u.a. 87 A (61,3 ha), pe teren cu eroziune foarte
puternic, cu roca la suprafa, panta 38 grade, expoziie sud-estic, arboretul are compoziia 4
Pi 3 Pin 1 Pam 1 Fa 1 Dt, vrsta 42 ani, consistena 0,6, cu goluri rezultate datorit rupturilor de
vnt la pin i regenerare neuniform.
n anumite goluri, s-a regenerat natural pinul silvestru (fig. 13). Vrsta exemplarelor de
pin silvestru provenite din regenerare natural este de la 2 la 10 ani (instalat dup producerea
rupturilor), n unele situaii atingnd nlimea de aproximativ 4 m, densitatea fiind de 1-2
exemplare pe m2.
Fig. 13 Regenerare natural de pin silvestru n goluri n u.a. 87A, U.P. IV, O.S. Focani
73
Fig. 14 Caracteristicile regenerrii naturale n u.a. 87A perimetrul Andreiau

a repartiia seminiului pe suprafa, la baza versantului; b repartiia seminiului pe suprafa,
n treimea mijlocie a versantului; c variaia nlimilor medii pe specii
Sub masivul rrit, la baza versantului, tot pinul silvestru deine ponderea ntre speciile regenerate
natural (fig. 14a): pinul silvestru (72%), paltinul de cmp (16%) i fagul (12%). Analizand
compoziia seminiului din treimea mijlocie a versantului (fig. 14b), s-a constatat c proporia
pinului silvestru este sensibil mai redus (64%), comparativ cu baza versantului. Compoziia
seminiului este: 64 Pi 16 Fa 13 Mj 7 Go. Puieii din regenerri naturale prezint variaii mari
ale nlimilor medii i ale diametrului coroanei (fig. 14 c). Diferena apare nu numai n funcie
de poziia pe versant, ci i n funcie de specie. Astfel, pinul silvestru provenit din regenerare
natural de la baza versantului nregistreaz nlimea medie de 0,65 m i diametrul coroanei 40
cm, comparativ cu fagul i paltinul care au nlimi medii mai mici (Pa - 0,08 m, Fa - 0,24 m).
nlimile medii ale puieilor din treimea mijlocie a versantului sunt relativ apropiate (Pi, Fa 0,21 m, Go - 0,20 m, Mj - 0,18 m).
n subzona amestecurilor de fag cu rinoase (O.S. Nereju, U.P. I, u.a 70 A), n arboretul de pin
silvestru cu vrsta de 77 ani, consistena 0,7, situat pe un versant cu panta de 45 grade, moderat
la puternic erodat, regenerarea este rspndit neuniform, fiind prezent mai ales n zonele n care
consistena arboretului este mai redus sau n goluri (ochiuri) cu suprafaa de 30-200 m2.
Compoziia seminiului sub arboretul matur i n ochiuri mici este: 86 Fa 8 Pi 6 Ci. n aceast
suprafa s-au observat puiei de diferite vrste, cu un procent al puieilor utilizabili de peste 50%
74
i o regenerare neuniform rspandit pe suprafaa studiat.

Compoziia seminiului n goluri (ochiuri mai mari de 100 m2) este: 55 Fa 18 Ci 10 Go 8 Mo 8
Br 1 Pam. nlimile medii ale puieilor pe specii din aceast suprafa sunt mai mari dect cele
din suprafaa amplasat sub arboretul matur de pin silvestru. Procentul seminiului utilizabil este
de peste 70% iar numrul speciilor mult mai mare.
Puieii inventariai prezint variaii mari ale nlimilor la toate speciile, regenerarea fiind din
mai multe generaii succesive. Astfel, puieii de fag ajung pn la 2,5-3 m nlime i au starea de
vegetaie foarte activ.
n alt situaie (O.S. Nereju, U.P. I Paltinul, u.a 69), pe terenuri cu eroziune puternic n
suprafat, dar stabilizat, sub arboretul de pin silvestru (compoziia 10 Pi, consistena 0,7,
vrsta 75 ani), a aprut regenerare viabil de fag i molid, de aproxiamtiv 1-1,5 m nlime,
cu aproximativ 2-3 exemplare/m2. n goluri, rezultate n urma extragerii arborilor vtamai sa regenerat pinul silvestru, cu nlimi ce variaz de la 0,1 la 1,5 m. Pe ansamblul suprafeei,
regenerarea natural nregistreaz urmtoarele caracteristici: compoziia seminiului este 49 Fa
38 Pi 13 Mo; nlimea medie a puieilor variaz de la 1,13 m (molid), la 1,24 m (pin silvestru) i
1,28 m (fag).
Discutii
,
Arboretele de pe terenurile degradate constituite n general din pin silvestru/negru, pure sau n
amestec cu diverse specii foioase plantate sau regenerate natural, ndeplinesc prioritar rolul de
protecie. n majoritatea cazurilor, n pinetele pure cu vrsta cuprinsa ntre 30-50 de ani, distribuia
numrului de arbori pe categorii de diametre a evideniat existena unor arborete echiene, cu
numrul maxim de arbori n categoriile centrale de diametre (14-18 cm); distribuia nlimilor
pe categorii de diametre prezint o variabilitate sczut iar coeficientul de corelaie este ridicat.
Analiznd valoarea coeficientului de variaie, n cele mai multe situaii acesta evideniaz o
Fig. 15 Pin negru (43 ani) vtmat de zapad (u.a. 105 Fig. 16 Arboret de pin de 30 de ani afectat de
uscare (U.P. III Cavacula, u.a 3, O.S. Casimcea)
A Vl Srii
75
variabilitate sczut n arborete pure (omogene) n timp ce arborete amestecate variabilitatea

este accentuat, fiind explicat de neomogenitatea arboretului.
n anumite situaii (arborete pure de pini, neparcurse la timp cu lucrri de ngrijire, pe terenuri
cu condiii mai bune), pinul silvestru sau/i pinul negru au suferit din cauza vtmrilor produse
de vnt i zpad (perimetrul Andreiau, O.S. Focani, perimetrul Livada O.S. Rm. Sarat,
perimetrul Valea Srii O.S. Exp Vidra) sau uscare (O.S. Casimcea, O.S. Basarabi) (fig. 1516).
n vederea prevenirii unor dezechilibre ecologice ample n aceste arborete sunt necesare
lucrri de extragerea arborilor afectai i refacere a arboretelor. Conducerea arboretelor de
pin n aceste condiii, pn la vrsta exploatabilitii fiziologice (100-120 ani) nu este posibil
deoarece n unele situaii la vrste mult mai mici (40-55 ani) au structura necorespunztoare i
sunt predispuse n continuare la vtmri.
Pinetele apropiate de vrsta exploatabilitii sau ajunse la vrsta exploatabilitii sunt afectate
de aciunea negativ a unor factori biotici i abiotici vtmtori (uscare datorit atacului de
Blastophagus piniperda - O.S. Dumitreti; rupturi-doborturi izolate cauzate de zpad i vnt)
i s-au rrit ca urmare a extragerii n timp a exemplarelor afectate, avnd consistena redus sau
goluri de diferite mrimi.
n cele mai multe situaii, n arboretele de pin rrite, cu goluri, n condiii de terenuri degradate
stabilizate/ameliorate, s-a instalat semini din diferite specii, reflectnd att stadiul ameliorrii
terenurilor n cauz ct i tendina de succesiune a vegetaiei.
Cercetrile efectuate au condus la constatarea c instalarea natural a seminiului unor specii
valoroase n arborete de pin pe terenuri degradate s-a realizat, n special, n urmatoarele situaii:
pe terenuri stabilizate, moderat la puternic erodate sau alunectoare cu masa de pmnt moderat
fragmentat; n treimea inferioar i mijlocie a versanilor; spre treimea superioar, seminiul
are densitatea i creterea mai redus; n arborete de pin n amestec cu foioase sau n condiiile
existenei unor arborete sau arbori de foioase n apropiere. O situaie caracteristic pinetelor din
subzona gorunului i fagului o reprezint arborete de pin n amestec cu foioase care fructific
sau n pinete pure (rrite sau afectate de vtmri) n care s-au meninut arbori preexisteni (fag,
paltin, cire .a.), rmai de pe fostele puni degradate. n astfel de situaii (perimetrul Valea
Srii, Andreiau, Vizantea .a.) prin fructificaia acestor exemplare s-a instalat semini (fag,
cire, paltin) la cca. 20-25 de ani de la instalarea culturilor de pin (dup ce s-au rrit ca urmare
a rupturilor produse la pin), astfel nct, n prezent (la cca. 45 de ani), speciile regenerate au
realizat un etaj inferior (de pn la 10 m nlime) ceea ce contribuie la realizarea unei structuri
dintre cele mai eficiente.
Concluzii
Arboretele de pin cu stare de vegetaie corespunztoare i consistena peste 0,7 pot fi conduse
prin lucrri corespunztoare (igien, curiri, rrituri), astfel nct s se realizeze o structur
optim; una din cauzele uscrii sau a rupturilor este i desimea prea mare a acestora.
n arboretele n care s-a declanat regenerarea natural se recomand: (i) scderea treptat
a consistenei sau lrgirea ochiurilor prin extagerea exemplarelor ru conformate, uscate sau
cu defecte, pentru instalarea i dezvoltarea speciilor instalate prin regenerare natural; (ii) n
golurile rezultate prin extragerea arborilor afectai de uscare sau cu defecte, n care exist specii
regenerate cu o stare de vegetaie activ i cretere viguroas, se impune promovarea/ajutorarea
acestora prin efectuarea lucrrilor specifice (mobilizarea solului n jurul puieilor provenii din
regenerare natural, descopleiri, degajri).
n arboretele cu goluri fr regenerare sunt necesare completri cu specii corespunztoare
staiunii, prin plantaii sau semnturi directe n teren pregtit n vetre, tblii.
76
n arboretele de pin afectate de uscare sunt necesare refaceri/substituiri n benzi cu specii

corespunztoare staiunii. Sunt obligatorii lucrrile de pregtire a solului pentru instalarea
culturilor i lucrrile de ngrijire a culturilor instalate.
Prin aplicarea metodelor de regenerare sub masiv (promovarea i valorificarea regenerrii
naturale) i/sau introducere la adpostul masivului a unor specii forestiere adecvate condiiilor
staionale, constnd de regul n plantaii i nsmnri directe, se urmrete valorificarea optim
a potenialului staiunilor de terenuri degradate ameliorate, dar i asigurarea continuitii pdurii,
evitndu-se descoperirea i expunerea solului la eroziune sau alte procese de degradare.
Bibliografie
Constandache, C. 2003. Ameliorarea i refacerea pinetelor necorespunztoare sub raport productiv i protectiv
instalate pe terenurile degradate din bazinul hidrografic al rului Putna. Tez de doctorat. Universitatea
Transilvania Braov, 298 p.
Constandache, C. 2004. Cercetri privind regenerarea sub masiv i introducerea la adpostul masivului a
unor specii autohtone valoroase, n arborete apropiate de exploatabilitate, pe terenuri degradate. Analele
ICAS, 47: 63-81
Constandache, C. 2003-2007. Cercetri/Asisten tehnic privind regenerarea sub masiv i introducerea
sub masiv a unor specii autohtone valoroase n arborete situate pe terenuri degradate. Referate tiinifice la
temele 8RA/2003; 53RC/2004; 66RC/2005, 6.3/2006-2007, ICAS Bucureti.
77
78
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Cercetari privind reconstructia

, ecologica a padurilor n
declin din incintele ndiguite, aflate n Lunca i Delta
Dunarii.
^
M. Greavu
Greavu M. 2009. Cercetri privind reconstrucia ecologic a pdurilor n declin din

incintele ndiguite, aflate n Lunca i Delta Dunrii. [Researches on ecological reconstruction of the declining forests in embanked areas located in the Danube flood
plain and Delta]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the
conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008,
Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 79-88.
Abstract. The research purpose was to determine the causes of tree stand decline in
the Danube flood plain and delta, and to find technologies for ecological reconstruction by the cultivation of species or clones resistant to the harsh natural conditions of
the area. In the flood plain of Danube, the growth regulator used for locust seedlings
which were planted 1.5-2 m deep has led after 2-3 growing seasons to contradictory
results regarding the survival rate and the average height. The plantation depth of
locust seedlings leads to differences regarding the plant growth, the ones planted
1.5-2.0 m deep having a higher survival rate and a better height growth than those
planted in normal cavities. The white poplar seedlings had similar low performances
like the root-suckers. The low percentage of seedling survival and their slow growth
were the results of the drought, grazing and damages of cockchafer grubs. Japanese
sophora, planted in normal cavities, has quite unsatisfactory results at the end of
the second growing season. In the Danubes delta, 5 years after being planted on
low hillocks and depressions (former marsh bottoms), hybrid black poplar planted
2.0 m and 2.5 m deep, white poplar, European black poplar, Grayish oak, Siberian
elm, privet and red dogwood, have a normal vegetation state and dimensions corresponding to this state. In depressions (former marsh bottoms), Siberian elm, honey
locust and Tartarian maple have much better survival rates than other species after
4 growing seasons. After 2 years, Siberian elm, locust and honey locust have the
best survival rates on middle hillocks, while in depressions (former marsh bottoms)
Siberian elm and locust have the best rates.
Key words: Danubes delta, Danubes food plain, tree stand decline, ecological reconstruction
Author. Manole Greavu - Forest Research and Management Institute, Research Station Tulcea, Isaccei st. 25, 820166 - Tulcea, Romania.
Introducere
Cercetrile din comunicarea de fa au fost determinate de apariia n perioada anterioar a unor
uscri anormale n plantaiile forestiere instalate n incintele ndiguite din Lunca i Delta Dunrii.
Aceste cercetri s-au desfurat n perioada 1997-2002 n Lunca Dunrii i 2003-2008 n Delta
79
Dunrii. Scopul cercetrilor a fost de a determina cauzele care au contribuit la declinul arboretelor
din Lunca i Delta Dunrii i de a gsi tehnologii perfecionate de reconstrucie forestier cu
promovarea n cultur a unor specii sau clone rezistente la adversiti. Cercetrile s-au desfurat
n incintele ndiguite: Vraa, Maglavit, Cioace, Rast, Bistre-Nedeea, Trup-Incinta, Viioara, Puini,
Jirlu-Chiciu, Modelu, Cernavoda Pod, Borcea de Jos, Cotul Baciului, Grindu, Preoteasa-Lata i
Rachelu din Lunca Dunrii i n incintele: Pardina, Sireasa, Ptlgeanca, Ppdia, Partizani,
Rusca, Pojarnic, Carasuhat, Blteni, Km 18 Litcov, Pestriele din Delta Dunrii. Aceste cercetri
au cuprins att condiiile staionale din incinte, ct i studiul vegetaiei forestiere. Prezenta
comunicare abordeaz doar aspectul comportrii plantaiilor din suprafeele experimentale.
Materiale i metode
n incintele ndiguite din Lunca Dunrii unde predomin psamosolurile, n scopul valorificrii
pentru plantaii a orizonturilor cu humus ori a nivelului apei freatice aflate la adncime, s-au
executat experimental plantaii cu puiei i sade ngropate la 1,5-2,0 m utilizndu-se, manual
burghiile din setul instalaiei Eijelkamp. Diametrul rezultat al gropii a fost de 10-12 cm. nainte
de plantare rdcina a fost mocirlit ntr-o compoziie de consistena smntnii constituit din o
parte pmnt vegetal, o parte blegar de grajd proaspt i o parte ap.
Pentru stimularea nrdcinrii s-a utilizat stimulatorul RADI-STIM sub form de praf ce s-a
aplicat la captul gros al sadei, iar la puiei a fost utilizat regulatorul de cretere TRANSVITAL,
dizolvat n materialul utilizat la mocirlirea rdcinilor.
Rdcinile puieilor au fost toaletate scurt (4-5 cm) pentru a putea ptrunde n groapa cu
adncimea de 1,5-2,0 m i diametrul de 10-12 cm. Totodat s-au ndeprtat toate ramurile
laterale.
Att n gropile adnci ct i n cele normale (30 x 30 x 30 cm), executate cu cazmaua s-au
administrat cte 4-5 kg pmnt vegetal.
n incintele ndiguite din Delta Dunrii, unde predomin aluvisolurile, s-au utilizat tehnicile
cunoscute de plantare.
Rezultate
a. Lunca Dunrii
Observaiile i msurtorile efectuate n octombrie 2002 au constatat modul cum s-au comportat
diversele specii, dup cum urmeaz:
- n incinta Vrata, pe un teren caracterizat ca duna joas spre medie nlimea medie atins dup
2 ani se prezint n tabelul 1.
- n incinta Cioace, pe un teren caracterizat ca o interdun, dup 2 ani msurtorile se prezint n
tabelul 1.
- n incinta Rast, pe un teren caracterizat ca o duna joas, dup 3 ani nlimea medie atins se
prezint n tabelul 2.
- n tabelul 3 se prezint rezultatele msurtorilor dup 2 ani n incinta Nisipuri, pe un teren
caracterizat ca o interdun (Nisipuri I) i o dun medie (Nisipuri II).
b. Delta Dunrii
n urma msurtorilor efectuate n luna septembrie 2008, modul cum s-au comportat diversele
specii, se prezint astfel :
- n incinta Rachelu, pe un teren caracterizat ca fost fund de balt, dimensiunile atinse dup 5 ani
se prezint n tabelul 4.
- n incinta Sireasa, pe un teren caracterizat ca fost fund de balt, nlimea puieilor atins dup
4 ani se prezint n tabelul 5.
80
81
Fr regulator
Fr regulator
0,30
0,30
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x1
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x1
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x1
2x1
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Sofora
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
40,8
48,0
50,0
70,0
35,0
54,2
58,8
40,2
40,0
57,0
31,4
14
31
65
72
90,3
181,4
59,5
96,4
48,8
107,2
100,9
31,5
32,5
30,0
42,3
nlimea
medie
(cm)
43
28
20
22
10
33
42
17
15
Suprafaa experimental Cioace Ocolul Silvic Calafat

90
Transvital
92
Fr regulator
85
Transvital
85
Fr regulator
71
Fr regulator
75
Transvital
85
Fr regulator
65
Transvital
60
Fr regulator
2,00
2,00
1,50
1,50
0,30
2,00
2,00
1,50
1,50
Distane de
plantare
(m x m)
Specii
Varianta
nr.
Rata de supravieuire
Adncimea
Regulator de
la 03.10.2002
la 20.06.2002
gropilor
cretere
(%)
(%)
(m)
Suprafaa experimental Vrata - Ocolul Silvic Vnju Mare
70
92
Transvital
2,00
83
95
Fr regulator
2,00
53
85
Transvital
1,50
47
80
Fr regulator
1,50
27
75
Fr regulator
0,30
34
78
Transvital
2,00
47
75
Fr regulator
2,00
10
72
Transvital
1,50
10
70
Fr regulator
1,50
12
74
Fr regulator
0,30
47
83
Fr regulator
0,30
Tabelul 1 Rata de supravieuire la diferite momente i nlimea medie a puieilor de doi ani n suprafeele experimentale Vrata i Cioace
Cu pmnt
vegetal
Cu pmnt
vegetal
Cu pmnt
vegetal
Cu pmnt
vegetal
Fr pmnt
vegetal
Observaii
82
Sade
Sade
Sade
Sade
Sade
Sade
Sade
Sade
Puiei
Puiei
Plop
Clona Rap
Plop
Clona Rap
Plop
Clona I 214
Plop
Clona I 214
Plop
Clona Sacrau 79
Plop
Clona Sacrau 79
Plop
Clona I LUX
Plop
Clona I LUX
Plop
Clona Sacrau 79
Plop
Clona Sacrau 79
Salcm
Salcm
10
11
12
Puiei
Puiei
Plante
Specii
(clone)
Varianta
nr.
2x2
2x2
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
5x4
Distane de
plantare
(m x m)
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
2,0
Adncimea
gropilor
(m)
Transvital
Fr regulator
Fr regulator
Transvital
Fr regulator
Radi Stim
Fr regulator
Radi Stim
Fr regulator
Radi Stim
Fr regulator
Radi Stim
Regulator de
cretere
65
62
32
35
44
46
53
50
33
35
38
44
la 02.10.2002
(%)
Tabelul 2 Rata de supravieuire i nlimea medie a puieilor de trei ani i a sadelor n suprafaa experimental Rast, O. S. Poiana Mare
105,5
59,6
73,0
59,0
82,5
163,3
97,5
121,1
85,0
180,0
91,7
104,3
nlimea
medie
(cm)
Observaii
83
Specii
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Plop alb
Salcm
Salcm
Salcm
Sofora
Varianta nr.
10
11
12
13
14
2x2
2x1
2x1
2x2
2x1
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x1
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
Distane de
plantare
(m x m)
Regulator de
cretere
la 21.06.2002
(%)
Fr regulator
Fr regulator
Transvital
Fr regulator
Transvital
Fr regulator
Fr regulator
Transvital
Fr regulator
Transvital
50
55
43
65
60
73
78
88
74
85
1,50
0,30
0,30
2,00
85
86
60
85
Suprafaa experimental Nisipuri - II - Ocolul Silvic Corabia
0,30
1,50
1,50
2,00
2,00
0,30
1,50
1,50
2,00
2,00
Suprafaa experimental Nisipuri - I - Ocolul Silvic Corabia
Adncimea
gropilor
(m)
46
30
5
50
20
20
28
30
40
33
40
Rata de
supravieuire la
3.10.2002
(%)
70
65
15
80
20
20
25
80
35
40
35
nlimea
medie
(cm)
Observaii
Tabelul 3 Rata de supravieuire la diferite momente i nlimea medie a puieilor de doi ani n suprafeele experimentale Nisipuri I i Nisipuri II, O.S. Corabia
84
Seciunea
180
200
400
300
200
200
Plop cenuiu
Ulm
Lemn cinesc
Snger
150
Stejar brumriu
Plop negru
250
Salcm
Plop alb
63
180
Plop I 214
63
63
63
63
Nr. puiei
plantai
Plop Sacrau
Plop I 214
Plop I 214
Plop I 214
Plop I 214
Specii
Varianta
6,9
7,6
9,9
8,5
5,9
10,7
10,3
13,8
13,3
11,3
9,6
Diametrul mediu
(cm )
1,85
2,85
6,10
2,40
6,30
6,45
7,18
6,10
7,50
8,21
10,26
10,45
9,36
8,40
nlimea medie
(m )
Observaii
Puiei in gropi normale
S-au plantat sade la adncimea

de 2,5 m

de 2,0 m

de 1,5 m

de 1 m
Tabelul 4 Diametrul mediu i nlimea puieilor de cinci ani i a sadelor n suprafaa experimental Rachelu, O.s. Mcin
Tabelul 5 Rata de supravieuire i nlimea medie a puieilor n suprafeele experimentale Sireasa i Pardina, O.S. Tulcea
Seciunea
Varianta
Vrtsa
(ani)
Rata de supravieuire (%)
nlimea
medie (m)
Observaii
Plantaia experimental Sireasa Ocolul Silvic Tulcea

A
B
Salcm
Gldi
Plop alb
Frasin comun
Pr
Ulm
Arar ttresc
Tei
Mojdrean
Stejar brumriu
Arar american
Frasin comun
Ulm
Arar ttresc
Mce
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
77,4
91,5
91,2
73,0
43,7
98,5
61,0
22,5
41,7
83,0
54,0
75,3
73,2
61,5
435,0
162,5
125,0
85,0
91,0
280,7
105,0
25,0
46,0
120,0
110,0
122,5
121,6
141,3
Plantaia experimental Pardina Ocolul Silvic Tulcea

A
B1
B2
Plop alb
Salcm
Frasin pufos
Frasin pufos
Ulm de Turkestan
Stejar brumriu
Frasin pufos
Ulm de Turkestan
Mce
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
11
84
31
19
91
15,0
55,0
83,0
37,0
32
69
47
69,6
63,3
20,3
51,8
38,5
25,6
- n incinta Partizani, comportarea speciilor forestiere dup 2 ani (pe un teren caracterizat ca un
fost grind mijlociu) respectiv dup un an (pe un teren caracterizat ca fiind o ntinsur de grind)
nlimile medii se prezint n tabelul 6.
Discutii
,
a. Lunca Dunrii
Din analiza rezultatelor msurtorilor efectuate n luna octombrie 2002 n incintele ndiguite
Vrata, Cioace, Rast i Nisipuri (tabelele 1, 2, 3) se constat urmtoarele:
- Regulatorul de cretere utilizat la puieii de salcm plantai la adncimea de 1,5-2,0 m dup 23 ani de vegetaie a condus la rezultate contradictorii sub aspectul procentului de meninere i a
nlimii medii realizate. nlimea medie atins a fost cuprins ntre 48,8-181,4 cm (Vrata); 35,0
-70,0 cm (Cioace); 5,96-105,5 cm (Rast) i 25,0-80,0 cm (Nisipuri).
- Puieii de salcm plantai la adncimea de 1,5-2,0 m prezint nlimi medii de 59,5-181,4
cm (Vrata); 40,8-70,0 cm (Cioace), 5,96-105,5 cm (Rast) i 35,0-80,0 cm (Nisipuri), n timp ce
puieii de salcm plantai la 0,30 cm au nlimi medii de 48,8 cm (Vrata), 35,0 cm (Cioace); 25,0
cm (Nisipuri I) i 65 cm (Nisipuri II). Procentele de meninere la puieii plantai la adncimea de
85
Tabelul 6 Rata de supravieuire la diferite momente i nlimea medie a puieilor n suprafeele experi
mentale Partizani I i Partizani II, O.S. Rusca
Rata de
Rata de
SecNr.
supraviesupravienlimea
Vrsta
iuSpecii
puiei
uire la
uire la
medie
(ani)
nea
plantai
01.06.2008 24.09.2008
(m)
(% )
(%)
Plantaia experimental Partizani I
2
A
Plop alb
175
86,1
75,0
2
Salcm
252
91,3
210,0
B1
2
Gldi
189
70,3
98,3
2
Frasin pufos
189
54,3
65,0
B2
2
Ulm de Turkestan
189
89,0
111,7
2
Stejar br
378
29,5
18,0
2
55,7
86,7
Frasin pufos
252
C
2
Ulm de Turkestan
192
97,0
102,0
2
Mce
186
34,4
65,0
Plantaia experimentala Partizani II
1
Plop alb prov. Stncua
63
82,5
76,19
160
1
Plop alb prov. Letea IV
15
65,9
46,67
130
A
1
Plop negru prov. Lacu Srat
65
84,3
78,46
210
1
Plop negru prov. Vadu Oii
13
73,4
69,23
200
1
Salcm
189
95,5
86,3
153,0
B1
1
Gldi
189
97,7
88,7
118,3
1
Frasin pufos
189
60,5
29,7
76,7
B2
1
Frasin viridis
189
83,7
71,7
80,0
1
20,0
72,4
54,3
378
Stejar br
1
20,0
49,5
6,0
32
Frasin pufos
1
76,4
84,0
88,5
C
Frasin viridis
157
1
63,8
81,3
189
93,5
Ulm de Turkestan
1
85,3
95,7
81,1
189
Mce
1,5-2,0 m au fost ntre 47-83% (Vrata), 20-43% (Cioace), 30-40 % (Nisipuri I), 46-50% (Nisipuri
II), n vreme ce la puieii plantai la adncimea de 30 cm au fost de 27 % (Vrata), 10% (Cioace),
28% (Nisipuri I), 30% (Nisipuri II).
- n blocul Nisipuri II, sofora prezint dup 2 ani un procent de meninere de doar 5%, iar
nlimea medie este de doar 15,0 cm.
b. Delta Dunrii
Din analiza rezultatelor msurtorilor efectuate n luna septembrie 2008 n incinta Rachelu
(tabelul 4) se constat c dup 5 ani de la plantare pe grinduri joase i lsturi (foste funduri de
balt), prezint o stare normal de vegetaie i au dimensiuni corespunztoare, sadele de plop
euramerican plantate la adncimea de 2,0 m si 2,5 m, plopul alb, plopul negru, stejarul brumriu,
ulmul de Turkestan, lemnul cinesc i sngerul.
Analiznd msurtorile efectuate n luna septembrie 2008 n incintele Sireasa i Pardina (tabelul
5) se constat urmtoarele c dup 4 ani de vegetaie pe lsturi (foste funduri de balt), prezint
procente de meninere mai bune ulmul de Turkestan, gldia i ararul ttrsc.
- Msurtorile efectuate n luna septembrie 2008 n incinta Partizani (tabelul 6) au dus la constatri
diferite n cele dou suprafee experimentale. Dup 2 ani de vegetaie prezint procente mai bune
de meninere pe grinduri mijlocii ulmul de Turkestan, salcmul i gldi, iar pe lsturi (foste
funduri de balt) ulmul de Turkestan i salcmul, iar dup un an de vegetaie prezint procente
mai bune de meninere pe grinduri joase i pe ntinsuri de grind, ulmul, frasinul de balt, gldia,
plopul alb i plopul negru.
86
Concluzii
Cercetrile efectuate n Lunca Dunrii au artat c:
Regulatorul de cretere utilizat la puieii de salcm plantai la adncimea de 1,5-2,0 m dup 23 ani de vegetaie a condus la rezultate contradictorii sub aspectul procentului de meninere i a
nlimii medii realizate.
Adncimea la plantare a puieilor de salcm conduce la diferenieri n favoarea celor plantai la
1,5-2,0 m fa de cei plantai n gropi normale. Puieii plantai la adncimea de 1,5-2,0 m prezint
att procente de meninere ct i nlimi mai mari dect cei plantai n gropi normale.
Dup completrile efectuate n primvara 2002, utiliznd puiei de plop alb numai din smn
(reniuri naturale), comportarea plopului alb a fost la fel de modest ca i n anul 2001 atunci cnd
s-a ncercat explicarea slabei comportri pe seama provenienei puieilor din drajoni.
Procentele de meninere reduse i nlimile mici nregistrate de puiei la controlul din toamna
2002 se pot pune pe seama secetei din prima parte a sezonului de vegetaie, dar i a distrugerii de
ctre punat (suprafeele Cioace, Rast) sau de ctre larvele de crbui (suprafaa Nisipuri I).
Rezultatele experimentrii, n blocul Rast, a diferite clone de plop e.a. cu sade i puiei plantai
la adncimi de 1,5-2,0 m sunt total influenate de punatul din zon. Procentele de meninere
i nlimea nu reflect potenialul staiunii valorificabil prin plantare la adncimea de 1,5-2,0
m. O dovad o constituie un exemplar de plop din clona I 214 provenit din sada care a scpat
de la distrugere prin punare i a atins, dup 3 ani de vegetaie, nlimea de 5,20 m. Restul
exemplarelor sunt inute sub form de tuf prin punare repetat.
Sofora plantat n gropi normale, dup completarea golurilor n primvara 2002, prezint
rezultate slabe la finele celui de al doilea an de vegetaie.
n Delta Dunrii, dup 5 ani de la plantare pe grinduri joase i lsturi (foste funduri de
balt), prezint o stare normala de vegetaie i au dimensiuni corespunztoare: sadele de plop
euramerican plantate la adncimea de 2,0 m i 2,5 m, plopul alb, plopul negru, stejarul brumriu,
ulmul de Turkestan, lemnul cinesc i sngerul.
Dup 4 ani de vegetaie pe lsturi (foste funduri de balt) prezint procente de meninere mai
bune ulmul de Turkestan, gldia i ararul ttrsc.
Dup 2 ani de vegetaie prezint procente mai bune de meninere pe grinduri mijlocii ulmul
de Turkestan, salcmul i gldi, iar pe lsturi (foste funduri de balt), ulmul de Turkestan i
salcmul.
Dup un an de vegetaie prezint procente mai bune de meninere pe grinduri joase i pe
ntinsuri de grind ulmul, frasinul de balt, gldia, plopul alb i plopul negru.
87
88
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Aerodynamic study of forest shelter belts (wind

breaks)
^
T. T. Oradean
Ordean T.T. 2009. Aerodynamic study of forest shelter belts (wind breaks). In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest
Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 89-90.
Abstract. The paper represents a very succinct restrospective on the aerodynamic
study of forest shelter belts that was initiated in 1949 by the Romanian Academy of
Science. There are mentioned the scientists involved in that project and their main
activities. Their work is regarded as of unquestionably high priority.
Key words:
Author. Titus-Traian Ordean - EUROTEC Development & Traiding, Conteti St.
6B, 051711 - Bucharest, Romania.
Among the specific objectives of this conference is the presentation of the most recent achievements
of forest scientific research. These are directed especially towards the priorities required by
sustainable management in a changing environment and altered socio-economic contexts.
I intend, however, to recall little-known research which was carried out nearly sixty years ago,
ignored in the turmoil of the fifties, but now making a timely comeback in the present crucial
state of the natural environment. This research was concerned with the aerodynamic study of
forest shelter belts and was initiated in 1949 by the Romanian Academy of Science, which had
just been re-organised in line with the political constraints of that period. Rigid government
policy uncompromisingly required that applicative research must take precedence over basic pure
research.
In order to save from outside interference some valuable basic research that was under way,
including that of aerodynamics, academician Traian Svulescu, the acting president of the
Academy, introduced a clever initiative which relied on the trend to plant forest shelter belts
nearly everywhere, following the Soviet example. He set up a joint team of scientists and
researchers in forestry and aerodynamics which was circumstantially called the Collective for
Applied Mechanics.
This joint team was led by the famous scientist and academician Elie Carafoli and Dr. Ion
Lupe, an enthusiastic researcher in dry climate forestry and shelter belts. Hierarchically the team
belonged to the Institute for Applied Mechanics.
The already existing context for justifying starting the work was that in Romania forest
research had a notable tradition of achievement going back to the mid- nineteenth century
and many well-grown plantations of shelter belts protecting croplands existed. Windbreaks
89
along railway lines were also available. In the field of aerodynamics the theory of hyper-lift of
permeable wing surfaces, elaborated by academician Elie Carafoli was recognised worldwide,
and had been successfully applied in the field of supersonic aviation. This theory found a most
suitable application in the advanced research regarding the increase of the protecting efficiency
of penetrable and semi-penetrable shelter belts and wind breaks.
The joint team included some of Carafolis close co-workers such as Prof. Nicolae Tipei and
Ion Stroescu, while from the forestry side came Dr. Ion Lupe, Dr. Atanasie Haralamb and Dr.
Teodor Blnic. I myself was junior assistant, and I am probably the last surviving member of
that team.
The planning of the work had two stages: a general field survey together with dendrological,
anemometrical and auxological measurements, followed by a simulation in the wind tunnel of
the Polytechnical School of Bucharest (nowadays the Technical University of Bucharest). The
fieldwork was performed at the Stud of Mangalia, southward of Constanza which possessed a
large area for fodder crop covered by a grid of 400 x 400m precincts.
These were protected by a mature vegetation of trees and shrubs which were well-adapted to
the local climate and appropriate for shaping a suitable profile of the belt.
The anemometric measurements established the wind speed at varying distances from the belt
itself, enabling the construction of accurate diagrams. The time of year for the field work was
deliberately chosen to coincide with the highest intensity and frequency of local spring winds.
In order to make the air flow visible smoke-producing candles, made by the ingenious Ion
Stroescu, were successfully used. Concomitantly, an inventory of the xerophytic trees and shrubs
of the nearby forest of Comarova was also made.
Back in Bucharest the foresters started an evaluation of the collected data and the physicists
manufactured models for the wind tunnel simulation. The culmination of all this work on
developing the efficiency of shelter belts was Ion Stroescus ingenious solution of a proposed
multi-layer network consisting of copper wire and textile tufts.
Unfortunately the records of this experiment are not yet recovered, but the search for them
is continuing because they can testify that the comprehensive research performed by this team
constituted work of unquestionably high priority. It is obvious that considerable progress has
subsequently been made, especially since the sixties and seventies, not only in Europe but also
in Asia and Australia, as well as in both the Americas. The global changes and their impact on
forests and agriculture will give a boost to large-scale afforestation projects and the planting of
forest shelter belts, grounded on hi-tech methods and up-to-date approaches.
Remembering the pioneering work done sixty years ago, however, serves to recognise and
prize these forerunners for their tenacity and ingenuity, working as they did under stern political
conditions. Their achievements surely serve to stimulate the new generation to attain the highest
level in their own praiseworthy and valuable work in afforestation.
90
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Local networks of forest shelterbelts solution to

achieve a national plan
M. M. Vasilescu, C. C. Tereneu
Vasilescu M. M., Tereneu C. C. 2009. Local networks of forest shelterbelts solution to achieve a national plan. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.),
Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment,
October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS,
pp. 91-98.
Abstract. The establishment of a forest shelterbelts national network seems to be
one of the most indicated solution for Romanian agriculture in a changing environment. Political support (law of forest shelterbelts 289/2002), a few projects
regarding the achievement of national network of forest shelterbelts elaborated
by ICAS and an academic meeting regarding this topic are such a proof. The paper presents a proposal to achieve using the local networks of forest shelterbelts
that will be afterwards integrated in a national system. This thing may happen
through standard farms based on special agro-technique including forest shelterbelts. Using FRISCO formula, the authors try to find out the most important
criteria that could convince the managers and landowners to adopt the system
of model farms. The study is based on the experience and results regarding the
influence of a few forest shelterbelts on protected areas during the last seven
years.
Key words: local networks of forest shelterbelts, multi-criteria analysis.
Authors. Maria Magdalena Vasilescu, Cornel Cristian Tereneu - Transylvania University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, irul Beethoven
St. 1, 500123 - Braov, Romania.
Introduction
The plan of the forest shelterbelts national network becomes more and more visible in a changing
environment. The achievement of this plan involves at least two important factors: the legislative
support and the presence of specialists (Figure 1).
An operational political background exists today in Romania, as the law on forest shelterbelts
(289/2002) and a few legal paragraphs of the new law on forestry (46/2008) IV Sustainable
development of the national forests, chapter I, articles 90, 91 and 101 especially (Anonymous
2008) corroborate it. Thanks to that, the financement of the forest shelterbelts national network
is officially approved, supported by a better management of the finances related to land resources
and forest conservation, by government budget allocations and other resources. Landowners are
besides the persons who consent to the change of the land use and who approve the establishment
of forest shelterbelts; they receive an annual compensation whose amount is close to the equivalent
of the crop expected from these lands.
91
Fig. 1 Diagram of the solution to achieve a national forest shelterbelts plan
At the same time, ICAS specialists made significant research work on the scientific background
and elaborated feasibility studies, in order to support the establishment of a forest shelterbelts
national network. Both a favorable political background and a scientific support ever exist
today.
The success of the forest shelterbelts national network might be reached through the promotion
of a model of farm organized according to specific principles. This notion includes forest
shelterbelts in the agro-technique. A model farm pilot implementation would be the best way
to popularize forest shelterbelts and could generate new forest shelterbelts local networks after
Photo 1 Local network of forest shelterbelts proposal for Romanian fields
92
requirement expressed by landowners and legal representatives of agricultural exploitations.

The aim of this research paper is to mark the role of different criteria contributing to the
establishment of forest shelterbelts local networks.
The study used the existent data regarding the political background that supports the establishment
of forest shelterbelts, data regarding the situation of arable surfaces in Teleorman County,
information regarding the influence of forest shelterbelts on climatic elements and agricultural
crops in Boian and Burnaz fields (Vasilescu 2007, Vasilescu et al. 2007). The research paper also
outlines the impact of knowledge in three process cases (the implicated persons being specialists
in silviculture, agricultural exploitations representatives, landowners). This application is based
on field real situations (pictures 2, 3 and 4) and on agronomists concerns too.
Trying to apply the FRISCO formula (created by a research group from San Francisco SUA),
the most used and performing in the world (Bobancu & Cioc 2003, Bobancu 2008), i (a weight
factor) was computed for different criteria.
i =
p + p + m + 0.5
N
p '+ crt
2
in where:
p is the sum of the points (on a row) scored by the element to be analysed; p is the difference
between the score of this element and the score of the element on the last level; if the element
to be analysed is on the last level, p will have the value 0; m is a number of criteria outranked
(standpoint of the score) by the criterion to be studied; N crt is a number of criteria; p ' is the
difference between the score of the criteria studied and the score of the first criteria (resulting in
a negative value); if the criteria to be evaluated is the one place on the first level, the result will
be 0.
This mathematic solution gives a realistic characterization, without ambiguities. Seven criteria
were analyzed in three variants: 1 - influence of forest shelterbelts on climatic elements; 2 - effects
of forest shelterbelts on agricultural crops; 3 - legislative background; 4 - financial support; 5 feasibility studies and research on scientific background; 6 - model farm; 7 - popularization.
The table 1 is illustrating a case of study in one county where shelterbelts are necessary, comparing
the situation regarding the arable surface and the surface owned by agricultural exploitations
(land managed in individual farms) between 2000 and 2004. The differences between the two
categories of surface are 306,545 ha in 2000, 271,216 ha in 2001, 244,578 ha in 2002, 233,415
ha in 2003 and 221,244 ha in 2004. The new situation makes possible the establishment of forest
shelterbelts in large areas.
The agricultural exploitations can be either commercial enterprises (according to the law
31/1990) or joint stock and family partnership (according to the law 36/1991). The situation of
agricultural exploitations in 2000-2004 emphasizes the increase of their number in comparison
with 2000 (Table 2).
The weight factor of the multi-criteria analysis is assessed by calculating
i in a Latin grid.
93
Table 1 Arable surface and surface in agricultural exploitations in Teleorman County

Arable surface
ha
% from 2000
449,855
449,574
99.9
450,693
100.1
451,653
100.4
455,487
101.2
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Arable surface in agricultural exploitations

ha
% from 2000
143,310
178,358
124.4
206,115
143.8
218,238
152.2
234,243
163.8
Table 2 Evolution of agricultural exploitations in Teleorman, 2000-2004

Number of exploitations
Values
% from 2000
185
279
150.8
394
212.9
526
284.3
531
287
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Managed surface
ha
% from 2000
143,310
178,358
124.4
206,115
143.8
218,238
152.2
234,243
163.8
Mean surface of
exploitations, ha
774.6
639.3
523.1
414.9
441.1
The criterion on a row is compared with the criterion on a column; when the first one is the most
important, the value 1 is assigned; when the first one is equally important as the second one,
the value 0.5 is assigned; when the first one is less important than the second one, the value 0 is
assigned. Each variant is analysed in turn, through each criterion, until all variants are assessed.
At the end, the sum of these products is calculated; the sums (usually unique values, associated to
each variant) will determine the final classification (Bobancu & Cioc 2003, Bobancu 2008).
We propose brainstorming meetings to choose the best criterion to take into account and to find
out the importance of every criterion for each variant. We present below an example (tables 3
and 4) with three variants: 1 specialists in silviculture, 2 legal representatives of agricultural
exploitations and 3 landowners.
The importance of criteria from each variant, N i , can be modified in a brainstorming meeting
with all implicated categories. The study outlines the actual situation (reflected in pictures 2-4)
regarding the knowledge about criteria. This situation could be improved for the variants 2 and
3.
There are two other actions the requestors need: pilot implementation and popularization. The
establishment of a model farm contributes with 18.53% ( i ,% ) to the calculation of final top of
Table 3 Calculation of the weight factors
Criteria
rank
i (% )
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
-2.5
0.416
2.93
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
3.5
4.5
1.5
-1.5
1.5
10.59
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
4.5
1.5
2.5
3.571
25.21
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
4.5
1.5
2.5
3.571
25.21
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2.5
0.5
-2
0.818
5.77
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
4.0
-0,5
2.625
18.53
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
3.5
4.5
1.5
-1
1.666
11.56
94
Table 4 Top of the variants

Variant 1
Criteria
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Final top
Variant 2
Variant 3
Ni
Ni i
Ni
Ni i
Ni
Ni i
0.416
1.5
3.571
3.571
0.818
2.625
1.666
8
8
10
9
9
5
6
3.328
12
37.71
32.139
7.362
13.125
9.996
113.66
7
8
8
7
7
5
6
2.912
12
28.568
24.997
5.726
13.125
9.996
97.324
6
7
6
6
6
5
6
2.496
10.5
21.426
21.426
4.908
13.125
9.996
83.877
Photo 2 Wheat crop protected by a shelterbelt in the Boian field
Photo 3 Field without shelterbelt in Teleorman County
95
Photo 4 Unused irrigation channel in the Boian field
the analysed variants (N i i ). The higher values of i are met in the case of political background
including financial support (25.21%). The next criterion i (% ) is the popularization at two levels.
We called this : target and en masse. First one is advertisement to legal representatives of
agricultural exploitations. They have the quality to require political support, feasibility studies,
research on scientific background to solve landowners problems. Popularizing shelterbelts by
sending data to landowners encourages the representatives of agricultural exploitations too.
Prof. dr. eng. Marian Ianculescu is the initiator of the shelterbelt law and one protagonist of
the shelterbelt popularization. This emphasizes the importance of specific information and the
obligation of the other specialists also.
Conclusion
The example of multi-criteria analysis in the problem of forest shelterbelts emphasizes the fact
that establishing a classification at the same time quantitative and qualitative is useful. Following
seven criteria (the influence of forest shelterbelts on climatic elements, effects of forest shelterbelts
on agricultural crops, legislative background, financial support, feasibility studies and research on
scientific background, model farm and popularization) the method involves an increased degree
of objectivity by calculating the weight factor of each criterion.
Political background and financial support to forest shelterbelts are uncertain information for
landowners and legal representatives of agricultural exploitations, even if that the effect on crops
in protected fields is well known.
The application of this method shows that a better popularization aiming at encouraging the
building of a forest shelterbelts national network and pilot implementations through a model farm
(a forest shelterbelts local network) are actions contributing to the achievement of the national
plan.
References
Anonymous 2008. Codul silvic (Legislation in silviculture). Monitorul oficial, 27 March 2008, Bucharest,
pp. 2-19.
Bobancu, ., Cioc V. 2003. Inovare inginereasc n design (Engineering innovation in design). University
96
Transilvania of Braov, Braov, 274 p.

Bobancu, . 2008. Using the multi-criteria analysis (MCA) in the drafting of doctorate papers. Annals of the
Oradea University, Fascicle of Management and Technological Engineering, volume VII (XVII), Oradea,
pp.1933-1936.
Vasilescu, M. M. 2007. Cercetri privind fundamentarea tiinific a instalrii unei reele optime de perdele
forestiere de protecie a cmpului i a cilor de comunicaie din Cmpiile Boianului i Burnazului (Research
on the scientific background for the optimal establishment of forest shelterbelts network to protect the plain
and communication ways in the Boian and Burnaz fields). PhD thesis, University Transilvania of Braov,
Braov, 257 p.
Vasilescu, M. M., Tereneu, C.C., Candrea, B. 2007. Research on the effects of forest shelterbelts on
agricultural crops. In Proceedings IUFRO Conference on Forest Landscape Restoration, 7-19 May 2007,
Seoul, pp. 257-258.
97
98

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Evolutia
, conceptului european de gestionare a padurii i incidenta
, asupra silviculturii romneti
P. Bradosche
Bradosche P. 2009. Evoluia conceptului european de gestionare a pdurii i incidena

asupra silviculturii romneti. [Evolution of the European concept of forest management and the incidence on the Romanian silviculture] In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M.,
Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 99-116.
Abstract. It is presented a short overview of the evolution of the forest management
concept since the beginning of forestry until now, at the European level, and how it
affected the evolution of the Romanian forests in different periods. Highlighted are
some phenomena that have negatively affected the forests and marked significant
changes in how to deal with forestry, namely: overexploitation, acid rain and global
climate change. Finally it is emphasizes the need, also in Romania, for the development of research programs able to give coherent answers to questions put in the front
of forestry in a increasingly uncertain future.
Key words: forest management, evolution, Romanian silviculture
Author. Petre Bradosche - Fr. Manoir de Lurcy, France.
1. tiina forestier s-a nscut n secolul al XVIII-lea n rile de limba german i s-a dezvoltat,
cu un puternic caracter naturalist, n secolul urmtor n Frana.
Ea a aprut din teama c lemnul va
lipsi generaiilor viitoare, dup ce, n secolul al XVI-lea se produsese prima mare criz de lemn
din Europa. Aceast criz, provocat de creterea demografic, a fost amplificat de dezordinele
sociale produse n Frana de rzboiul de 100 de ani, iar n rile germanice de dezvoltarea
impetuoas a industriei, care folosea lemnul drept combustibil.
Mai prevztori i mai organizai, germanii s-au preocupat de timpuriu de prevenirea previzibil a lipsei de lemn i, pe lng numeroase tratate publicate nc din secolul al XVI-lea, au
nfiinat un numr impresionant de coli forestiere, multe efemere, din care unele mai dinuie i
i pstreaz renumele pn n zilele noastre.
Ca un altoi pe tiina forestier german, s-a dezvoltat coala francez, aducnd propria sa
contribuie, constituit din cunotine aprofundate de tiine naturale, n special de botanic i de
fiziologia vegetal, ajungnd ca la finele secolului al XIX-lea s-i concureze tutorele.
2. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pdurea a fost exploatat n crng, lemnul fiind folosit mai ales drept
combustibil; odat cu cererea de lemn de dimensiuni mari (n special pentru marin) tratamentul
a evoluat de la crngul compus spre codru i n acest fel s-a generalizat, pentru aproape dou
secole, tratamentul zis tire et aire (tieri cu rezerve sau seminceri).
nc din aceast perioad, se puteau distinge pduri cultivate, n care omul intervenea potrivit
99
unor reguli (n general prescrise pentru exploatare) i pduri virgine sau quai-virgine, n care
intervenia omului era aproape nul. n Europa, pduri virgine mai existau nc n secolul al XIXlea n rile din sud-estul Europei, datorndu-i existena lipsei cilor de acces.
Pentru a cultiva pdurea, condiia necesar este s se realizeze n prealabil lucrrile de punere n valoare a ei, fr care intervenia calificat a omului n pdure nu este posibil. Acestea
constau n principal din: delimitarea i materializarea conturului pdurii, elaborarea studiului
de organizare i planificare a lucrrilor n pdure pentru ca s se amelioreze productivitatea,
(amenajamentul), precum i construcia cilor de transport, fr care accesul n pdure i
respectiv executarea lucrrilor silviculturale nu sunt posibile. Primele rudimente de amenajament
se regsesc n rapoartele fcute cu ocazia inspeciilor din pdurile landurilor germane.
3. ncepnd cu a doua jumatate a secolului al XIX-lea, marele capital a fost atras de pieele cu
rentabilitate ridicat pe care le oferea exploatarea masivelor forestiere virgine, intacte, care se
mai gseau n rile din aceast parte a Europei. n Slovacia, Galiia, Bucovina, Bosnia i rile
Romne se mai gseau asemenea pduri, cu arborete mbtrnite, inaccesibile; numai cteva ci
fluviale permiteau evacuarea de cantiti relativ reduse, de buteni de rinoase.
Este util de tiut cum au fost puse n valoare i administrate pdurile din Vechiul Regat
al Romniei i din Bucovina, ncepnd cu a doua jumatate a secolului al XIX-lea i pn la
rentregirea Romniei Mari.
n Bucovina, smuls rii prin hotrrea imperiilor vecine dominante, pdurile aparinnd
bisericii au rmas n proprietatea acesteia i, fiind puse sub administraie autonom, erau tutelate de autoritatea imperial. Suprafaa pdurilor Fondului bisericesc bucovinean era apreciabil;
ea reprezenta aproape o treime din suprafaa pdurilor proprietatea Statului din Vechiul Regat.
n Vechiul Regat domnitorul Cuza a adus statului, prin secularizarea averilor mnstireti, un
important patrimoniu funciar, evaluat la ceva mai puin de un million de ha de pdure. Acesta
au fost ncredinate direct Administraiei de stat, la nceput Ministerului de Finane, ulterior
Ministerului Agriculturii, Industriei, Comerului i Domeniilor, fr s se stabileasc politica
economic a gestionarii lor.
Pdurile din Bucovina au fost supuse unui rudiment de regim silvic (Orndueala lui Iosif al
II-lea din 1785), cu 50 de ani mai devreme dect cele din Vechiul Regat (Legiuirea domnitorului
Mihai Sturza din 1843/1847).
Agenii forestieri (silvicultori sau cu grad superior) din Vechiul Regat au fost formai n Frana
sau n colile naionale, cei din Bucovina n colile din cadrul imperiului austriac.
Amenajarea pdurile Fondului bisericesc (mai mult sau mai puin detaliat) a fost complet
teminat nainte de sfritul secolului al XIX-lea, cele din Vechiul Regat 50 de ani mai trziu.
Politica forestier urmat n cele dou ri a fost complet diferit, ncepnd de la punerea n
valoare a pdurii, a modului de valorificare a produselor i sfrind cu regenerarea ei. Obiectivul
Administraiei de Stat n Vechiul Regat a fost realizarea de venituri imediate, fr investiii i cu
minimum de efort financiar (n parte i din cauza lipsei de personal).
Este de remarcat c recomandrile fcute de forestieri francezi (chemai pentru organizarea
activitii forestiere), privind punerea n valoare (delimitarea i materializarea fondului forestier,
ntocmirea de amenajamente provizorii pentru valorificarea pdurile mbatrnite, construcia de
drumuri de acces, vnzarea lemnului prin licitaie public, pe numr de arbori i nu pe suprafaa
de pdure .a.) nu au fost urmate i practica dezastruoas a concesiunilor pe suprafee mari i pe
termene lungi s-a continuat, timp de aproape 40 de ani, pn n primul deceniu al secolului XX.
Timp de zeci de ani, administraia rigid a Statului s-a cantonat ntr-un centralism i birocratism
O situaie deosebit prezentau pdurile din Vechiul Regat al Romniei, situate n apropierea satelor, din care locuitorii
extrgeau, pe alese, lemnul, de care aveau nevoie, potrivit unor drepturi ancestrale. n acest fel, din numeroase pduri de
cmpie i de deal au fost eliminate exemplarele cele mai frumoase, din speciile cele mai valoroase, stejarul i bradul.
100
excesiv.
n Bucovina, politica Fondului bisericesc, cu prevederi pe termen lung, s-a adaptat succesiv
condiiilor pieii adoptnd o administraie supl, avnd ca preocupare punerea n valoare a
pdurilor. Astfel, dup o scurt perioad, n timpul creia pdurile au fost puse n exploatare sub
form de concesiuni pe durate limitate la 10 ani, n scopul de a-i asigura mijloacele financiare
necesare, administraia Fondului constatnd c instalaiile de transport construite de antreprenori
nu erau satisfctoare i nici durabile, a trecut la execuia lor n regie. S-au elaborat dou programe de investiii de cte 10 ani, pe baza crora s-a obinut finanarea lucrrilor prin contractarea
de credite pe termen lung, pe durate de 40 de ani.
Instalaiile de transport, concepute unitar pe mari uniti forestiere, au fost realizate cu
o competen, ntr-un ritm i de o calitate care au constituit un exemplu la timpul respectiv.
Executarea ansamblului lucrrilor care compun ciclul de producie a unui arboret i care i asigur
perenitatea: exploatarea, regenerarea i operaiile de cultur pe toat durata existenii lui, au fost
urmrite n Bucovina ca un tot unitar, n toat succesiunea lor, consecvent i cu regularitate,
conservnd compoziia de origine a arboretului i perpetuarea pdurii prin specii pe care natura
nsi le selecionase.
Este necesar s se fac lectura integral a documentelor din vremea respectiv, inclusiv a relatrilor celor care au asistat la adunarea din 20 iunie 1897 de la Cernui, pentru a se spulbera
ideile greite care sunt nc vehiculate n Romnia.
Rezultatul aplicrii exemplarea a silviculturii clasice, (att cea german ct i cea francez
prescriau punerea n valoare n acelai fel), este ilustrat prin cele trei hri, care arat cum s-au
dispersat tierile n cadrul ocolului silvic Suha n mai puin de 30 de ani, ca urmare a realizrii
programului de construcie a drumurilor (Fig. 1).
Dup o perioad n care s-au ncercat diferite tratamente, cu rezultate mai mult sau mai puin
reuite, soarta pdurilor lumii a fost marcat, ncepnd cu cea de-a doua jumtate a secolului
al XX-lea de dou fenomene importante, care au perturbat substanial ecosistemul forestier i
anume: (i) ploile acide care au afectat o parte din pdurile Europei centrale, i (ii)
deteriorarea
generalizat a climatului la nivel planetar.
Perturbri datorate factorilor abiotici (vntul, furtunile, grindina, zpada, ngheul .a.) s-au
produs ntotdeauna (dup cum rezult din cronica lui Hamm -1976) i fac parte din condiiile
naturale de formare a ecosistemului forestier; o cretere a frecvenei lor din ultima sut de ani
se explic prin nregistrarea lor mai riguroas. Este adevrat c intervenia factorului antropic a
favorizat adeseori acest lucru.
Dac silvicultura clasic s-a nscut din teama ca va lipsi lemnul, silvicultura modern se
nate din teama ca pdurea temperat1 va dispare, dup cum a disprut pdurea din Africa
de nord.
4. Ploile acide, produse acum vreo 40 de ani, cu efecte dezastroase asupra pdurii temperate din
Europa central au sensibilizat opinia european asupra internaionalizrii pericolului polurii
atmosferei.2
n urma conveniei de la Geneva din 1979 s-a adoptat Programul internaional de evaluare
Pdurea temperat, ocup cea mai mare parte a fondului forestier al Europei i se mparte n dou mari zone:
a. pdurea temperat rece, format din conifere i foioase, situat n nord-estul Europei i pdurea de foioase i
rinoase din centrul i estul Europei (n care se cuprind i pdurile Romniei);
b. Pdurea temperat de munte mijlociu i nalt, din centrul i apusul Europei, inclusiv pdurea din Balcani.
Pdurea temperat se caracterizeaz printr-o structur vertical i compoziie foarte variabil, este alctuit dintr-un
numr apreciabil de specii, cu o faun i flor diversificat, cu o adaptare strict la variaiile sezoniere, cu numeroase
perturbaii i stabilitate ecologic variabil, dar cu o dinamic forestier de succesiune intens.
Pdurea boreal din nordul Norvegiei i al Finlandei, ca i pdurea subtropical, mediteranean, prezent n Spania,
sudul Italiei i Grecia, cu caracteristici diferite, au o pondere redus n raport cu pdurea temperat.
1
101
102
Fig.1 Amplasarea tierilor i dezvoltarea instalaiilor de transport forestiere n O.s. Suha (Prelucrare dup harta 76 din: J.Opletal Das Forstliche Transportwesen...
Viena, 1913)
i supraveghere a efectelor polurii atmosferice asupra pdurilor. S-a creat o reea de piee de
observare, n mai multe ri din Europa de nord i de vest i prin organizarea conferinelor ministeriale intereuropeene, consacrate proteciei i gestionrii durabile a pdurilor, s-a ajuns la
generalizarea integrat a supravegherii intensive a ecosistemelor forestiere europene.
Rezultatele sunt ncurajatoare, precipitaiile rmn acide dar frecvena lor a sczut, sulfaii
(principala cauz a ploilor acide) au diminuat, dar depunerile de azotai (nitraii produi de
circulaia autovehiculelor i azotaii amoniacali produi de agricultur) rmn la acelai nivel.
Eutrofierea pdurilor este n progres (ceea ce contribuie la accelerarea creterii), durata de
vegetaie se prelungete, climatul se nclzete datorit efectului de ser, compoziia florei se
modific i echilibrul nutriional n solurile srace se modific, crete riscul de nghe i de poluare
a apelor.
Este evident c ecosistemele forestiere sunt n curs de modificare, ca urmare a schimbrilor
produse n mediul exterior pdurii. n aceste condiii conservarea pdurii i gestionarea ei
durabil nu poate s neglijeze modificarea ecosistemului forestier n timp. Nu se mai poate vorbi
de conservarea ecosistemului existent, nici de regenerarea pdurii pstrnd modelele pe care
natura le-a creat de-a lungul timpului n condiii de relativ stabilitate, ci de prevederea evoluiei
lui n viitor.
5. n acelai timp s-a constatat un nou pericol, mult mai grav, datorat intensificrii nclzirii
climatului ca urmare a efectului de ser. Opinia mondial s-a sesizat i a urmat seria de conferine
la nivel mondial, bine cunoscute. M voi opri asupra aceleia de la Helsinki (1993), care a abordat
n mod concret problema gestionrii durabile a pdurii, n funcie de riscul previzibil.
La Helsinki s-a convenit asupra urmtorului concept: Gestionarea durabil nseamn
administrarea i utilizarea pdurilor, astfel nct s li se menin i amelioreze biodiversitatea,
productivitatea, capacitatea de regenerare, vitalitatea, snatatea i s li se asigure pentru prezent
i viitor capacitatea de a exercita funciile multiple ecologice, economice i sociale pertinente, la
nivel local, regional i mondial, fr a se genera prejudicii altor ecosisteme.
n lucrarea D-lui V. Giurgiu, Gestionarea durabil a pdurilor Romniei (Ed. Acad. Romne,
Buc., 2004) am avut surpriza s gsesc o modificare original a coninutului acestei definiii.
Autorul respectiv nlocuiete termenul de productivitate prin stabilitate.3 Scond din definiie
coninutul economic al gestionrii, se elimin principala baz de existen a pdurii, dovedit
fiind ca numai pe suportul ei economic pdurea i poate fundamenta durabilitatea (economic, n
sensul cel mai larg posibil i nu numai producia de lemn). n aceste condiii, se pune ntrebarea
dac definiia modificat mai este compatibil cu noiunea de gestionare.
6. Silvicultura modern, care se dorete durabil, a cptat n ultimile decenii noi dimensiuni,
n special ca urmare a schimbrilor fundamentale i rapide ale factorilor abiotici. n afar de
dimensiunea economic, care-i pstreaz ponderea, se adaug cea ecologic i cea social.
Silvicultura a inclus dintotdeauna dimensiunea timp i implicit nu poate s ignore nici acum
viitorul, respectiv modificrile previzibile ale mediului economic, social i natural n care va
exista.
Una dintre concluziile Congresului de la Viena din 1907 sun astfel: Dat fiind creterea considerabil a acizilor
vtmatori rspndii n aer de crbuni i de alte materii, este de temut ca pdurile vecine s nu sufere din ce n ce mai
mult; prin urmare Congresul al VIII-lea Internaional de Agricultur de la Viena, roag guvernele de a veghea, n modul
ce vor crede de cuviin spre a se limita i a se face s dispar stricciunile cauzate pdurilor din cauza fumului i i
supune, spre luare la cunotin, deliberrile congresului n aceast privin.
2
Stabilitatea este aptitudinea ecosistemului forestier de a se menine n ciuda modificrilor intervenite din cauza unor
factori exteriori obinuii(doborturi, incendii, s.a.); elasticitatea este capacitatea lui de a reveni la starea de echlibru
anterior, deteriorat de o perturbare ordinar. Att stabilitatea, ct i elasticitatea fac parte din procesul natural de
constituire i conservare a ecosistemului forestier. Efectul de ser ns este un fenomen extraordinar, comparabil ca
amploare i consecine cu o interglaciatie, cu deosebirea c se produce ntr-un timp extrem de scurt.
3
103
n legatur cu cele trei dimensiuni pe care silvicultura modern le ia n considerare, m voi

rezuma la cea mai simpl evocare:
- economia nu nseamn numai produsele comerciale ale pdurii i funciile sau servicile
necomerciale pe care pdurea le ofer, ci i valoarea fondului de producie constituit de solul
forestier i de arboretele neexlpoatabile (a se vedea lucrarea lui M. Faustmann, din 1847);
- ecologia, este un termen des utilizat, de toat lumea (n scopuri politice, de propagand,
umanitariste .a.), fr s fie ns definit clar. Am gsit n lucrarea lui H. J. Otto, Ecologie forestire,
din 1998 o definiie a conceptului care cred ca sintetizeaz cel mai bine aceast noiunei anume:
Conexiunile tuturor organismelor specifice, populaiilor i comunitilor cu fluxurile de materii
i de energie, care acioneaz asupra lor i pe care ele nsi le produc, interaciunile lor etc. fac
obiectul ecologiei sistemului.
Proprietile eseniale ale unui ecosistem sunt urmtoarele (dup Kimmins 1987, citate de H.J.
Otto): a) Este o unitate structural de factori ai mediului nconjurtor, vii i fr via (flora,
fauna, solul atmosfera i procesele climatice). b) Este o unitate funcional cu un flux permanent
de energie care intr i iese din sistem, facnd s se mite un flux permanent de materii. c) Este
o unitate complex coninnd o asociaie diversificat i variabil de fiine vii, de populaii i de
caliti. d) Este o unitate de echilibre instabile (echilibre de flux); fiinele vii, n interdependena
mutual diversificat, sunt supuse la interaciuni pozitive i negative, constituind o reea. e) Este
o unitate dinamic, supus la modificri n timp i la modificri temporare a comunitilor de
specii i a funcionrii lor. f) Este o unitate deschis spre exterior, fr delimitare spaial fix,
schimbnd n permanenta de energie i de materie cu mediul su nconjurator, fie sub forma vie
sau fr via.
Fiecare pdure poate fi considerat ca un ecosistem, adic o asamblare dinamic de factori ai
mediului nconjurtor i a fiinelor vii, care se regleaz el nsui n mare msur. El se gsete n
mod temporar n echilibru de fluxuri, supus totui fluctuaiilor naturale (Fig. 2).
- funciile i serviciile sociale pe care le ofer pdurea, au cptat importan n ultimile
decenii, (activitile recreative, protecia apelor i a solului, conservarea biodiversitii) i mai
ales contribuia pdurii la combaterea degradrii climatului terestru. Cercetrile din ultimile
decenii, au pus n eviden consecinele devastatoare ale efectului de ser produs de emanaiile de
gaze4. Contribuia la conservarea climatului terestru este fr ndoial principalul serviciu
pe care pdurea l aduce societii omeneti.
Concentraia gazelor n atmosfer a pstrat oarecare stabilitate pn la revoluia industrial de
la mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea, dup care creterea s-a accelerat rapid din cauza consumului din
ce n ce mai mare de carburani fosili, schimbrii utilizrii solului i a dezvoltrii fabricaiei de
ciment, amplificnd efectul de ser care se traduce prin creterea temperaturii, cu influen direct
asupra ecosistemelor fiecrui biom terestru i deci asupra vieii n general pe acest pamnt.
B. Saugier, n studiul despre ciclul global al carbonului, (Rolul biosferei continentale n ciclul
carbonului 1999) estima emisia de CO2, la nivel mondial la cca.7 GtC/an i punea n relief
efectul negativ, apreciabil, al defririlor n raport cu schimbul global ntre biomas i atmosfer.
(Fig. 3a). Mai recent (D. Lousteau, 2004) evalueaz creterea anual la peste 8 GtC.
Conferinele la nivel mondial (Kyoto, Djakarta i urmtoarele) n-au dus la rezultatele scontate
i creterea emisiilor de CO2 continu ntr-un ritm rapid. n acest bilan global ngrijortor,
pdurea este unul dintre puinele elemente care contribuie la diminuarea efectelor devastatoare
ale civilizaiei umane, prin sechestrarea unei pri a carbonului din atmosfer. Contribuia ei, dei
modest, este cu att mai meritorie i rolul apr- torilor pdurii este cu att mai apreciabil.
Studii recente (C. Nys 2002 i P. Vallet 2005) arat c stocul mediu de carbon sechestrat pe
nc din secolul al XVIII-lea de Saussure a identificat c stratul atmosferic al pmntului acioneaz ca un filtru care
controleaz schimburile de energie ntre soare, pmnt i spaiul interplanetar; n 1827 Sadi-Carnot i Fourier au evocat
eventuala amplificare a efectului de ser, datorit activitilor antropice.
4
104
Fig. 2 Conceptul de ecosistem forestier (Sursa H.J.Otto Ecologie forestier,1998, fig.1.02)
105
Fig. 3a Schema ciclului global al carbonului (n GtC) (Sursa: B.Sangier Rolul biosferei n ciclul
carbonului; C.R. Acad. Agric. FR. 1999, 85, nr. 6)
Fig. 3b Evoluia tipului de stocuri de carbon ale ecosistemelor forestiere n funcie de vrst
(cazul unei pduri necultivate cu 100 tc/ha) (Sursa: C.Nys - Stocarea carbonului n biosfera
continental, CR-AAF, vol.88/5, 2002).
106
ansamblul duratei ciclului de producie, n regim permanent, variaz mult n funcie de specie, de
clasa de fertilitate a solului, de consistena arboretului (de la 20% la 70% ntre stejar i fag, ntre
4% i 14% n funcie de clasa de fertilitate a solului) i de vrsta arboretului. n cazul pdurilor
virgine, mbtrnite, creterea stocrii de carbon este nul, de unde interesul pentru generalizarea
pdurii cultivate (Fig. 3b).
n cazul pdurii temperate europeene, al crei ciclu de via a ecosistemelor este teoretic
controlat prin practicarea silviculturii, omul intervine n fiecare stadiu al ciclului de sechestrare
a carbonului: (i) prin schimbarea utilizrii solului, recupernd suprafeele abandonate de alte
activiti sau improprii pentru alte culturii extinznd suprafaa mpdurit; (ii) prin orientarea
spre codru gradinrit (fr. futaie irrgulire), n care vrstele la care sechestrarea carbonului este
activ se regsesc ntr-o proporie mai mare i prin operaii culturale, de regenerare, ntreinere i
recoltare practicate corect i la timpn toate pdurile cultivate; (iii) modificnd probabilitatea de
perturbaie sau reducnd impactul lor (atacuri de insecte, polurile locale, prevenirea incendiilor,
interzicerea punatului, combaterea defririlor abuzive).
7. n Frana temperatura a crescut n ultimii 55 de ani cu 1,2C; n ultimile decenii s-au nregistrat cei mai clduroi 10 ani din secolul trecut, iar precipitaiile au o distribuie neregulat;
ele au crescut n timpul iernii i au sczut n timpul verii. Se pune ntrebarea cu ce aproximaie se
poate prevedea schimbarea climatului i n ce msur aceast schimbare va antrena modificarea
ecosistemului forestier.
Grupul de experi interguvernamental nsrcinat cu evoluia climatului (GIEC) a elaborat ipoteze
asupra emisiei de gaze cu efect de ser, dar nici o probabilitate de realizare nu este asociat la
aceste scenarii. Din proiectul CARBOFOR a fost totui reinut scenariul B2 care se bazeaz pe
ipoteze moderate i ia n considerare i evoluia din ultimii 50 de ani. Acest scenariu prevede
pentru secolul XXI o cretere general a temperaturii i schimbarea regimului de precipitaii cu o
diminuare n perioadele de vegetaie i o cretere n perioda de repaos vegetativ, ceea ce va avea
ca efect un puternic stres hidric. Simulrile fcute indic deplasarea zonelor de vegetaie spre
nord (cu cteva sute de km) i n altitudine cu cteva sute de metri.
Aceste schimbri vor avea efecte contrastante, pe de o parte creterea mai rapid n volum a
arborilor datorat procentului mai ridicat de carbon i de azot din aer, a prelungirii sezonului de
vegetaie, concomitent cu o scdere a calitii lemnului. n aceste condiii sunt de reconsiderat
unele norme ale silviculturii, ca de exemplu, durata ciclului de producie, care n cazul fagului
realizeaz diametrul de 60 cm la vrsta de 85-90 de ani, n loc de 150 ani acum un secol.
Din pcate, consecinele negative sunt numeroase i n special restrngerea arealului a numeroase specii (Fig. 4a, 4b, 4c).
8. Fa de schimbrile climatice, sunt de ateptat schimbri n comportamentul speciilor, o
aclimatizare a primei generaii, adaptarea celei de-a doua (ca o etap intermediar) i in fine
modificarea arealului. Ca urmare, silvicultura trebuie s-i modifice i ea metodele i normele de
gestionare n funcie de previzibilele adaptri i diversificarea genetic, ca un proces dinamic n
funcie de modificarea ecosistemului forestier.
Dac pn n prezent diagnosticul unei pduri era complicat, dar fiabil, n special n ceea ce
privete datele staionale, n viitor problema se complic mult deoarece ecosistemul evolueaz,
mai ales sub efectul factorilor abiotici.
La incertitudinile produse de factorii abiotici, se adaug schimbrile posibile ale comportamentului speciilor (care vor fi noile echilibre ntre plante, ntre organismele simbiotice sau
patogene, insecte .a.). Studiul evoluiei ecosistemelor devine o ecuaie cu numeroase necunoscute, cu att mai greu de previzionat.
Diagnosticul staional nu mai este cert, el devine prospectiv i lund n considerare factorii
limitativi (ca de exemplu rezerva de ap, rezerva mineral .a.) sunt de fcut ipoteze asupra
evoluiei spre a se delimita zonele de risc. Arboretele cele mai vulnerabile sunt cele constituite
din specii care s-au extins n afara staiunilor proprii.
107
Fig. 4a Evoluia ariilor poteniale a grupelor de specii biogeografice
Fig. 4b Evoluia arealului potenial al molidului (2005-2100)
108
Fig. 4c Evoluia arealului potenial al fagului (2005-2100). Sursa: Carbofor, Badeau et. al.,
2005
Consecinele pentru silvicultur se vor reflecta n reconsiderarea condiiior staionale, n

alegerea speciilor (cu o net preferin pentru arboretele de amestec), dozarea suprafeei foliacee
pentru a atenua stresul hidric (trebuie poate regndit regimul, ca de exemplu promovnd codrul
ntr-o formul adaptat noilor condiii, ca densitate, amestec de specii, structur, ciclu de
producie), adoptarea de noi referine n funcie de cretere, instalarea unei reele de supraveghere
i observaie .a.
Este aproape unanim acceptat, c schimbarea climatului va modifica structural amestecul
speciilor i c printr-o gestionare adecvat a acestor amestecuri s-ar putea atenua efectele nedorite
ale acestui fenomen. Se deschide n acest domeniu un larg cmp de cercetare. Compoziia specific
a unui arboret este rezultatul istoriei sale i al mediului n care s-a desvoltat (sol, climat).
Redistribuirea geografic a tipurilor de compoziie previzionate de studiile INRA, este n realitate
o mutaie mult mai complex (Legay, Cordonnier, Dhte 2007), dac se ia n considerare c
ntre dinamica substituirii speciilor i evoluia efectelor climatului s-ar putea s apar decalaje.
Caracteristicile migrrii speciilor (diseminarea, instalarea seminiului .a.) sunt de natur diferit
de cele care determin limita speciilor care se retrag (scderea vitalitii, mortalitatea sau eecul
regenerrii), la care se adaug schimbrile probabile n comportamentul speciilor.
Amestecul speciilor, condus cu pruden, ar putea totui s fie folosit ca un instrument de paliere
a efectelor schimbrii climatului, pentru care: (i) este necesar s se defineasc compoziia lund n
considerare, pentru ca acesta s fie real, cel puin dou specii, alese ca obiectiv, s fie promovate
astfel pentru ca la maturitate s ocupe, n etajul principal proporii corespunzatoare; (ii) diferitele
specii care constituie arboretul expuse la un stres s nu fie afectate n acelai fel. Stresul biotic
este difereniat dup specie (bioagresorii sunt, n general, adaptai unui numr limitat de specii,
de asemenea pragul de vulnerabilitate este diferit de la o specie la alta); (iii) se apreciaz ca
diversitatea compoziiei prezint o garanie de stabilitate prin efectul de complementaritate, ofer
posibilitatea de gestionare mai supl n timp i n spaiu i poate s se realizeze o tranziie mai
uoar introducnd n arboretele vulnerabile specii adaptate condiiilor de viitor.
Silvicultura modern trece printr-o perioad de schimbri profunde, n care protecia solului,
alegerea speciilor, a tratamentului i a lucrrilor de ngrijire a arboretelor, regenerarea natural,
reconsiderarea criteriilor de exploatabilitate, asigurarea biodiversitii i supravegherea
sntaii pdurilor nu pot s scape cercettorului de astzi.
9. Se simea nevoia s se defineasc un nou cadru pentru studii i cercetare, coerent i capabil
s dea raspuns la problemele pe care viitorul l pune pdurii. Eu nu pot exprima dect modeste
sugestii:
9.1. Este necesar un program naional de urmrire i raportare a indicatorilor gestionrii
durabile a pdurilor, de dorit compatibil cu cel internaional, care s orienteze cercetrile n viitor,
fr de care gestiunea durabil ramne o vorb goal, ca multe altele.
9.2. Este de dorit cel puin un inventar al informaiilor necesare crerii acestui program, ca de
exemplu: datele cadru ale fondului forestier, informaiile necesare despre starea de sntate
i vitalitate a ecosistemului forestier, produsele i serviciile pe care pdurea le poate furniza,
biodiversitatea i evoluia ei, funciile de protecie care revin gestiunii forestiere i funciile
socio-economice proprii pduri. Inventarierea, a fcut progrese enorme graie informaticiii este
capabil s furnizeze n timp record informaii punctuale sau sintetice asupra pdurii, pe suprafee
restrnse, de cteva ha sau pentru masive de mii de ha. Se poate cunoate situaia unei pduri la
nivelul fiecrui arbore prin teledetectarea aerian sau prin satelit, sau se poate face inventarul
integral, mai mult sau mai puin detaliat, limitat la cteva date sau complet, prin diverse sisteme
de eantionaj. Este evident c urmrirea indicatorilor stabilii la nivel european, nu se poate face
dect prin inventarieri periodice orientate, n funcie de obiectivele fixate n fiecare perioad.
9.3. Este nevoie s se adapteze instrumentul de organizare i planificare a lucrrilor silvice
(fie el amenajament sau plan de gestiune) la noile condiii: economice, ecologice i sociale. Calat
pe acest model trebuie modernizate mijloacele de culegere a datelor i de prelucrare periodic a
109
informaiilor. Cu titlul de exemplu se poate cita Elveia, ara reputat pentru calitatea gestionrii
pdurilor sale. Prin Legea forestier din 1993, s-a modificat sistemul de gestionare a pdurilor
prin adoptarea unui model de planificare, care nglobeaz toate lucrrile aferente acestei activiti:
determinarea obiectivelor, elaborarea planurilor, adoptarea deciziilor, controlul lucrrilor, precum
i colectarea informaiilor.
Spre deosebire de amenajamentul tradiional care avea ca scop planificarea i controlul produciei
de lemn, planificarea actual urmrete s garanteze c pdurile vor putea s ndeplineasc, n
mod durabil toate funciile care se cer n prezent de la ea, fr ca volumul exploatat s depeasc
creterea anual. Manualul de planificare forestier (1996), reglementeaz, n detaliu, sistemul
de planificare, lasnd libertatea de realizare factorilor care au sarcina s-l realizeze. El nu are
caracterul unei instruciuni rigide, dimpotriv presupune capacitatea de nelegere i de analiz a
celor care o vor aplica i mai ales un nalt spirit civic. Prin el se definete conceptul de planificare
i se precizeaz cadrul pentru realizarea planificrii i controlului n trei pri: sistematica, metoda
i organizarea planificrii.
Planificarea constitue baza pentru gestiunea durabil, iar parametrii de control definesc elurile
i conciliaz conflictele de interese. Se consider c gestionarea i conservarea pdurii, nu pot
fi abordate separat i c trebuie s in seama de constrngerile politice, economice, culturale
i juridice. Planificarea este descentralizat la nivelul cantoanelor i se realizeaz prin Planul
director la nivelul Serviciului forestier cantonal i prin Planul de gestiune la nivelul proprietarilor
de pdure.
Producia de lemn (prin caracterul ei regenerabil) rmne o cerin important, dar accentul
se deplaseaz spre ameliorarea condiiilor de exploatare pentru ca s se asigure conservarea
ecosistemului. n acest fel, clasarea n pduri de producie i de protecie pierde din important,
oricare pdure are n acelai timp funcie de producie i de protecie, important fiind conservarea
ecosistemului i pe aceast cale funcia ei de protecie este asigurat.
9.4. Silvicultura durabil. Mi-am pus ntrebarea dac expresia nu este un pleoanasm. Rspunsul
mi-a venit din dou exemple contradictorii: (i) primul, din istoria silviculturii romneti, cnd s-a
aplicat timp de cteva decenii, n secolul al XIX-lea, un tratament (tire et aire), deja abandonat
n apusul Europei ca dunator i pe aceast cale, s-a degradat o parte din codrii de stejarde alt
dat; (ii) al doilea este recent, din Frana, i l constitue refacerea masivului pduros din Parcul
Natural Regional Morvan. Pn n secolul al XIX-lea, aceast suprafa imens era ocupat de un
crng neproductiv, de calitate mediocr, care servea la aprovizionarea cu lemn de foc a Parisului.
Dup rzboi, depopularea accentuat a regiunii i schimbarea condiiilor economice au condus la
schimbarea folosirii solului; crngul a fost nlocuit prin importante plantaii de rinoase. Acestea
se prezint astzi sub forma unui impresionant codru regulat n curs de realizare (Fig.5).
Masivul Parcului Natural Regional Morvan, n suprafa de 125.000 ha este proprietate privat
n proporie de 85% (peste 25000 de proprietari). El este situat ntr-o regiune de munte, de joas
altitudine (902 m), cu un climat umed i soluri acide. n plantaiile fcute acum 50 de ani, s-a
efectuat prima rritur acum dou decenii i n prezent se pregtete cea de-a doua, cu o producie
de cca. 300.000 m3/an; se prevede c, dup ce arboretele vor ajunge la maturitate, n urmatoarele
trei decenii, ca producia s se tripleze.
Masivul forestier este strbtut de o reea dens de drumuri publice, dintre care, numeroase sunt
drumuri comunale; dimpotriv, reeaua de drumuri forestiere mpietruite, n interiorul pdurii este
cu totul insuficient i se prevede desvoltarea ei. Creterea apreciabil a produciei n urmtorii
ani necesit un important efort financiar pentru construcia noilor drumuri forestiere, care n mare
majoritate vor fi ramificaii racordate direct la reeaua de drumuri publice (Fig. 6).
Aceast perspectiv, care aduce o intensificare considerabil a traficului pe drumurile comunale
(n general de calitate mediocr), a incitat organele administrative i forestiere, s analizeze
mpreun problema transportului de lemn, identificndu-se 211 km drumuri comunale prioritare
pentru transportul lemnului. Se ia n considerare c, dezvoltarea activitii forestiere, poate i
110
Fig. 5 Plantaie de rinoase din anii 1950, 29,4 ha aparinnd unui singur proprietar.
Prima rritur realizat n anii 1980-90; a doua rritur prevzut pentru 2009.
Drum lung de 320 m, mpietruire 3,5 m, 50 cm gros. Cost total 13216 euro
(41297 E/km). Subvenie 40%; cheltuial proprietar 271 E/ha)
trebuie s contribuie la desvoltarea regiunii, din punct de vedere economic i social, i pentru
acest motiv Parcul Natural Regional Morvan este inclus n planurile de desvoltare regional a
Franei i va fi stimulat i subvenionat de Stat i de Uniunea European.
Analiza i sinteza tuturor observaiilor privind drumurile comunale, permit s se stabileasc
punctele dificile (poduri cu portan insuficient, traversri de sate cu strzi nguste .a.) i
mbuntairile ce vor trebui fcute. n acest scop s-a ntocmit Carta transportului lemnului, prin
111
112
integrarea reelei de transport forestier n ansamblul cilor de transport regional avnd ca obiectiv
elaborarea strategiei de ameliorare a condiiilor de transport n condiii de securitate, coordonarea
n acest scop a obiectivelor i mijloacelor fiecrui partener, precizarea obiectivelor comune i
obligaiilor fiecrui participant.
n cadrul schemei directoare a drumurilor strategice sunt determinate zonele de producie
forestier i identificate axele de transport, este verificat starea drumurilor comunale pe care
se prevede transportul lemnului, se identific locurile de depozitare i se stabilesc mbuntirile
necesare.
9.5. nchei comunicarea mea cu ceea ce cred c reprezint mai nobil din munca unui forestier i
anume cultura pdurii. n rile europene, n care se face totui silvicultur chiar i n pdurile
particulare, orientarea este spre tratamente fine. Se urmrete realizarea de arborete de codru
grdinrit, compus dintr-un amestec de specii corespunztoare staiunii (Fig.7).
n crngul compus se practic silvicultura pe arbore folosind rezervele i se caut n acest fel,
prin cicluri scurte de 8 la 12 ani s se tind spre codru grdinrit. Aceast conversiune este cu att
mai atractiv n crngurile n care rezervele, mai ales de stejar, au deja diametre variate.
n codru regulat se recomand conducerea spre codru grdinrit, prin rrituri periodice i n
cantiti moderate, recoltnd arborii maturi i asigurnd spaiul suficient pentru exemplarele
de viitor. Un arbore nu este recoltat dect dac este ajuns la maturitate i dac eliminarea lui
permite ameliorarea creterii unui alt arbore mai bun dect el, sau dac este bolnav sau contagios.
Respectarea acestor intervenii grdinrite modific n mod progresiv acoperirea arboretului
i permite desvoltarea unei regenerri naturale n subetaj. n arborete de rinoase plantate,
conversiunea spre codru grdinrit, poate s nceap odat cu primele rrituri. Toate aceste
intervenii, de tip grdinrit, necesit o reea de acces dens i judicios alctui- t, amplasat
astfel, ca deteriorarea solului, seminiului, arborilor i a cursurilor de ap s fie minim.
S-ar putea spune c silvicultura modern este orientat spre calitate, urmrindu-se realizarea de arbori ct mai valoroi, valorificarea restului de lemn din pdure fiind asigurat, prin
prelucrrile industriale i prin folosirea lui drept combustibil. n acest sens au aprut asociaiile
de forestieri care promoveaz silvicultura apropiat de natur, dintre care cea mai cunoscut n
Fig. 7 Codru grdinrit (amestec de duglas molid i fag)
113
Europa, este Pro Silva. Obiectivele de baz ale silviculturii promovat de aceast asociaie
sunt dou: (i) producia rentabil i continu la nivel de parcel, de lemn de dimensiuni mari, de
calitate, din specii variate i produse din semini naturalcu cele mai mici costuri i cu cele mai
puine riscuri; (ii) protecia ecosistemului forestier natural i a productivitii sale (respectiv a
biodiversitii forestiere naturale a staiunii, protecia apei i a solului).
Se practic sistemul QD (Qualification-Dimesionnement), care pleac de la principiul c n
pdure focalizarea investiiilor i a beneficiilor este rentabil dac se aplic asupra unui numr
redus de arbori de calitate excepional, producnd lemn de calitate cu cel mai redus cost.
Principalele ci pentru atingerea acestor obiective se pot rezuma astfel:
- s aplice codrul grdinrit i s ating sau s menin un amestec, cu predominarea speciilor
autohtone;
- s ating i/sau s menin un capital pe picior optim posibil, care s permit o bun funcionare
a ecosistemului, favorabil regenerrii, recoltndu-se numai creterea care permite realizarea
acestui obiectiv;
- recoltarea individual a arborilor groi de calitate ajuni la dimensiunea de exploatabilitate (i
nu n funcie de vrst), fcnd rrituri energice de la vrste tinere;
- s conserve spaiul necesar i poziionarea arborilor de viitor pentru a se obine o bun dezvoltare
a lor;
- s regenereze arboretele pe cale natural, utiliznd seminiul natural n toat diversitatea lui i
admind plantaiile numai local, n cazuri speciale;
- s formeze semintiul sub acoperire i s foloseasc procesul natural de elagaj i de calificare a
arborilor;
- s lase s se dezvolte procesul de succesiune natural al speciilor, (pioniere - semiumbr
umbr) privile
giind speciile autohtone i diversitatea lor genetic;
- se axeze producia pe lemnul gros de calitate;
- s menin n pdure arborii remarcabili, de mare valoare ecologic, incluznd proporii
suficiente de lemn mort i de lemn scorburos (locuit de psri, lilieci .a);
- s vegheze n mod deosebit la protecia solului (n special argilo-nisipos) i a arborilor i a
sistemului lor de rdcini superficiale, n timpul exploatrilor, prin stabilirea judicioas a reelei
de colectare;
- n caz de schimbare a regimului sau a tratamentului s se exploateze prin tieri n benzi nguste
sau prin tieri rase pe suprafee ct mai mici.
Pentru realizarea acestei silviculturi Pro Silva folosete dou nivele de gestiune:
a. documentaia adaptat pentru a rspunde scopului (corespunztor amenajamentului) prin care
se definesc obiectivele, se estimeaz capitalul pe picior i creterea, precum i prevederile de
ncasri i de cheltuieli;
b. gestiunea cotidian la nivelul parcelelor (sau grupuri de parcele dac sunt mici), urmrin
du-se
i controlnd meninerea capitalul optim prin regenerare natural, amestecul speciilor i gestiunea
calitii arborilor de dimensiuni mari.
***
Doresc s-mi exprim convingerea c silvicultura pentru a fi durabil, trebuie s se sprijine pe
o cercetare orientat spre viitor, care s o pregteasc pentru a nfrunta modificrile profunde pe
care le vor suferi ecosistemele forestiere.
Previziunea este primordial pentru o activitate ale crei rezultate se vd dup zeci de ani;
tratarea cu atenie i discernamnt a fiecrui element nou care apare este esenial. S nu uitm c pericolul ploilor acide a fost semnalat nc din 1907, catastrofa producndu-se 60 de ani
mai trziu; de asemenea efectul de ser pe care l trim astzi a fost ntrevzut acum un secol i
jumtate.
114
Nutresc sperana c Institutul de cercetri se va ridica la nivelul cerinelor actuale i va crea

bazele unei silviculturi moderne, completnd opera ilustrului su ntemeietor, prof. M. Drcea,
care a creat baza de dezvoltare a cercetrii tiinifice forestiere romnesti.
Bibliografie
Academie dAgriculture de France 2002. Comptes rendus Stockage du carbone dans les forts tempres,
Vol. 88, 5.
Bradosche, P. 2008. Contribuia colii franceze la formarea silviculturii romneti, 234 p.
CRPF 2008. Guide du sylviculteur en Morvan, Journe de Formation, 08.06.2008.
Legay, M., Mortier, Fr. 2006. La fort face au changement climatique, ONF INRA, Dossiers forestiers
16
Otto, H.J. 1998. Ecologie forestire, IDF, 397 p.
Anonim 2002. Fort, Economie et Environnement, Raport de la Commission des Comptes et de lEconomie
et de lEnvironnement, IFEN, 206 p.
115
116
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania

Resursele de biomasa lemnoasa din Romnia - sursa

alternativa de energie
^
G. Budau, M. Ispas, M. Cmpean
Budu G., Ispas M., Cmpean M. 2009. Resursele de biomas lemnoas din Romnia - surs alternativ de energie. [Wood biomass resources of Romania an alternative source of energy]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings
Abstract. Wood biomass supplied from the forests of Romania can and should be
used also in the future as a source of renewable and less polluting energy. The paper
shows the main additional resources of wood biomass, other than those for primary
and final processing of wood: resources from forest exploitation (still unused slash
originating from the tree crown and root), but also the remains of the primary processing (cutting logs into lumber) etc. There are highlighted the global trends and
the possibilities of wood waste recovery by pelletizing and briquetting as well as the
possibilities to use this wood biomass for the production of renewable and less polluting energy. Furthermore, Romanias strategy concerning the energy for the next
period must be aligned to the European standards, including the production of at
least 12% of the total energy consumption from renewable sources by 2010.
Key words: energy, alternative sources, wood biomass
Authors. Gavril Budu, Mihai Ispas, Mihaela Cmpean - Transilvania University of
Braov, Faculty of Wood Industry, 29 Eroilor Avenue, 500036 - Braov, Romania.
Introducere
Primul deceniu al Mileniului III a debutat cu o serie de probleme globale legate de resursele
de energie i, mai ales, creterea spectaculoas a preului produselor petroliere i a gazului
metan. Nu mai puin importante s-au dovedit a fi problemele de mediu, poluarea i efectele ei pe
termen mediu i lung devenind o problem strategic global. n acest context, orice iniiativ
referitoare la gsirea de resurse energetice puin poluante i accesibile ca pre devine necesar i
interesant.
Dac n urm cu un deceniu (1990-2000), cercetrile pe plan european n domeniul valorificrii
masei lemnoase erau orientate spre industria materialelor compozite i a prelucrrii chimice
a lemnului (Olrescu 2007), n ultimii ani, la nivel global, se pune accentul pe gestionarea
durabil a pdurilor, respectiv pe valorificarea potenialului real al resurselor lemnoase
secundare. Regulamentul Consiliului European referitor la Msurile de Promovare a Conservrii
i Gestionrii Pdurilor evideniaz c resursele secundare cu potenial de valorificare alternativ
(exclusiv mobilier, materiale compozite, celuloz etc.) reprezint aproximativ 10% din totalul
rezervelor de mas lemnoas i recomand extinderea cercetrilor n domeniu (Olrescu 2007).
117
n Romnia, Ministerul Agriculturii, Pdurilor i Dezvoltrii Rurale a elaborat un Program

Forestier Naional (http://www.mapam.ro 2005) care prevede, ntre altele, i iniierea unor
aciuni susinute de valorificare a deeurilor din lemn, inclusiv a rumeguului. Aceste msuri
vizeaz att limitarea polurii ct i diminuarea tierilor din pduri. n concluzie, abordarea
problematicii resurselor de biomas lemnoas ca resurs alternativ de energie implic studierea
caracteristicilor i potenialului de resurse secundare de mas lemnoas.
O resurs energetic ideal ar fi aceea care s fie regenerabil i nepoluant sau cu un grad de
poluare mic. O astfel de resurs poate fi biomasa lemnoas.
Utilizat din cele mai vechi timpuri ca surs de cldur, biomasa lemnoas poate i trebuie s fie,
i n viitor, reconsiderat ca important surs de energie (de cldur) pentru c este regenerabil
i, n procesul de combustie, puin poluant.
Pdurea este o veritabil uzin vie productoare de biomas lemnoas n principal i
biomas vegetal, n general. Arborii, arbutii i ceilali constituieni ai fitocenozelor forestiere
au nsuirea de a transforma energia solar, n procesul fotosintezei, n energie chimic acumulat
ndeosebi sub form de lemn, dar i sub forma altor constituieni: coaj, frunze, flori, fructe etc.
Lemnul este definit, conform STAS 5125-89, ca fiind totalitatea esuturilor secundare de
rezisten, conducere i depozitare, situate ntre coaj i mduv, care constituie partea
principal a trunchiului, ramurilor i rdcinii plantelor lemnoase. n terminologia forestier,
lemnul este definit i ca material organic natural, de origine vegetal, constituit din celule cu
membrane lignificate (Beldeanu 1999).
Dac n ultimul secol al mileniului trecut, n perioada dezvoltrii industriilor prelucrtoare,
folosirea lemnului pentru foc, pentru producere de energie a fost considerat cea mai primitiv
utilizare a lemnului, astzi, se contientizeaz tot mai mult avantajele utilizrii deeurilor de la
prelucrarea lemnului rumeguul i resturile de prelucrare. Aceste avantaje nu se rezum numai
la aspectul economic, ci vizeaz, n principal, aspecte ecologice. Prin arderea rezidurilor de lemn
ce apar n procesele de prelucrare mecanic (rumegu, tala, achii, resturi de fabricaie etc.) se
elimin n atmosfer dioxidul de carbon care, prin procesul de fotosintez al plantelor verzi, poate
reintra n circuitul biologic natural. Cenua rezultat (mai puin de 2% din masa iniial!) este
nepoluant pentru sol, putnd reintra n circuitul biologic al solului.
Prin urmare, dioxidul de carbon emis n atmosfer pe durata combustiei unei cantiti de
biomas lemnoas a fost anterior absorbit de ctre arbore, pe dutata ciclului su de via (circuitul
nchis al carbonului)! Avnd n vedere faptul c numai o parte din arbore este utilizat pentru
combustie (< 20%) i c, logic, nu este posibil s arzi mai muli arbori dect cei existeni, prin
circuitul carbonului n natur ar trebui s se reduc concentraia de CO2 din atmosfer datorit
fotosintezei.
n cazul utilizrii de combustibili fosili (petrol sau crbune) acetia emit n atmosfer CO2 care
s-a stocat pe durata a milioane de ani iar emisia acestuia n atmosfer reprezint principala cauz
a efectului de ser. Cercetri recente au stabilit c, dac o cas familial i schimb sistemul de
nclzire de la motorin (sau combustibil lichid) la sistem de nclzire pe baz de granule de lemn
(pellets), de exemplu, emisia de CO2 n atmosfer s-ar reduce cu 4,8 t/an, iar dac s-ar trece de la
gaz natural la nclzirea cu granule de lemn, emisia de CO2 s-ar reduce cu 2,5 t/an (Budu &
Cismaru 2004).
^
Resursele secundare de biomasa lemnoasa din Romnia

Dup cum este binecunoscut, resursa principal de biomas lemnoas din Romnia o reprezint
fondul forestier. Fondul forestier al Romniei cuprinde toate suprafeele de teren acoperite cu
pduri, terenurile destinate mpduririi i cele care deservesc activiti de gospodrire a pdurilor:
pepiniere silvice, drumuri forestiere, rezervaii etc.
Suprafaa fondului forestier al Romniei, la nivelul anului 2003, era de 6,4 milioane hectare,
118
respectiv 27% din suprafaa total a rii (Sbera 2003). De menionat c ponderea fondului
forestier n Romnia este mai mic dect media european, 32% din suprafaa Europei fiind
ocupat cu pduri, i dect cea mondial, suprafaa globului pmntesc fiind acoperit cu pduri
n proporie de aproximativ 29%. Dei ca pondere a suprafaei fondului forestier Romnia se
situeaz sub media european i mondial, este de menionat c masa lemnoas total, estimat,
a pdurilor din Romnia atinge aproximativ 1,3 miliarde m3, adic o medie de 206 m3/ha pdure,
fa de media european de 105 m3/ha i cea mondial, de numai 65 m3/ha (Budu & Cismaru
2004).
Acest lucru se datorete, n principal, creterii medii anuale pe hectar, care atinge valori medii
de 5,6 m3, fa de media european care este sub 3 m3. Creterea medie anual de 5,6 m3/ha
nseamn cretere total anual, pentru cele 6,4 milioane ha de pdure, de 34,7 milioane m3 mas
lemnoas (Sbera 2003). Dac din punctul de vedere al suprafaei fondului forestier Romnia se
afl pe locul 17 n Europa, din punct de vedere al volumului de mas lemnoas pe picior sau
fondul de rezerv de mas lemnoas pe picior Romnia se situeaz pe locul 3 n Europa, dup
Suedia i Finlanda!
Referitor la productivitatea pdurilor din Romnia, pe baza creia se calculeaz cota anual de
tiere, aceasta este, la nivelul anului 2003, de numai 18,5 milioane m3/an, cu tendin de cretere
n urmtorii ani la 20-21 milioane m3 (Sbera 2003).
Principalele specii lemnose existente n fondul forestier al Romniei i ponderile acestora
n totalul fondului forestier sunt prezentate n tabelul 1 (Sbera, 2003). Arborii ca principali
constituieni ai fitocenozelor forestiere, reprezint i principala surs de biomas lemnoas.
La un arbore se remarc dou pri componente, purttoare de biomas lemnoas: rdcina i
tulpina. La rndul ei, tulpina este alctuit din trunchi i coroan (Beldean 1999).
Rdcina reprezint partea subteran a arborelui, servete la fixarea acestuia n sol, precum
i la extragerea apei i srurilor minerale din sol. Proporional cu volumul arborelui, rdcina
reprezint ntre 3-21% din acesta.
Tulpina partea aerian a arborelui, este alctuit din trunchi i coroan.
Trunchiul reprezint poriunea care se dezvolt de la nivelul solului pn la coroan i constituie
principala surs de biomas lemnoas. Raportat la volumul de biomas lemnoas al unui arbore,
trunchiul reprezint ntre 60-90% din acesta.
Este de menionat c, n literatura de specialitate (Beldeanu 1999), poriunea din tulpina
arborelui care la doborrea acestuia rmne la suprafaa solului poart denumirea de cioat i
mpreun cu rdcina care rmne n sol formeaz buturuga. Aceasta, adic buturuga, reprezint
ca pondere n volumul total al arborelui, 5-21% i este puin valorificat la ora actual (n cazul
nucului, lemnul de buturug este valorificat pentru obinerea furnirului de rdcin).
Coroana reprezint partea superioar a tulpinii arborelui i este alctuit din ramurile de diferite
ordine, frunze, flori i fructe. Proporia de lemn ce revine coroanei din volumul total al arborelui
variaz n funcie de specie i reprezint ntre 5-20% din volumul total de biomas lemnoas al
unui arbore. n tabelul 2 este prezentat proporia de biomas lemnoas n trunchi, coroan i
Tabel 1 Principalele specii lemnoase existente n fondul forestier al Romniei i ponderile acestora n
totalul fondului forestier
Ponderea n total
Specificaia
U.M.
Principalele specii lemnoase
fond forestier
Rinoase
%
30,5
Brad, Molid, Larice, Pin
Fag
%
32,0
Fag
Stejar
%
19,0
Stejar, Gorun, Cer, Grni
Alte
specii
de
Plop, Salcm, Carpen, Cire, Paltin, Frasin,
%
18,5
foioase
Nuc, Anin, Tei, Ulm etc.
tOTAL
%
100
Rinoase i foioase
119
rdcin pentru cteva din speciile lemnoase de importan industrial din Romnia (Beldean
1999).
Cunoaterea prilor componente productoare de lemn ale unui arbore i, mai ales, ponderea
acestora n volumul total de biomas lemnoas reprezint o importan deosebit pentru
investigarea unor noi domenii de utilizare a biomasei lemnoase i a disponibilului de biomas
lemnoas la un moment dat.
Analiznd datele din tabelul 2 se poate nelege de ce, din totalul de rezerv de mas lemnoas
dat de creterea anual a pdurilor Romniei i estimat la 34,7 milioane m3, numai o cantitate de
18,5 milioane m3 este introdus n circuitul industrial, adic o pondere de circa 53-60%! Iat, deci,
o rezerv de mas lemnoas de circa 40-47% din disponibilul anual asigurat de fondul forestier
al Romniei care poate i, n viitorul apropiat va trebui s fie utilizat n regim industrial i
pentru producerea de energie. Aceste procente reprezint cantiti de biomas lemnoas foarte
mari, de 16-17 milioane m3 anual !
Din tabelul 2 rezult c ponderea de biomas lemnoas din corona arborilor (ntre 5-20%
!) constituie, un element de interes pentru valorificarea acesteia, fiind mai uor de realizat la
doborrea arborilor i extragerea trunchiului din parcela de exploatare. n ceea ce privete
biomasa lemnoas din rdcin, dei important cantitativ, datorit dificultilor de extragere din
sol, posibilitile de valorificare sunt limitate.
Interesul pentru valorificarea crengilor, ca parte component a coroanei, dei mai mare n ultimul
timp, nu s-a dezvoltat suficient i datorit unor factori obiectivi, cum ar fi tehnicile de msurare mai
complicate i variaia procentual a volumului de crengi, pentru arborii cu aceleai dimensiuni,
funcie de poziia n arboret.
Cercetri recente privind evaluarea volumului crengilor pentru diferite specii lemnoase (Olrescu
2007) au evideniat c: din punct de vedere al valorificrii industriale, prezint interes numai
crengile cu diametru mai mare de 2cm; pentru toate speciile lemnoase studiate, volumul crengilor
variaz n raport cu diametrul arborelui, n sensul creterii volumului de crengi proporional cu
creterea diametrului; la acelai diametru de baz, procentul crengilor scade cu creterea nlimii
arborelui.
Pentru stabilirea potenialului de biomas lemnoas din crengi, raportat la volumul total de
mas lemnoas exploatat anual, s-a elaborat un model matematic (Olrescu 2007) pentru:
calcularea diametrului mediu la vrsta exploatabilitii; a nlimii medii a arborilor ajuni la
exploatabilitate, funcie de diametrul mediu i a volumului crengilor n funcie de procentul de
crengi i de volumul arborelui.
Utiliznd i tabelele de cubaj pentru crengi, procentul fiecrui sortiment dimensional al crengilor
n funcie de specie i diametrul mediu la exploatabilitate, pe baza modelelor matematice s-a putut
stabili (Olrescu 2007) posibilitatea anual a cantitilor de crengi din principalele specii din
Romnia: fag, brad i molid. Rezultatele sunt prezentate sistematic n tabelul 3, n care semnificaia
Tabel 2 Proporia biomasei lemnoase n trunchi, coroan i rdcin (Beldeanu 1999)
Specia
Molid
Brad
Pin
Larice
Stejar
Fag
Plop
Salcm
Mesteacn
Frasin
120
Trunchi
73-83
74-86
69-80
78-88
64-78
62-76
80-90
76-88
78-90
61-75
Proporia de lemn [%] coninut n:

Coroan
8-11
7-10
8-10
6-8
10-20
10-20
5-10
7-14
5-10
12-18
Rdcin
9-16
7-16
12-21
6-14
12-16
14-18
5-10
5-10
5-12
13-21
notaiei indicatorilor este urmtoarea: Dm.expl. diametrul mediu la vrsta exploatabilitii;

hm.expl. nlimea medie a arborilor la vrsta exploatabilitii; Varbore volumul arborelui la
vrsta exploatabilitii; Pcrengi procentul de crengi raportat la volumul arborelui; Vcrengi volumul
crengilor; Posspecie posibilitatea anual a speciei; Poscrengi posibilitatea anual a crengilor.
De asemenea, pe baza algoritmului elaborat (Olrescu 2007), s-a putut determina posibilitatea
anual a celor trei specii (fag, brad, molid) cu pondere de peste 59% din fondul naional, pentru
diferite sortimente dimensionale de crengi: pentru rinoase diametre medii ntre 1-5 cm; pentru
fag diametre medii de 2-14 cm.
Rezultatele estimrilor sunt prezentate n tabelele 4-6.
Concluzii
Resursele secundare de biomas lemnoas din Romnia sunt semnificative ca volum (numai
crengile din principalele specii reprezint peste 3 milioane m3/an !) i importana lor economic
nu mai poate fi ignorat.
Evident c, potenialul fondului forestier din Romnia este mult mai mare, lund n considerare
i restul speciilor lemnoase ( 41%) precum i biomasa lemnoas rezultat anual din activiti
culturale, de ntreinere a pdurilor.
Gsirea soluiilor tehnice de recuperare a biomasei din rdcini poate contribui cu o suplimentare
de 15-18% din volumul de mas lemnoas exploatat.
Cercetrile privind gsirea de noi metode de determinare a cantitilor de mas lemnoas
secundar disponibil precum i prezentarea unor modele matematice de calcul reprezint un
important demers n sensul valorificrii masei lemnoase secundare.
Tabel 3 Posibilitatea anual a cantitilor de crengi din principalele specii din Romnia (Olrescu 2007)
Indicatorul
U.M.
Fag
36
26
1,36
16
0,21056
Specia
Molid
40
36
1,993
4,2
0,0837
Brad
36
26
1,247
5,8
0,0723
Dm,expl,
hm.expl.
Varbore
Pcrengi
Vcrengi
cm
m
m3
%
m3
Posspecie
mil.m3/an
5,797
4,301
0,935
Poscrengi
mil.m /an
0,2975
0,180642
0,05423
Tabel 4 Posibilitatea anual a sortimentelor dimensionale ale crengilor de fag (Olrescu 2007)
Indicatorul
Diametrul
sortimentului
Specia: FAG
U.M.
cm
23
35
5,,,8
810
1012
1214
> 14
Psort,crengi
20
24
17
13
14
Vsort,crengi
0,0421
0,0505
0,0358
0,0274
0,0295
0,0168
0,0084
598,4
718,08
508,64
388,96
418,88
239,36
119,68
Possort.crengi
mii.m /an
3
Tabel 5 Posibilitatea anual a sortimentelor dimensionale ale crengilor de molid (Olrescu 2007)
Indicatorul
U.M.
Specia: MOLID
Diametrul sortimentului
cm
1
2
3
4
5
Psort,crengi
%
8
42
36
11
3
Vsort,crengi
m3
0,0067
0,0352
0,0301
0,0092
0,0025
Possort.crengi
mii.m3/an
14,451
75,870
65,031
19,871
5,419
121
Tabel 6 Posibilitatea anual a sortimentelor dimensionale ale crengilor de brad (Olrescu, 2007)
Indicatorul
Diametrul
sortimentului
Psort,crengi
Vsort,crengi
Possort.crengi
Specia: BRAD
U.M.
cm
%
m3
mii.m3/an
7
0,0051
3,796
46
0,0333
24,946
37
0,0268
20,065
8
0,0058
4,338
2
0,0014
1,085
Cercetrile privind biometria crengilor, dei au evideniat c precizia determinrilor este relativ
redus, au demonstrat utilitatea tabelelor de cubaj al crengilor, funcie de specie, diametrul i
nlimea arborilor.
Valorificarea biomasei lemnoase din crengi i rdcini se poate ntlni att la fabricarea
materialelor compozite pe baz de lemn, pentru fabricarea pastei de fibre de lemn etc., ct i pentru
producia de energie termic, prin combustie, fie sub form brut fie procesate prin brichetare sau
peletizate (realizare de microbrichete sau pelei).
Bibliografie
Beldeanu, E. 1999. Produse Forestiere i Studiul Lemnului. Editura Universitii Transilvania din
Braov.
Budu, G., Cismaru, I. 2004. Biomasa lemnoas, surs complementar de energie regenerabil i puin
poluant. n Buletinul Simpozionului Cadru organizatoric, probleme i metode de soluionare pentru
aplicaii energetice eficiente n diferite tipuri de cldiri din Romnia. Editura Universitii Transilvania din
Romnia, pp 153-161.
Olrescu, A. 2007. Lemnul din crengi. Structur, proprieti i mod de valorificare. Editura Universitii
Transilvania din Braov.
Sbera, I. 2003. Perspectivele de dezvoltare a industriei de exploatarea i prelucrarea lemnului n Romnia.
n Buletinul Conferinei Naionale tiina i Ingineria Lemnului n Mileniul III. Braov 20 21 Noiembrie
2003.
Anonim 2005. Program Forestier Naional, Ministerul Agriculturii, Pdurii i Dezvoltrii Rurale, http://
www.mapam.ro.
122
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Current structure and growth in diameter of hornbeam stands in northeast Bulgaria

H. Tsakov, A. Delkov
Tsakov H., Delkov A. 2009. Current structure and growth in diameter of hornbeam
stands in northeast Bulgaria. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp.
123-130.
Abstract. Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) stands in Razgrad region are part of
deciduous xerothermic forests in Northeastern Bulgaria. They have secondary
origin and form pure and mixed stands with Quercus petraea Liebl., Tilia tomentosa Moench., Acer campestre L., Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz, Populus tremula L., Prunus avium L., Betula pendula Roth. Object of study are 50-60-year-old
hornbeam stands, managed as recreational forests in the past (with insignificant
interference) with specific structure and growth in diameter. As a result it was
established, that there is a difference in the position of the average tree according
to diameter, determined through Weisses rule. For a better precision and a quick
determination of the average diameter of hornbeam stands, a new percentage was
applied (50%), which refers to the condition of stands in the moment. The percentage suggested by Weisse (60%) shifts the avereage diameter with one degree
higher, what brings to systematic errors.
Key words: hornbeam stands, natural thickness degrees, rank of average thick tree
Authors. Hristo Tsakov, Alexander Delkov Forest Research Institute, BAS; St.
Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 132; BG-1756 Sofia, Bulgaria.
Introduction
Razgrad region (Northeast Bulgaria) covers the plain and hilly territory of Ludogorie geobotanical
district of the Illyrian (Balkan) province (Georgiev 1977).
Grey Luvisols have been formed on carbonate marl basis, which determine the distribution of
mixed coniferous forests with ediphicator Carpinus betulus L.
Climate is typical continental, the air contains low humidity, with summer maximum (June) and
winter minimum (February) and annual mean precipitation 450550 mm. Average temperature in
January is about 20, and mean month temperature in July reaches up to 240 (Dimitrov, 1994).
Razgrad forests are formed by small forest complexes, managed as recreational periurban zones
with insignificant silvicultural interference in the past.
Investigation will give the answer about the current structure and growth of hornbeam
dendrocoenoses in the region, about their thickness structure, the position of the average thick
tree in the stand.
123
Objects and methods

Peculiarities in growth and structure of pre-mature hornbeam dendrocoenoses were analysed with
the help of sample plots (SP) in Moesian forest vegetation area, growing on Grey Luvisols at
altitude 350450 m a.s.l. In spite of the monopodial character of trees, biogroups with 2 or more
stems have been determined, what forms the differentiation character of the stand.
To study the structure in diameter, variation curves have been applied, as well as percentage
share of trees according to natural diameter degrees, what gives the possibility to determine the
rank of tree average thick in the stand and the degree of approximation of Weisses rule (1880)
for a fast determination of average diameter.
Sample plot 1 (SP1) is representative for coppice hornbeam stands with solitary participation of
Acer campestre L., Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz, Quercus petraea Liebl., Quercus cerris L., with
even structure (partially with cluster character), average age of 60 years and total area 0.1 ha.
126 trees have been investigated, from which 106 hornbeam (83.5%), 13 Acer campestre L.
(10.2%), 6 Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. (4.7%), 1 Quercus petraea Liebl. (0.8%), 1 Q. cerris
L. (0.8%) not included in the statistical processing due to its high age and average diameter 53
cm.
Some of hornbeam trees grow in 11 biogroups (with 2 stems) and the others in 8 biogroups with
3 stems each (table1).
The distribution of hornbeam stands in biogroups with 2 stems according to diameter degree
shows that they have together a basal area of 0.6049 m2, with average diameter 18.7 cm within
the range from 10 to 26 cm.
Average diameters in biogroups with 3 stems vary from 13.1 to 22.0 cm, and trees are grouped
in diameter degrees from 14-th to 22-nd.
Accompanying tree species have 26.4 cm average diameter (Quercus petraea Liebl.), 16.2 cm
[Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz.] and 15.6 cm (Acer campestre L.). In spite of the bigger average
diameter with 0.6 cm of Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. trees, these trees show lower growth in
height and development compared to Acer campestre L.
Table 2 shows the generalised participation of solitarily growing (as well as their participation
in groups) hornbeam trees and accompanying species, of basal areas, which form, as well as
thickness structure, expressed by natural diameter degrees. Rank of an average thick tree is 54.3%
(48.2+6.1).
On the basis of this structure, a variation curve of tree distribution was drawn, according to
Table 1 Distribution of hornbeam stands in biogroups with 2 and 3 stems
Biogroups with 2 stems
Biogroups with 3 stems
D1.30
N
Basal area (m2)
Dav.
N
Basal area (m2)
10
1. 18
0.0076
9.8
12
14
14. 9
0.0170
14.7
13
0.0135
16
7
0.0216
16.6
15
0.0197
18
11. 17
0.0276
18.7
2. 3. 10
0.0256
20
8
0.0331
20.5
4
0.0336
22
5
0.0381
22.0
12. 16
0.0380
24
9
0.0488
24.9
26
19
0.0563
26.8
G
0.6049
18.7
0.6594
124
Dav.
13.1
15.8
18.1
20.7
22.0
18.7
125
60
2
2
7
9
8
11
5
7
8
1
Number
of trees
N
0.0254
18.0
1.5212
0.0100
0.0156
0.0791
0.1386
0.1608
0.2794
0.1570
0.2660
0.3616
0.0531
Single
basal
areas G
1
0.0265
18.4
0.0804
2.8135
2
6
10
16
12
16
16
13
10
3
1
106
0.0100
0.0468
0.1130
0.2464
0.2412
0.4064
0.5024
0.4940
0.4520
0.1593
0.0616
Total
number
N
Rank of an average thick tree 54.3% (48,2+6,1)
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
G
N
Gav.
Dav.
D1.30
Total
basal
area,
G
Hornbeam trees
20
1
1
3
4
4
1
1
1
2
1
nr. of
trees
Others
126
1
3
7
13
20
16
17
17
14
12
4
1
Total
number
N
0.0257
18.1
0.0804
3.2433
Total
basal
area
G
0.0028
0.0150
0.0546
0.1469
0.3080
0.3216
0.4318
0.5338
0.5320
0.5424
0.2124
0.0616
distribution in %
0.7
2.1
5.7
12.2
23.0
36.7
48.2
60.4
71.9
82.0
91.4
96.4
98.6
99.3
100.0
% from
the total
number
0.7
1.4
3.6
6.5
10.8
13.7
11.5
12.2
11.5
10.1
9.4
5.0
2.2
0.7
0.7
Absolute
number
of trees
1
2
5
9
15
19
16
17
16
14
13
7
3
1
1
139
Relative
thickness
degree
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
0.33
0.44
0.55
0.66
0.77
0.88
0.99
1.10
1.21
1.32
1.43
1.54
1.66
1.77
Whole stands
Natural
thickness
degree
Table 2 Structure in diameter of trees and thickness structure of the whole stand in sample plot 1
Number of trees
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Natural degrees of thickness

Fig. 1 Variation curve of tree distribution in SP1
natural degrees of thickness and in connection with the average diameter of investigated stand
(Figure 1).
The curve is of the bimodal distribution type. Two peaks occur the first one is at natural
degree 0.7, and the second one is rounded within the interval 1.01.1. This form of distribution
shows that the total combination of the stand consists of two separate parts, each of them having
its own peculiarities. Thin trees predominate in the middle-aged stands because of delayed or
not carried out tending fellings. As a result of this delay, the curve has left excess (concentration
of trees whose diameter is below the average diameter), because more than 45% of all trees are
concentrated within the range of thickness degree 1016. Bigger saturation of stems is observed
not only in central degrees but also in the next ones, which confirms the thesis about delayed
silvicultural activities.
The average thick tree has the rank 54.3 55%. For a quick determination of the stand average
diameter, the Weisse rule could be applied (60% of the number of thin trees).
For better precision, the new percentage should be applied (determined through the rank of
average thick tree 50%) from the number of thin (or thick) trees, so as to avoid statistic errors
and to avoid increasing the volume during calculation.
Sample plot 2 (SP2) is situated in a mixed coppice hornbeam stand with participation of Tilia
tomentosa Moench., Populus tremula L. and solitary occurrence of Prunus avium L., Quercus
petraea Liebl. and Betula pendula Roth., with average age 50 and area of 0,1 ha.
125 trees have been investigated from them 91 (72.8%) hornbeam, 14.4% Tilia tomentosa
Moench. with 2 or 3 stems cluster structure, Populus tremula L. are 8 (6.4%), Prunus avium L.
3 (2.4%), Quercus petraea Liebl. 4 (3.2%) and one Betula pendula Roth. (0.8%).
Table 3 shows the distribution of these trees according to numbers and thickness degree.
Quercus petraea Liebl (30.6 cm diameter), Prunus avium L. (20.8 cm diameter), Populus tremula
L. (20.6 cm diameter) have the biggest diameters. Hornbeam trees average diameter is 17.5 cm,
and Betula pendula Roth. hardly reaches 14.2 cm. According to the thickness degree, trees are
distributed from 10 to 34.
Table 4 represents Tilia tomentosa Moench. trees participation in biogroups with 2 and 3 stems,
as well as total.
The average diameter of Tilia tomentosa Moench. in 2 stems biogroups is 18.6 cm, while the
one in 3 stems biogroups is 18.3 cm. Total average diameter is 18.5 cm.
Rank of an average thick tree 51.0% (42.3+8.7)
Table 5 generalizes data about hornbeam, Tilia tomentosa Moench. and accompanying tree
126
Table 3 Distribution of trees according thickness degree and basal area in Sample plot 2
D1.30
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
N
Gav.
Dav.
Carpinus
betulus L.
N
3
11
16
15
17
19
3
3
4
91
G
0.234
0.1243
0.2464
0.3015
0.4318
0.5966
0.1140
0.1356
0.2124
2.1860
0.0240
17.5
Populus
tremula L.
N
Prunus
avium L.
N
Quercus
petraea
Liebl.
N
G
Betula
pendula
Roth.
N
G
1
2
4
1
0.0508
0.1256
0.0380
0.0531
0.2675
0.0334
20.6
1
2
0.0320
0.0698
0.1018
0.0339
20.8
1
1
0.0471
0.555
0.1913
0.2939
0.0734
30.6
Total of
sample plots
0.0158
0.0158
0.0158
14.2
Table 4 Distribution of lime stems according thickness degree in Sample plot 2

Tilia tomentosa Moench.
2 stems
3 stems
D1.30
N
G
N
G
N
14
4
0.0690
4
16
3
0.0602
3
18
6
0.1476
6
20
3
0.0978
3
22
24
26
2
0.1114
2
0.3280
0.1580
N
12
6
18
Gav.
0.0273
0.0263
Dav.
18.6
18.3
N
3
11
17
15
19
24
6
4
6
G
0.0234
0.1243
0.2622
0.3015
0.4826
0.7542
0.2218
0.1827
0.3210
0.1913
2.8650
107
Total
0.0268
18.5
G
0.0690
0.0602
0.0147
0.0978
0.1114
0.4860
0.0270
18.5
species according to their basal areas and the number of trees. On the basis of total average
diameter (18.5 cm), the natural thickness degrees are calculated and variation curve of 125 trees
is drawn (Figure 2). It is also bimodal (even with 3 peaks), what shows the heterogeneity of the
community. The peculiarity of this hornbeam trees cluster, is that the trees form one community
whose trees have very close diameters and high saturation in thickness degrees from 14 to 18.
The maximum of trees is drawn after the average diameter, showing occurrence of quite a lot
of trees, which slightly move the curve to the right. After natural thickness degree 1.1, we can
observe a sharp decline of the number of trees, then an even increasing and normal course to
natural thickness degree 1.8.
The average thick tree (18.5 cm) has rank 51.0%. This is why 50% value is recommended,
when applying the Weisses rule, to determine as right as possible the average diameter both for
thin and thick stems in the stand. If the Weisse percentage would be applied, the average diameter
would be set too high with one thickness degree.
127
Table 5 Thickness structure of the whole stand in sample plot 2

Carpinus
betulus L. +
other trees
D1.30
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
G
N
Gav.
Dav.
3
11
17
15
19
24
6
4
6
0.0234
0.1243
0.2622
0.3015
0.4826
0.7542
0.2218
0.1827
0.3210
0.1913
2.8650
107
Tilia
tomentosa
Moench.
N
Whole stand
4
3
6
3
0.0690
0.0602
0.1476
0.0978
0.1114
Relative
thickness
degree
Absolute
number
of trees
0.54
0.64
0.75
0.86
0.97
1.08
1.19
1.30
1.40
1.51
1.62
1.73
1.83
0.5
06
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1
7
16
19
20
26
24
7
4
8
7
5
3
2
149
0.4860
18
0.0268
18.5
3
11
21
18
25
27
6
4
8
Natural
thickness
degree
125
% from
the
total
number
0.7
4.7
10.7
12.8
13.4
17.4
16.1
4.7
2.7
5.4
4.7
3.4
2.0
1.3
distribution in
%
0.7
5.4
16.1
28.9
42.3
59.7
75.8
80.5
83.2
88.6
9393
96.7
98.7
100.0
0.0270
30
Number of trees
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Natural de gre e s of thickne ss
Fig. 2 Variation curve of tree distribution in SP2
Conclusions
As a result of the investigations and analyses carried out with regards to the current structure
and growth in diameter of hornbeam stands in Razgrad region, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) stands are coppice premature, with single or cluster
composition with two or more stems, mixed with Tilia tomentosa Moench., Quercus petraea
Liebl., Acer campestre L., Populus tremula L. and Prunus avium L.;
Because of their specific status (periurban recreational forests), silvicultural activities in these
stands have been less intensive, what has reflected on structure and width growth;
Distribution curves of trees in hornbeam stands are bimodal, what shows that the stand
128
composition consists of two separate parts, each one with its own peculiarities;
In middle-aged stands, thin trees predominate because of delayed or not carried out tending
fellings;
To avoid systematic errors when quickly and practically determining the average diameter,
50% value is recommended instead Weisses value 57.5% for mixed hornbeam stands. Otherwise,
average diameter is one degree higher and the obtained volumes are not real.
References
Dimitrov, D. 1994. Climate resources in Bulgaria. Nauka i izkustvo, Sofia (in Bulgarian).
Georgiev, G. 1977. Structure and Dynamics of the Landscapes in Bulgaria. St. Kl. Ohridski University
Press, Sofia (in Bulgarian).
Weisse, W. 1880. Vetragstafel fuer die Kiefer, Berlin.
129
130
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Consideratii
, privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului silvic din Romnia
I. Machedon
Machedon I. 2009. Consideraii privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului

silvic din Romnia [Considerations on some current problems of management in Romanias silviculture]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings
Abstract. Research and studies at international level and also in our country in the
last period have reconfirmed that the management is the most important factor in
achieving economic performance, and increasing the competitiveness of Romanian
companies in the competition they are engaged with firms from other EU countries
and beyond. In the context mentioned above, and of previous concerns about this
area, we address some problems of the current forest management in Romania. A
first issue is regarding the implications for the National Forest Agency (NFA) of the
concrete type of relationship under authority in relation to the ministry. To date,
nor by previous decisions of the Government, nor by the decision into effect governing the organization and functioning of the ministry or by a secondary legislation
(Order of the Minister), there is no explicit indication aiming to explain what type
of relationship is under authority in terms of typical managerial act, the relationship between NFA as a whole, and its specialized sections on the one hand, and the
ministry and its departments (in this case forest department), on the other hand. A
second problem is related to deviations from normality of relations between the NFA
and the ministry during the periods when - from different reasons - the general manager of NFA was in the first plan, in relation to minister or the secretary of state for
forests. One of the most important problem of the current management at the NFA
is linked to fluctuations that have characterized the composition of the management
team, especially at the highest level, during the past four years. The consequences
in the normal conduct of business, both at central and in the territory, can be easily
predicted. Another facet of the management in the NFA during this period refers to
the system and criteria for manager promotion at the directions level. An issue of
current forest management in the NFA, which applies equally to the central authority
responsible for the forestry, is related to the defective manner in which it conducts
human resource management. For seven years, human resource has not been found
practically in any form of advanced training. Finally we emphasize the necessity of
foundation and adoption of a coherent and realistic strategy for middle and longterm, anchored in similar strategies of the EU countries with advanced forestry.
Key words: management, forest management, under authority relationship, human resource management, development strategy of forestry
Author. Ion Machedon - National Forest Agency - ROMSILVA, 31 Magheru Avenue, 010325 - Bucharest, Romania.
131
Introducere
Astzi, la aproape 18 ani de la reorientarea economiei romneti ctre economia de pia i la
circa doi ani de la aderarea rii noastre la Uniunea European, se poate afirma c, managementul
reprezint pentru societate n general, iar cu deosebire, pentru firmele romneti, un domeniu de
importan vital, fa de care se ateapt, n continuare, progrese palpabile, de natur s susin
modificrile n plan economic, tehnic, tehnologic etc., produse n ultimii ani.
Cercetrile i studiile desfurate la nivel internaional i, n egal msur, n ara noastr au
confirmat, n ultima perioad (fiind vorba, n fapt, de o reconfirmare), faptul c managementul este
poate cel mai important factor al obinerii de performane economice, de cretere a competitivitii
firmelor romneti, n competiia n care sunt angajate cu firmele din celelalte ri membre ale
Uniunii Europene i nu numai.
Contientizarea acestor adevruri de ctre tot mai muli conductori, precum i la nivelul forurilor
decizionale, se regsete, n primul rnd, n ncercarea acestora de a nelege, n adevratele sale
dimensiuni, semnificaia conceptului i practicii managementului modern, n ipostaza n care,
legturile dintre agenii economici se diversific i se multiplic, iar influenele mediului ambiant
devin, pe zi ce trece, tot mai evidente.
n contextul principiilor i consideraiilor de ordin general evideniate mai sus, precum i
al preocuprilor anterioare referitor la acest domeniu, vom aborda n cele ce urmeaz, unele
probleme actuale ale managementului silvic din Romnia.
^
Consideratii
, privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului silvic, la nivelul autoritatii
,
publice centrale care raspunde de silvicultura
^
Aa cum se cunoate de ctre toi cei avizai, de circa un an i jumtate, titulatura ministerului
de resort s-a modificat, din MINISTERUL AGRICULTURII, PDURILOR I DEZVOLTRII
RURALE, n Ministerul Agriculturii i Dezvoltrii Rurale. Transformarea a fost, aa cum se
poate lesne constata, benefic pentru sectorul silvic, PDURILE disprnd din titulatura
ministerului, fr o explicaie plauzibil din partea celor responsabili. Singura justificare ncropit
de ministrul de la vremea respectiv a fost aceea c, n procesul de reorganizare a Guvernului, pe
fondul discuiilor aprinse privind revenirea pdurilor n acelai minister cu apele i cu protecia
mediului, decizia a ntrziat s fie adoptat, fr ca cineva dintre cei care aveau responsabilitatea,
s sesizeze c ntre timp, titulatura Ministerului Agriculturii se modificase, PDURILE fiind
scoase de pe generic.n realitate, nu exist nici o scuz i desigur, nici o justificare obiectiv,
fa de Corpul silvic i nu numai, pentru un asemenea gest, iar faptul c dup mai bine de un an i
jumtate, factorii de decizie persist n aceast grav eroare, trebuie s ne dea de gndit.
Cu att mai mult, cu ct argumentele care justific pe deplin recunoaterea silviculturii ca ramur
important a economiei naionale, reliefate att de noi, ct i de ali specialiti i n alte lucrri
anterioare (Silvicultura i dezvoltarea rural, 2003, pp. 101-104), nu numai c nu i-au pierdut
nimic din actualitate ci, dimpotriv, s-au consolidat. i n condiiile n care, pe fondul efectelor
grave ale schimbrilor climatice la care asistm, mass media naional i cea internaional,
opinia public n general contientizeaz tot mai mult, pe zi ce trece, rolul determinant al pdurilor
n combaterea secetei, a inundaiilor i n diminuarea celorlalte efecte negative care nsoesc
schimbarea climei, la nivel local, regional i planetar.
Relum n cele ce urmeaz, succint, principalele argumente care confer silviculturii,
statutul de ramur a economiei naionale, n sperana c, odat auzite i nelese de ctre factorii
decideni i vor determina pe acetia, ca n cel mai scurt timp posibil, s redea PDURILOR,
locul pe care l merit cu prisosin, dac nu ntr-un minister de sine stttor, mcar ntr-unul n
care s-i gseasc armonia i demnitatea alturi de alte sectoare compatibile.
n primul rnd este vorba de mrimea fondului forestier al Romniei, care aa cum s-a
132
menionat, prin cele cca. 6,3 mil. hectare, reprezentnd circa 27% din teritoriul rii (deci,
aproape 1/3 din suprafaa total), situeaz silvicultura pe locul al doilea, dup criteriul utilizrii
terenurilor, avnd naintea sa doar ramura agriculturii.
Dac la aceasta vom aduga i cele peste dou milioane de hectare terenuri puternic degradate,
inapte folosinelor agricole a cror repunere n circuitul economic se poate face numai prin
mpdurire, credem c orice alt comentariu este de prisos.
n al doilea rnd, pdurile se individualizeaz n structura diverselor tipuri de procese de
producie din ansamblul economiei naionale, prin unicitatea caracterului i mrimii ciclului
de producie, care n cazul pdurilor conduse n regimul codrului (cu o pondere de peste 93%
n totalul fondului forestier naional), are valori nemaintlnite n alte sectoare de activitate,
nregistrnd, de regul, peste 100 de ani (putnd merge pn la 180-200 de ani, n cazul unor
specii).
O asemenea particularitate se completeaz cu o alta, la fel de specific sectorului silvic,
respectiv cea legat de caracterul seriat al procesului de producie n silvicultur, concretizat
prin existena mai multor procese pariale, care se pot realiza concomitent i independent unul de
altul, chiar dac obiectivul fundamental al fiecruia este unul i acelai: PDUREA.
n al treilea rnd, prin serviciile utile i efectele benefice pe care pdurile le furnizeaz societii,
prin funciile de protecie exercitate (funcia de protecie a terenurilor i solurilor; funcia de
protecie a apelor; funcia de protecie contra factorilor climatici i industriali duntori; funcia
recreativ; funcia de interes tiinific i de conservare a fondului genetic forestier), acestea
contribuie n mod inegalabil la sntatea, recrearea i confortul psihic al oamenilor, realiznd,
totodat, prin nsi existena lor, influene favorabile asupra multor altor sectoare i activiti
economice (sectorul energetic, transporturi, agricultur, turism, sntate, comer etc.), influene
care se concretizeaz n final, pentru aceti beneficiari, n economii sau chiar n venituri
suplimentare, deosebit de consistente.
n al patrulea rnd, se impune a fi subliniat faptul, de loc neglijabil, c n toi cei 18 ani pe
care Romnia i-a parcurs n drumul su spre economia de pia, n condiiile n care numeroase
sectoare i ramuri ale economiei naionale au suferit transformri radicale, cu consecine grave n
primul rnd sub aspectul aportului acestora la visteria naiunii, iar altele au disprut practic, chiar
dac n evidene i pe unele raportri statistice au rmas, silvicultura s-a situat ntre puinele
sectoare care au contribuit cu continuitate, n mod substanial, att n moneda naional, ct
i n valut, la bugetul statului.
n fine, dar nu n ultimul rnd, un foarte puternic argument, l reprezint importana deosebit,
recunoscut din ce n ce mai mult, pe plan mondial, pe care o au pdurile, n atenuarea
schimbrilor climatice, prin reducerea emisiilor de carbon, prin stocarea carbonului i fixarea
acestuia, din acest punct de vedere pdurile situndu-se pe primul loc, n raport cu celelalte tipuri
de ecosisteme terestre.
Concretizarea tipului de relatie
acesteia
, sub autoritate, cu ministerul de resort, i implicatiile
,
n organizarea i functionarea
Regiei Nationale
a
Padurilor
,
,
^
Aa cum sunt identificate i clasificate n cadrul tiinelor i disciplinelor de specialitate

(managementul general i managementul firmei, disciplinele economice de ramur etc.) i
preluate ca atare n legislaia naional i internaional, relaiile existente ntre diversele autoriti
publice centrale i unitile/instituiile pendinte de acestea se regsesc n una dintre urmtoarele
trei categorii: (i) de subordonare; (ii) n coordonare; (iii) sub autoritate.
n timp ce primele dou tipuri de relaii (de subordonare, respectiv n coordonare) sunt
caracterizate printr-o dependen foarte pronunat a unitilor n cauz, fa de autoritatea
public central (buget alocat din bugetul general al autoritii; exerciiu bugetar condiionat
i dirijat strict de autoritatea public central; numr de posturi i ncadrarea pe posturi sub
133
aprobarea strict a autoritii etc.), tipul de relaie sub autoritate este caracterizat printr-un
grad de autonomie mult mai mare, concretizat prin: buget de venituri i cheltuieli propriu;
organigram i numr de posturi stabilite independent; autonomie economico financiar;
autonomie managerial.
Conform legii, autoritatea public central i exercit direct dreptul de numire a managerului
(directorului general) al unitii aflate n acest tip de relaie, precum i a Consiliului de
administraie al acesteia i (lucru foarte important) aceeai autoritate, n calitate de reprezentant
al statului, i exercit dreptul de control asupra modului n care unitatea respectiv (n cazul de
fa, regia) i ndeplinete atribuiiile prevzute de lege.
n cele ce urmeaz, vom ncerca s abordm unele aspecte i implicaii concrete ale tipului de
relaie sub autoritate pentru Regia Naional a Pdurilor, evideniind, totodat, unele realiti
(pozitive sau negative) ale acestui tip relaional n organizarea i, mai ales, n funcionarea
regiei.
a) O prim problem care se ridic este aceea c, pn la aceast dat, nici prin hotrrile
de guvern anterioare, nici prin hotrrea n vigoare (HG nr. 385/2007), care reglementeaz
organizarea i funcionarea ministerului de resort, i nici printr-un alt act normativ derivat (ordin
al ministrului), nu se face nici o precizare care s expliciteze n ce const acest tip de relaie, sub
aspectul tipic al actului managerial, al raporturilor relaionale ntre regie, n ansamblul su, i
compartimentele sale specializate, pe de o parte, i minister, respectiv departamentele acestuia (n
spe Departamentul pdurilor), pe de alt parte.
Aa cum precizam ntr-un alt context, singurul lucru clarificat prin lege este cel legat de raportul
ntre directorul general al regiei, respectiv consiliul de administraie al acesteia i ministru, ambele
instituii manageriale fiind numite de ctre acesta, prin ordin al ministrului.
O asemenea lacun a condus, n decursul timpului, la situaii nefireti, cnd spre exemplu,
Secretarul de Stat pentru pduri (n calitate de ef al departamentului de resort) solicita anumite
informaii de la conducerea regiei, iar aceste informaii ori nu veneau de loc, ori veneau adresate
direct ministrului (mai ales cnd aspectele solicitate erau deranjante pentru regie), speculnduse faptul c directorul general nu avea precizate nici un fel de obligaii (sau alt gen de relaii) n
raport cu secretarul de stat i cu att mai puin cu departamentul.
ntr-o astfel de situaie, ca aceea exemplificat mai sus, cel puin dou dintre funciile
managementului (comunicarea i controlul) sunt afectate n mod evident.
n opinia noastr, soluia este strict la ndemna autoritii publice centrale, fiind vorba, n
mod concret, de un ordin al ministrului care s reglementeze modalitile de manifestare n
practic a acestui tip de relaie (sub autoritate), pe ntreaga structur organizatoric, pornind de la
atribuiile specifice ale ministerului, n domeniul pdurilor i, desigur, innd cont de propunerile
i argumentele pertinente ale regiei, fr a se nclca cu nimic, legislaia n vigoare.
b) O a doua problem, de data aceasta de sorginte eminamente subiectiv, aflat n conexiune
direct cu deficiena semnalat la pct. a), este legat de abaterile de la normalitate a relaiilor
regie minister, n perioadele cnd, fie pe fondul politicului, fie pe cel al altor factori de
influen, directorul general al regiei s-a aflat n prim-plan, n relaia cu ministrul de resort i
cu att mai mult, cu secretarul de stat pentru pduri.
Se impune s facem precizarea c o asemenea abordare nu se rezum nicidecum la sfera
teoretizrii i c ea pleac tocmai de la realiti trite cel puin n cteva perioade, din intervalul
celor 17 ani de funcionare a Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor (2001-2003; 2003-2004 i, ntr-o
anumit msur, intervalul 1998-2000).
n intervalele caracterizate prin raportul de fore menionat mai sus, s-a putut constata c
influena dominant a managerului regiei a avut drept consecin imediat (aproape simultan),
o dominare (uneori net) a autoritii publice centrale, de ctre regie, n ansamblul su (central
plus structuri teritoriale), practic n toate componentele sistemului relaional.
Aceast dominare a mbrcat, adesea, haina superioritii salariailor din regie, fa de
134
funcionarii publici din minister (superioritate ce avea la baz, inclusiv un sistem de salarizare net
avantajos celor din regie), nsoit, nu n puine cazuri, de realizarea sau de tratarea superficial a
solicitrilor diverselor compartimente din minister.
O asemenea stare de lucruri avea s se soldeze, n mod firesc, cu o acumulare surd, dar continu,
de adversitate n rndul funcionarilor din minister, nsoit la anumite momente de rbufniri, mai
ales din partea celor cu funcii de conducere, soluiile gsite n atari situaii fiind, ori eliminarea
din sistem a rebelilor, ori aducerea lor la tcere, prin transferul n structurile regiei.
Dei, n asemenea perioade, salariaii din regie (mai ales din centrala acesteia) au avut mai
mult linite i mai puin btaie de cap, n ceea ce privete relaiile cu ministerul, realitatea
a dovedit, cu vrf i ndesat, c aceast linite a fost doar una aparent i c, imediat ce s-au
restabilit relaiile normale, reaciile structurilor din minister au devenit mult mai dure (uneori
violente), presiunea mult mai mare, iar atitudinea ministerului fa de solicitrile regiei i
fa de regie n ansamblul su, mult mai dur, mai lipsit de disponibilitate, aa cum din
pcate s-a ntmplat i n ultimii patru ani.
c) O a treia problem este legat de evoluia n timp a relaiilor ntre regie, respectiv direciile
silvice teritoriale ale acesteia, i structurile teritoriale ale autoritii publice centrale care rspunde
de silvicultur (Garda Forestier, I.T.R.S.C.- urile, respectiv I.T.R.S.V.- urile de astzi).
Sub acest aspect, trebuie precizat, nc de la nceput, faptul c, n general, relaiile ntre
direciile silvice i structurile teritoriale ale ministerului de resort au purtat amprenta relaiilor
de la nivel central, ntre conducerea regiei i conducerea ministerului.
Astfel, n perioadele de normalitate, cnd au funcionat prevederile legii, direciile silvice s-au
subordonat, din punctul de vedere al respectrii regimului silvic, controlului exercitat de ctre
structurile teritoriale ale ministerului.
ns, atunci cnd regia, prin conducerea acesteia, i-a impus punctul de vedere n relaia cu
conducerea ministerului, aceast atitudine a fost copiat la indigo i n ceea ce privete relaiile n
plan teritorial. Consecinele unei asemenea stri de lucruri au fost, n aparen, favorabile regiei
(n sensul c, aceasta a scpat de grija controalelor ministerului), dar pe fond, ele au adus mari
deservicii, n primul rnd prin scderea exigenei la nivelul echipelor manageriale (transmis
apoi spre structurile de baz), prin amplificarea cazurilor de indisciplin i, nu n ultimul rnd,
a fenomenului corupiei, toate aceste aspecte fiind, din pcate, speculate de unii reprezentani ai
clasei politice i de ali neprieteni ai Corpului silvic i prezentate n mass-media cu vdit rea
intenie i mai ales, cu tendina de generalizare.
Consideratii
, privind unele probleme actuale ale managementului la nivelul R.N.P.Romsilva
Una dintre problemele cele mai actuale ale managementului la nivelul R.N.P.- Romsilva este cea
legat de fluctuaiile care au caracterizat n ultimii ani, componena echipei manageriale, mai
ales la nivelul directorului general, consecinele n planul desfurrii normale a activitii, att
la nivel central, ct i n teritoriu, fiind uor de anticipat.
Astfel, ntr-un interval de trei ani i jumtate, au fost schimbai trei directori generali (n
ianuarie 2005, n martie 2007, respectiv august 2008) situaie fr precedent n cei 18 ani de
la nfiinarea regiei.
n acest context, lipsa de continuitate n actul managerial la vrf a reprezentat principala
cauz a unor disfuncionaliti, att n relaia regiei cu autoritatea public central, ct i n ceea
ce privete sistemul relaional cu unitile din teritoriu, care nu au ezitat, n anumite situaii, s
speculeze aceast realitate, n favoarea intereselor locale, de moment.
O alt faet a actului managerial, care i-a pus amprenta n aceast perioad, se refer la
sistemul i criteriile de promovare a managerilor la nivelul direciilor silvice. i n legtur
cu aceast component a managementului aplicat la R.N.P. - Romsilva s-au manifestat n ultimii
135
ani att instabilitate, ct i o anumit lips de consecven, n ambele situaii, consecinele

fiind negative n desfurarea actului managerial. Astfel, n perioada 2005 iulie 2007, toate
conducerile direciilor au fost numite cu delegaie, pn la organizarea concursului, concurs
care s-a tot amnat, din diverse motive (cele mai multe, subiective), aproape doi ani i jumtate.
Stare de instabilitate, extins pe o perioad att de lung, a determinat la o bun parte dintre
directorii direciilor silvice o atitudine de espectativ, cu consecine de asemenea negative n
procesul de management la nivelele respective.
Organizarea, n cursul lunii iunie 2007, a concursului pentru definitivarea pe post a directorilor,
directorilor tehnici i directorilor comerciali fapt pozitiv n sine a reprezentat, n realitate, un
veritabil i regretabil eec, pentru conducerea regiei. i aceasta, deoarece, dei gndit i anunat
a se desfura n condiii obiective i cu luarea n calcul numai a criteriilor profesionale
i a aptitudinilor manageriale, n fapt, concursul s-a desfurat i mai ales, s-a finalizat,
dominat de criterii politice, mai exact spus, de preferinele conducerilor de partid de la nivel
local, care i-au impus clar opiunile, n relaia cu directorul general al regiei, altfel, singurul
mputernicit prin lege s semneze decizia de numire a directorilor din teritoriu.
Aceast stare de lucruri a condus la ipostaze plasate n afara oricror principii ale managementului,
mergnd pn acolo cnd, un director care nu a promovat iniial concursul de definitivare, dar
care a rmas pe post ca urmare a interveniilor de genul celor menionate mai sus, nici mcar nu
mai rspundea la apelul telefonic al directorului general al regiei.
O alt problem actual a managementului silvic la nivelul R.N.P.- Romsilva, valabil n egal
msur i la nivelul autoritii publice centrale care rspunde de silvicultur, este cea legat de
maniera defectuoas n care se desfoar managementul resursei umane. Referindu-ne strict
la arealul resursei umane din structura Romsilva (peste 20 mii de salariai, din care 65% alctuiesc
personalul silvic ingineri, tehnicieni, pdurari, iar circa 17% este reprezentat de personalul cu
pregtire economic), se impune a fi subliniat faptul c, de apte ani de zile, resursa uman
a regiei nu s-a regsit practic n nici o form de perfecionare a pregtirii profesionale, nc
o situaie fr precedent n istoria celor 18 ani de existen a Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor.
i aceasta, n contextul n care, au trecut deja doi ani de cnd Romnia este membru cu drepturi
(i obligaii) depline al U.E. i, tot de doi ani de zile, Romsilva este membru al EUSTAFOR
(Asociaia Administratorilor Pdurilor de Stat din Europa).
Aa cum evideniam ntr-o lucrare publicat n anul 2005, cnd trgeam nc un semnal de
alarm, consecinele negative ale lipsei de preocupare pentru formarea profesional continu
a resursei umane din cadrul regiei se manifest cu att mai vizibil, cu ct, de civa ani buni,
personalul regiei, n mod deosebit cel cu pregtire silvic, se afl ntr-o competiie extrem de dur,
n plan profesional, cu cel angajat n structurile silvice private.
n fine, o ultim problem a managementului silvic, la care am considerat a fi oportun s ne
oprim, deosebit de actual, este cea care vizeaz necesitatea fundamentrii i adoptrii unei
strategii pe termen mediu i lung, coerente i realiste, ancorat n strategiile existente n acest
domeniu n rile Uniunii Europene cu silvicultur avansat.
Astzi este ndeobte cunoscut, principiul conform cruia, fr o strategie (fie aceasta pe termen
scurt, mediu sau, mai ales, lung), un agent economic, un concern i, cu att mai mult, un sector
sau o ramur a economiei naionale nu are anse de dezvoltare durabil. Un alt principiu,
la fel de valabil, care vine automat n completarea celui enunat mai sus, este cel referitor la
necesitatea continuitii strategiei (mai ales n situaiile n care aceasta s-a dovedit a fi realist i
bine fundamentat), indiferent de schimbrile care pot s apar, la un moment dat, la nivelul
echipelor manageriale, din diverse motive.
Abordnd, n cele ce urmeaz, cele dou principii manageriale, n conexiune, s vedem pe
scurt ce s-a ntmplat n mod concret, n ultimii 18 ani, n domeniul silviculturii. nainte de orice
comentariu, se impune ns a fi fcut precizarea c, n conformitate cu legislaia n materie
aprut dup anul 1990, autoritatea competent pentru elaborarea i promovarea strategiei
136
de dezvoltare a silviculturii a fost i este ministerul de resort sau, ntr-un termen generic,
autoritatea public central care rspunde de silvicultur.
Aceeai autoritate aprob, n baza strategiei menionate mai sus, strategia (pe termen mediu
i lung) a Regiei Naionale a Pdurilor Romsilva, n calitatea acesteia de administrator al
fondului forestier proprietate de stat.
Dup anul 1990, o strategie n sensul deplin al cuvntului pentru dezvoltarea silviculturii
pe termen mediu i lung (perioada 2000-2020) a putut fi adoptat, numai dup apariia noului
Cod silvic Legea nr. 26/1996 care, nlocuindu-l pe cel din anul 1962, depit de realitile
specifice trecerii la economia de pia (ntre care diversificarea formelor de proprietate se regsea
pe primul plan), a putut asigura un fundament solid i viabil pentru demersul elaborrii unei
asemenea strategii.
Mai trebuie subliniat, n mod absolut necesar, faptul c n procesul de fundamentare i
elaborare a acestei strategii, care a presupus o ampl dezbatere la nivelul ntregii ramuri
(dezbateri zonale, urmate de dou sau chiar trei dezbateri la nivel naional, cu participarea
nengrdit a tuturor instituiilor i organizaiilor guvernamentale i neguvernamentale pendinte
de sectorul silvic), eseniale au fost raiunile i motivaiile de ordin profesional, economic
i social i, n niciun caz, cele de ordin politic. Acest lucru se ntmpla ntr-o perioad n
care presiunile politicului asupra pdurilor se situau la cote fr precedent, meritul principal
revenind conducerii ministerului de la vremea respectiv i, n mod sigur, de loc ntmpltor,
pentru c ministrul era de profesie silvicultor, fr a fi angajat politic.
La nici doi ani de aplicare am asistat ns, la o nou btut pe loc, pritocind o nou Strategie
de dezvoltare a silviculturii. De data aceasta, din fericire, tocmai datorit condiiilor n care
fusese fundamentat i elaborat strategia anterioar, chiar dac factorul politic i-a pus o
anumit amprent, venit din Programul de guvernare, mbrcat ns n uniform de serviciu
(adic profesional), noua strategie nu a fost caracterizat prin modificri fundamentale
fa de precedenta, fiind pstrate obiectivul strategic fundamental i obiectivele strategice
principale, precum i marea majoritate a aciunilor i modalitilor de punere n aplicare a
acestor obiective.
Necazul este c, dup numai ali trei ani de punere n aplicare, am asistat la o nou schimbare
a puterii politice i, pe acest fond, la descoperirea necesitii unei noi strategii de dezvoltare a
silviculturii care, din pcate, nu s-a soldat nici astzi cu ceva concret, palpabil i coerent, n acest
domeniu. i iat-ne, aadar, ajuni n anul de graie 2008, cnd avem o nou legislaie silvic,
ncepnd cu Codul silvic (Legea nr. 46/2008) i, foarte probabil vom avea o nou schimbare
de fore politice care, mpreun, vor conduce automat n prima parte a anului viitor la o nou
strategie de dezvoltare a silviculturii.
Din succinta prezentare a istoriei strategiilor de dezvoltare a silviculturii n ultimii 17-18 ani n
ara noastr credem c, n ceea ce privete respectarea celor dou principii manageriale enunate
la nceput, nu mai este loc pentru niciun comentariu.
137
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October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Certification schemes - a first step towards sustainable management of forestry in Romania

C. I. Dumitrescu, B. Leutean
Dumitrescu C. I., Leutean B. 2009. Certification schemes - a first step towards sustainable management of forestry in Romania. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud
O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute
ICAS, pp. 139-144.
Abstract. The paper focuses on the role of forest certification schemes in clean sustainable development and carbon credit trading mechanisms.The UNCCC Bali conference in December 2007 has emphasized the fact that forestry is one of the tools
towards mitigating the effects of global warming. The PEFC Council (Programme
for the Endorsement of Forest Certification schemes) promotes sustainable forest
management at the international scale through independent third party certification.
The PEFC provides an assurance mechanism to purchasers of wood and paper products, if they are promoting the sustainable management of forests. Romania is not
a member of the PEFC Council, what we consider to be an important gap for the
sustainable management of our national forestry fund.
Key words: sustainable management, forestry, certification schemes
Authors. Corina Ionela Dumitrescu, Beatrice Leutean - Economics Department,
University Poiltehnic of Bucharest, Splaiul Independenei St., 313, 060042 - Bucharest, Romania.
Introduction
Global warming, one of the most pressing concerns of the 21st century, is probably the combined
result of CO2 emissions, of intensive deforestation and, generally of human economic activity.
An organic and proved method in slowing and reversing climate change is preserving natural
carbon absorbers (sinks). Among the terrestrial ecosystems, forest is, by far, the most efficient
CO2 absorber. In order to stop chaotic and environment damaging deforestation, a rigorous forest
management is required. Therefore, protecting forest becomes a main issue for the climate change
at stake.
The international experience in forestry management proposes many solutions: eco-tourism,
sustainable forest management, substitutes for both extensive agriculture and fire wood; planting
trees. The UNCCC Bali Conference in December 2007 has designated the sustainable forest
management as one of the tools towards mitigating the effects of global warming. The sustainable
forest management through its certification schemes tends to form a valuable alliance for the
carbon credit trading mechanisms in the fight against global climate change (PEFC 2008).
The sustainable forest management is the solution the present paper focuses on as well. This
139
means that economic exigency may be combined with production and consumption responsibility
on a pattern determining the periodicity and the intensity of cutting trees and plans for reforesting.
It also means that all the representative elements of the soil ecosystem, as well as hydrological
cycle and other forest elements are preserved (PEFC 2008).
What exactly does sustainable forest management represent?
The sustainable forest management is a couple of guidelines (International Tropical Timber
Organization and Pan European Operational Level Guidelines) which refers to: (i) maintenance
and appropriate enhancement of forest and their contribution to global carbon cycle; (ii)
maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality; (iii) maintenance and encouragement of
productive functions of forests; (iv) maintenance, conservation and appropriate enhancement
of biological diversity in forest ecosystems; (v) maintenance and appropriate enhancement of
protective functions in forest management (notably soil and water); (vi) maintenance of other
socio-economic functions and conditions (PEFC 2006).
A third party evaluates and certifies if the forest management satisfies the ecological, economic
and social standards mentioned above. The forest certification is the method by which this
independent party performs this evaluation and verifies it through a written document (Hansen &
Juslin 1998).
It comes to meet both suppliers and consumers needs (Since Rio Summit and Helsinki Process)
for wood from sustainably managed sources, and has spread rapidly, mainly across Europe and
North America (Rupert 2004).
Forest certification is a way to prove that forests are sustainably managed. Forests must be
socially, environmentally and economically managed for both present and future generations, in
the perspective of sustainable development.
The economic, political, and social context in Africa, in the Asia-Pacific region, in Eastern
Europe, and Latin America makes the task of sustainable forest management much more
challenging. While some success stories exist, certification progress in these regions has been
slow and uneven, reflecting, in various cases, a lack of resources, poor infrastructure, corrupt
institutions, and environmentally insensitive domestic and foreign markets. An examination
of the amount of certified forest in developed and developing countries (see Figures 1a and b)
underscores the challenge that certification faces in the developing world. (Cashore et al. 2006).
As we can see it in the previous figures, PEFC is the worlds largest forest certification umbrella.
That is why we are going to focus on this system of certification in the following paragraphs.
Forest certification is a new policy mechanism for environmental governance. PEFC has
become the worlds largest forest certification organisation with 35 independent national schemes
in membership from all over the world. 24 of these certification schemes have been endorsed by
the PEFC Council, delivering hundreds of millions of tones of wood to the market place from
more than 200 million hectares of certified forests.
PEFC was born in 1998 as a voluntary initiative of private forest owners based on the criteria
and indicators laid down at the Ministerial Conferences of Helsinki (1993) and Lisbon (1998)
for the protection of European forests. PEFC offers a framework on which national certification
systems are based in order to guarantee mutual recognition across Europe of Pan-European
criteria:
1. Forest maintenance and development and their contribution to world carbon cycles;
2. Maintenance of forest farm vitality and health;
3. Maintenance and increased value of forest productive functions;
4. Biodiversity maintenance preservation and development,
5. Maintenance and suitable development of protection functions within the forest sector;
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Source: Cashore, B., Gale, F., Meidinger, E. and Newsom, D., 2006, Confronting Sustainability: Forest Certification in Developing and Transitioning Countries, Environment, volume 48, no.9, p. 8.
6. Maintenance of other socio-economic functions and conditions that the forest affords
society.
The area of PEFC certified forests reached 194 million hectares in 2007 as we can see in Figure
2.
Companies with wood based products chose gradually PEFC chain of custody for their
business, beginning with 108 chains of custody certificates in 2001 and reaching the level of
3545 certificates in 2007. Only between 2006 2007 the number increased with 644 companies
(an increase of 22.2%) see Figure 3.
Fig. 2 PEFC certified forests

Source: PEFC council, Annual Review, 2007, p. 4.
141
Fig. 3 PEFC certified companies

Source: PEFC council, Annual Review, 2007, p.4.
We consider that there are many reasons for PEFC to be successful:

1. PEFC relies on internationally agreed criteria of certification as the basis of national
certification schemes;
2. PEFC provides a framework for integration of national schemes into the internationally
agreed criteria of certification;
3. the openness and transparency of the decision making of PEFC are the framework for the
active participation of many types of stakeholders at the local, national and regional level;
4. the procedures of PEFC certification and the monitoring of them are independent of one
another;
5. the national certification schemes are independent of PEFC.
Why an internationally agreed certification scheme in Romania?
We consider that it would be appropriate for Romania to adopt an internationally agreed
certification scheme because of its sustainability, credibility, accountability and adaptability.
Sustainability of the international certification scheme refers to the benefits provided for the
biodiversity and environment. It also provides an independent certified proof that forests are
sustainably managed.
Credibility is ensured because PEFC certification scheme uses internationally recognized
accreditation and certification processes. It is supported by over 20 independent certification
schemes.
Accountability refers to the independent certified control. This means that the customers are
ensured that the whole wood is taken from sustainably managed forests, from each tree of the
forest to final wood based products.
Adaptability facilitates the active involvement of all types of forests and companies. It takes
into account the diversity of forest types, cultural heritage and management objectives.
We consider that using an international certification schemes might have multiple positive effects
(Cashore et al. 2003, 2006) at the national level:
the creation of a larger, more inclusive forest policy network;
promotion of cross-stakeholder dialogue and deliberation on the meaning of sustainable system
142
based forestry management;

practices in agriculture, mining and infrastructure development might be far more
environmentally and socially friendly;
positive social effects in terms of community and workers rights (higher wages, development
of collective infrastructure, training);
positive economic effects at both micro and macro level;
microeconomic effects like improved market access, more stable contracts, favourable credit
arrangements, better public image;
macroeconomic effects as improved tax collection, market transparency, employment and
wages, better working conditions, investments.
Of course, not all the economic effects of forest certification schemes are positive. We could
mention that a negative effect of this procedure is the decrease of the forest surface available
for timber production. This might have negative consequences, resulting in fewer jobs, excess
of demand over supply, higher prices of timber. However we consider that is the way in which
forests can be managed in the perspective of sustainable development.
positive environmental effects, divided into four categories: improvement in planning and
inventorying, forestry (improved practices, as for example marking the trees which are to be
protected), biodiversity protection (high conservation values, creating of protection corridors,
etc., monitoring and compliance (internal check lists, employees with environmental expertise).
Conclusions
We consider that certification schemes generate significant attitudinal change, especially for forests
managers. It includes also a considerable potential to improve forest management in transition
and developing countries. To develop this potential certain difficulties need to be overcome:
market demand, illegal logging, foresters attitude, community mentality, certification standards
and costs. Certification schemes reveal interrelationships between political, institutional and
economic factors (Newsom et al. 2006).
Stakeholders ought to take decisions thinking about the future generation. We did not inherit
the Earth from our forefathers, we just borrowed it from our children. Certification has to be
interpreted as part of a bigger ensemble which could improve sustainable forest management and
conserve biodiversity.
References
PEFC Position Paper. 2008. Climate Change and Certification: 3.
PEFC Council. 2006. Compatibility of the ITTO Provisions for the Management of Natural and Planted
Forests with the PEOLG: 40.
Hansen, E., Juslin, H. 1998. The Status of Forest Certification in the ECE Region www.forestrycertification.
info. Comparative Matrix of Forest Certification Schemes: 6.
Cashore, B., Gale, F., Meidinger, E., Newsom, D. 2006. Confronting Sustainability: Forest Certification in
Developing and Transitioning Countries. Environment. 48 (9): 6-25.
Newsom, D., Bahn, V., Cashore, B. 2006. Does forest certification matter? An analysis of operation-level
changes required during the SmartWood certification process in the United States. Forest Policy and
Economics. 9: 197-208.
Cashore, B., Auld, G., Newsom, D. 2003. Forest certification (eco-labeling) programs and their policy
making authority: explaining divergence among North American and European case studies. Forest Policy
and Economics. 5: 225-247.
http://www.pefc.org/internet/html/
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Bucharest, Romania
Beech timber preservation during storage

O. Zeleniuc
Zeleniuc O. 2009. Beech timber preservation during storage. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry
in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and
Management Institute ICAS, pp. 145-150.
Abstract. Forests are a vital part of the world ecosystems, and without a proper
management their loss could have profound economic, social and environmental
impacts. To support sustainable use of forest resources, a maximal protection
of timber against any external factors during storage and transportation should
perform, so as to fulfil the specific quality standards required by timber suppliers.
Timber in the yard is susceptible to mould, stain and decay. Protecting timber by
antisapstain treatments is an important activity in a saw-mill activity aiming at
producing high quality products and avoiding losses. The paper presents the advantages of this treatment, the assessment procedure and the results of field tests
regarding the efficiency of different products compared to untreated samples.
Key words: sustainability, timber, quality, antisapstain, efficacy
Author. Octavia Zeleniuc - Transilvania University of Braov, Faculty of Wood
Industry, 29 Eroilor Avenue, 500036 - Braov, Romania.
Introduction
Forest Wood is the most important source of wood raw material, providing 2/3 of the total wood
supply compared to woody biomass, recovered wood, or industry by-products. Among woodbased industry sectors, sawmill industry is the biggest wood consumer of solid roundwood
processing 206 million m (EU-27) and 214 million m (EU/EFTA), corresponding to 26% of the
total consumption (FAO 2007).
Sustainable forest management depends on sustainable forest products market development.
Both forest and market are required short term and long term to be sustainable. These are based
on environmental, social and economic pillars (FAO, 2007), and wood industry needs to respond
positively to demands for sustainable management and development.
Primary wood sector in Romania. The configuration of the wood primary sector is quite
different now compared to 1990; medium and small companies were developed, their main
activity being sawn wood production. The present-day capacity of the primary wood processing
sector is estimated at 18 millions m3/year.
Timber production was 4.3 mil. m3 in 2004 with an expected increase of 4.6% for 2010 as it is
shown in Table 1.
As presented in Table 1, more than 50% represents timber for export. As a consequence, sawmills
have to enhance the quality of their products and services, to fully satisfy customers requirements
145
and international quality standards. Improper grading, storage in inadequate conditions without
antisapstain treatment, lead finally to yearly losses of 7.35 million euro only for beech timber
from total production (Table 2).
Sawmills are the biggest wood consumer of solid roundwood and the source of raw material
for many wood industry sectors and construction industry. As a consequence they need to
respond positively to demands for sustainable wood products in order to fully satisfy customers
requirements.
Sawn timber degradation during storage. It is well known that sawn wood is subjected
to biological degradation under different humidity conditions. During air drying, storage and
transportation, sawn timber with high moisture content is subjected to wood-staining and mould
fungi attack. These fungi do not affect the wood structural properties, but the discoloration or
disfigurement they produce, can be of aesthetic and economic importance. Generally, they are
blue-black or blue-grey but can be brownish or purple, depending on the fungus responsible
(Eaton & Hale 1993). The fungi start to sprout rapidly on favourable conditions. Several studies
have shown that the lowest humidity allowing mould growth is 80-85% relative humidity,
provided that the temperature is above 5C (Wang 1992, Viitanen 1997, Park 1982, Hocking et
al. 1994, Adan 1994).
The objective of this study was to inform about the importance of the antisapstain procedure to
obtain advantages by its correct using during beech timber storage.
Experimental methods
More recently, consumers concern about the risk of mould on timber, heightening the interest
in developing safer treatments (Shujun 2007). These treatments protect timber against mould for
a period of two to three months, depending on the fungicide, on concentration used, on wood
species and climatic conditions. Out of laboratory test, field tests represent an important procedure
to evaluate the efficiency of the antisapstain treatment and the fungicides efficiency.
Field test. For field testing, steamed and unsteamed beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) was used, as
this species forms a high proportion of the wood processed in the Romanian sawmills. Specimens
(100 x 30 mm cross section by 1000 mm length) were cut from freshly sawn and steamed timber,
having moisture content higher than 50%. Stacks without stickers were formed with unsteamed
boards (packed timber). For steamed boards both systems of storage were used, with and without
Table 1 Perspective on timber production*
Products
U.M.
2001
2002
2003
2004
2010
Primary wood processing capacity/ year
mill. m3
16.0
16.5
17.0
18.0
18.0
-Timber
mill. m
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.3
4.5
-Timber - export
mill. m
2.35
2.35
2.37
2.40
2.45
-Timber - import
1000 m
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.6
5.0
3
3
3
*data obtained from Forestry Association)
Table 2 Yearly average losses due to failure in quality requirements for timber
Timber production, [million m3/an]
Species
Beech
146
Total
Green
Dried
0.58
0.233
0.350
Timber price
- total green timber
high quality class,
[million euro/an]
70.0
Losses by improper grading, storage

and discoloration (stain and mould)
[million m3/an]
[million euro/an]
0.035
7.35
stickers (50 pieces on each stack protected by 5 untreated boards on the top).
The following fungicides were tested: P1 - based on IPBC, disodium octaborate tetrahydrate
solutions of 1% and 2% concentrations (Antiblu Select provided by Arch Timber Protection);
P2 - based on trimethylcocoammonium chlorure, sodium tetraborate solutions of 4% and 6%
concentrations; P3 - based on izotiazolone and additional components according to the technical
sheet- solution of 1% concentration.
The boards were treated by dipping for 1 minute in the treatment solutions. The stacks were
stored for the duration of the trial in the open sawmill yard exposed to climatic conditions.
Assessment of mould growth. Development of mould growth on the boards was assessed
monthly using the evaluation scheme described in CEN/TS 15082:2005: Wood preservatives.
Determination of the preventive effectiveness against sapstain fungi on freshly sawn timber field
test. The assessment is based on the percentage of the surface covered with mould or other
coloured fungi.
The presence of mould and blue stain fungi, on each set of boards according to product and
concentration, was evaluated after 1, 2, and 3 months exposure. The stain activity is very
significant, when we look on the untreated control boards after 60 days (Figure 1).
Attack of mould increased from one month to another if improper treatment solutions and
concentrations are used. The growth of fungi is more prominent on steamed beech boards
compared to unsteamed ones.
Examination of Figure 2 reveals that all the products reduce the sapstain colonisation compared
to untreated timber, but it also shows that there are performance differences depending on species
and exposure time.
Only the product P1 had a very good performance on unsteamed beech, after 3 months exposure
in open air, rating being under 0.5 compared to the other products rated with 3. The infestation of
the boards surfaces started after 30 days in different percentages, depending on concentration and
on product type (Figure 2). The quality of the antisapstain treatment was improved with about
30% for beech boards by increasing the product concentration.
Packed steamed beech boards were rapidly covered by mycelium, after 30 days, the rating
reaching 1 for all products (Figure 3). Better performance of products was obtained in case of
steamed beech, in boards staking on stickers as is illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 b.
Slight protection was observed even after 30 days exposure in packed steamed beech boards
(without stickers), compared to those stacked on stickers (Fig. 4 a, b). Steaming influenced to a
great extend the fungi development. In figure 5 the differences in fungal growth on steamed beech
boards compared to unsteamed ones are clearly distinguishable. Very limited fungal growth was
Fig. 1 Untreated boards (control): a. steamed beech; b. unsteamed beech
147
Fig. 2 Degree of fungi growth for packed unsteamed beech
Fig. 3 Steamed beech. Influence of stacking on rating, after 30 and 60 days exposure in open air
a
b
Fig. 4 Treated beech boards after 30 days: a) packed steamed beech; b) steamed beech on stickers
148
Fig. 5 Packed beech boards. Influence of steaming on rating evolution, after 60 days exposure in open air
observed on unsteamed boards after 60 days for P1 and P2 products (at high concentration). The
rating reached after 60 days was under 0.2 for unsteamed beech and more than 2, for the steamed
ones.
Specific exposure conditions and climate parameters influenced the started of mould or blue
stain growth on wood surfaces. After 1 month only slight infection was observed on the treated
unsteamed boards and steamed on stickers (excepting Product P3 and P2 at low concentration).
The differences in performance became more apparent after 2 months. Product P1 has maintained
its good performance (more evident at high concentration), with a rating under 0.1, whilst
products P2 and P3 have allowed more colonization. Studies showed that IPBC alone is an
effective fungicide. However it is susceptible to losing its efficacy with time. The combination
of different fungicides even at low concentrations could be more effective than single fungicides
alone (Weissenborn et al. 2003, Viitanen et al. 1997, Gobakken et al. 2007). Some studies have
demonstrated that the use of other anti-sapstain chemicals in conjunction with borates can enhance
their performance significantly (case of products P1) (Lloyd 1996, ESP 2006).
Conclusions
The primary aim of anti-sapstain treatments is to maintain freshly sawn timber in a clean condition
during storage such that the value of the timber is maintained when delivered in green state or until
it is dried. The field tests have shown that the problems encountered on treated steamed beech
concerning the mould growth can be avoided by stacking timber on stickers. Higher efficiency
can be reached by increasing the products concentration.
Protection of timber by antisapstain treatments should be an important task for each sawmill
interested in producing high quality products. No anti-sapstain treatment can ensure a long
lasting protection. However the risk of colonisation can be minimised knowing the required
protection period and end-use of the timber, combined with a careful choice of products and
concentrations.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Arch Timber Protection Ltd for guidance and support to this
research.
149
References
Adan, O.C.G. 1994. On the fungal defacement of interior finishes. Thesis. Eindenhoven, University of
Technology, 223 p.
Eaton, R A., Hale, M.D.C. 1993. Wood. Decay, pests and protection. Chapman & Hall, pp.130-144.
ESP- Environment Sensitive Pest Control. 2006. Fungi Performance with and without Borate http://www.
environmentsensitive.com/BoratePerformance.html
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization. 2007. Wood resources availability and demands - implications
of renewable energy policies UNECE /FAO Policy (UNECE-United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe/ FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).
Gobakken, L.R., Jenssen, K.M. 2007. Growth and succession of mould on commercial paint systems in
two field sites. Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource
Management.
Hocking, I.D., Mixcamble, B.F., Pitt, J.I. 1994. Water relations of Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium
spharospemum, Curvularia lunata and Curvularia pallescens. Mycological Research 98(1): 91-94.
Lloyd, J D. 1996. International Status of Borate Preservative Systems. In: Proceeding of the Second
International Conference on Wood Protection with Diffusible Preservatives and Pesticides Alabama, Nov.
6-8, pp.45-54.
Park, D. 1982. Phylloplane fungi; tolerance of hyphal tips to drying. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc 79(1), 174-179.
Shujun, Li. 2007. Preventing fungal attack of freshly sawn lumber using cinnamon extracts. In: Proceeding
of the International Research Group on Wood protection, IRG, Jackson Lake Wyoming USA, Doc. No.
IRG/WP 07-30432.
Viitanen, H., Ahola, P. 1997. Resistance of painted pine sapwood to mould fungi. Part 1. The effect of waterborne paints and fungicides on mould growth. In: Proceedings of the International Research Group on Wood
Preservation, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, Doc. No. IRG/WP 97-10233.
Wang, Q. 1992. Wood-based boards-Response to attack mould and stain fungi. Dissertation. Department of
Forest Products. Uppsala, the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 25 p.
Weissenborn, P., stberg, G., Bardage, S. 2003. Fungal Growth on Exterior Coatings for Wood. Proceedings
of the 17th SLF Congress: Future Trends in Coatings Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, pp. 117-125.
*** CEN/TS 15082: 2005. Determinarea eficacitii preventive a produselor de protecie a lemnului
mpotriva ciupercilor de albstreal la cheresteaua verde, testul n cmp/ Wood preservatives determination
of the preventive effectiveness against sapstain fungi on freshly sawn timber field test.
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Bucharest, Romania
Assessment of anthropogenic and climatic changes

impacts on forest systems by satellite and biogeophysical data
M. Zoran, M. Caian
Zoran M., Caian M. 2009. Assessment of anthropogenic and climatic changes impacts on forest systems by satellite and biogeophysical data. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu
M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a
changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 151-158.
Abstract. In the contemporary world, geospatial information gathered by different
sensors and numerous observation missions has become an imperious need for scientific investigation and application fields. Remote sensing technologies are used for
natural resources management, ecosystem change detection, environment preservation. Forest vegetation monitoring is among the priorities of remote sensing being
associated with environmental pollution and climatic changes impact assessment.
The climate system responds in complex ways to changes in forcing that may be
natural or human-induced and climate-induced changes at the forest land surface
may in turn feed back on the climate itself through changes in soil moisture, vegetation, radiative characteristics, and surface-atmosphere exchanges of water vapor.
Thresholding based on biogeophysical variables derived from time series satellite
data is a new approach to classifying forest land cover via remote sensing .The input
data are composite values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
Classification accuracies are function of the class, comparison method and season of
the year. The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between forest vegetation spectral and biogeophysical features with landcover/landuse changes due to
climatic and anthropogenic stressors. By this, the paper is devoted to assess, forecast,
and mitigate the risks of environmental pollution and climatic changes and extreme
climate events on forest ecosystems in Prahova Valley, Romanian Carpathians as
well as in periurban Bucharest forest test areas and to provide early warning strategies on the basis of spectral information derived from multispectral, multiresolution
and multitemporal satellite data over 1990-2007 period as well as numerical simulations by the regional climate model RegCM3.
Key words: climate and anthropogenic changes, forest systems, environmental impact, satellite remote sensing, biogeophysical parameters
Authors. Maria Zoran - National Institute of R&D for Optoelectronics, Satellite
Remote Sensing Department, Bucharest, Mgurele, Romania; Mihaela Caian National Meteorological Administration, Bucharest, Romania.
151
Introduction
Environmental pollution and its consequences such as climate change, ozone depletion, land
vegetation cover degradation, provides a framework for future research strategies in the frame
of international cooperation, involving scientists, research agencies and policy-makers on the
necessary measures to be taken at the interface of the Kyoto and the Montreal Protocols. Forest
protection represents one of the most important aim involving practical aspects of pest prevention
and control, as well as aspects of fundamental and applicative scientific research to find the best
solutions for maintaining the appropriate fitosanitary condition of the national public forest area
in Romania. Changes in the atmospheric abundance of greenhouse gases and aerosols, in solar
radiation and in land surface properties alter the energy balance of the climate system. These
changes are expressed in terms of radiative forcing, which is used to compare how a range of
human and natural factors drive warming or cooling influences on global climate (IPCC 2007).
Climate changes can be initiated by external factors forcing the climate system. These climate
forcing include natural factors such as changes in energy flux from the sun, variations in the
Earths orbit, and volcanic eruptions, as well as human activities, such as production of greenhouse
gases and aerosols and modification of the land surface. Over the next century it is likely that
forcing of the climate system by human activities will greatly exceed changes in forcing caused
by natural events. Processes in the climate system that can either amplify or damp the systems
response to changed forcing are known as feedbacks. According to estimates generated by current
climate models, more than half of the warming expected in response to human activities will
arise from feedback mechanisms internal to the climate system, and less than half will be a
direct response to external factors that directly force changes in the climate system (NRC 2001).
Moreover, a substantial part of the uncertainty in projections of future climates is attributed to
inadequate understanding of feedback processes internal to the natural climate system (IPCC
2001).Therefore, it is of central importance to understand, model, and monitor climate changes
as well as feedback processes.
Biogeophysical information from satellite data
Quantitative remote sensing involves the forecasting of in situ quantities based on remote
measurements of radiation. This prediction task relies on a model (either statistical or physically
based) relating remote and in situ measurements. In remote sensing data analysis, the estimation
of biophysical parameters is of special relevance in order to understand better the environment
dynamics at local and global scales. So, remotely sensed images can be used to estimate forest
parameters: defoliation, biomass, leaf area index, water content, pollution, and chlorophyll
concentration.
In order to relate the image acquired by the satellite sensor to biophysical parameters, modelbased estimation algorithms are commonly used. Two different approaches can be considered. In
physical modeling, predefined direct models of the estimated biophysical parameters are adopted.
These models are designed to account for all parameters affecting the radiometric characteristics
of the remote sensing data, such as atmospheric conditions, sun angle, sensor gain and offset,
and viewing geometry. In empirical modeling, regression techniques are commonly developed.
These techniques relate the remotely sensed data with the investigated biophysical parameter
according to interpolation methods applied over a training set constituted by pairs of in situ
measurements and collected radiances. Forest vegetation land cover can be mapped directly at
different scales from the apparent brightness measured by satellite imagery in several spectral
bands. The reflectance ( ) from satellite images is:
152
(1)
where: Lsat = spectral radiance at satellite, Ld = upwelling atmospheric radiance, v = atmospheric
transmittance along the targetsensor path, z = atmospheric transmittance along the suntarget
path, Eo = exoatmospheric solar spectral irradiance, cos = cosine of the solar zenith angle,
and Ed = scattered downwelling spectral irradiance. Some of these variables can be derived
from satellite images themselves or from published data (Moran et al. 1992). A more realistic
interpretation of path transmittances would be to assume a Rayleigh scattering atmosphere, with
z and v defined as:
and
v = e r / cos v
(2)
Optical thickness for such an atmosphere is defined as:

(3)
where is wavelength, Ed is calculated for a Rayleigh atmosphere from the radiative transfer
code (RTC) 6S (Song et al. 2001). While optical bands of satellite sensors are very useful for
assessment of forest vegetation cover health and seasonal changes, thermal infrared bands are
providing information regarding forest system dynamics.
The assessment of biophysical parameters via the analysis of remote sensing data for forested
areas plays a fundamental role for estimation of: biomass concentration and soil moisture
content, which represents a key parameter in environmental studies characterized by the soil
vegetationatmosphere system. Forest cover dynamics is studied by means of vegetation indices
(VIs) developed based on combinations of two or more spectral bands, using radiance, surface
reflectance (r), or apparent reflectance (measured at the top of the atmosphere) values in the red
(R), and the near infrared (NIR) spectral bands . This study used NDVI expressed as:
(4)
The ability to translate anthropogenic and climatic changes and projected variations in climatic
conditions into forest ecosystem responses can provide valuable information to natural resource
managers. Synergy use of satellite remote sensing and ground based observations provide
information about the past or at best current conditions. Recent advances in climate forecasting
elicited strong interest in such sectors as forest biomass prediction. One of the key problems in
adapting climate forecasts to natural ecosystems is the memory that these systems carry from
one season to the next (e.g. soil moisture, etc.). Simulation models are often the best tools to carry
forward the spatio-temporal memory information. In order to estimate possible future states of
forest systems we need a system that integrates spectral/climatic models with frequent satellite
observations, which will allow us to determine vulnerabilities of different socio-economic and
forest resource systems, and help in mitigating potential impacts.
Study areas and data used
Prahova Valley test area is located in Southern Carpathian Mountains (45040N-45038N, 25065E26031E) (see Figure 1). Cernica, forest test area is placed in the North-Eastern part of Bucharest
cit, Romania (see Figure 2).
The investigations were focused on the analysis of forest biophysical parameters and spatio153
Fig. 1 a) Prahova Valley forest test area; b) NDVI map on Landsat ETM+ 12/09/2004.
Fig. 2 a) N-E Bucharest forest test area on IKONOS image 20/09/2004 ; b) NDVI map
temporal changes in relation with climatic and anthropogenic changes extracted from satellite
data: Landsat TM 12/04/1990 and 23/05/2000, and Landsat ETM+ 12/09/2004 as well as MODIS
TERRA and AQUA data for ten years period till September 2007 and IKONOS image 20/09/2004.
Data were digitally processed and classifieds with ENVI 4.5, and IDL 6.3 softwares.The images
were geometrically corrected to fit a topographic map with a scale of 1:50 000, on which vectors
were digitized for the subsequent geocoding of the satellite images.
154
Methodology
The vegetation indices were calculated from Earth Observation satellite taking into account
jointly the features of vegetation responsible for reflection in various bands and combining this
information from several spectral bands. Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is well known and
widely used for vegetation monitoring on a global and local scale (Nackaerts et al. 2005).Weakness
of NDVI is its sensitivity to atmospheric effects. Thresholding based on biophysical variables
derived from time trajectories of satellite data is a new approach to classifying forest land cover
via remote sensing.The input data are composite values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI). Associated with these values are radiances in three thermal bands that are used to
estimate surface temperature. The classification algorithm accepts mean growing-season NDVI,
mean growing-season near-infrared radiance, NDVI amplitude and surface temperature as input
parameters for the composite NDVI and surface temperature data. The units recognized are broad
life-form vegetation classes, such as evergreen needle leaf forest, evergreen broadleaf forest,
shrubs etc. Classification accuracies are function of the class, comparison method and season of
the year. Our analysis indicates a potentially application of threshold techniques to land-cover
classification and changes analysis due to climatic effects for selected forest test areas.
Forest system change detection analysis requires: at least two independent data sets acquired
under different conditions; satellite data with different ground resolution; the position of the pixel
array has an important role and changes from image to image; even with high dynamics, land
and forest cover changes only occur in the space and time range of: per km, per year; for greater
periods of observation appear technical changes of sensors which may lead to differences in
image quality; the selection of data require frequently nearly the same seasonal date, which is not
always possible from different technical and economic reasons.
The primary tools to study climate changes are the coupled global (GCMs ), regional nested
models and the transient climate-change simulations obtained when those models are run with
projected anthropogenic forcing. Regional Climate Models (RCMs) offer a better understanding
of feedbacks between climate and mountain forest systems for the assessment of climate change
and anthropogenic effects impacts. RegCM3 used in this study offers higher spatial resolution
allowing simulations for greater topographic complexity and finer-scale atmospheric dynamics,
very useful for regional impact studies. The climate quality simulated by regional models depends
on the internal dynamics and physics of the regional model and also on the quality of the driving
data at the lateral boundaries. In spite of the errors in climate models, climate-change signal is
usually evaluated as differences between future and current simulated climates and is based on
the assumption that systematic errors in the underlying model may partially cancel between the
current and future simulations.
Results
To evaluate the impacts of the management practice on biophysical properties of the forest
systems, a set of biophysical variables were estimated from Landsat TM and ETM+ and MODIS
data. The data included vegetation indices, surface broadband albedos. To study climatic and
anthropogenic impacts, several classifications of forest vegetation over tested areas have been
done. Image pairs of the same vegetation index, for subsequent years, were subtracted producing
continuous maps indicating areas of change. Statistical analysis was carried out to see if there
is a correlation between the two sets of output. The analysis of different classifications over
selected test area have shown forest changes due to high levels of atmospheric pollution mainly
close of main road traffic and some local industries, air masses dynamics at local and regional
level as well as due to deforestation for land-use conversion, insect and disease epidemics. This
155
type of digital change detection has the advantage of (1) being repeatable; (2) facilitating the
incorporation of biophysically relevant features from the visible, infrared and microwave parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum ; and (3) requiring relatively low operational costs.
Forest cover has also a great impact on local climate. In this paper we studied the sensitivity of
projected climate-change signal, associated with the annual and monthly climatology of various
surface forest fields and pollution (dray and wet deposition, CO2, SO2, CO - organic carbon,
BC - black carbon, dust). Based on meteorological data and regional climatic model RegCM3
simulations have been analized changes in temperature and precipitation regime in association
with aerosols circulation and dynamics. For mountain forest test area was concluded: 80% of
total direct radiation is absorbed by forest cover; comparative with non-forested areas daily
temperature is lower in forested areas and greater during night time, while humidity is higher in
forested areas. Also, have been studied the changes induced on the regional climate corresponding
to forest types (deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests.) land cover by the air pollution
.Was simulated a 10-year summer season regional climate using ECMWF analysis as lateral
boundary conditions, for six forcing cases: background and dust ; background and anthropogenic;
background, anthropogenic, biomass and dust, without forests (grass cover was put in place);
with doubled background, and only background (control case) aerosols. As an illustration, Figure
3 shows difference of radiative forcing (Forest - NonForest) for mixed forests in Prahova Valley.
The inter-comparison of these simulations demonstrated: the direct effect of the aerosols on the
forest regional micro-climate, the individual radiative and climatic effect of each aerosol type,
and the effect of increasing the amount of forcing. Although the rapid climate change scenarios
are purely theoretical, they are useful for demonstrating the direction of change. Comparison of
different climate scenarios shows that the effects are in the same direction regardless of the level
of change or the initial composition of forests.
For Bucharest periurban forest test area, Figure 4 shows difference of radiative forcing (Forest
- NonForest). The analysis regarding forest land cover change impact on regional climate
Fig. 3 Difference radiative forcing (ForestNo For est)

mixed forests on Prahova Valley, 1-11/07/2006
156
Fig. 4 Difference radiative forcing (ForestNoForest)

for N-E Bucharest forest, 1-11/07/2006
suggested that due to deforestation in some areas precipitation decreased in the intra-forest areas
and slight increased in the deforested areas (total water soil content increases leading to increased
evaporation). Another analysis referred at climate change impact on micro-climate as well as for
air pollution effects modelling at regional scale in the both forest test areas. Romanian mountain
and periurban forest systems are under continuous influence of characteristic meteorologicalclimatic fluctuations of continental climate.
Periodically, are registered dry or excessive dry seasons during summer with serious impact on
existent forests vitality and more over new plantations and forest regeneration process in progress.
For long dry seasons there are several high risks like: forest fire and insects mass multiplication.
For management and decision making is important to be done medium and long term changes
forecasting.
Conclusion
Multifunctional role of forest is revealed by: short and long-term responses and reactions to
a fast changing environment. Long-term monitoring systems of ecosystems and landscapes is
developing (as a combination of intensive and in-situ observations and more global techniques,
e.g. remote sensing). Satellite remote sensing represents an important investigation tool of forest
cover monitoring at regional, national, and global scales, based on building spectral databases,
global large datasets, refining validation, calibration procedures in multi-source, multi-temporal
environment. Regional Climate Models (RCMs) offer a better understanding of feedbacks between
climate and mountain forest systems for the assessment of climate change and anthropogenic
effects impacts. The accelerating impact of the available enabling technologies is very important
in Earths features extraction, interpretation by digital image processing, pattern recognition and
features identification.
157
References
IPCC 2001. Climate Change 2001. IPCC [Houghton, J.T.,Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J.van der
Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell, and C.A. Johnson (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and NY,
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 112-116.
IPCC 2007. Climate Change 2007, The Physical Science Basis. Paris, February 2007, pp. 18.
Moran, M.S, Jackson, R.D., Slater, P.N., Teillet, P.M. 1992. Evaluation of simplified procedures for retrieval
of land surface reflectance, factors from satellite sensor output, Remote Sensing of Environment 41: 169184.
NRC 2001. Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. Committee on the Science of
Climate Change, NRC, Academy Press, Washington, pp. 24-25.
Nackaerts, K., Vaesen, K., Muys, B., Coppin, P. 2005. Comparative performance of a modified change
vector analysis in forest change detection. Int. J. Remote Sensing 26(5): 839-852.
Song, Woodcock, C.E., Seto, K.C., Pax-Lenney, M., Macomber, S.A. 2001. Classification and change
detection using Landsat TM data: when and how to correct atmospheric effects. Remote Sensing of
Environment 75: 230-244.
158
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps

in forest cadastre
I. Vorovencii
Vorovencii I. 2009. Aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps in forest
cadastre. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 159-168.
Abstract. In this paper are presented aspects regarding the use of digital orthophotomaps in forest cadastre, especially for the mountains zones where these
pieces, like product of photogrammetry, are not specific. There were used the
orthophotomaps drown up for Romanian Paying and Intervention Agency for
Agriculture (RPIAA), georeferenced in the Stereografic 1970 reference system
and which cover the parts of forest found of Braov district considered to be representative from different points of view. In this sense, it was analysed the kind
of acquisition of data for drown up the orthophotomaps, the conditions for document obtaining, the indices used for estimation the value of the orthophotomaps
and the factors which influence their quality. For comparison, the researches
zones were measured by topographic survey using the total station Trimble M3,
in the end drown up of the plans. With a view to assure a base of comparison,
the measuring was taken in national geodesic network by the points which was
determined by GPS technique and the points determined by back intersection.
Taken into account the digital format of this, it was established that utilisation
of orthophotomaps in forest cadastre offers both advantages and disadvantages.
Between advantages can be mentioned: the digital format which allows to work
at different scale without another flight, the easiness in exploitation and the utilization in forest found without special problems. Inadition, these can be used in
periodical checkings because there are put in evidence the changing appeared in
time. Between disadvantages can be mentioned: part of these have a poor quality
and in many of cases there are the difference between this and the classic topographic survey at the borders of property where the shadowing is present and
are necessary the topographic survey; the orthophotomaps arent a standardised
product four mountain zones, these being a resultant of technique which is at
disposition, and can comply with the requirements of different utilization but
they can be proved unusable for other.
Key words: digital orthophotomaps, photogrammetry, forest cadastre, accuracy,
boundary
Author. Iosif Vorovencii - Transylvania University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, irul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 Braov, Romania.
159
Introduction
The orthophotomap is a photogrammetric scale product consisting of a picture or a series of aerial
images in which the displacements caused by the scale, differences in level and orientation of
airphotogrammetric camera have been removed or reduced. Orthophotomaps contain rich visual
information, like an aerial photo and they present the geometric characteristics of a landmark
plan. These can be played in an analog form, like photogrammes, sometimes including level
curves and information on the grid or other specific details of plans. They are prepared in a
standardized format (Vorovencii 2005). In a digital form, the ortophotomaps can be used in the
interpretation, metric measurements, checking the quality or combined with a vector data as
backup for geographical information systems or CAD models. Orthophotomaps drawing is done
on the basis of projects that typically consist of blocks of aerial photographs that have been
both corrected and inlaid using the digital photogrammetric stations. Today, orthophotomaps are
generated in a digital context. The image is adjusted on the base of the orthogonal projection by
processing each individual pixel using photogrammetric calculations which are derived from
the identification of land control points, calibration of airphotogrammetric camera and from the
digital terrain model (Vorovencii & Pdure 2005).
Production of digital orthophotomaps proves to have a greater flexibility than the analog
techniques if we take into account the main advantages of the processing techniques of digital
image. Getting these pieces is an automated operation, the flow of technology including the
following steps: making topographic survey, scanning the analog photogrammes, making air
triangulation, obtaining the digital terrain model and inlaying the images. During the performance
of certain steps it may occur some problems related to the automatic inlay, radiometric treatment
or in the way of working with data in the production. The creation of digital orthophotomaps is
not an easy task if we take into account the hundreds or thousands of aerial images as data entry
and the diverse requirements of customers and users (Lillesland & Kiefer 1987, 1994).
The mapping land based on digital orthophotomaps is a relatively new method used in some
countries since 1993. Starting with the 29th of January 2007, in our country The National
Agency for Cadastre and Estate Advertising (N.A.C.E.A.) has introduced mandatory to integrate
topographic measurements in the Stereographic 1970 projection system which means that any
work done, including those from the forest fund must be placed in the system. In this sense, the
works undertaken are verified using the digital orthophotomaps prepared for The Agency for
Payments and Intervention for Agriculture (A.P.I.A.).
The main purpose of this paper is to analyze digital orthophotomaps (prepared for A.P.I.A.) in
order to determine whether these pieces ensure (in particular) adequate precision for the use in
forestry cadastre. The orthophotomaps are not yet standardized as products that support mountain
area maps. Besides accuracy were analyzed other elements specific for orthophotomaps that may
influence the quality of determination of certain data in forest fund cadastre such as setting limits
with other owners, the land area, the establishment of the categories of use, other issues such
as the comparison of digital orthophotomaps with the main plans used as a spatial map in the
forest planning etc. Basically, this is the essence of this article because the digital orthophotomap
is based on a similar technique but using the digital terrain model as a support to highlight the
differences in level. Due to this view, the digital orthophotomaps were examined giving a special
attention to the topographic land raisings because they were given as reference in determining the
orthophotomaps accuracy.
Instruments and methods
Place research has considered several areas that were seen as representative in line with the
160
purpose. Thus, topographic measurements were made in Poiana Braov, at the edge of the
forest fund and built on about 300 hectares, in the Valea Cetii neighborhood by Noua
neighborhood, at the edge of the Brasov citys built on about 250 hectares and in the Scheii
Braovului neighborhood in the place called Dup Grdini on an area of about 50 hectares.
In the first two cases the raisings have completed with plans that define the site and the building
property, including details about plan-metric bordering (roads, fences, buildings etc.). In the third
case it has drawn up a comprehensive plan event which included 4500 points, including altimetry.
The topographical raising from the Dup Grdini place did not take place in the forest but
in citys built. The slope land in plan is limitary to the forest fund, which allowed tracing the
limits and at the same time pursuing the obvious details of the discovered land in order to make
comparisons. The slope land in plan varies from 10-20, in the case of the topographic survey
from Valea Cetii, to 30-40 in the other two cases.
The materials used are digital orthophotomaps made for A.P.I.A., georeferenced in the
Stereographic 1970 projection system and which covers portions of the forest fund of the
county of Braov which are considered to be representative from many points of view of the goal.
These were purchased in the tiff format from The Office for Cadastre and Estate Advertising
Braov (O.C.E.A.).
The features of the digital orthophotomaps that were used are: 1: 5000 scale, 0.5 meters pixel
resolution, they are colored and provide 1.5 meters accuracy. These are based on aerial images
that were acquired between 2002-2005 through seven different airphotogrammetric projects
(Table 1 and Fig. 1-2) (Gacichevici 2006). Their analysis was done with the Erdas Imagine v. 8.7,
Leica LPS, Terra Model, Intelicad and AutoCad Land programs.
In terms of percentage of coverage with orthophotomaps for Romania, this is about 98.8%
of which about 97.0% are images that correspond to quality and about 1.8% were returned for
quality problems. From that 1.8% some of them were remade and others were entirely recreated
and processed. For the remaining percentage of 1.2% the images are missing.
The methods used in this paper are observation, analysis and specific methods of photogrammetric
(Rusu 1978, 1988, Chiea et al. 2003) and topography (Vorovencii 2006, Bo & Iacobescu
2007).
Ground measurements were made with the Trimble M3 total station which allows measurement
of angles with a 3 seconds accuracy and distance with accuracy of (3 + 2 ppm x D) mm for
temperatures in the range (-10C to +40C) and (3 + 3 ppm x D) mm where the temperature
ranges (-20C to -10C) and (+40C to +50C).
The projection system used is Stereographic 1970, the orthophotomaps being georeferenced in
this system, thus looking to ensure the same basis of comparison in the pursuit of orthophotomaps
precision. In this sense, the points used in the inclusion for the national system of projection were
determined by GPS technology, and where it was not possible, were made Pothenot intersection
in order to determine the points coordinates. The materialization of points on land is made trough
concrete borne, the landmark being materialized by a bolt of iron.
The topographic surveys were performed using the traverse method in combination with the
radiated method. The control of these methods has been made by creating closed traverses on
the starting point (Poiana Braov and partly Dup Grdini) or by making traverses supported
at the end by coordinated points which are known and with visa guidance taken in both ends
(Dup Grdini and Valea Cetii). The end of traverses are part of the Braovs thickness
and they are determined by GPS technology. Their coordinates are official, they exist in Braovs
O.C.P.I. database. In the case of the topographic survey from Dup Grdini place, which was
much more complex, have been made secondary (cross) traverses supported on the main traverse
(fig. 3). During the creation of traverse, where was possible and were was visibility to other
known and indicated points by the geodetic support network, there have led visas to these points
in order to ensure an intermediate control. Some station points from the way were determined
161
Table 1 Situation of the flights effected for data acquisition for drown up the orthophotomaps
Surface
(km2)
Time of fly
FIN MAP (Aero 03)
17000
March May 2003
MARMANET/OFEK (Aero 05)
23850
April May 2004
Zeiss LMK 1015

Leica RC 30
Zeiss RMK TOP 15
EUROSENSE (Aero 05)
21575
April September 2004
Leica RC 30
EADS/BLOOM
8000
April May 2004
Leica RC 30
EUROSENSE (Aero 05)
27700
May September 2005
Leica RC 30
The firm which effected the fly
The type of aerial camera
KLM (Aero 07)
44700
May Septembre 2005
Zeiss LMK 1000

Sistem 1000
Zeiss LC 1015
GEODIS (Aero 07)
34880
May September 2005
RMK TOP 15
Z/I Imaging DMC
Pancromatic
OFEK (Aero 07)
62430
May August 2005
RMK TOP 15
Total
240135
Fig. 1 Flight status 2003-2005 (Gacichevici 2006)
also by Pothenot intersection (Dup Grdini). For these points there were obtained closely
coordination ( 2-5 cm) and it was taken into account the average of these values. The calculation
and compensation of topographical survey were made depending on their type: closed or
supported. It was used the Terra Model software in which the permitted tolerances for measuring
the distances and zenital angles for the return visa have been established from the beginning.
The non-closings on coordinates were included in the permitted tolerances. Therefore, no other
reference in the pursuit of digital orthophotomaps precision was given special importance to the
topographic raising lands which constituted the only basis for comparison.
Results and disscution
The orthophotomaps quality is defined by parameters including the height of flight, analog
photogrammes scanning techniques, the geodetic control, the aerial triangulation, the digital terrain
162
Fig. 2 Situation of the country cover with flights in 2005 year (Gacichevici 2006)
Fig. 3 Scheme of topographic survey The place Dup Grdini
model and the way of generating the orthophotomaps (Kiss & Vorovencii 2000, Chiea & Kiss
2001). Since the detailed elements of these parameters are unknown, the digital orthophotomaps
used in this paper have been studied using the existing resources, such as analysis, comparison
and, in particular, with topographic survey.
The way of purchasing the data took into account the type of equipment that was used. Thus,
the photogrammes were taken with airphotogrammetric cameras appropriate to the analog ones
and after that they have been scanned to be converted into digital format. The fact that flights were
made in several projects of different companies has led to the obtaining of orthophotomaps of
different qualities. Regarded throughout the country, they present a very heterogeneous situation
due to the scattered covering on the project and to the images of different qualities.
The fact that these orthophotomaps became official, because they exist in N.A.C.E.A.s database
ANCPI, leads to an analysis in terms of forest fund cadastre as work performed in the sector can
163
be verified through these digital products. Therefore, the forestry sector is directly interested in
using current and future generations of orthophotomaps because, compared with the basic plans
at a 1: 5000 scale achieved in the years 1970-1975, orthophotomaps are based on images taken in
recent years. The issue that is raised is, in essence, if these products meet the requirements of the
forestry sector, particularly those of forest cadastre, in various ways such as accuracy and other
issues concerning the identification and delineation of cadastral land parcels, highlighting the
limits with other owners, defining the categories of service, determination of areas, parcels and
subparcels etc. All these are taking into account that a high percentage of forest area is found in
mountain where the ortophotomap is not specific.
The accuracy provided by digital orthophotomaps is perhaps the most important aspect to be
taken into account. It represents the determinant factor in the use of these pieces in some areas
including forest fund cadastre. The importance lies in the fact that digital orthophotomaps being
georeferencial in the Stereographic 1970 system, it is necessary to know the limits to where
these photogrammetric products can be used.
According to technical specifications, digital orthophotomaps should provide an accuracy
of 1.5 meters. Starting here it has sought to establish whether these values are provided in the
inclined land and very inclined and if they are sufficient for forest fund cadastre. In this sense, it
tried to find the position of the most easily identifiable details on the ortophotomap, details which
were determined on the field by topographic measurements, followed by their overlapping. The
election of details was conditioned by the possibility of identifying them on the ortophotomap
and by determining the position by measuring the land. Because in the inside of the forest fund
the non-existence of the clearly identified details causes problems, there were used details from
the vicinity of the forest fund
Differences in the positioning of the same depth of field which was recorded on the ortophotomap,
unlike the official ones, generally appear where the quality of images that were used to obtain
orthophotomaps was poor or there was not enough attention given to the image processing or
where the digital terrain model shows some errors etc. Given the circumstances presented, it
was found that these differences are, in some places, quite large, which includes the granting of
an increased emphasis in the way of using such parts for each case. In some cases the accuracy
referred to these digital products ( 1.5 m) is much lower the and difference is even 4-5 meters.
This result was reached after the overlapping of the topographic surveys on orthophotomaps or
after some of the limit details materialized on the ground through obvious fences, construction,
etc., raised in the terrestrial and quite clear on the orthophotomaps, appeared displaced by about
4-5 meters. Even large differences in position could be seen in the lands with a pronounced
fragmentation and in those where the digital model used as a basis for achieving orthophotomaps
did not clearly present the microrelief.
The establishment of forests fund limits with the lands belonging to other specialized
cadastres or private owners is a major task of forest fund cadastre because in the realization of
this cadastre the operation starts from the delimitation of other specialized cadastres. Also, most
litigations in these conditions when private ownership of forests has been widespread, start form
the unrecognizing of borders. In this sense, the use of digital orthophotomaps may be, in some
cases, a way of verifying the establishment of limits and tracking the changes. As in the case of
analogical aerial photogrammes here are, also, a number of problems in setting limits. Among the
most important factors affecting their establishment are the trees shade from the forest, the land
tilting that could mask parts of or all of the side slope, the existence of coppice on certain limits
such as land for hunting food, nurseries, expansion of limits of the forest fund by the emergence
of a new brush which is in various stages of development etc. This last issue was referred from
measurements made in Dup Grdini place where the forests limit has spread and where the
establishment of forest using orthophotomaps is very difficult, if not impossible. Such a situation
can be generalized, particularly when the sapling-covered finds a shelter and conditions to live at
164
the edge of the mature stand.

Another issue addressed in the paper was the establishment of the category of use of land
inside the forest fund and the establishment of limits between the forest fund cadastre and
other specialized cadastres (of roads, water, etc.). In this respect, were examined a number of
orthophotomaps which include forest and other categories of use as pasture, hay-fields, land,
etc. Following this analysis was found that establishing the category of use on ortophotomaps
can be done in pretty good conditions, in some cases being required to decipher the images that
formed the basis of orthophotomaps obtaining. In general, there are no problems in determining
the category of use in the inside of the forest. There exist, as I already noted, at the forests limits
where they cannot be clearly distinguished.
A common issue is determining the limit of the border with particular forest land or property
belonging to other land cadastre specialist. From the findings I noted that the establishment of
limits represent a dispute between forest owners and those of forest bordering land because the
lasts consider the boundary line as being the trees trunk, but looking to the aerial images the
boundary can be established only at the edge of the crown and this only if there is no shadow from
the trees. Moreover, because the crown of trees limit grows it leads to a change in the threshold
limit. Therefore, this aspect is quite common in practice and quite often it raises problems between
the ownership of land and thot of forest.
The use of ortophotomaps to establish forest roads in the forest also rises problems because
there cannot be distinguished the roadsides, the images used to obtain orthophotomaps being
acquired during the summer when the trees are in leaf. In this case the situation was met in
Poiana Braov, on the Old Road and on the Red Road where virtually no way can be seen. As
a result the location cannot be established and hence not the threshold between the two owners
of the forest. The situation can be generalized to such cases where measurements must be made
absolutely on ground.
Determination of areas is a critical operation in forest fund cadastre because depending on the
value of these other elements are determined to be taken into account in forest management. In
this case, the areas for all the parcels that were measured on terrain were calculated with the help
of the AutoCad Land program. It was found that these areas are quite close to those determined
by digital orthophotomaps even for the very inclined lands. This leads indirectly to the fact that
these orthophotomaps from mountains, although made for other purposes, act as the orthogonal
projections and they can also be used in the forest fund cadastre. The determination of those areas
that can be compared with the areas in general cadastre was possible in those cases where the
limits of parcels on land and on ortophotomaps were done. The differences were accepted in a
limit of 2%, according to the N.A.C.E.A. rules.
Other issues raised on the use of digital orthophotomaps in forest cadastre resume to their
comparisons with other basic plans equipped with parcels and orthophotomaps quality. Compared
with the basic plans made in between 1970-1975 which were conducted by the Institute of
Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Cartography and Planning Organization Bucharest (G.P.C.P.O.B.)
and which have been used as a cartographic support in forests management it was found that
digital orthophotomaps made so far, considered on trapezes, do not overlap completely over
these. This means that the absolute position of the details on the basic plan differs from that of
the same details recorded on orthophotomaps. This result was reached by the overlap of a very
large number of orthophotomaps over the basic plans. In advance it was used a special program
that allowed the georeferenciation of the basic plans that were in a raster format. The differences
are between 5-10 meters, so that for the units which household forest fund and which have made
GIS data base using old data base plans should be given an increased attention in the use of
digital orthophotomaps. All these inconsistencies and non-overlaps, as noted, must be seen in
the Stereographic 1970 system projection in terms of absolute positioning and not relatively.
Such differences may arise from the ortorectification process of the digital images and from the
165
fact that the points used as land reparation in preparing the basic plans and those used for the
georeferention of aerial digital images used in the preparation of orthophotomaps have not been
determined with the same precision.
From a qualitative point of view, it was found that not all the images that formed the basis of
creation of orthophotomaps were appropriate. In this sense were met orthophotomaps obtained
on the basis of some photogrammes which present the brush recorded more as a side view rather
than as a central projection (Fig. 4).
This issue has been brought no only in areas where the determinations presented in the paper
have been measured but also on other orthophotomaps. It was seen that the phenomenon is much
stronger as the picture becomes more of a side view. Moreover, on the same ortophotomap are
encountered situations where crowns are facing different directions fact that arises problems in
getting the information by using it. In the cases found at the edge of forest, it is very difficult to set
limits with other properties because the projection of crowns is not perpendicular to the ground.
Conclusions
The issues addressed in the paper were to analyze the possible use of the digital orthophotomaps
in the forest fund cadastre. Basically, it went the way of making them, but because it was not
enough information (orthophotomaps being made by various companies) there were used different
methods to analyze the accuracy, such as topographic land measurements. There were treated
issues related to the establishment of items included in the definition of specific land parcels
which are typically for such a cadastre.
Benefits of using the digital cadastre orthophotomaps forest are obvious: they can be obtained
quickly, it creates large pictures, they may be used as primary sources of information to the
produce of returned plans or to regulate the existing ones, they present georeferential and
complete information for documentation purposes, they can be used to make summary checking
regarding the topographic survey, the scale can be easily changed, easy integration into geographic
information systems and they have a relatively low cost due to the highly degree of automation.
Furthermore, the regulation of orthophotomaps can be achieved quite easily if the land area has
no major changes and the digital terrain model must be updated only in certain places. If the
necessary information must be under the form of a vector, it can be extracted immediately. The
Fig. 4 Portion from ortophotomap with poor quality
166
possibility is of great interest if the requirements on accuracy are not major and if the problem
needs special knowledge for interpretation that cannot be a joint by a photogrammetric operator.
The specified accuracy for the digital orthophotomaps ( 1.5 m) was found to be respected,
in general, even if the orthophotomaps that were analyzed are from the mountain area where
these photogrammetric products are not common. This result was reached after the completion of
land topographic measurements on several areas (totaling about 600 hectares) were made. There
were obtained situation plans and plans for site and of delimitation of the ownership bodies that
overlapped over the digital orthophotomaps all of them being located in the Stereographic 1970
system projection. To verify the accuracy of orthophotomaps there were determined the details
that were outside the forest. So the measured is not necessarily to be made in the forest fund, but it
is necessary that the ortophotomap to be prepared for an inclined area. As such, in order to follow
the precision provided by orthophotomaps on a inclined land or very inclined is indicated to use
orthophotomaps that include already discovered lands because there can be clearly identified the
details measured by land and then compared their positions. Tracking other targets on the use of
orthophotomaps in the forest fund cadastre, other than how to ensure accuracy in a tilted land,
was made taking into account the topographic arising made in the forest fund.
In terms of accuracy, digital orthophotomaps can be used in the forest fund cadastre as long as
the works that are used allow this. The use of such digital photogrammetric products at a 1: 5000
scale, whose specified accuracy is 1.5 meters and which in most cases is respected except when
were used photogrammes of low quality, it has to be always reported to the time when it was
used. The works must be reported to the respective periods, too. This has to be noted since these
orthophotomaps will be replaced with others. A part of the country will be covered with aerial
images at a 1: 5000 scale which will probably include the forest fund. The in built will be made
at scales of 1: 1000 and 1: 2000. It should be noted that these are the first digital orthophotomaps
made at the level of our country and, like any product that is perfectible preparation of a new
generation of orthophotomaps in the near future will require the achievement of some superior
products in terms of quality and insurance of accuracy. So, between the first generation of digital
orthophotomaps and the second will probably be differences as there are between the current
basic and the present digital orthophotomaps.
Because the ortophotomap is not a specific photogrammetric mountain areas product, with a
tilted relief, their evaluation was done by measurements made by land. Then they were compared
by overlapping with the informational content of digital orthophotomaps. All issues related to
accuracys precision presented in this article are references made at the use of orthophotomaps in
mountain areas where this product is not representative. In the case of horizontal and plane lands
these pieces can be used without reservation because the level differences are very small and the
influence of the relief has no importance.
Establishing the category of use using digital orthophotomaps in the forest cadastre does
not pose major problems because in the inside the area is generally covered with forest. Some
problems may arise where, because of the forests crumbling, the owners of private forest, private
meadows or pastures appear or where you must pay special attention in determining the limits of
the categories of service.
The determination of areas using the digital ortophotomaps can be done easily as long as the
land parcels have been established. Although they are made on slope areas of land or on heavily
sloped ones, the surface can be determined taking into account the limit of the percentage of 2%
according to the technical N.A.C.E.A. rules.
The purpose for which these digital orthophotomaps were created should not be neglected.
Mainly, these photogrammetric products have not been completed for cartographic purposes but
with the purpose of identifying the lands used by different owners. Due to the way of working with
them and probably due to the less cost (the money were received from the European Community),
the orthophotomaps are used by several sectors that have specialized cadastre. Because the forest
167
fund cadastre is a specialized one and because its achievement is conditioned by the achievement
of general cadastre and by the connection with the specialized border cadastres, we have to bear
in our minds that while N.A.C.E.A. believes that these products are appropriate in several ways,
they can be used also in forests domain. It should also be noted the fact that these were and
are used by N.A.C.E.A. for summary paper checks, particularly where, for certain territorial
administrative units, there are no measurements in the database. If it is drawing up a new
generation of orthophotomaps mainly with cartographic purposes, they will certainly have a high
accuracy that the current orthophotomaps.
In conclusion, the issues discussed in this article were the checking of precision of digital
orthophotomaps taken into the mountains and the examination of the possibilities of using these
products in the establishment of certain elements necessary for the forest fund cadastre. By
tracking the ensurence of accuracy, practically, I wanted to see whether the digital orthophotomaps
comply, across their way, the orthogonal projection as in the case of the orthophotomaps obtained
using the means of analogical photogrammetry that were recovered on tapes.
References
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Chitea, Gh., Kiss, A. 2001. Cadastru general i forestier. Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov,
224 p.
Chitea, Gh., Kiss, A., Vorovencii, I. 2003. Fotogrametrie i teledetecie. Editura Universitii Transilvania
din Braov, 230 p.
Gacichevici, S. 2006. Status of LPIS in Romania. Status of LPIS Implementation Workshop, Ispra, 16-17
Octomber.
Kiss, A., Vorovencii, I. 2000. Fotogrametrie. Universitatea Transilvania din Braov, 116 p.
Lillesland, T.M., Kiefer, R.W., 1987. Remote sensing and image interpretation, 2nd edn. Wiley and Sons,
New York, pp. 112-210.
Lillesand, T., Kiefer, R. 1994. Remote sensing and image interpretation. Third edition. Editura John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. SUA, pp. 50-78.
Rusu, A. 1978. Fotogrametrie forestier. Editura Ceres, 282 p.
Rusu, A. 1988. Fotografia aerian i teledetecia n economia forestier. Editura Ceres Bucureti, 197 p.
Vorovencii, I. 2005. Cercetri privind posibilitile de utilizare a imaginilor satelitare n lucrrile de
amenajarea pdurilor. Tez de doctorat. Universitatea Transilvania din Braov, 304 p.
Vorovencii, I. 2005. Noi perspective ale utilizrii nregistrrilor de teledetecie n lucrrile de amenajarea
pdurilor. In: Silvobiologie Vol. 4B Amenajarea pdurilor la nceputul mileniului al III-lea. Editura
Academiei Romne, pp. 324-330.
Vorovencii, I., Pdure, I. 2005. Exploatarea modelului digital al terenului n cadastrul forestier. Lucrri
prezentate la Simpozionul de msurtori terestre i cadastru: 50 de ani de nvmnt geodezic superior
civil din Bucureti; 15 ani de la renfiinarea Facultii de Geodezie. Bucureti 17-18 noiembrie 2005.
Revista de Geodezie, Cartografie i Cadastru volumul 14 anul 2005, nr. 1-2, pp. 344-355.
Vorovencii, I. 2006. Topografie. Editura Universitii Transilvania din Braov, 364 p.
168

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Integrated forest planning and management system:

pathway to the future in Romania?
E. Iordache, M. Petrila
Iordache E., Petrila M. 2009. Integrated forest planning and management system:
pathway to the future in Romania? In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.),
pp. 169-176.
Abstract. Forests are dynamic systems. They constantly evolve and change through
time in response to both internal and external forces. It is necessary to have a clear
understanding of forest conditions at a particular point in time. To better know the
changes occurring in forests helps to conceive appropriate management plans and
helps to the implementation of the actions prescribed in these plans. The Integrated
Forest Planning System is recommended to be used by Forest Research Units. A
GIS could answer to the needs of information about the geographic situation of an
object of study, its characteristics, its status, the analysis of its development trends,
about evaluation and modeling. The final result of the work is a database in GIS
environment including the following main components: administrative subdivisions;
forest fund (forest management plan, game breeding plan); property; road network;
hydrographic network and watershed basins; forests (tree species composition, age
classes and forest treatment); territories having special functions and purposes and
limitation regimes; topographic map; relief digital model, satellite images; conflict
zones and specific objects. Thematic maps, tables, charts etc. are developed.
Key words: map base, thematic maps, cartographical appendices to GIS, forest planning, multifunctional management.
Authors. Eugen Iordache - Transylvania University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, irul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 - Braov, Romania,
Marius Petrila - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bucharest, Romania.
Introduction
The Integrated Forest Planning System (IFPS) is a spatially-based modelling system consisting of
several computer applications linked together through a common database (Lau et al. 1994).
The system follows a tool kit approach, permitting the basic building blocks to be quickly fitted
with new models and components according to the needs and objectives of the analysis. Such an
approach has proven that it can be practical and beneficial. The main benefits are the relatively
low costs and the flexibility of adapting the system to new applications and analyses.
IFPS uses spatial and non-spatial data stored in a database to evaluate a range of alternative
management options. IFPS is used to describe and analyse forest resources such as timber, water,
wildlife, conservation, and recreation. It enables us to look at interactions between these values,
169
to evaluate alternative management options, to optimize immediate and long term benefits and to
determine the impacts of various management decisions through time.
This system offers forest planners a structured approach to manage forests. It provides a
scientific basis to: (i) forecast sustainable timber yields; (ii) analyse impacts of forest harvesting
on water; and (iii) monitor changes in forest estates over time.
Alternative management options and different scenarios can be evaluated by providing answers
to What if? questions. This way, the probability to reach the objectives of an ecologically-based
forest management is enhanced.
IFPS offers many advantages in relation to forest planning and management (Sutton 1998),
namely: (i) Identity and spatial location of each forest land unit is maintained as it is modelled
over time; (ii) Inputs to and outputs from the system can be readily displayed on the computer
screen or as printed maps; (iii) IFPS is a useful strategic or long-term forest management planning
tool; (iv) Outputs from IFPS can be used at the regional and local levels for short term and
operational planning; (v) IFPS enables to evaluate options for management and scheduling of
various forest activities, by taking into account policy, environmental, social, economic and
operational considerations.
All the activities and stages of the development as well as the implementation of the forest
management plans are more effective when appropriate graphic and attributive database are
established in GIS environment.
The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a powerful modern tool supporting the
development and presentation of forest management plans at all the stages (inventory, mapping,
activities planning) in the process of planning activities elaborated by State Forestry Enterprises,
municipal and non-state forestry structures.
Presenting detailed and multiple information in a form of thematic maps, charts, general
tables, analyses and visualization. During the development of the Implementig GIS in Romanian
forests project and during public discussions, workshops and other meetings, information about
territory and forests in a given object has been presented. The maps and data are usually readable
and understandable for a limited number of specialists, aware with the peculiarities of forest
cadastres.
Presenting data about the object of study in a GIS environment enables the different participants
in the process to easily understand the information. It permits to shorten the time necessary during
discussions to spot conflict points, to foresee the future ones and to delineate current and future
problems. It also facilitates the adequate and fruitful participation of potential stakeholders,
interested in the multifunctional forest management. It contributes to a maximum of transparency
and makes the forest policy implemented by the responsible administration to be well understood,
so as the confidence of the participants increases.
Integration of data of different type and from different sources. In the framework of
multifunctional forest management appears the need of additional specialized information about
forest territories and adjacent zones. During the starting period of implementing GIS it is not
possible to clearly know which information will be necessary. Therefore all the data available
about one territory are collected and integrated in common models and databases.
Performing spatial analyses and revealing relationships and tends. One of the most important
tasks of GIS technology is to answer to questions, to help trends revelation and delineation in
forest development and to obtain new types of quality information regarding one territory.
Using the options of GIS for simulating of a virtual forest. The three-dimensional
presentation of the information attracts visual interest, and different processes are stimulated in
real time. GIS capacities are used to forecast and to project different objects and activities (routes,
cuttings, engineering infrastructure).
Forest is a complex of resources and factors, which are dynamic along the time and are
interrelated. A correct preliminary assessment regarding potential disasters inside the forest status
170
(forest fires, snow breaks, windfalls) and predicting scenarios as responses to different crisis
situations, could introduce a part of realism in the way of planning activities in multifunctional
forest management. Otherwise, some of these activities will be inadequate.
Technical tools and data
Hardware and software
An appropriate hardware with peripheral devices and a software are necessary to develop GIS
in multifunctional forest management. Microsoft Windows (98,2000,NT,XP) operation system,
with a minimum of 526MB RAM (for XP 1GB), 60GB HD, Pentium processor, CD-ROM and
specialized software (ArcGIS, MapInfo, Autodesk Map) are recommendable.
The primary database
The primary database for GIS development is putting together information about the object of
study in the current forest management plans and game management plans, digital models and
data from the municipal services, territorial development plans of the object of interest, available
cartographic materials, texts and numerical data, field measurements results, aerial photographs
and photo-charts, ortho-photo-plans and satellite images, relief digital models.
The Regulation for forest land planning management and game land management in Romania
identifies geodesic and photogrammetry methods as the basic ones in the development of forests
map background. A management plan is developed for every forest management unit on the
territory of the country, and forest thematic maps are substantial parts of its contents, together
with the data inventory regarding stands and activites planned therein.
Forest thematic maps are themselves situation maps on 1:10 000, 1:25 000 scales and smaller.
Their elaboration is based on topographic maps on 1:5 000 and 1:10 000 scales, on
digital models of land division plan, and on the maps of the restored property on forest lands,
geodesic field measurements and other sources. They are updated every ten years by a new forest
management planning of the territory.
Information from State Forest enterprizes, Regional Forestry Directorates and from the
National Forestry Board. The main forest-related information, necessary for the development of
multifunctional forest management is taken from digital models of the forest management plan
and game management plan of the object of study and its attributive database developed in the
adopted standard formats.
The information supplied by state forestry institution is a source for: (i) obtaining information
regarding the spatial distribution of forest complexes, the borders among the properties of
different owners and users; (ii) determining the forest fund area and its subdivisions from the
point of view of forest and game management planning; (iii) linking the activities planned in
the multifunctional forest management of the area to the planning of forestry and engineering
activities; (iv) identifying territories with forest use limitation regimes (protected and protection
territories, water supply zones, water catchments, protected localities, natural sights, zones
restricted for grazing, zones restricted for collection of medicinal plants, mushrooms etc.); (v)
marking areas according to fire risk, access to water basins, platforms for aviation techniques,
observation towers, tourist fireplaces; (vi) determining hunting areas, game habitats, zones for
game breeding, zones with restricted access, hunting routes, equipment, activities.
Data from the municipal administration. An important part of the general model development
of the object of study is the identification of the properties in the forest territory based on the file
in a standard format: (i) digital map models of the restored property of the land in the object of
study; (ii) digital models of land division plans regarding the land in the object of study.
171
Data from aerial photographs and images: (i) new (or available in archive) aerial photographs
and ortho-photo-plans of the forest fund; (ii) new (or available in archive) satellite images.
Supporting data and materials. Additional information concerning the object during the
development of GIS is provided by different services and subdivisions of the local authorities,
unions and NGOs: (i) Municipal administration - data about municipal objects and areas of
responsibility (forests, waste deposits, single constructions out of regulation etc.), data from the
Ecology municipality service with regard to the state of water, air and soil; (ii) Mayors and
mayor representatives - information about the objects of local importance, pastures; (iii) Regional
service for fire control and public safety - data about fire control activities and objects; (iv)
Regional service for environmental protection data about environmental pollution and ecological
problems, data about environment monitoring; (v) Hunting unions - data about the areas managed
by hunting unions; (vi) Tourist clubs - tourist routes, paths and sights around, recreation places,
camps, caves, rock-climbing objects, bicycle tracks, ski-tracks etc.; (vii) Regional road service;
(viii) Water service - water network and sewerage out of regulation, canals, water power stations
, dams, springs; (ix) National Energy Company power lines, power distribution stations, zones
of responsibility of the National Energy Company; (x) Union of hoteliers and tour-operators objects (hotels, country houses, guest houses), services and sightseeing; (xi) Other stakeholders
- private forest owners, timber harvesting companies.
Development of GIS in Romanian forest
GIS could respond to the necessity to have data and information about the situation of an object,
its characteristics and status. Later on, after the developmental trends analysis, assessment and
modeling, of a new level of knowledge about the object is achieved.
Working project of GIS
Establishment of a working model and database
The object selected, Experimental Forest Service, is usually situated on the territory of one or
more settlement lands belonging to one or more municipalities. The primary files for graphics
with cadastral information (provided by cadastral units) are generated at settlement territory
level (layer cadastre), and the files of forest/game management plan (with the main area units management subunits) are collected at the level of management units (layer forest management).
The files of all the settlement territories are united and converted, so as to obtain a united model
for the management unit.
Some difficulties appeared when the current forest management has been developed before
ownership restoration of forest lands. In such a case, a new layer was created (layer ownership).
This is necessary because the forest management operational units in the current plan are not
classified according to their ownership. According to the rules, there cannot be different ownership
within an elementary management unit. Therefore this information needs updating. This layer
contains the information about the ownership of forests and forest lands, according to the file
containing the map displaying restored ownership.
Thus, at this stage (Table 1) three main components of the graphical database are identified,
namely: (i) forests (forest management plan) - borders of the management operational units and
subunits in the management unit, administrative subdivision following forest management and
game management principles; (ii) cadastre of agricultural land - cadastral units; (iii) forest
cadastre - (a map of the restored ownership) - management operational subunits, classified by
ownership.
The general attributive database is obtained through converting and combining data of two
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Table 1 Stages of development of GIS proposed in the project

Stage
Preliminary
investigations and
analysis
Activities
Results
Analysis of the potential of ideas, information

available, particular topics
Data in different formats
Presentation of GIS
technologies
Informing the participants in management and

increasing their awareness with the capacity
of GIS technologies.
Demonstration of GIS
software products
Tasks for GIS

development
Defining the parameters of GIS - objectives,

extent and contents
Tasks list
1. Development of a common model of

territory - data conversion in a unified format
Common model and

database
Preliminary concept for

GIS
2. Presenting the list of the necessary

information for GIS developing
3. Development of the matrix with the
requirements
4. Conflicts identification and mapping
Dynamic
implementation of GIS
Working project of GIS
1. Presentation of GIS during public

discussions - information tables
2. Logistic support to the workshops
3. Defining zones of agreement and conflict
zones
1. Mapping affected territories; solving
conflicts, achieving compromises
2. Planning, designing and mapping the
activities taken into account in multifunctional
forest management
1. Implementation of the final variant of GIS
Implementation of GIS
Providing information
service to users
Maintaining GIS
2. Implementation of partial models according

to the requirements defined in multifunctional
forest management
3. Updating GIS
4. Development of the final variant after the
public discussion and presentation
1. Practically-oriented training about the way
to work with GIS intended to be given to the
staff at local level
2. Information service during the project
implementation
Monitoring and updating GIS
Necessities list
Matrix of requirements
Detailed and general maps
and information
Thematic maps, tables,
charts, analyses
Working model and
database
General model and

database
Partial models
Final model and database
Short-term courses,
deposition of data in a final
variant
Presentations
main levels: (i) cadastral units; (ii) management operational subunits.

Development of a common model of territory, activities and requirements
According to the objectives and tasks of multifunctional forest management, the main layers
are set with surface elements: cadastre layer, forest management layer and ownership layer. For
a better visualization and to complete the maps, additional layers are developed containing the
173
following elements: (i) linear and surface object situation elements of anthropogenic origin
(ordinary and forest roads, paths, cutting rides, fences, engineering constructions); borders of
open areas within the forest territory (meadows, pastures, cutting yards, windfalls, snow breaks,
fired places, clearings); hydrography, skeletal lines of the relief (watershed lines and ridges) and
relief elements (rocky areas, screes etc.); (ii) inscriptions numbers of cadastral units, operational
management units and subunits, area, names of settlements, adjacent administrative units,
localities, hydrographic information, typical objects, out of frame inscriptions; (iii) conventional
signs from topographic background, from forest thematic maps, specially designed conventional
signs refering to multifunctional forest management; (iv) horizontals (in a vector type); (v)
topographic background (in raster type); (vi) satellite images transformed into the common
model coordinate system; (vii) three-dimensional model of the relief.
The main components of GIS, corresponding to the requirements defined, are: administrative
subdivision (counties, municipalities and lands); forest fund management plans (forest
subdivision, forestry sections, guarding sections, operational management units and subunits);
forest game fund management plans (game management subdivision into hunting sections and
hunting areas); ownership (according to the cadastral and forestry units); roads (main and forest
road network, routes); watershed basins (hydrographic network, borders of watersheds); forests
(tree species, composition, age classes and forest system); territories with special functions and
purposes; territories affected (conflict zones, zones of particular attention); three-dimensional
models; satellite images.
Development of partial territory models according to the different requirements
in multifunctional forest management. According to the particular requirements set in
multifunctional forest management, new components of GIS are developed. They contain layers
representing samples and combinations of the layers developed in the working model, as well
as completely new layers. In each component of the system, data are arranged in respective
layers with linear, text and symbolic objects, as well as surface objects. To present graphically
and visualize the components related to the specific requirements of multifunctional forest
management, new layers including necessary surface and linear objects, conventional signs, text
and digital indications are created in the partial models. Appropriate scales and subdivisions can
be selected, together with the respective frame and out-of frame design for each sheet.
Conclusions
The development of integrated forest planning and management system is an obligatory element.
At the same time, the contents of multifunctional forest management should be incorporated
into the current and future regional plans. The results of multifunctional forest management are
presented to the higher organizations County administration, RNP, MADR etc. In decisionmaking, in discussions about regional plans and in implementing directives, the multifunctional
forest management decisions are of substantial importance. Therefore, GIS of multifunctional
forest management appears to be the single alternative in the management of the forest resources
to optimize the development and the effective implementation of integrated forest planning and
management system.
The main advantages provided by GIS for the optimization of integrated forest planning and
management system are: (i) establishment of new databases with spatial data about the respective
territory; (ii) flexible visualization of the information and thematic mapping; (iii) management
of databases; (iv) numerical and spatial analysis and statistics; (v) development of graphical and
attributive databases, based on the new information and aimed at supporting decision-making
process.
The effect of using GIS in the implementation of integrated forest planning and management
system could be expressed by: (i) a better understanding of the objectives of multifunctional forest
174
management; (ii) a definition of multifunctional forest management capacities and requirements;

(iii) a decreasing of the time needed to analyse conflictual situations and to reach compromises;
(iv) an exclusive information service for the participants in multifunctional forest management;
(v) information service of the multifunctional forest management.
References
Lau, J.A., Vandenberg, W.G. Willig, R.U. 1994. Visual and Spatial Techniques in Multiple-Use Planning.
Resource Technology 94: New Opportunities Best Practice, University of Melbourne.
Lau, J.A., Vandenberg, W.G. Willig, R.U. 1999. Linking different scales of planning using an integrated
forest planning system approach in Victoria. Proceedings of the IUFRO Working Party S4.12.00 Workshop
on Assessment Methods of Forest Ecosystem Status andSustainability: Krasnoyarsk, Russia.
Sutton, M.W. 1998. Whats in the black box? Forest News.
175
176

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Inventory of primary and secondary forest ways using GPS/GIS in Romanian mountainous forests
E. Iordache
Iordache E. 2009. Inventory of primary and secondary forest ways using GPS/GIS
in Romanian mountainous forests. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.),
pp. 177-182.
Abstract. The non-existence of a cadastre of primary (forest roads) and secondary
(strip roads and skid trails) forest ways represents a huge problem in planning forest communications in economic forests of Romania. It is also almost impossible to
carry out an intensive and rational management of forest ecosystems based on continuity and biodiversity principles, if we do not have a good insight into the existing
forest road infrastructure. This paper suggests contemporary methods of surveying
forest ways using GPS device Trimble GeoExplorer and the so-called return survey
method with differential correction. It also proposes to map this road network using an ArcGis programme package and previously established GIS of the area of
research. A forest ways classification system has also been suggested. Researches
have been carried out in Braov forest county (Scele forest district). A classical
and relative opening-up (through forest roads and strip roads) of the area of research
has been observed. These research works emphasized the advantages of forest ways
cadastre and GIS, both for forest opening-up and forest works planning, as well as
towards multi-disciplinary, comprehensive forestry.
Key words: forest road network , forest roads information system, cadastre, GIS,
GPS.
Author. Eugen Iordache - Transylvania University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture
and Forest Engineering, irul Beethoven St. 1, 500123 - Braov, Romania.
Introduction
An appropriate accessibility has an important role in the concept of forest management. It is
realized through an adequately dense network of forest ways, among which forest roads represent
the basic skeleton. In Romania, there are 32082.6 km of forest roads implying an important
forest management and representing a kind of national wealth, which has to be adequately
kept and planned in an optimal way, at the same time respecting ecological and economical
considerations.
In the past, many forest areas do not have been well or sufficiently opened, or do not have been
opened at all. The only way to successfully and efficiently manage forests is the building of new
ways. To do this, we firstly have to know the number and distribution of the existing forest ways
and we consequently need a cadastre displaying them. Such a cadastre does not always exist, or
177
sometimes is incomplete, being unuseful in both cases.

The basic aims of this paper are defined as follows: (i) carrying out the full cadastre of primary
forest roads and reporting their drawing in a digital form on forest-economic maps, to the account
of Doftana, Management unit VI, Scele forest district, Brasov forest county; (ii) carrying out
the full cadastre of secondary forest roads and reporting their drawing in a digital form on
forest-economic maps, to the account of certain departments of the same management unit; (iii)
determining the classification criteria for a special category of forest roads and categorize these
roads; (iv) analysing secondary opening of special departments of Doftana management unit VI,
suggesting a methodology to elaborate a forest ways cadastre.
Area of research
The research was carried out in the area of Doftana Management unit VI, Scele forest district,
Braov forest county.
To survey forest roads we used GPS device - Trimble GPS Pathfinder Pro XRS and GPS device
Trimble, GeoExplorer 3. Afterwards the data we gathered were processed in a package GPS
Pathfinder Office 2.80 programme, and then corrected by measures made in base stations, in order
to eliminate mistakes and to increase data preciseness, so as to report these data on previously
scanned maps.
Forest roads were surveyed by an external antenna put on a vehicle registering data every
5 seconds, while points of separating forests from public roads were surveyed by GPS device
Trimble GPS Pathfinder Pro XRS.
Fig. 1 Doftana Management Unit VI, Scele forest district, Braov forest county - actual

situation of infrastructure components
178
Strip roads were surveyed by GPS device Trimble, GeoExplorer 3 which, unlike in the case
of forest roads, was not put inside the vehicle; we indeed walked along each tractor road. For
strip roads we also corrected differential mistakes using the results of base stations continuing
survey.
Both primary and secondary forest ways were surveyed by so-called return method (recording
was carried out in both directions) during the vegetation resting stage, according to a previously
determined almanac (satellite position above the area of research at a various time of the day).
Forest ways are structures used for traffic. There are many definitions and divisions according to
various criteria depending on their purpose, their location in a stand, their technical characteristics,
etc. Forest roads belong to primary forest ways. These are permanent structures permitting a
constant traffic of motor vehicles to carry out the tasks established by management plans (timber
transport, hunting, forest protection, forestry). They are made up of superstructure and substructure
having all road technical characteristics and permanently occupying forest fertile ground (for
instance for road width).
Secondary forest ways are structures which are used from time to time for tasks determined by
a management plan. They are primarily intended for tractor skidding. They include strip roads
and skid trails. Strip roads are structures in which ground works are present, what means that they
consist only of a substructure. They are just drawn into maps and are not planned. Skid trails are
temporary structures resulting from cutting through a forest, which are then maintained through
the continuous passage of tractors along the same trace. After these structures have completed
their purpose, the forest takes again over the ground surface previously ceded to skid trails.
The inventory of the forest ways of the area of research carried out using GPS-a Trimble
GeoExplorer 3, data processed through Pathfinder Office 2.80 programme package and mapped
using ArcGIS software on previously scanned and geocoded maps (on 1:5000 scale) provided all
together very precise data.
Adding forest ways onto large-scale maps requires surveying on the field through the so-called
return method, i.e. surveying the route of a forest way in two directions, in order to decrease the
number of forest way sections about which we have no surveyed data or low quality surveyed
data and in order to fit in differential corrections into original terrain databases.
Once established, the cadastre of primary and secondary forest ways enables us: (i) to precisely
visualize existing resources in specific forest areas; (ii) to analyse actual conditions of primary
and secondary forest opening; (iii) to notice potential needs, failures and inadequacies regarding
traffic infrastructure; (iv) to plan and control the costs of maintaining forest ways and repairing
strip roads; (v) to make studies on working sites regarding harvesting in specific forest areas etc.
The method of bordered areas in combination with a relative forest opening for which a quality
evaluation system has been developed, represents an exceptionally efficient mean of analysing
the actual network of primary and secondary forest ways, separating not opened areas and areas
about to be opened up.
Table 1 Inventory and classification of the roads of Doftana management unit VI
National road
Regional road
Forest road
Tractor road
Total
km
6.4
12.6
22.0
30.0
71.0
9.1
17.7
30.9
42.3
100
m/ha
1.3
2.6
4.5
6.2
14.7
179
Fig. 2 The actual situation of opening-up in the Management Unit VI, Doftana
Like forest management, forest roads management cannot be conceived without appropriate
information permitting a more rational and optimal work. Therefore Romanias Forest Service
must design a forest roads information system made up of two main modules. The first module
consists of forest road registers (EGC, supported by graphic information layer). The second
module is intended for monitoring forest roads maintenance. Both modules have to be connected,
but each one is also operational by itself.
The concept of forest roads information system is open, dynamic and modular. It is also treated
as a sub-system of the broader forestry information system which is based on the principle of
relational databases. Data gathering on a road are run by the stationary system, as the individual
events are recorded on the spot.
The Sloven Model of FOREST ROADS REGISTER (EGC) is presented below
Forest ways data are gathered in information databases forming an individual module in a forest
ways information system called Forest Roads Register. This module is regulated by the rules on
forest traffic ways. It consists of an attribute part and a graphic part, which are interconnected by
an identification field (by the road code in the case of forest ways).
Attribute part of EGC. The attribute part of the EGC is defined by the elaboration of an
information database model based on the points where the necessary elements, which should be
incorporated in the system, were determined. The formation of the information database model
comprises: (i) System realization and definition of objects information databases; (ii) Record
and definition of attributes for individual information databases and conceptual execution of codes
legends; (iii) Scheme of relational interconnections between individual information databases.
180
Data gathering or data acquisition for the needs of EGC must be very rational because of high
work and equipment costs. Forest ways data are gathered from the field and from office. The
field data acquisition can be done classically through inventory and geodetic survey or through
global positioning system (GPS) use. Work at the level of the forest district mainly consisted in
processing digital ortho-photo images (DOF, M 1: 5,000). Since data in the information system
constantly change, a road can be included deleted or remodeled in the EGC, according to a specific
procedure.
Building the forest roads information system we tried to gather all the data necessary for a
comprehensive overview of the forest roads network. The system being open and dynamic, it
is easy to include additional data, which may be important and useful. The addition of basic
forest ways data and data regarding the spatial arrangement of forest ways into the system, is of
greatest importance, as these data represent the basis for the whole information system. Links and
harmonization with the information layers of the public traffic routes network on the formal level
are also factors of great importance. This harmonization refers simultaneously to the inclusion of
diverse road categories in the joint register of economic public infrastructure. A precised image
of forest roads network cannot be obtained before harmonization on this level. Therefore this is a
priority task which should urgently be completed.
Discussions and conclusions
The inventory of forest ways present on the area of research carried out using GPS-a Trimble
GeoExplorer 3, data processed through Pathfinder Office 2.80 programme package and mapped
using ArcGIS software on previously scanned and geocoded maps on 1:5000 scale, gave all
together very precise data.
Forest ways data are gathered in information databases forming an individual module in a forest
roads information system called Forest Roads Register. This module is regulated by the rules on
Table 2 List of information databases in FOREST ROADS REGISTER
Information database
ROAD
R PROPERTY
R USE
R FMU
R DISTRICT
R MUNICIPALITY
RDEMOG
R LAYER
R DRAINING
R POROUSNESS
R BRIDGE
R WALL
R CHARACTER
R SIGN
Description
General data
Basic road data
Property data
Forest roads use
Administrative and forest management division
Affiliation in forest management unit
Affiliation in district
Affiliation in municipality
Data on demographically endangered areas
Data on road objects and road construction elements
Data on wear or blocking layers of roadway
construction
Data on surface water draining devices
Data on forest road porousness
Data on bridges and tunnels
Data on supporting constructions
Forestry Technological data
Data on forest road productivity
Traffic signalization
Data on site and contents of traffic
signalization on the road
181
Table 3 The most appropriate way of getting data for the attribute and graphic parts of the forest road
information system
Attribute
Graphic
General data on forest road
-office work on the basis of available

sources(maps, projects, older information)
-field inventory
-DOF5 combined with GPS field recording or

digitalization of road line course from a quality
map basis, also DTKS line transfer
Administrative and forest management division

-use of information layers from other modules
of forestry information system and layers from
other branches (municipality)
-office work on the basis of data from

appropriate maps
Objects on the road and road construction elements

-office work on the basis of projects and older
information
-field inventory
-transfer of attribute data into the graphic form

-field work with GPS
Forestry and technological data

- office work on the basis of evaluation
Traffic signalization
-field inventory
- transfer of attribute data into the graphic form

-field work with GPS
forest traffic ways. It consists of an attribute part and a graphic part, which are interconnected by
an identification field (by the road code in the case of forest ways).
References
Becker, L., Jaeger, D. 1992. Integrated design, planning and evolution of forests roads and logging activities
using GIS- based interactive CAD-systems. Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop on Computer Supported
Planning of Roads and Harvesting, Feldafing, Germany, pp. 159-164.
Gunnarson, P. 1992. GIS as a tool for transport planning. Proceedings of the IUFRO Workshop on Computer
Supported Planning of Roads and Harvesting. Feldafing, Germany, pp. 151-158.
Hurn, J. 1989. GPS - A Guide to the Next Utility. For Trimble Navigation, 2-69.
Hurn, J. 1993. Differential GPS Explained. For Trimble Navigation, 5-49.
Martin, A. A., Holden N. M., Owende, P. M., Ward, S. M. 2000. Measuring DGPS performance with respect
to peripheral canopy on forests roads. Workshop of Forestry Information Systems, 16-19 May 2000, Hytil,
Finland, pp. 1-4.
Piman, D., Pentek, T. 1996. Factors influencing the necessity of building a forest road network. Proceedings
of workshop Care for Croatian forests since 1846. to 1996., Zagreb, Book 2, pp. 293-300.
Pentek, T. 2002. The computer models for forest road network optimisation with regard to the dominant
influential factors. PhD Thessis, Forestry Faculty of Zagreb University, 271 p.
182
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Model operational
pentru evaluarea impactului
,
asupra mediului la executia
, drumurilor forestiere
V. Alexandru, R. Bereziuc, V. Ciobanu
Alexandru V., Bereziuc R., Ciobanu V. 2009. Model operaional pentru evaluarea
impactului asupra mediului la execuia drumurilor forestiere. [Operational model for
assessment of environmental impact in forest road construction]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry
in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and
Management Institute ICAS, pp. 183-188.
Abstract. The present paper sought to submit to specialists a more complete model
for quantification of the intensity of environmental impact caused by the construction of forest roads on the environment. This model should be the basis for the studies conducted in order to obtain the environmental agreement. The proposals made
in the paper are susceptible of improvements and may be partially or fully supported
by the designer teams working in the field of forest road construction. Accepting of
the proposals by the decision-making institutions and their introduction into forest
roads designing normative, which presently is in a review process, will be a guide for
using a uniform working methodology.
Key words: operational model, impact, environmental protection
Authors. Valeria Alexandru, Rostislav Bereziuc, Valentina Ciobanu - Transylvania
University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Eneneering, irul Beethoven,
st. 1, 500123 - Braov, Romania.
Obinerea acordului de mediu, devenit obligatoriu pentru proiectele de drumuri forestiere,

presupune elaborarea unui studiu de impact, n cuprinsul cruia se evalueaz i se cuantific
impactul prognozat i se precizeaz msurile ce se impun.
n prezent evaluarea propriu-zis a impactului produs asupra mediului se face dup metoda de
tip cantitativ care ia n considerare principalii factori de mediu supui impactului (ap, aer, sol
i biodiversitate) exprimnd intensitatea acestora prin dimensiuni convenionale, respectiv note
de bonitate (Nb) pentru fiecare factor n parte. n funcie de acestea, n final se determin, prin
metoda grafo-analitic, indicele de poluare global (IPG).
Apreciem c procedura actual, pe lng faptul c ia n considerare un numr redus de factori
astfel nct nu surprinde toate aspectele fenomenului, prezint i unele aspecte discutabile cum ar
fi: (i) folosirea confuz a indicelui de calitate; (ii) exprimarea unor dimensiuni tehnice n procente,
care sunt dimensiuni relative i nu pot nlocui dimensiunile tehnice ntr-un caz dat; (iii) utilizarea
unei singure scale de conversiune, indiferent de dimensiunea tehnic considerat.
Fa de cele menionate, ne propunem s prezentm un model operaional de evaluare a
impactului care, pe lng factorii folosii actualmente (ap, aer, sol, biodiversitate), s ia n
considerare i ntreruperea integritii masivelor pduroase i degradarea peisajului natural.
183
n acest caz se iau n considerare 6 factori, recurgnd la determinarea indicelui de poluare global
(IPG) prin metoda hexagonului.
Modelul operaional propus conine: (i) graful arborescent al modelului care precizeaz factorii
de mediu supui analizei, dimensiunile tehnice de exprimare a impactului i limitele de variaie
ale acestora (fig. 1); (ii) scalele de conversiune a dimensiunilor tehnice n uniti convenionale
(u.c.), difereniate n funcie de factorul considerat; (iii) graficul de agregare a notelor de bonitate
Nb, stabilite pentru fiecare factor n parte pe cale grafo-analitic, n vederea determinrii indicelui
de poluare global (IPG), care cuantific intensitatea impactului.
Scala general de bonitate, precum i scalele de conversiune a indicilor de poluare (Ip) n
uniti convenionale, respectiv note de bonitate (Nb) sunt redate tabelar i fac parte integrant din
modelul operaional. De asemenea face parte din model i figura geometric utilizat (hexagon),
gradat n uniti convenionale, precum i scala de evaluare a calitii mediului.
Astfel n tabelul 1 este redat scala general de bonitate, iar n tabelul 2 scalele de conversiune
a dimensiunilor tehnice n note de bonitate pentru fiecare factor n parte. Reprezentarea grafic
pentru determinarea indicelui de poluare global (IPG), respectiv hexagonul, este redat n anexa
1.
n baza modelului operaional se stabilesc, n conformitate cu determinrile din teren sau de
laborator (pentru factorii ap i aer), limitele de variaie ale dimensiunilor tehnice, prin care
se msoar intensitatea impactului asupra factorului considerat. Avnd aceste limite, dimensiunile
tehnice se convertesc, conform cu scala aferent factorului respectiv. n cazul apei i aerului,
conversiunea se face pentru fiecare factor poluant n parte i se ia n considerare media notelor
de bonitate. Pentru factorul sol nota de bonitate final este media ponderat a notelor de bonitate
Tabelul 1 Scala general de bonitate
184
Nota de bonitate Nb
Efecte asupra omului i mediului nconjurtor
10
- calitatea factorilor de mediu: natural, de echilibru

- starea de sntate pentru om: natural
- fr efecte
- fr efecte decelabile cazuistic

- mediul este afectat n limitele admise - nivel 1
- mediul este afectat n limitele admise - nivel 2

- efectele nu sunt nocive
- mediul este afectat peste limita admis - nivel 1

- efectele sunt accentuate
- mediul este afectat peste limitele admise - nivel 2

- efectele sunt nocive
- mediul este afectat peste limitele admise - nivel 3

- efectele nocive sunt accentuate
- mediul degradat - nivel 1

- efectele sunt letale la durate medii de expunere
- mediul degradat - nivel 2

- efectele sunt letale la durate scurte de expunere
- mediul este impropriu formelor de via
185
Fig. 1 Modelul operaional cu factorii de mediu supui analizei, dimensiunile tehnice de exprimare a impactului i limitele de variaie ale acestora
186
Tabelul 2 Conversiunea indicilor de poluare Ip ai factorilor de impact asupra mediului n note de bonitate Nb
Anexa 1 Calculul indicelui de poluare global IPG

Sol
Factori
Apa Aer
Indice poluare Ip
3,0
5,5
Nota de bonitate Nb
4,50 4,75
Volum de
sptur
(m3/hm)
Ip1
2,50
7,50
Volum resturi
de exploatare
(mst/ha)
ntreruperea
integritii
masiv.pd.
(m2supraf.
ampr./hm)
Peisaj
(m3de
roc/hm)
Biodiversitate
750
117
0,20
7,50
8,66
Ip2
4,25
6,75
Ip = 7,275
Metoda grafo - analitic (varianta hexagonului)
pariale pentru volumele de spturi i volumul resturilor de exploatare din zon. De asemenea,
n cazul factorului sol, conversiunea volumelor de sptur se poate face, n funcie de situaia
din teren, n urmtoarele ipoteze de calcul:
1. se ine seama numai de spturile n pmnt pentru platform, nefiind necesare ziduri de
sprijin;
2. spturi pentru platform, fr s se in seama de spturile efectuate pentru amplasarea
eventualelor ziduri de sprijin, considernd c impactul provocat de sptura suplimentar este
compensat de sporul de atractivitate al unui zid de sprijin fa de taluzul denudat;
3. se au n vedere ambele categorii de spturi, respectiv att pentru platforme ct i pentru
ziduri de sprijin, acordndu-se n schimb la nota de bonitate o unitate n plus, datorit sporului de
armonie estetic a zidului de sprijin.
n cazul n care condiiile de teren impun rezolvri diferite, nota de bonitate este media notelor
de bonitate pariale, corespunztoare fiecrei situaii n parte.
Volumele de spturi, n vederea conservrii, se exprim n m3/hm de drum.
n cazul factorului biodiversitate se recurge la o apreciere mai mult sau mai puin teoretic
a procentului de afectare a biodiversitii existente P i determinarea indicelui de poluare (Ip) cu
relaia:
187
(1)
i a notei de bonitate corespunztoare, conform scalei specifice.
Pentru ntreruperea integritii masivelor pduroase, elementul caracteristic s-a considerat
suprafaa medie a amprizei, exprimat n m2/hm de drum.
Deteriorarea peisajului se apreciaz prin volumul de sptur n stnc, care este convertit
conform scalei specifice.
Determinarea indicelui de poluare global (I.P.G.) se face n baza figurii geometrice regulate
(hexagon) a crui suprafa exprim situaia ideal (fr poluri) i care se raporteaz la suprafa
hexagonului oarecare obinut prin unirea din aproape n aproape a punctelor ce marcheaz notele
de bonitate medii pe scrile gradate aferente fiecrui factor i care semnific situaia real (afectat
de poluri). Indicele de poluare global (IPG) se determin n baza relaiei:
(2)
i a scalei calitii mediului (tabelul 3).
Tabelul 3 Scala calitii mediului
Valoare
IPG = 1
1 < IPG 2
2 < IPG 3
3 < IPG 4
4 < IPG 6
6 < IPG
Calitatea mediului
Mediu natural neafectat de activitatea uman
Mediu supus activitii umane n limite admisibile
Mediu supus activitii umane provocnd stare de disconfort formelor de via
Mediu afectat de activitatea uman provocnd tulburri formelor de via
Mediu grav afectat de activitatea uman, periculos formelor de via
Mediu degradat, impropriu formelor de via
Bibliografie
Anonim 2002. Procedura de evaluare a impactului asupra mediului i de emitere a acordului de mediu (O.M.
MAPM nr. 860).
Bereziuc, R., Alexandru, V., Oprea, I., Olteanu, N., Ciubotaru, A. 1995. Model operaional pentru estimarea
eficienei sociale i ecologice a reelei de drumuri forestiere. Revista Pdurilor 1: 40-48.
Bica, I. 2000. Elemente de impact asupra mediului. Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureti.
Bereziuc, R., Alexandru, V., Ciobanu, V., Ignea, Gh., Abrudan, I., Derczeni, R.. 2006. Ghid pentru
proiectarea, construcia i ntreinerea drumurilor forestiere. Editura Universitii Transilvania, Braov.
188
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Possibilities of estimating discharge in small watersheds by means of TR-55 model

C. C. Tereneu, T. Tama, I. Clinciu, M. M. Vasilescu
Tereneu C. C., Tama t., Clinciu I., Vasilescu M. M. 2009. Possibilities of e

stima-ting discharge in small watersheds by means of TR-55 model. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry ina changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Managem
ent Institute ICAS, pp. 189-194.
Abstract. The paper firstly outlines the model types that can be used for producing
the stream discharge hydrograph, specifying for each model its application field.
Once created the digital terrain model of the studied area (Valea Porii watershed,
Braov county), the model was used to delineate hydrographic sub-basins, to determine terrain slopes, to produce the unit hydrograph, identifying the primary and
secondary flow tracks and the drainage area. All these data were aggregated with the
necessary hydrological data and, in the end, the discharge for the whole watershed
was determined.
Key words: small watersheds, discharge estimating, TR-55 model
Authors. Cornel Cristian Tereneu, tefan Tama, Ioan Clinciu, Maria Magdalena
Vasilescu - Transylvania University of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest
Engineering, irul Beethoven 1, 500123 - Braov, Romania.
Introduction
To determine the discharge of a watershed, the following alternatives may be taken into account
(Anonymous 1986): (i) The rational model; (ii) The TR-55 model (to produce hydrographs
graphically); (iii) The TR-55 model for tabular hydrograph method; (iv) The TR-20 model.
TR-55 (Technical Release 55) model, designed as a rule for urban or urbanized watersheds,
may be used with good results in other watersheds too, provided that necessary restrictions are
respected. The model is based on simplified methods to estimate discharge (SCS method) and
peak discharge (graphical method), to produce hydrographs (tabular method) and determine
retained volumes (expeditious method).
The model enables to estimate the discharge from a watershed resulting from a meteorological
event, regardless of the conditions and the specific management standards applied within the
watershed. The model was developed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service NRCS
USA (Anonymous 1986) and enables the unit hydrograph to provide data worked out both in
tabular and graphical formats.
189
Analysis of the area of research

A small watershed of 65 ha, located in the middle third of the Valea Porii brook, Braov county,
has been considered in the present research. This area is bordered by Bucegi Mountains to the east
and Piatra Craiului Mountains to the west.
Identifying and quantifying the elements regarding watershed morphometry and the morphometry
of the hydrographic network are problems that can be solved relatively easily provided that the
digital terrain model is available (Tereneu 2005, Tereneu & Brad 2006) (Figure 1). To produce
the model, 5 m contour lines have been digitized according to the topographic plans of the area
of research, plans L-35-87-D-b-1-I and L-35-87-D-b-1-II, the superimposition with the 539-442
ortophotomap being also achieved. Other components of interest like the hydrographic network
and the stands subcompartment boundaries inside the watershed have also been digitized.
The next step was the delineation of the hydrographic sub-basins existing in the area of
research. The Watershed function of the AutoCAD Land Desktop software has been used for both
the delineation of the component sub-basins and the exclusion of the neighboring areas having no
inflow into the watershed under consideration (Figure 2).
Afterwards the slopes of each component sub-basin have been determined using the Create
Surface function. Its output window includes, in the Extended Surface Statistics zone, some
statistical data for the watershed such as the number of triangles in the TIN model, the maximum
and the minimum triangle area, the maximum, minimum and average slope etc. (Figure 3).
Determining the interest of TR-55 models use
The hydrological module of the AutoCAD Civil Design software enables to adjust the hydrograph
so as it produces data worked out in graphical format or through the tabular hydrograph method.
This particularity is typical of the TR-55 model.
For Romanias torrential watersheds, the peak discharge forecast is performed using indirect
methods, which take into account the depth of the rainfall generating the flood and the watershed
characteristics influencing flood generation and propagation (Clinciu & Lazr 1999).
Fig. 1 The digital terrain model
190
Fig. 2 Exclusion of the neighboring areas having no inflow into the watershed
Fig. 3 Average watershed slope output
The watershed discharge is the rainfall depth over the watershed diminished by the volumes
represented by soil infiltration, vegetation interception and stagnant water in the existing sinks.
To determine the value of the discharge, many elements like intensity, duration and distribution
of the rainfall, geological and soil conditions, soil initial water content, vegetation covered area,
type of vegetation and watershed morphometry should be taken into account.
The TR-55 model requires the following values (Anonymous 1986) to be specified: rainfall
distribution model, drainage area, runoff curve number, runoff coefficient, concentration time,
191
time of runoff travel, area of pond sand swamps and of flooded zones, rainfall frequency and
intensity for each sub-basin (Figure 4).
With regard to the AutoCAD input data specified above, the following issues should be taken
into account: (i) For the rainfall distribution, model type II has been chosen, as it is characteristic
for high amount, high intensity and short duration rainfalls. Models of types I and IA are suitable
for the maritime (Pacific) climate, with humid winters and rainy summers, while type III is suitable
for the Atlantic coastline and the Gulf of Mexico, with tropical storms and high amounts of daily
rainfall; (ii) The drainage area has been determined by establishing the watershed boundary by
means of the Select Polyline (or Draw) function; (iii) The number of runoff curve has been
specified according to land use type and soil type. As the watershed under consideration is
covered by stands aged 60 to 100 years, with stand densities in the range of 0.6 (sometimes even
0.4) and 0.9, the soil being a typical eutricambosoil, the 76 runoff curve has been adopted; (iv) As
far as the time of concentration for the watershed is concerned, AutoCAD permits its automated
determination by means of the Hydrology module (Hydrology - Runoff Time of Concentration
(Tc)). By applying this method, the resulted output is Tc = 11.65 min, i.e. approximately 12 min
(Figure 5).
The data for rainfall frequency for Bran area have been provided by the Vf. Omu and Fundata
weather stations and have been reported into the dedicated field of the Rainfall-Frequency Editor
window (Figure 6).
The computation of discharge by means of the TR-55 model is base on the equation:
where Q represents the discharged volume (mm)

P- the rainfall depth (mm)
S the maximum retention potential after runoff initiation
Ia the initial abstraction, expressed by losses in discharge before the initiation of the runoff,
Fig. 4 Input data for the graphical format of the hydrograph by means of the TR-55 model
192
Fig. 5 Determination of time of concentration in AutoCAD
Fig. 6 Specification of rainfall frequency data for the research area
including retention by vegetation, soil infiltration and evapotranspiration. The adopted value
was
Ia = 0.2S.
The amount of rainfall recorded in the area of research is converted into discharged volume by
means of a numeric curve NC. This curve takes into account a series of factors of influence such
as soil type, proportion of vegetation cover, vegetation type, area of impermeable zones, rainfall
interception and drainage area.
Figure 7 shows the variation of Ia/P by rainfall depth and the numerical curves.
All these input data permit to determine the discharge for the area of study, resulting a value of
Fig. 7. The variation of Ia/P by P and CN
193
3.0464 cm (Figure 4).

Conclusion
The quantification of discharge from a watershed is a problem which, with a classical approach,
implies elaborate computation efforts and an extended processing time. The alternative approach
offered by the TR-55 model is a feasible one, provided that the digital terrain model is available.
To apply this automated approach, a series of input date, some of general characters, like the type
of method to be used, and others with specific significance should be specified, as for example the
size of the drainage area, the number of the numerical curve to be used, the runoff coefficient, the
time of concentration for the watershed, the time of runoff travel, the area of ponds, marshes and
flooded zones, the frequency and intensity of rainfall and the intensity-runoff-frequency curve.
The suggested method is user-friendly, its successful implementation being straightforward and
strongly influenced by the operating abilities of the user.
References
Anonymous 1986. TR-55: Urban hydrology for small watersheds. In HydroCAD Manual (http://www.
hydrocad.net/hcmanual.htm).
Clinciu, I., Lazr, N. 1999. Bazele amenajrii torenilor. Editura LuxLibris, Braov, 208 p.
Munteanu, S., Clinciu, I., Gaspar, R., Lazr, N. 1979. Calculul debitului maxim de viitur prin formula
raional. ndrumar de proiectare. Universitatea din Braov, 178 p.
Munteanu, S., Traci, C., Clinciu, I., Lazr, N., Untaru, E. 1993. Amenajarea bazinelor hidrografice toreniale
prin lucrri silvice i hidrotehnice (vol. II). Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 310 p.
Tereneu ,C.C. 2005. Avantajele realizrii modelului digital al terenului n AutoCAD. n Lucrrile celei de a
7-a Conferine naionale pentru protecia mediului prin biotehnologii i a celei de a 4-a Conferine naionale
de ecosanogenez, Editura Pelecanus, pp. 437-442.
Tereneu ,C.C., Brad, M.L. 2006. Realizarea modelului digital al terenului n AutoCAD n vederea explorrii
bazinelor hidrografice toreniale. n Studia Universitatis Vasile Goldi Arad, Editura Universitii Vasile
Goldi Arad, pp. 77-86.
194
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Contributions to the kinematics study of the blade

borers for seedling planting holes
I. Popescu, R. Derczeni, E. Iordache, H. otoc
Popescu I., Derczeni R., Iordache E., otoc H. 2008. Contributions to the kinem
atics study of the blade borers for seedling planting holes. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu
M., Bouriaud O. (eds.): Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changingenvironment,October23-25,2008,Bucharest:ForestResearchandManagementI
nstitute ICAS, pp. 195-202.
Abstract. In this paper is presented the evolution of the preoccupations linked to
the mechanization of the digging process of holes for planting seedlings. At the
same time, there are emphasized constructive forms of digging borers realized
under the form of blades. The final part of the paper describes an analysis of a
calculus model of kinematics elements which can be integrated into a unitary
system for the full range of digging blade borers.
Key words: blade borers, mechanization, seedling planting
Authors. Ilie Popescu, Rudolf Derczeni, Eugen Iordache - Transylvania University
of Braov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering, irul Beethoven, St. 1,
500123 - Braov, Romnia; Horia otoc - University of Oradea, Faculty of Environment Protection, Romania.
Introduction
Machineries that realize digging holes to plant seedlings are part of the large group of ground
working machines whose active components have a moving rotation generated by a power
source. The specific of these machineries is the fact that the soil is prepared by chipping, action
from which the soil mobilization and aeration is carried out with or without putting out the soil
from the hole. The principle of this action is not exclusively reserved to machineries digging
holes for seedlings. This principle exists in other machineries whose destination is to prepare
the soil to be a germinating bed, to maintain crops along rows gap, a.s.o. The same principle has
applicability on a large scale in the wood and metal industries.
The interest regarding soil preparation machineries started 130 years ago (Tmanu 1971).
The year 1875 was an important one; in this year a machinery for soil preparation having a
blade borer mounted on vertical rotor driven by two steam engines was fabricated in England.
Afterwards during the 1920s and the 1930s, researchers constructed different mill types,
especially experimental models, in the U.S.A. and in Germany.
In our country, the first systematic research regarding soil mills were made by Prof.Ph.D.
Gheorghe Dragan, who experimented different motor mill types in the frame of the Agronomical
Research Institute of Romania.
195
In the forest field, some preoccupation regarding the use of machineries with driven rotary tools
could be mentioned after 1960. It started with digging holes machineries and machineries to plant
seedlings, made in Germany and Italy. These were experimented in different relief conditions in
our forest found (Chiru et al. 1963, Comnescu & Mecot 1961, Popescu & Mihai 1966).
Mills to prepare the soil to be a germinating bed in forest nurseries then attracted attention. In
the field of mills, the first preoccupations are remarkable for their thoroughness in the theoretical
basis of the soil mill process (Popescu & Mihai 1966, Popescu & Curtu 1968). Systematic and
ample researches on mills for germinating bed preparation were made after 1969, following the
influences of the works regarding physical-chemical soil properties, and regarding seedlings
emergence, growth, and soils quality for some important forest species (Popescu 1975).
Nowadays, as a result of the impetuous development of the machine industry fitted out with
driven rotary tools for soil preparation, the existence of some distinguished types easily leading
100 should be noted. From these, approximately 20% are made up of digging holes machineries
having different destinations.
The present paper is dealing with one of these types: the hole digging machineries for seedling
planting, manually carried and fitted out with active tools as knifes having a cutting blade
form. Experiences proved that this type of machineries, as a result of their low weight, is useful
especially on steep terrains with roots and skeletal residues on the working soil profile.
Motor borers with active tools were in attention of the researchers starting from 1963-1969.
After this period, a substantial diversification of the active tools having a cutting blade form
was noted. This is why a study on them was lead, in order to observe how much some of the
constitutive and functional characteristics could be improved to reduce the energy consumption
during the hole digging operation when planting seedlings. From a theoretical point of view,
the problem generally imposes to clarify three main aspects: kinematics, dynamic and power
consumption elements.
In the first stage, the study will be limited at the knowledge regarding kinematic characteristics,
which could be generalized to all borer categories fitted out with cutting blade form for forest
seedling holes.
Constitutive characteristics of blade borers
As it was explained above, blade borers are used for motor borers which, because of their
underweight (under 20kg), are especially adapted to dig holes on steep terrains not accessible
to tractor driven digging machineries. 30 cm diameter and 20-40 cm depth holes are usually
digged.Consequently, the use of blade borers is limited to normal size seedling planting.
These types of borers dig holes from which the earth is not put out. The soil remains mobile and
aerated inside the holes. The subsequent operations to evacuate the soil and to plant seedlings
have to be made manually.
In many cases, the borer is made up of a vertical axle driven by a two stroke motor with
small capacity, having approximately 3 PH power. A flange or a support bar on which the
single side sharpened blades are mounted, is fastened on the driving axle. Taking into account
the mounting position, there are borers with horizontal blades and with vertical cutting blades
(Figure 1). Horizontal blades borers frequently have one construction form. The posterior part of
the horizontal cutting blade slowly dips in order to pull up the soil chip detached by the knifes
cutting edge.
The active parts (the blades) are also frequently used in combined borers, which are used to
dig holes with cavities to plant seedlings (Figure 2). These groups are used in very sunny areas,
frequently submitted to air courses.
Horizontal blade borers are recommended to dig planting holes in light soils having a middle
resistance to digging, fallowed on surface but without any wooden roots and gravel on the working
196
Fig. 1 Representative blade borers

I horizontal blades; II vertical blades with floating apex: a circular;
b straight inclined at 90; c straight with slanting inclination; III
vertical blades joint at apex: a circular; b - with slanting inclination; IV
polygonal blades joint at apex
Fig. 2 Combined borer

1 axle; 2 apex; 3 horizontal
blade; 4 knifes; 5 helicoidally
transporter; 6 flange; 7 hole; 8
mobilized earth
soil profile. These kinds of borers can sometimes be used only to cut the surface layer, in places
where holes will later be made using vertical blade borer or other borer type, but with a lower
performance rating in grassed soil.
Vertical blade borers get active tools having the most diversified constructive forms. The
observations made on different informative materials (articles, prospects and constructive models
being in usage) lead to express that their evolution start from vertical blade borers with floating
apex to vertical blade borers joining at the apex. The explanation of this situation could be the
twisting of vertical blades borers with floating apex during the usage.
Vertical blade borers with floating apex (Figure 1, II, a c) let the conviction (Chiru et al.,
1963) that they have a relative good comportment in soils with low and medium resistance, low
fallowed, with roots and gravel on the digging depth. The authors named above recommend the
stone diameter to be under 10 cm, and the roots diameter not to exceed 6 cm.
Vertical blade borers joining at apex (Figure 1, III, a b) have almost the same working qualities
as vertical blade borers with floating apex. The superiority of the last ones is put in evidence in
the case of soils having a high resistance. It is also necessary to mention that in case of planting
holespreparation on loamy and clayed soils whose humidity is around 22%, it is also possible
to evacuate more than 30% of the bored soil. When the borer is extracted, the soil that was cut
remains on the borers blades and it could be put near the hole. Concentrating the soil in a single
place will make the planting work much easier.
Kinematics of the earth chipping process
At least one chipping technological cycle occurs during a kinematic cycle. The geometrical form
of the earth removed depends on the elementary generating line form (the knife edging) and on
the generating line curve form. During the digging process, the borer makes two characteristic
moves: a rotating one which is considered as the main move and a feed motion one in soil,
considered as a secondary move (Figure 3).
The effect of these moves is pointed out through a successive chipping of the soil layers. Each
197
point of the blade makes a screw movement. The axles of this screw correspond to the blade
rotation axis (Figure 4).
The position of each point on the knife which has a helicoidal movement could be determined
with the following relations:
(1)
(2)
(3)
in which:
- rx is the radius of the considered point, in cm;
- is the referent angle in radians;
- un is the advance speed, in cm/rot.
The helicoidal paths that result during the chipping movement, realize a helicoidal surface (Figure
5).
Each of the knifes movement is characterized by his proper speed. Thus, the tangential speed
corresponds to the rotation movement and the advance speed for the feed motion in soil.
Tangential speed value is determined through the relation:
(4)
Feed motion speed:
(5)
where:
un feed motion speed, in cm/rot;
rx radius of a certain point, in cm;
n borer speed, in m/s.
The real chipping speed is obtained in basis of the resultant between vx and u:
(6)
Fig. 3 Main movements of the borers
198
Fig. 4 Way of chipping the soil layers
Fig. 5 Movement of the earth inside the hole

Fig. 6 Cutting speed variation
The relation (6) takes into account the fact that the digging is made in the feed motion way
when the speeds are added, and against the feed motion way when the speeds are subtracted.
The speed on the paths of the chipping soil varies according to a complicate law. Therefore,
it is useful to determine the real chipping speed in a specific moment to simplify the calculus.
For this purpose, the tangential speed in the considered point, whose radius is known should be
determined first. There are some difficulties to determine the radius, especially on the horizontal
part of the blade. This point of the calculus will be developped below (Figures 6-7).
After a thorough and meticulous observation it could be ascertained that
(7)
where:
e is the blades eccentricity in plan
x the angle between the vector radius of a point and the borer axis in plan
Fig. 7 Cutting speed variation on the horizontal part of the blade
199
Changing the rx in relation (4) provides an expression equal to the the tangential speed value (vx),
respectively:
(8)
It results from the expression (8) that the variation of the borer tangential speed occurs after a
rising function. The decrease of the radius vector angle x from r to R generates an increase of
the speed in exterior of digging. This situation will push the digging earth to the middle of the
hole where the tangential speed is much lower.
The real chipping speed will be obtained by summing up the relation (5) and (8) and making the
calculus:
(9)
If x values are very low, calculus in relation (9) will be made with cossec x = 1.
In the case of small diameters borers in which knifes advance values are 1.2 cm, in which the
number of knifes is usually 2 and the rotative speed is around 60 rot/min, the value of the product
un x n attending to be added or subtracted from the value of vx is around 1%.
According to these considerations, the real value of the chipping speed could be calculated
without big errors with the relation:
(10)
The way the soil layer is cut at the first borer rotation could give some information regarding
some specific parameters of the digging process with blade borers.
The speed act on rotation (cm):
, where
in which:
z is the number of blades;
ud speed act on blade;
H hole depth (cm)
Thickness of the detached soil layer:
(11)
Fig. 8 Blade types and geometrical parameters of detached soil layers. The horizontal portion is: a
curve; b straight inclined; c horizontal
200
(12)
where is the angle of the apex.
The width of the detached soil layer could be determined with the following relations which
depend on the blades form:
- for borers with vertical parallel blades and free apexes curved in interior:
(13)
where Rc is the radius of the curve
- for borers with vertical parallel blades an apexes curved in interior:
(14)
- for borers with vertical parallel blades an apexes curved in interior with 900:
(15)
- for borers with polygonal blades closed at basis an for borers with vertical blades closed at
apex:
(16)
The notation that were used in relations (13 16) are:
R the radius of the curve;
r the existing coarse between the blades apex;
RM the maximum radius, respectively the distance between the blade and borer axis;
the blade curvature angle;
the angle at the blade apex.
For most of the borers with vertical blades and apex, the constructive parameters have the
following values: R = 14 cm, RM = 15 cm, r = 2cm, = 80...90 and = 60...70.
For borers with vertical blades joint at apex it is recommended to calculate the width of the soil
detached layer using the relation (16).
The surface of the detached earth layer:
(17)
By carefully observing the relation (13 17), it could be noted that the earth prism has the
lower surface in the case of blades bent at 90. Therefore in this case the power action is expected
to be the less.
Conclusions
The research works that were made and the results that were analyzed in this paper lead to some
important conclusions:
- The mobile mills for soil mobilization as for example hole digging machineries fitted out with
spiral drills are in many aspects similar with the machineries with rotary tools used in wood
and metal working. In contrast with these, the blade borers have some characteristics which
differenciate them from the others soil machineries with rotary tools. The influence of these
functional constructive characteristics points out especially the working process study from the
kinematics point of view.
- Along the time a balanced development of the digging machineries equipped with spiral and
blades could be noted. Even they do not put out the soil from the hole, as a result of a small
contact with the soil, the blade borers reduce the digging effort. The advantage of letting the soil
in the hole is more important in hilly and mountain areas.
- The diversification of vertical blade borers could be explained also by the tendency to reduce the
201
mass of digging machineries manually carried, and by the permanent effort to reduce the engines
power.
- Knowing in details the kinematics elements of each blade borer model permits to make some
conclusions which will lead to a better choose of a borer in specific conditions.
References
Chiru, V., Duda, A., Popescu, I. 1963. Cercetri privind plantarea mecanizat n regiunea de munte. Lucrri
tiinifice, vol. 4, Institutul Politehnic Braov.
Comnescu, A., Mecot, T. 1961. Folosirea motoburghielor la executarea gropilor pentru plantat n regiunea
de munte, Revista pdurilor, nr. 7.
Popescu, I., Mihai, S. 1966. Cercetri privind mecanizarea lucrrilor de pregtire a terenurilor de mpdurit
n regiunea de deal. Lucrri tiinifice, vol VIII, Institutul politehnic Braov.
Popescu I., Curtu, I. 1968. Contribuii la studiul unor organe active ale mainilor purtate, de forat gropi n
vederea plantrii. Buletin de informare CDF, Seria Silvicultur nr. 5.
Popescu, I. 1975. Cercetri privind folosirea frezelor de sol la pregtirea patului germinativ. Tez de
doctorat, Universitatea Transilvania din Braov.
Tmanu, D. 1971. Maini cu organe rotative pentru prelucrarea solului, Editura Ceres, Bucureti.
202

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Gully erosion in Suceava Plateau a case study

^
O. Iacobescu, I. Barnoaiea
Iacobescu O., Brnoaiea I. 2009. Gully erosion in Suceava Plateau a case study.
In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 203-210.
Abstract. Land degradation by means of gully erosion and alluvium transport is
a complex phenomenon, influenced by a multitude of factors related to geology,
geomorphology, soils, land cover and, not last, the human factor. The characteristics and the functionality of the process are studied before, but less is known
about the spatial extension and the temporal evolution of the affected areas. The
studies done before show a tendency of regressive erosion, with less intensity in
the downstream area and very intense degradation phenomena in the origin area.
The papers general objective is a multi-scale approach to ravine monitoring
from gully erosion point of view. The means of solving the general and specific objectives proposed within the paper are represented by complex methods,
including ground inventory by surveying and GPS, aerial remote sensing and
topographical maps, all integrated within the data frame of the Geographical
Information System. The comparison is done from a horizontal point of view,
using the information contained in the materials used. The total station surveying of the ravine is processed within the 3D Analyst extension of the ArcGIS 9.3
software application, generating the three dimensional profile of the terrain. The
evolution analysis showed a maximum extension of about 10 m on the sides of
the ravine in the 30 year between the two analysis moments. The highest horizontal extents appears in the high declivity areas (around 80o), with elevation
differences of 30 m; the extension rate is not as intense as it would be expected,
giving perspectives for ecological rehabilitation. The use of exact same mark
points in the repeated ground inventory allows quantification of further evolution
and an area classification by land displacement units (separated according to the
amount of the displaced land). The methods used show good results in the comparison of ravine characteristics at certain moments and could also be extended
in obtaining proper visualization of the phenomena, needed in the raising of the
public awareness towards the problem.
Key words: gully erosion, monitoring, digital images, multiscale analysis
Authors. Ovidiu Iacobescu - tefan cel Mare University Suceava, Forestry Faculty,
Ionu Brnoaiea - tefan cel Mare University Suceava, Forestry Faculty, 13 University St. 720229 - Suceava, Romania.
Introduction
The importance given to soil erosion on a global scale and in our country is shown firstly by
the loss in fertile soil due to pluvial water. On a world scale, the phenomenon presents a special
203
importance, affecting 2 billion hectares, representing a larger area than United States and Mexico
together (Maftei 2007). A comprehensive understanding of soil erosion is still very difficult
because the approaches used differ in terms of scaling, short term versus long term, small scale
large scale, regional perspectives, experimental monitoring modeling, development of
restoration measures, management practices and socio-economic processes and impacts.
In nowadays conditions, in Romania, the stakeholders in land and environment management
domain are interested in the ecological rehabilitation of degraded lands and consider this among
the national priorities. In this context it is obvious that any solid action in this direction should start
with the inventory of the affected areas within the specific conditions of each geomorphologic
unit. The Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS) provided the materials needed for extending
the land degradation inventory on a national level, repeated on a five years period digital
orthorectified photos, taken for the entire country.
Specific objectives: (i) Installing a repeated inventory plot area containing complex degradation
phenomena (gully erosion as prevalent degradation process); (ii) Assessing the behavior of
the slopes (in time) and the major changes in the ravine morphology; (iii) Identifying useful
instruments in ravine dynamics monitoring.
The researches presented is engaged within the preoccupations of the authors to inventory the
degradation forms in the limits of the Suceava Plateau, based on the digital ortophotos taken
through the LPIS program. The image resolution and details positioning accuracy are sufficient
for the needs of the inventory.
The mapping of any terrestrial phenomenon on remote sensing basis is bound by the same general
research protocol, protocol that includes (Rusu et al. 1981, Bo et al. 1985, Bo et al. 1986): (i)
terrestrial study of the phenomenon in representative areas from the mapping point of view; (ii)
comparison of the ground data with the data resulting from image processing and interpretation;
(iii) construction of a model that should be applied in similar cases; (iv) testing the model in
similar situations, in other areas than the ones used in the construction of the model.
A supplementary task that has been included in this research is represented by the comparison
of data obtained in different moments regarding the same phenomenon soil erosion. In respect to
this objective, a gully erosion form in Suceava Plateau has been monitored in different moments
of its evolution: 1978, 2005 and 2008.
The materials used for the monitoring have been diverse and had to take into account the
availability of the data. The oldest moment taken into account is represented by the preparing,
in 1978, of the general topographic maps (scale 1:5000), based on aerial photointerpretation
and stereorestitution (Fig. 1a). The general objective of the mapping was not the identification
and characterization of the land degradation phenomena, but the major forms of gully erosion
and land displacements have been outlined (exterior contour). The Balaceana Ravine taken into
study within the present research is present in the 1978 mapping with a sufficient accuracy if we
consider the areas that have been stable in the last decades.
In 2005 the entire national territory has been inventoried within the Land Parcel Identification
System using color orthorectified aerial images (Fig.1b). These images have been obtained by
georeferencing and geometrically correcting aerial photographs taken in 2004-2005 and have
been made available through the National Agency for Cadastre and Land Registration. The spatial
resolution of the images is 0.5 m, accurate enough for the mapping of the land erosion forms,
forms that are visible due to the high contrast with the surrounding areas. The corresponding
scale of the images is considered approximately 1:5000, comparable with the scale of the general
topographic plans.
The present days inventory has been done terrestrially, by means of GPS and survey points
204
(Surdeanu 1998, Rdoane et al. 1999). The precision of the coordinates of the points determined
is less than 0.5 m, assuring comparability with the aerial images. The GPS points have been
determined with a handheld GPS receiver using differential corrections TOPCON GMS2. The
estimated RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) has been less than 0.5 m for each point, fact proven
by overlaying the points on the orthophoto (Fig. 1c). The surveying has been done by using the
LEICA TCR 407 total station, within a closed transverse started on a geodesic point and oriented
by the local topographic signals (churches and high buildings with known coordinates). The
precision of the surveying is high due to the possibilities of accurate determinations of angles and
distances. The entire surveying was based on topographic points in order to establish a permanent
monitoring network for the ravine; also, the points measured within the field data collection have
a sufficient density for a being used in Digital Terrain Model generation a point was installed in
every change of slope or ravine contour.
Data processing. The data processing stage was designed to bring the mapping and inventory
materials in a compatible format for the monitoring of the gully erosion process. The most accurate
comparison method involves the use of GIS modeling of the phenomenon. In such a case, every
material must be transformed and georeferenced for overlaying in the same data frame. The
general topographic maps (1:5000) have been scanned and georeferenced in the Stereographic
Coordinate System.
The data has been extracted from the materials used by means of digitization in the ArcGIS 9.3
Software, obtaining GIS databases regarding the extent and the parameters of the phenomenon.
The surveying measurements acquired in the field have been processed with specialized software
within the official Romanian data frame - the Stereographic Coordinate System, in order to ensure
Fig. 1 Materials used in ravine study: a. General topographic maps (1:5000 scale); b. Ortorectified aerial

images (1:5000 scale); c. survey and GPS ground control points; d. general image of the ravine
205
the accurate overlaying on the digital images with the same data frame. The traverses used have
used geodesic mark points with high precision on all three axes of coordinates. The 3D coordinates
of the surveying points have been further used for computing the Digital Elevation Model (Fig.
3), model that should represent a start point for the monitoring of the ravines. The ArcGIS 3D
Analyst offers the possibility to drape a georeferenced digital image over the three-dimensional
model of the area. The result is of little interest from a technical point of view, but can be really
useful in raising public awareness in concern to the problem.
Results
The terrestrial study of the ravine showed spectacular erosion and land displacement phenomena.
The length of the main course is approximately 1.5 km and is accompanied on both sides by high
declivity slopes, affected by massive landslides, gully erosion and superficial flows. The gravity
of the phenomena is accentuated by the very close proximity with the Balaceana village, with
important implications in defending the houses downstream. Two ramifications of the ravine
have been consolidated by low height dams in the past 20 years. The surveying inventory has
taken into account the entire area of the ravine and not only the exterior limit and the talweg.
The measured points (Fig. 2) have been classified into five classes: contour, talweg, breakpoints,
altimetry points and points around the areas with excessive water. The interior details of the
ravine can be noted by joining the points according to the field sketches or it could be obtained by
analyzing the three-dimensional model of the terrain.

206
Fig. 2 Comparison between the limits of the Balaceana ravine in 1978 and 2008
The evolution analysis has been done by comparing the data acquired in the field campaign
(2008) with digital aerial images taken in 2004 and the topographical maps done in 1980 (based
on the photogrammetric flight campaign in 1978). The comparisons between the three sets of
data has been done by means of GIS systems, bringing al the data formats in the same data frame
within the ArcGIS 9.3 software. The accuracy needs have been satisfied by relying on points with
precise coordinates within the same national coordinate system, points found on each of the data
sets processed.
The results are interesting, especially when taking into account the disastrous aspect of the
ravine. The ravine side banks are practically turned into very steep slopes, with a maximal
altitudinal difference of about 30 m. The steepest slopes are found on the right side of the ravine,
side significantly different form the other one in respect to this criterion (Fig. 3).
The evolution of the phenomenon is differentiated along the sides of the ravine (Fig. 2). The
high declivity of the slopes would suggest an increased instability and rapid evolution of the
phenomenon. The maximum distance between the contour lines corresponding to 2008 and 1978
is 11 m, obtained especially by displacement of the terrain on the high slopes. Four distinct
situations have been identified along the contour lines: (i) areas with a high degree of extension,
located on the slopes with crumbling phenomena; some of the situations are relatively recent,
since it doesnt appear on the orthorectified aerial images in 2005 (Fig. 2b); (ii) relatively stable
areas, encountered on the stabilized banks due to the human intervention (dams) or by reaching
a stable declivity line, according to the internal abrasion angle (Fig. 2c); (iii) stabilized areas,
with low slopes, covered by herbal vegetation (Fig. 2e); (iv) areas with significant differences
between the two moments taken into account (Fig. 2e); this could be explained by the details
inventoried within the stereographic restitution some of the areas could have had erosion and
land displacement phenomena of lower intensity, leading to a low separability on the analogical
aerial photos.
The most active phenomenon that can be noticed in the ground inventory is a very intense
Fig. 3 Digital elevation model of the Balaceana ravine area
207
Fig. 4 Ortophoto drapped on the digital elevation model of the area
superficial flow. Practically the upper soil layers are carried downstream by excessive rain,
together with the herbal vegetation. This process appears to be continuous and spreading on all
high declivity areas. The vegetation is extending by natural dissemination on the bare geological
strata and develops into a thick herbal layer, apparently consolidated, but fragile and susceptible
of flowing with the sandy underlayer.
The two dams present on the left-side branches of the ravine had the purpose of consolidating
the rapid landslides and soil erosion on that side. The effects of the dams are noticeable in
raising the lowest transversal level of the secondary valley, but do not solve the problem of
ravine expansion, especially in the origin area. On the 3D terrain model is relatively easy to
measure the compensation slope above the dams, given the fact that these hydro-technical works
have functioned for long enough for retaining the maximum amount of alluviums. The evolution
analysis showed an increase in length due to the origin expansion. As in other cases, the ravine
remains the most active part of the ravine, requiring separate restoration techniques (Bloiu 1967,
Rdoane 1999, Grudnicki 2007).
Concerning the slopes, the attenuation of the erosion intensity is noticeable in downstream part
of the main ravine, with lower declivities and higher stability. In contrast, the river bed is the
most affected in this part due to the increase water flow it concentrates the flows from the entire
watershed. The erosion in the talweg area is increased, leading to a vertical distance between
the banks and the bottom of about 2 m. The riverbed alluvium transport and the increased depth
lead to losses in the stability of proximity areas. Consequences to that are the frequent sliding
ruptures on the slopes, in the proximity of the talweg. The land displacement process is intensified
also by the excess of pluvial water, kept on the slopes by the slopes declivity discontinues the
past landslides have formed natural flow obstructions, retaining water in their upper part. The
increased water content raises the density of the terrain increasing also the rapidity of the land
slide and the alluvium transport trough the main water course.
Discussion
The comparison materials tend to be different when analyzing the amount of details contained in
each material. The surveying inventory done in 2008 is the most complete, but required a large
amount of field work. The problem is found in the other materials. The orthophotos taken in
2005 have a single spectral channel, corresponding to the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum (Iacobescu 2006). The details that can be identified on it are the extent of the eroded
208
lands, the wetlands, the land displacement zone and the riverbed. It is practically impossible to
extract any altimetry data, given the fact that these images are 2D. The topographical maps done
in 1978 have altimetry details as contour lines, but with a high vertical distance between the
curves, which has a smoothing effect on the terrain details. Also, the maps contain information
only about the major degradation phenomena inside the ravine, not being able to represent the
small areas with erosion or displacement processes.
The ravine evolution process is different than one would expect, taking into account the high
declivity and apparent instability of the slopes. The expansion of the ravine, even in the area
with high elevation differences, is not as intense as it would be expected the width of the
extension area is maximum 10 m in 30 years of evolution. Among other causes that could explain
the slow horizontal evolution, one should take into account the geological layer. This result
gives perspective for ecological restoration through aforestation using wood species with high
protective functions (Traci & Costin 1966, Untaru 1988).
The ground inventory using the total station is practically a basis for further research in the
matter. The repetition of this inventory with a certain periodicity can offer exact information
about the metrics of the torrential watershed: erosion evolution, alluvium transport, alteration
of the transversal and longitudinal profile. The accurate altimetry measurement, with a network
of permanent mark points in the geodetic network, insures land displacement quantification
on repeated inventory on the entire area of the ravine, with graphic display of differences in
elevation.
An efficient land degradation analysis procedure should include the use of aerial photographs, as
being cost efficient and accurate enough for the required measurement (Yengxiang 1996, Perlado
1998). Another advantage is the potential of extending the inventory and monitoring to a national
level, given the periodical aerial photo acquisition campaign done by the National Agency for
Payments and Interventions in Agriculture within the Land Parcel Identification System.
Conclusions
The multi-scale analysis of the ravine evolution showed good results in using remote sensing
methods for the inventory of the land degradation in its complexity. Even tough the main
degradation process is the gully erosion, within the exterior limits of the study area one can
find different types of processes superficial flows, landslides, excessive humidity areas. The
conclusion following the present research show good perspectives in using these methods in land
degradation lands inventory and its ecological rehabilitation: (i) using the complex analysis
methods described, one can delineate the areas with high susceptibility to ecological rehabilitation;
(ii) the lack of origin protection works causes rapid regressive erosion; (iii) the effect of the hydro
technical works can be quantified by comparison with non-consolidated areas; (iv) the geologic
layer constituted by consolidated sandstone delays the slope displacements and increases their
declivity; (v) monitoring of the gully erosion by survey works will offer quantitative information
regarding land displacement and allows the estimation of transported alluviums; (vi) continuous
monitoring possibilities in the context of Land Parcel Identification System, system that requires
a 5 years repeated of agricultural land resources.
Acknowledgements
The researches presented in this paper have been done in the frame of the project DEGRATER
31-047/2007, PNCDI II, Partnership in Prioritary Domains.
209
References
Bloiu, V. 1967. Combaterea eroziunii solului i regularizarea cursurilor de ap. EDP, Bucureti.
Bo, N., Kiss, A., Clinciu, I., Chie, Gh. 1986. Posibiliti de fotointerpretare a unor elemente necesare la
amenajarea unor bazine hidrografiice toreniale. Revista Pdurilor 101(3): 151-155.
Bo, N. et. al 1985. Cercetri privind aplicarea fotogrammetriei n amenajarea bazinelor hidrografice
toreniale. Referat final tem cercetare. Universitatea Transilvania din Braov, 200 p.
Grudnicki, F. 2007. Consideraii privind amenajarea obriilor formaiunilor toreniale. Simpozionul
Pdurea ntre tehnic, economic i politic, Facultatea de Silvicultur Suceava, 26 Octombrie 2007.
Iacobescu, O., Ciornei, I., Barnoaiea, I., Hoga, t. 2006. Metode de cartare a eroziunii prin mijloace ale
teledeteciei satelitare. Simpozion Internaional al Facultii de Silvicultur i Exploatri Forestiere, Braov,
(sub tipar).
Maftei, C. 2007. Eroziunea de adncime. Msuri de protecie, Editura Matrix Rom, Bucureti, 137 p.
Perlado, C.C. 1998. Remote sensing and GIS applications in the erosion studies at the Romero river
watershed. ACRS. pp. 141-152.
Rdoane M., Rdoane Nicolae, Ichim I., Surdeanu V. 1999. Ravenele: forme, procese, evoluie. Editura
Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj-Napoca, 266 p.
Rusu, A., Kiss, A., Chiea, Gh. 1981. Identificarea surselor de aluviuni n cuprinsul bazinelor hidrografice
toreniale, dup fotograme. Aspecte de principiu, Revista Pdurilor, 4: 234-237.
Surdeanu, V. 1998. Geografia terenurilor degradate. Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj Napoca, 274 p.
Traci, C., Costin, C. 1966. Terenurile degradate i valorificarea lor pe cale forestier. Editura Agro-silvic.
275 p.
Untaru, E., Traci, C., Ciortuz, I., Roman, FL. 1988. Metode i tehnologii de instalare a vegetaiei forestiere
pe terenuri degradate cu conditii staionale extreme. ICAS, Seria II, Bucuresti, 54 p.
Yengxiang, Y. 1996. Mountain Soil Erosion Mapping in Central Tibet Using Remote Sensing and GIS, The
4th International Symposium on High Mountain Remote Sensing Cartography. Karlstad - Kiruna - Troms,
August 19-29, pp. 255-264.
210
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
The importance of some endemic plant taxa in maintaining the identity of Dacian Beech forest (Symphyto-Fagion)
^
A. Paunescu
Punescu A. 2009. The importance of some endemic plant taxa in maintaining the
identity of Dacian Beech forest (Symphyto-Fagion). In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M.,
Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 211-218.
Abstract. Within Europeean beechwood, Dacian Beech forests has an individualised
position which determined their affiliation to a regional alliance Symphyto-Fagion
Vida 1959 (syn. Fagion dacicum Beldie 1951). For this alliance was described the
suballiance Symphyto-Fagenion (Vida 1959) So 1964 characterised by some endemics as diferential species (Symphytum cordatum, Ranunculus carpaticus, Pulmonaria rubra, Dentaria gladulosa, Hepatica transslivanica, Aconitum moldavicum).
Inapropiate forestry practices like extensive deforestation endanger the structure
and the stability of Dacian beech forest threatening the vegetal associations that give
their syntaxonomic identity. In this paper are described the Dacian beech forests with
emphasis on their ecological and patrimonial value. Some conservation measures are
also proposed.
Key words: Dacian Beech forest, endemics, conservation
Author. Anca Punescu - Institute of Biology - Bucharest, Splaiul Independenei
296, 060031 - Bucharest, Romania.
Introduction
Forest area in Romania covers about 27% of the total land of the country forested area amounting
6 368 000 ha (Enviromental Report, 2007). Woody plants from forests composition consist of
about 60 native tree species. Five major groups were distinguished: conifers of about 31%, beech
(pure and mixed forests) 31%, oak species 18%, other hard broadleaves 15% and soft broadleaves
5% (Borlea et al. 2006). Romanias forest resources include 10 groups of natural forest and 150
types of forest ecosystems (Doni et al. 1990). Presently, Romania has the largest natural forested
area and the largest natural beech forest in all Europe covering an area of 1 915 657 ha.
The syntaxonomy of mesophilous forests united the European beech forests in a single order
named Fagetalia sylvaticae Pawlowski 1928. Fagetalia include a number of regional alliances
(Trk et al. 1989) as follows:
Scillo-Fagion Oberdorfer 1957, described from western Europe;
Fagion austro-italicum So 1962, from central and southern Italy;
211
Fagion medio-europaeum So 1960, from central Europe with several ecologically distinct
suballiances such as Carpinion, Cephalantero-Fagion, Eu-Fagion, Luzulo-Fagion, AbietiFagion, and Acerion;
Fagio illyricum Horvat 1938 from southeastern Alps, southwestern Hungary, Yugolsavia,
Albania, Greece;
Fagion dacicum So 1962 (Syn Symphyto-Fagion Vida 1959) described from eastern and
southern Carpathians and eastern Balkan.
Beech forests from northern Asia Minor, southeastern Balkan, Crimeea and Caucasus are
assigned to order Fagetalia orientalis So 1962. The communities of Fagus orientalis are
markedly different from the communities of Fagus sylvatica, have a distinct floristic composition,
and belong to the Euxinian alliance Fagion orientalis (So 1964).
It is noted that the mesophilous forests of the eastern Balkan were subsequently included into a
separate alliance named Fagion moesiacum (Trk et al. 1989).
More recent syntaxonomical approaches, includes the alliances Luzulo-Fagion (acidophilous
beech forests), Asperulo-Fagion (nutrient-rich beech forests), and Cephalanthero-Fagion
(thermophilous beech forests) as characteristic for the southern Central European beech forests
(Willner 2002).
Dacian beech forest characterization
Beech forests are well represented in Carpathian Mountains, their spreading area being known as
beech sub-zone. The inferior limit of beech sub-zone is 240 m high, sometimes lower (in Danube
Valley for example is 60 m). The most accepted superior limit of beech spread in Romania is
1200-1400, with a maximum of 1700 in Apuseni Mountains. Beech Carpathian forests are united
by Moor (Moor 1938) in a group of distinct vegetal associations named Fagetum carpaticum with
five distinct subunits (List 1).
Beech forests include in the herbaceous synusia some elements with selective or preferential
fidelity. These species are considered characteristics for Fagion alliance and their list (as shown
in List 2) are proposed for the first time by Moor (1938).
These floristic elements constitute a fundamental stock of mid-European and Baltic species that
survive the glaciations and followed the expansion of beech. Herbaceous layer of beech forests
include also other elements with different origins: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Illyrian, Pontic,
Dacian etc. These elements are considered to be essential to distinguish the regional association
from beech forests (Bocaiu 1971).
The vegetal association that individualize the Dacian beech forest was named Fagetum dacicum
and described for the first time by the reputed Romanian botanist Al. Bedie (1951). The described
List 1. Subunits of Fagetum carpaticum
1
2
3
4
5
Fagetum carpaticum Fatrae Klika 1936

Fagetum carpaticum Cortusae Klika 1936
Fagetum tatrticum Szafer et Sokolowski 1927
Fagetum carpaticum babiogorense (Wallas 1933) Moor prov. 1938
Fagetum carpaticum orientale (Zlatnik 1935) Moor prov. 1938
List 2. Characteristic species for Fagion alliance

Abies alba
Actaea spicata
Asarum europaeum
Asperula odorata
212
Corydalis cava
Daphne mezereum
Elymus europaeus
Euphorbia dulcis
Festuca silvatica
Lysimachia nemorum
Melica uniflora
Mercurialis perenis
Neotia nidus-avis
Phyteuma spicatum
Sanicula europaea
Veronica montana
association was subscribed to the Fagion silvatice (Pavl. 1928 n.n.) Tx. 1937 alliance, Fagetalia
(Pavl. 1928 n.n.) Tx. 1936 order, and Querceto-Fagetea Br-Bl.et Vlieger 1937 class, respectively.
Some species characteristic for Fagion are cited as part of the Fagetum dacicum association (See
Table 1).
In order to define Fagetum dacicum, Beldie proposed as characteristic species for the association
three endemics and a mid-European species (Table 2).
Beldie describes also within Fagetum dacicum four subassociations (Table 3).
According to the most accepted nomenclatural principles in floristic phytosociology reviewed
by Neuhus (1968), the conception of a unit, given by the diagnosis, is considered to be the most
important criterion for the choice of a correct name. Names containing regional references like
dacicum should be excluded. In the light of these principles the name of endemic association
Fagetum dacium was replaced by Symphyto-cordati-Fagetum Vida 1959 and the adjacent alliance
name with Symphyto-Fagion.
For the newly described alliance Symphyto-Fagion together with the characteristic species cited
for Fagion dacicum are added a few new ones (Table 4, adapted from Sanda 2002). Consecutively
8 types of Dacian beech forest are recognized as present in Romanian woods (Table 5).
The association Symphyto cordati-Fagetum includes pure or mixed beech forests from
Table 1 Species from Fagetum dacicum given as floristic support to affiliate the association to Fagion
alliance
Species name
Fagus silvatica
Asperula odorata
Actaea spicata
Festuca silvatica
Mercurialis perenis
Daphne mezereum
Neotia nidus-avis
Stelaria nemorosum
Corydalis cava
Sanicula europaea
Constancy class
V
IV
II
II
II
I
I
I
+
+
Table 2 Characteristic species for Fagetum dacicum
Symphytum cordatum
Ranunculus carpaticus
Rubus hirsutus
Constancy
class
III
III
III
Pulmonaria rubra
Species
Areal/obs
Endemic for Oriental Carpathians
Endemic for Oriental Carpathians
Mid-European
Endemic (Illyrian vicariant)/differential for Southern association
variants
Table 3 Subassociations within Fagetum dacicum

No
1
2
Name
Fagetum dacicum normale
Fagetum dacicum bietosum
Description
Dacian beech forest almost pure, normally develloped
Dacian beech forest with Abies alba, normally develloped
Fagetum dacicum festucetosum
Degraded Dacian beech forest with Festuca silvatica
Fagetum dacicum luzuletosum
Degraded Dacian beech forest with Luzula albida
213
Table 4 Characteristic species for Symphyto-Fagion

Species
Symphytum cordatum
Festuca drymeja
Euphorbia carniolica
Dentaria glandulosa
Pulmonaria rubra
Hepatica transsilvanica
Aconitum moldavicum
Ranunculus carpaticus
Crocus heuffelianus
Rubus hirsutus
Silene heuffelii
Helleborus purpurascens
Constancy class
IV
IV
III
II
II
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
Table 5 Dacian beech forests types (adapted from Doni et al., 2005)
Nature
2000
code
Nature 2000
name
Romanian
code
R4101
R4103
91V0
Dacian beech
forest
(SymphytoFagetum)
Romanian
Habitat name
South-East Carpathian spruce (Picea abies) beech(Fagus
sylvatica) and fir (Abies alba) forests with Pulmonaria
rubra
South-East Carpathian spruce (Picea abies) beech
(Fagus sylvatica) and fir (Abies alba) forests with
Leucanthemum waldsteinii
R4104
South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) and fir

(Abies alba) forests with Pulmonaria rubra
R4108
South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) and fir

(Abies alba) forests with Leucanthemum waldsteinii
R4109
South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests

with Symphytum cordatum
R4116
South-East Carpathian beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests

with Phyllitis scolopendrium
R4119
Dacian beech-hornbeam (Fagus sylvatica, Carpinus

betulus) forest with Carex pilosa
R4120
Moldavian beech-silver lime (Fagus sylvatica, Tilia

tomentosa) mixed forest with Carex brevicollis
Southeastern Carpathians between 600-1100 m altitude (Coldea 1991). The adjacent phytocenoses
are developed on mollic brown soil, deep pseudogleic, rich in mull type humus. In the tree layer
(24 m high and 70-80% coverage) the monodominant species is Fagus sylvatica. Other tree
species from the phytocenoses are Acer pseudoplatanus, Picea abies, Abies alba and Carpinus
betulus (Bocaiu et al. 1982). In the herbaceous synusia the species Symphytum cordatum has
coverage of about 20%. There are also a number of species characteristic for the suballiance
Symphyto-Fagenion. Some of these species have coverage of about 30% like: Galium odoratum,
Dryopteris filix-max, Anthyrium filix-femina (Bocaiu & Tuber 1985). Based on their dominance
in herbaceous synusia Vida (1963) delimits a number of subassociations. A detailed analysis of
214
the phytocenologic material lead to the conclusion that the described subassociations are in fact
facies because the differential species are present in most of the analyzed beech forests (Sanda et
al. 2001).
Conservation measures
In 1998 the European Community adopted a Communication on a European Biodiversity Strategy
(Com (90)42), as required by the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity. In a small
section on forests, it is acknowledged that forests contain the greatest proportion of biological
diversity in terms of species, genetic material and ecological processes and have an intrinsic
value for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. With global concern growing
over deforestation, loss of carbon stored in forests and the role of forests in climate change, the
spotlight has been turned on forest monitoring in a bid to safeguard forests and monitor emissions
from deforestation (Skov & Svenning 2004).
The main function of forests is to protect different ecosystems from soil erosion, pollution, to
create watershed protection and biomass production. Aerial pollutants are a serious thread in some
industrial areas (Ohlemller et al. 2006). It is estimated that 250 000 ha are heavily affected by
pollution, and more than three million ha show foliar signs of pollution (FAO 2001). Pollution,
global warming and inappropriate forestry practices are the main causes for forest destruction.
Forest protection was legalized in Romania by the Act of Constitution from 1907. The National
System of Natural Parks and Reservations was initiated in 1990 and presently Romanias network
of protected areas include a number of 27 parks (14 national and 13 natural) and reservations (55
scientific and 617 natural) totaling about 15000 km2 (each park and reservation has 80% forest
cover).
The major types of Dacian beech forests are conserved in situ within national parks and
biosphere reserves. The main protected areas where Dacian beech forest is preserved are given in
Table 6.
In all these areas silvicultural practices are restricted and directed to conservation purposes.
As a consequence we can assume that Dacian beech forests are well conserved in these areas.
For the Dacian beech woods that are not included in protected areas and conservation areas
a sustainable forestry should be applied. These include the monitoring of natural evolution of
vegetal association in order to apply the proper forestry practices. Dacian beech forests are
evaluated to be in the ultimate successional stage named climax. Clearcutting critically disturb
the established balance damaging the structure of the associations and removing the climax stage
Table 6 National parks and biosphere reserves
Name
Retezat
Rodna
Domogled - Valea Cernei
Cheile Nerei - Beunia
Apuseni
Bucegi
Semenic - Cheile Caraului
Ceahlu
Cozia
Climani
Piatra Craiului
Cheile Bicazului
Grditea de Munte
Type
Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere Reserve
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
National Park
Area (ha)
54 400
56 700
60 100
45 561
37 900
35 700
30 400
17 200
17 100
15 300
14 800
11 600
1 000
215
(Godefroid et al. 2005).

Inappropriate forestry practices had consequences also on beech forests spread. In some forests
the beech moves to lower altitude favoring the pine (Jahn 1985). In this way beech forests were
replaced by pine forests that are not a reliable Piceetum, from phytosociological perspective.
These lost beech forests could be recognized by the presence of species Asperula odorata
in pine forests. Silvicultural practices should be as conservative as possible for the established
climax associations within Dacian beech forests. For example selective cutting (harvesting
individual trees or groups of trees from time to time on a regular basis over a long period of time)
is preferable.
Recently developed approaches like ex situ methods are not efficient in conservation of Dacian
beech forest. Ex situ conservation measures like preservation within Botanic gardens, seed banks,
in vitro cultures collections, cryopreservation etc. could be applied to individual species only, not
to the entire vegetal association.
Conclusions
Dacian beech forest has an individualized position within European beech forests. The presence
of some endemic species in the herbaceous synusia of the beech forest is a prerequisite for the
identity of the Romanian endemic vegetal associations and adjacent regional alliance SymphytoFagion that characterize the Dacian beech forest. In situ conservation of the characteristic endemic
plants for the Symphyto cordati-Fagetum association is an essential condition for preserve the
individual position of Dacian beech forest within European beech woods. Silvicultural systems
should be adapted to limit any interference with natural ecosystems and forest herbs generally
and endemic species especially in order to enable the in situ preservation of the characteristic
associations. To achieve this goal, management without large clear harvesting methods that never
leave the ground completely bare is proposed as alternatives to the clearcutting system. The
forest conservation programs should include Dacian beech forest as one of the main important
objectives because of their patrimonial, scientific and ecological value.
References
Beldie, Al. 1951. Fgetele montane superioare dintre Valea Ialomiei i Valea Buzului Studiu fitosociologic
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217
218
October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Formarea, dezvoltarea i caderea prematura a ghindei de grnita

, (Quercus frainetto) n decursul unui
sezon de vegetatie
,
^
M. S. Nica, M. O. Badele, C. Netoiu,

I. Cioc, C. oanca
,
Nic M. S., Bdele M. O., Neoiu C., Cioc I., oanc C. 2009. Formarea, dezvoltarea
i cderea prematur a ghindei de grni (Quercus frainetto) n decursul unui sezon
de vegetaie. [Formation, development and early abscission of the Italian oak (Quercus frainetto) acorns during vegetation season]. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing
environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management
Institute ICAS, pp. 219-226.
Abstract. The paper presents the evolution of the formation, development and
early abscission of the italian oak acorns during vegetation season, from May
to October. In order to study these physiological processes we isolated the first
set of flowering braches from the carpophagous insects attacks and compare the
results with natural flower development from the second set of branches. Results
showed that non-fecundated flowers, represented 27% from the initial number of
flowers and 36% felt down in the different stage of the acorns development. In
the autumn only 8% of the flowers developed in mature healthy acorns in natural
observation plots and in the isolated flowers/acorns variant 28%; the difference
is represented by the acorns with carpophagous insects larvae: Balaninus glandium, Carpocapsa sp., and Cynips sp..
Key words: Querqus frainetto, flowers, development, acorns viability, fructification
season
Authors. Marius Sorin Nic, Marcel Octavian Bdele, Constantin Neoiu, Ionel
Cioc, Cornel oanc - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bucharest,
Craiova Station, Romania.
Introducere
Este cunoscut faptul c regenerarea natural i artificial a pdurilor de cvercinee depinde n
principal de periodicitatea i adundena fructificaiei, dar i de calitatea, viabilitatea ghindelor
rezultate n anii de fructificaie.
Sporirea calitii i cantitii de ghind produs n aborete surs de semine, rezervaii i
plantaje a reprezentat i reprezint o preocupare constant a silvicultorilor. n acest scop, la noi
n ar studiile i cercetrile s-au concentrat numai pe protejarea ghindei stocate, iar n ultimi ani
cercetrile s-au extins asupra protejrii ghindei de atacurile insectelor seminofage, prin aplicarea
de stropiri succesive n plantaje (Neoiu 2005).
Speciile de cvercinee indigene fructific abundent la cca. 4-8 ani, cu stropeli mai mari sau mai
219
mici intermediare. Periodicitatea i abundena fructificaiei variaz cu specia, condiiile staionale

i de arboret i cu vitalitatea arborilor. Gorunul, n general, are producia de ghind mai constant,
cu o periodicitate de 3-6 ani, beneficiind de condiii mai favorabile fitoclimatic ale arealului su.
Stejarul pedunculat fructific abundent mai rar, la 3-8 ani, ns n conditii de vegetaie favorabile
produce stropeli slabe aproape anual. Cerul fructific abundent la 3-5 ani sau mai des iar grnia
fructific foarte rar, la 6-10 ani iar stropelile sunt slabe i rare (Enescu 1982).
Abundena fructificaiei depinde n primul rnd de numrul de flori ce apar primvara, ca prim
condiie a dezvoltrii unui numr ct mai mare de fructe (ghinde). Numrul i periodicitatea
apariiei florilor este un caracter fixat genetic n decursul evoluiei speciilor i, ntr-o mic msur,
influenat de factori de mediu. Grnia (Quercus frainetto) formez flori grupate n inflorescene,
din care se dezvolt 1-4 (rar 5) ghinde pe un peduncul scurt, celelalte flori fiind nefecundate
sau ghindele formate nu se dezvolt. Acest fapt reprezint, cel mai probabil, o form de selecie
natural la nivelul formrii fructelor, din 4-6 flori din inflorescen, chiar dac sunt fecundate
toate, numai 1-4 ghinde ajung la maturitate, n funcie de anumii factori fiziologici i/sau de
mediu.
Apariia de flori numeroase primvara nu garanteaz o producie sporit de ghind n acel an,
cele mai multe specii de cvercinee avnd periodiciti relativ mari cu fructificaie abundent
(Stephenson 1981, Cecich 1991, Loftis & McGee 1993, Johnson et al. 2002). ntr-un studiu
fcut de Kossuth n 1974, la stejar alb (Q. alba), 80% din florile iniiale au fost avortate nefiind
fecundate n prima lun de la formare iar procentul de ghind matur din florile iniiale a fost de
1-6%, n patru ani consecutivi.
Fecundarea florilor ncepe imediat dup apariia acestora, n luna mai, dar, conform unui studiu
fcut de Jovanovic & Tucovic (1975) la Quercus robur fertilizarea (formarea zigotului), ncepe la
5-6 sptmni de la germinarea polenului, sugernd c creterea tubului polinic are loc dup ce
ovulule s-au dezvoltat complet.
Avnd n vedere c, din totalul florilor din inflorescen o parte rmn nedezvoltate, iar la altele
dezvoltarea ovarului s-a oprit n diferite stadii, este posibil ca numai florile fecundate primele
s se dezvolte n ghinde iar cele la care fecundarea s-a produs mai trziu, n funcie de aportul
de substane nutritive de care dispune planta, s fie avortate n diverse stadii de dezvoltare ale
ghindei.
La numeroase specii de arbori, factorii cu cel mai mare impact asupra cantitii de fructe ce ajung
la maturitate sunt de natur edafic i climatic, dintre acetia, cantitatea de substane minerale i
ap din sol fiind deteminai (Rauscher et al. 1997, Cecich & Sullivan 1999). Stephensen, n 1981,
ntr-un studiu de sintez a literaturii din domeniu, a ajuns la concluzia c, dei lipsa polenizrii,
vtmarea fructelor i seminelor de ctre diveri ageni fitopatogeni i entomofagi i climatul
nefavorabil influeneaz considerabil producia de fructe, principalul factor care limiteaz numrul
final de fructe, semine viabile este determinat de resursele minerale de care dispune planta.
Dintre factorii biotici care influeneaz producia i, n special, viabilitatea (puterea de
germinare) ghindelor, insecte seminofage au o pondere nsemnat. n literatur sunt citai ca
principali duntori ai ghindei insectele din genul Curculio i Conotrachelus (Feret et al. 1982,
Csoka & Hirka 2006, Bonal & Munoz 2007). La noi n ar principalele specii ce afecteaz
producia de ghind sunt Balaninus glandium (sin. Curculio glandium), Carpocapsa amplana
i Carpocapsa splendana (sin. Laspeyresia sp., sin. Cydia sp.) (Neoiu 2005). Dei speciile de
insecte amintite mai sus pot provoca cderea prematur a ghindelor i diminuarea considerabil
a viabilitii ghindei prin reducerea (consumarea) cotiledoanelor embrionului, aceste afecteaz
doar 20% din posibila producie de ghindele, ntruct din numrul iniial de flori, n medie doar
20% devin ghinde (Kossuth 1974).
Avnd n vedere c, prin aplicarea de msuri i tratamente pentru combaterea duntorilor
seminofagi se poate mri procentul de ghind sntoas, viabil dar nu i numrul total de ghind
ce ar putea fi obinut ntr-un an, este necesar s se identifice complexul de factori ce acioneaz
220
asupra formrii, dezvoltrii i meninerii ghindei.

Cunoaterea factorilor care influeneaz producia de ghind, de la nflorire pn la cderea
tuturor ghindelor formate, precum i evoluia dezvoltrii acestora n decursul sezonului de
vegetaie, reprezint un prim pas n adoptarea unor msuri diversificate de sporire a produciei de
ghind n arborete surs de semine i plantaje.
Avnd n vedere periodicitatea mare de fructificaie a cvercineelor, determinat att de factori
genetici ct i de factori climatici i edafici care, de cele mai multe ori, nu pot fi mbuntii,
prin studierea i determinarea factorilor ce influeneaz procesele de formare i dezvoltare a
ghindelor putem s intervenim cu o serie de msuri n scopul creterii produciei de ghinde viabile
n anii n care au loc fructificaii abundente sau stropeli.
n cadrul studiului s-a urmrit determinarea procentului de ghind viabil care rezult din
numrul iniial de flori, a cauzelor care au condus la cderea prematur a florilor/ghindelor i
dinamica cderii acestora pe parcursul unui sezon de vegetaie.
^
Material i metoda
Studierea factorilor ce influeneaz formarea, dezvoltarea i cderea prematur a ghindelor s-a
fcut pornind de la identificare a 10 arbori care au prezentat fructificaie (flori) n anul 2007, n
plantajul de grni de la Balasan, O.S Perior, D.S Craiova. Dintre acetia s-au selectat cinci
ramuri (de la cinci arbori diferii) pe care s-au instalat couri (fig. 1), respectiv cinci ramuri pe care
s-au instalat saci (fig.2). Courile, instalate n scopul recoltrii florilor/ghindelor czute, au fost
confecionate din srm i plas, avnd un diametru i lungime variabil, n funcie de lungimea
ramuri pe care au fost instalate. Sacii au fost confecionai din plas de pnz cu ochiuri mici
pentru a nu permite ptrunderea insectelor i pentru a colecta florile/ghindele czute.
Prima variant, constituit din cinci ramuri pe care s-au instalat couri, denumit variant
martor, a ncercat s surprind procesele naturale ce au loc de la fecundarea florilor pn la
cderea tututor ghindelor de pe ramuri. Cea de-a doua variant, constituit din cinci ramuri pe
care s-au instalat saci, denumit flori/ghinde izolate s-a amplasat n scopul protejrii totale a
ghindelor de aciunea insectelor seminofage.
Odat cu instalarea courilor i sacilor s-a fcut i numrarea florile de pe fiecare ramur (tabelul
1).
Numrarea ghindelor rmase pe ramuri i colectarea celor care au czut n couri i saci s-au
fcut n datele de 29.05.2007, 12.06.2007, 25.06.2007, 17.07.2007, 02.08.2007, 14.08.2007,
29.08.2007, 19.09.2007, 15.10.2007. Ghindele i florile recoltate din couri i saci au fost aduse
n laborator unde, prin secionare s-au analizat cauzele care au condus la cderea acestora. Pentru
aceasta s-a utilizat bisturiu pentru secionarea ghindelor i lup 50x pentru observaii. Florile
Fig. 1 Co pentru colectarea florilor/ghindelor
Fig. 2 Sac instalat pe ramur
221
Tabelul 1 Numrul de flori existent la data de 29.05.2007, pe fiecare ramur, respectiv variant
Ramura nr.
1
2
3
4
Varianta martor
127
203
170
193
Varianta ghind izolat

93
147
104
163
5
TOTAL
104
797
40
547
nefecundate au fost identificate prin examinarea cu lupa a ovarului, fiind considerate nefecundate
acele flori la care creterea, dezvoltarea ovarului nu a nceput, chiar dac, este posibil ca aceste
s fi fost polenizate. Ghinde avortate (flori fecundate) au fost considerate florile la care a nceput
dezvoltarea ovarului, dar ghindele aflate n diverse stadii de dezvoltare au czut.
Florile, respectiv ghindele czute au fost mprite n 6 categorii, dup cum urmeaz: (i)
nefecundate - florile la care, prin examinarea cu lupa, s-a constatat c ovarul nu a nceput s
se dezvolte, procesul de formare a embrionului nefiind declanat; (ii) avortate - ghinde czute
care au prezentat ovar n dezvoltare (ghind n formare), embrionul fiind n diverse stadii de
dezvoltare; (iii) Cynips - ghinde atacate de larve de Cynips sp.; (iv) Carpocapsa - ghinde atacate
de larve de Carpocapsa sp.; (v) Balaninus - ghinde atacate de larve de Balaninus sp.; (vi) mature
- sntoase ghinde ajunse la maturitate fiziologic care nu au prezentat vtmri biotice.
.
Rezultate i discutii
,
Pornind de la numrul de flori existent la data de 29.05.2007 cu dou variante de lucru, neizolate
(varianta martor) i izolate de aciunea insectelor seminofage (varianta ghind izolat), pe
parcursul sezonului de vegetaie s-au numrat i analizat florile/ghindele prezente pe ramuri i
cele care au czut, la diferite date calendaristice.
n cazul variantei martor (fig. 3) se observ c numai 8% din numrul iniial de flori au devenit
ghinde mature sntoase. Din numrul iniial de flori, 29% au fost nefecundate iar cel mai mare
procent (33%) dei fecundate, au fost avortate de ctre plant n diverse stadii de dezvoltare a
ghindei. Procentul relativ mare de flori nefecundate este caracteristic speciilor de stejari, fiind
influenat de o serie de factori de natur biotic i abiotic. Avortarea ghindelor se datoreaz,
cel mai probabil, unor cauze fiziologice determinate de aportului de elemente nutritive i/sau de
umiditate din sol.
Dintre insectele seminofage, Balaninus glandium a fost specia care a atacat cele mai multe
ghinde, deteminnd cderea prematur a ghindelor i consumarea cotiledoanelor ghindelor
mature (23% din florile iniiale), urmat de Carpocapsa sp. (6%) i Cynips sp. (2%).
Dac scdem florile nefecundate i ghindele formate dar avortate, rezult c 38% din florile
iniiale ar fi putut deveni ghinde mature, snatoase dar, datorit influenei insectelor seminofage,
numai 8% au ajuns la maturitate, sntoase, restul fiind atacate de insecte, n special de Balaninus
glandium.
n funcie de cauzele care determin cderea florilor/ghindelor n decursul sezonului de vegetaie,
acestea cad preponderent n anumite perioade de timp (fig. 4). Dup cum era de ateptat, 30%
din totalul florile nefecundate au czut n intervalul 12.06-25.06, iar un procent aproximativ egal
n perioada urmtoare, 25.06-17.07, n total 60% din totalul florile nefecundate, restul de 40%
au rmas pe ramuri, pe pedunculii care au ghinde dezvoltate, cderea acestora avnd loc gradual
pn n toamn.
Cele mai multe ghinde (40% din total) sunt avortate cnd se afl n stadiul incipient, n intervalul
25.06-17.07, 20% n intervalul urmtor (17.07-02.08), iar restul gradual pn la finalul sezonului
222
Fig. 3 Evoluia numrului de flori/ghinde pe parcursul sezonului de vegetaie 2007 la varianta martor
Fig. 4 Dinamica cderii florilor/ghindelor n cursul sezonului de vegetaie la varianta martor
de vegetaie.
Ghindele atacate de Balaninus ncep s cad n intervalul 02.08-14.08 (20%), urmnd o curb
ascendent cu un maxim n intervalul 29.08-19.09 (60%), cnd ghindele au ajuns la maturitate
223
fiziologic, respectiv larvele de Balaninus au consumat o cantitate nsemnat din cotiledoanele

embrionului. Comparativ cu ghindele atacate de Balaninus, cele atacate de Carpocapsa ncep s
cad mai trziu, n perioada 17.07-02.08, iar cele mai multe (50% din numrul total de ghinde
atacate) n ultimul interval, adic 19.09-15.10.
La varianta flori/ghinde izolate, dei a fost constituit cu scopul izolrii totale a florilor/ghindelor
de aciunea insectelor seminofage, se observ c Balaninua glandium a depus ou n ghindele din
interiorul sacului cel mai probabil prin ochiurile sacului, la contactul dintre acesta i ghind, fiind
gsite larve n ghinde ce reprezint 4% din numrul de flori iniial (fig. 5). Ghindele atacate de
Cynips sp. (3% din numrul iniial de flori) se explic prin faptul c aceast specie depune ou n
muguri florali, deci nainte de data de 29.05.2007 cnd s-au izolat florile.
Ghindele mature sntoase reprezint 28% din numrul iniial de flori, cea ce reprezint un
procent considerabil mai mare dect n cazul variantei martor (8%).
n cea ce privete florile nefecundate czute i ghindele avortate de ctre plant, acestea au
reprezentat 40%, respectiv 25% din numrul de flori iniiale. Aceste procente sunt aproximativ
egale cu cele nregistrate la varianta martor, izolarea florilor/ghindelor n saci fiind fcut pentru a
proteja ghinda de atacurile insectelor seminofage, neinfluennd fecundarea florilor sau avortarea
ghindelor.
Din ghindele ajunse la maturitate (35% din florile iniiale) n acest caz, 28% au fost sntoase,
fr a prezenta urme de atacuri. Acest fapt conduce la concluzia c, prin protejarea ghidei de
atacurile insectelor seminofage prin combaterea acestora cu diverse insecticide, se poate mri
procentul total de ghind, n special de ghind sntoas.
Cderea florilor nefecundate s-a produs relativ constant, ntre 15-20% din totalul ghindelor
n fiecare interval studiat, tot parcursul sezonului de vegetaie (fig. 6). Acest fapt se explic prin
protecia oferit de saci mpotriva curenilor de aer, care n acest caz nu au mai scuturat florile de
pe pedunculi i ramuri, acestea cznd gradual i nu n prima lun, ca n cazul variantei martor.
La varianta ghind izolat, cele mai multe ghinde au fost avortate n intervalul 25.06-17.07
(30% din totalul ghindelor avortate) i n intervalul 14.08-29.08 (28%). Comparativ cu varianta
Varianta flori/ghinde izolate

100
% din numarul initial de flori
90
13
15
4
2
28
13
80
15
70
28
16
60
50
40
18
18
4
3
19
100
96
4
1
36
MATURE SANATOASE
CARPOCAPSA
BALANINUS
CYNIPS
92
40
74
70
30
NEFECUNDATE
66
23
RAMASE
47
20
AVORTATE
25
10
17
0
29.05 12.06 25.06 17.07 2.08 14.08 29.08 19.09 15.10
Data
Fig. 5 Evoluia numrului de flori/ghinde pe parcursul sezonului la varianta flori/ghinde izolate
224
Fig. 6 Dinamica cderii florilor/ghindelor n cursul sezonului de vegetaie la varianta ghind izolat
martor, se observ un al doilea maxim n intevalul 14.08-29.08, cnd ghindele erau aproape de
maturitate, lucru datorat probabil stresului hidric la care a fost supus planta n a doua parte a
sezonului de vegetaie.
Rezultatele studiului indic faptul c, dei insectele seminofage joac un rol important n
dezvoltarea, cderea prematur i sntatea ghindelor mature, cele mai multe ghinde au fost
avortate de ctre plant (33-40 % din florile iniiale) ceea ce nseamn c factori edafici (cantitatea
de elementele minerale din sol) i climatici (cantitatea de precipitaii) exercit, n ansamblu, cea
mai mare influen asupra produciei finale de ghind.
Concluzii
Dei n anii de fructificaie grnia produce multe flori, majoritatea nu ajung s se dezvolte n
ghinde, cantitatea total de ghind produs ntr-un an de fructificaie i viabilitatea acesteia
depinznd de o serie de factori care acioneaz n momente diferite asupra formrii i dezvoltrii
acestora.
Principalii factori care influeneaz producia final de ghind i n special calitatea acesteia
sunt numrul de flori ce apar primvara, determinat de periodicitatea de fructificaie a speciei,
fixat genetic, condiiile pedo-climatice i activitatea insectelor ce atac ghinda. Pe parcursul
sezonului de vegetaie, n perioada mai-iunie polenizarea este influenat de factori climatici ca
vntul i precipitaiile; n iunie-iulie cderea prematur a ghindelor formate este determinat,
n principal de factori pedo-climatici i fiziologici, iar n perioada iulie-septembrie de insectele
seminofage i de cantitatea de precipitaii (Larsen & Cecich 1997).
Analiznd procentul de fecundare a florilor, s-a observat c acesta a fost de 75%, respectiv 79%
din numrul de flori iniiale. Tinnd cont de faptul c polenizarea florilor este influenat i de
factori climatici (vnt, precipitaii ) acest proces nu poate fi controlat sau mbuntit n scopul
creteri produciei de ghind.
Ghindele avortate au reprezentat cel mai mare procent din numrul iniial de flori, fiind de 33%
la varianta martor, respectiv 40% la varianta ghind izolat. Diferena dintre cele dou variante
se poate explica prin faptul c o parte din ghindele czute datorit atacului de Balaninus sp. n
intervalul 14.08-29.08, oricum cdeau, probabil din cauza stresului hidric din aceast perioad.
35-40% din numrul total de ghinde avortate au czut n perioada 25.06-17.07, cnd condiiile
climatice, n special umiditatea au fost favorabile. ntr-o sintez a literaturii din acest domeniu,
Stephensen (1981) a concluzionat c n cazul speciilor arborescente resursele minerale de care
dispune planta reprezint un factor principal ce determin cantitatea de semine viabile produse
de ctre plante, deci i n cazul de fa avortarea ghindelor, la nceputul dezvoltrii acestora se
datoreaz cel mai probabil factorilor fiziologici legai de nutriia mineral a plantei.
Un factor important care influeneaz cantitatea de ghind ce ajunge la maturitate, i n special
225
gradul de viabilitate al acesteia, l reprezint aciunea insectele seminofage, larvele acestora

acionnd asupra reducerii viabilitii ghindelor prin consumarea cotiledoanelor embrionului i
determinnd cderea prematur a acestora. Ghindele atacate de Balaninus sp., Carpocapsa sp.
i Cynips sp. au reprezentat 30% din numrul iniial de flori (din 38% cte ar fi putut fi atacate),
iar n cazul variantei ghind izolat numai 7% (maximul 35% din numrul iniial de flori), 3%
reprezentnd atacuri de Cynips, care a depus oule n flori nainte de izolare i 4% Balaninus
care a nepat ghinda la contactul acesteia cu sacul. Studii privind aciunea insectelor seminofage
asupra cderii prematuare i viabilitii ghindei arat c 36-61% dintre ghindele czute prematur
sau mature au prezentat diverse grade de vtmri provocate de larvele acestor insecte (Csoka &
Hirca 2006), deci combaterea acestor insecte la momentul optim (iunie), poate spori considerabil
cantitatea de ghind viabil obinut n special din livezi semincere i plantaje.
Dintre cauzele care conduc la diminuarea produciei de ghinde de grni, cderea prematur
reprezint unul dintre cei mai importani; 33-40% din procentul iniial de flori, dei s-au format
ghinde, acestea au fost avortate de ctre plant, n diverse stadii de dezvoltare. Avnd n vederea c
acest proces este determinat, n principal de cantitatea de substane minerale pe care plante poate
s le asimileze, pentru a mri producia de ghind, alturi de combaterea insectelor seminofage,
trebuiesc aplicate msuri de asigurare a optimului de elemente minerale n sol, n funcie de
cerinele fiecrei specii de cvercinee.
Bibliografie
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abscission reduces Curculio elephas larval size. Ecological Entomology 33: 31-36.
Cecich, R.A. 1993. Flowering and oak regeneration. In Loftis, D., McGee, C.E. (eds.) Oak regeneration: serious
problems, practical recommendations. Symposium proceedings. Asheville, NC: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station Gen.Tech. Rep. SE-84, pp. 79-95.
Cecich R. A., Brown G. L., Piotter B.K. 1991. Pistillate flower abortion in three species of oak. In Mc Cornick L.
H., Gottschalk, K.W. (eds.) Proceedings, 8th Cantral Hardwood Forest Conference. U.S Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-148, pp. 578.
Cecich, R. A., Sullivan, H. N. 1999. Influence of weather at time of pollination on acorn production of Quercus
alba and Quercus velutina. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28(12): 1817-1823.
Csoka, G., Hirka, A. 2006. Direct effects of carpophagous insects on the germination ability and early abscission
of oak acorns. Acta Silv. Lign. Hung. 2: 57-68.
Enescu, V. 1982. Producerea seminelor forestiere. Editura Ceres, Bucureti, 323 p.
Feret, P.P., Kreh, R.E., Merkle, S.A., Oderwald, R.G. 1982. Flower abundance, premature acorn abscission, and
acorn production in Quercus alba L. Botanical Gazette 143(2): 216-218.
Johnson, P. S., Shifley, S. R., Rogers, R. 2002. The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks. CABI Publishing. www.
books.google.com.
Jovanovic, M., Tucovic, A. 1975. Genetics of common and sessile oak (Quercus robur L. and Q. Petraea Liebl.).
Annales Forestales 7: 23-53.
Kossuth, S.V. 1974. Premature acorn abscission in white oak. (Quercus alba L.). Ph.D. dissertation, Yale
University.
Larsen, D. R., Cecich, R. A. 1997. Model of white oak flower survival and maturation. In: Pallordy S. G., Cecich,
R.A., Gorrett, H.G., Johnson, P. S. (eds.), Proccedings of the 11th Central Hardwoods Forest Conference, Univ.
Missouri, Columbia, MO. March 23-26, USDA, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, Gen.
Tech. Rep. NC-188, pp. 262-268.
Neoiu, C., Stoenescu, M. 2005. Vtmri produse de dunatorii seminofagi ai cvercineelor i msuri de control
a acestora. Simpozion cu participare internaional, Agricultura durabil - Agricultura viitorului, ediia I,
Universitatea din Craiova, (CD) ISSN 1582-9391
Rauscher, H.M., Loftis, D. L., McGee, C. E., Worth, C. V. 1997. Oak regeneration: a knowledge synthesis. The
Compiler 15(1): 52-53.
Rauscher, H.M., Rogers, R. 2009. Oak reproduction biology. www.forestencyclopedia.net/p/p2204.
Stephenson, A.G. 1981. Flower and fruit abortion: proximate causes and ultimate functions. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst.
12: 253-279.
226

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Physiological aspects of Quercus species under

chemical and integrated pest control in NorthEastern Romanias forests
L. Acatrinei
Acatrinei, L. 2009. Physiological aspects of Quercus species under chemical and
integrated pest control in North-Eastern Romanias forests. In: Olenici N., Teodosiu
M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a
changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 227-234.
Abstract. Ecophysiological studies were made in Quercus species in oaks forest under chemical and integrated pest control treatments. The ecophysiological response
of the trees to pesticide treatments was evaluated in anta forest (chemical treated)
and Poieni forest (integrated control on insect defoliator) stations, Ciurea forest district, Iai county. Studies are dealing with the analysis of photosynthetic parameters
(chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids pigments), hydric metabolism (dry
matter content and humidity of leaves) and indicators of sugars metabolism (mono-,
di- and polysaccharide. Fresh and oven dried leaves as well as one-two years old
branches taken from the middle part of the trees during three growing cycles, (20062008) were used as biologic material. The photosynthetic parameters analyzed have
shown relatively higher values of chlorophylls and carotenoids in Poieni forest oaks
(mainly, Q. robur) than in anta forest oaks (mainly, Q. petraea). Dry matter accumulation rate is relatively faster in one year old branches from Poieni forest oaks.
Oak branches relative humidity is higher due to Poieni forest conditions. Until now,
ecophysiological studies have shown a constant rhythm of dry matter and sugars
accumulation and higher values in Quercus sp. in Poieni forest than in anta forest.
Integrated pest management in Poieni forest have probably determined these ecophysiological responses in plants and have not affected the plants capacity to adjust
to defoliators attacks and to diseases. More studies about physiological behavior of
oaks over different growing cycles will be needed to certify this point.
Key words: Quercus petraea, Quercus robur, pshyology
Author. Ligia Acatrinei - Biological Research Institute, Iasi, Lascr Catargi st. 47,
700107 - Iai, Romania.
Introduction
In Poieni forest (Ciurea Forest District, Iai County) the last treatment with a biological insecticide
(Thuringin) was done in 1990 on T. viridana, Geometridae and L. dispar caterpillars, in medium
infestation conditions (higher defoliations under a treatment with an organophosphorous product
Silvetox were registered one year before). Because of the stand structure (Quercus petraea, Fagus
sylvatica, Q. robur of 60-140 years) and of the favorable conditions in this forest (insectivorous
227
birds stimulation), no growing of the defoliators populations was registered in the last 17 years
and consequently the application of some pest control works was not necessary.
Our study approaches oak forest physiological capacity through photosynthetic parameters and
carbohydrates, and finally evaluates the metabolic potential of oak forests after many years of
treatment and climatic change in this part of Europe.
Material and methods
The samples were collected in anta and Poieni forests (Ciurea Forest District, Iai county, in the
NE of Romania) mostly in oaks stands. In anta Forest (oak stands in which trees are mostly 150
years old) the last treatment with Rimon (synthesis product) was given in 2003 against T. viridana
and Geometridae. The previous treatment with Dimilin (insect growth regulator) was in 1997.
We also used
physiological methods like the analysis of chlorophylls and carotenoids pigments.
Photosynthetic parameters as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids complex were analized
through the method with acetone 85% Meyer-Berthrand modified by tirban (1985). The results
were expressed in mg/g fresh weight (mg/g fr.w.). The analysing of sugars metabolism about
monosaccharides, dissacharides and polysaccharides by the method Bertrand & Borell (1953)
was also performed. The results were expressed in g of glucosis per cent (g%) of dry matter. The
water and dry matter content in branches were appreciated by gravimetric methods.
The studies were performed in the framework of a national project, CEEX type, in collaboration
with the Forest
Research and Management Institute (ICAS).

Results
Investigations focused especially on the sites which suffered the highest insect attacks during the
last years. To do that, some oak species from different uas and ups (forest organized in landscape
units = uas) of anta and Poieni forests (Ciurea Forest District, Iai county) were analyzed.
Physiological researches regarding the plant responses investigated the content of assimilatory
pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids) and also the sugar metabolism by analysing some
indicators (monosaccharides, di- and polysaccharides).
These studies aimed at analysing oak branches water content and dry mass, in order to evaluate
the physiological response of the trees after many years of pesticide treatment in these woods.
The water regime parameters analyzed in pedunculate oak (Q. robur) branches show normal
physiological activities in early spring (Fig.1). In this period of buds formation we observe an
increasing of physiological activity parameters from the basis to the top of the tree crown, in the
same time with the circulation of the phloem sap..
The dynamics of branches water and dry content was analyzed through the variation of these
parameters during the spring of 2007. The water content increased and dry matter decreased by
1.04-1.45 times (Fig.2) in Q. robur trees from anta forest between January and April 2007. In
Poieni forest, the dynamic of water content in branch and dry matter decreased with 0.98 to 1.57
times during the period January-April 2007. This process was due to sap circulation and buds
opening in the spring once with sugars translocation in branches.

The variation interval of dry mass and water content respectively is higher in tree branches
from Poieni forest than in anta forest tree branches, although the differences are not significant
(Fig. 2-3).
Analysis of water content and dry mass showed a slightly larger variation in Poieni forest tree
branches than in anta forest branches. The values of those parameters are closer for the trees
of two of the forests but dynamics during the January-April period had some variation. The
increasing of water in tree branches in Poieni forest could be due to pedoclimatic conditions
insofar as where the quantity of precipitations was higher (587 mm) and the altitude higher (300
228
Legend: I- basis of tree crown, II-middle of tree crown, III-top of tree crown
Fig. 1 Variation of water and dry matter content in Quercus robur branches in
anta
Forest on March 2006
Fig. 2 Variation of water and dry matter content in
branches
of Quercus robur
from
anta
forest, Ciurea

Forest District (Iai county)
m) than in anta forest case (100 m altitude, 450-500 mm precipitations).

Figure 4 shows that chlorophylls and carotenes values in early oak leaves grown before trees
blossoming and after trees blossoming are close in the two stations anta and Poieni.
In this
phenophasis no significant differences between the trees under chemical (anta Forest) and
integrated control (Poieni Forest) were observed.
Chlorophyll b in Q. robur leaves at anta forest is two times lower than values registered in
oaks leaves at Poieni forest even that the chlorophyll a is higher in the first case (Fig. 4). This
could be happened because of the exposition SE and SV and other site conditions (temperature,
altitude, density of the trees). The participation of the chlorophyll b, known as shadow pigment,
could be reduced in trees more exposed to sun and if the foliage density is low. In this case the
most active pigment in photosynthesis is chlorophyll a.
In June, in the phenophasis of the total foliage development, the values of total assimilatory
pigments are more reduced in oaks from anta forest than in Poieni forest (Fig. 5). The decreasing
229
Fig. 3 Variation of water and dry matter content in
branches
of Quercus petraea from
Poieni
forest, Ciurea
Forest District (Iai county)
Fig. 4 Average quantities of assimilatory pigments in Quecus robur and Q. petraea leaves at studied

forests, Ciurea Forest District (Iai county), in April
is due to the smaller values of all the pigments (chlorophylls and carotenes), but moreover of
chlorophyll b which is three times lower than the same parameter registered in oaks from Poieni
forest.

Sugar metabolism was studied through the analysis of the monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides. Sugar metabolism showed an increasing of the disaccharides by almost 3 times
than monosaccharides in one year branches of trees in early spring at anta forest. The higher
content of sucrose (represented by disaccharides) increased from basis up to top of tree crown
230
Fig. 5 Average quantifies of assimilatory pigments in Quecus robur and Q. petraea leaves at studied
forests, Ciurea Forest District (Iai county), in June.
Legend: I- basis of tree crown, II-middle of tree crown, III-top of tree crown
Fig. 6 Variation of carbohydrates
content
in branches of Quercus robur

at
anta
forest, Ciurea Forest

District (Iai county)
once with starch hydrolysis from annual wood and buds opening (Fig. 6).

The sugar assimilation in the oak leaves showed higher quantity with 5 % of total sugars
in leaves of analyzed species from anta forest than analyzed species from Poieni forest. The
differences are not significant but showed greater accumulations of polysaccharides in oaks at
anta forest. The possible explanations could be the attack of the Microsphaera abreviata and
injurious insects observed at that time on the oaks leaves in trees from Poieni forest (Fig.
7).
Analyses of the carbohydrate parameters in Q. petraea in neighborhood of Ciurea Forest District
showed comparable values of the same parameters in other oak forests from Northeastern of
Romania (Antohe et al. 1995).
231
Fig. 7 Average content of carbohydrates in leaves of Q. petraea (anta Forest) and Q.robur (Poieni Forest)

at studied sites, Ciurea Forest District (Iai county)
Discussion
Studies of physiology of trees from this period were limited concerning the observation of the
chlorosis, dryness phenomenon, the decrease of the foliage density, debilitation and decline of
trees (
Murariu et al. 1997,
Hance 2003).
Our results regarding the chlorophyll content and sugar metabolism showed closer values with
those registered in forest ecosystems from Central Moldavian Plateau in Q. petraea stands, also
from North-Eastern part of Romania (Murariu et al. 1997).
Regarding the pollution matter, our analyses showed some differences between trees treated
with chemicals and those with integrated pest control.
The amount of chlorophylls and carotenoids in Q. robur from anta forest (chemical treatment)
are lower than those registered in Q. petraea from Poieni forest (integrated control). That
decreasing is due by a lower quantity of chlorophyll b during the leaves elevation until fully
development foliage in studied oaks from anta forest. Biosynthesis of chlorophylls depends
of species, site conditions and the studies should be approached to be sure if the differences are
related with the type of pest control (chemical or integrated) or have other causes.
Some authors revealed that pesticides actioned through blocking mechanisms of photosynthesis,
assimilatory pigments synthesis and were inhibitory over plant metabolism (Murariu et al. 1997,
Ivnescu et al. 2003, Acatrinei 2006). Our studies cannot certify what were the actions of the
pesticides and the interaction in tree over time, but exist obvious differences between trees
chemically treated and those integrated treated.
After years of applications of DDT, the pest control in Santa forest was achieved with
metamorphosis inhibitors as Dimilin and Rimon (Ciornei et al. 2007).
Some studies in oak forests in Northeastern Romania showed that undecomposed DDE, the
metabolite of DDT still exist in soil after twenty years of applications (Hance 2003). Pesticides
remanence in soil in anta forest could be incriminated by the lower values of the assimilatory
pigments and the inhibition of some physiological mechanisms that regulated the water regime in
branches of oaks from this site. After 1990s Poieni forest was managed by integrated pest control
and there was no chemical treatment and grace to that, may be trees responses have a higher
variation of physiological parameters.
Anyway, it could seem the multiple stress factors action than one in these circumstances.
The
232
pesticide applications and soil depositions besides climatic conditions (drought and winds) will
influence each time the ecophysiological response of Quercus petraea and Q. robur trees.
Conclusions
Pesticides act like inhibitors in trees metabolism. In this case, after years during which the last
treatment was administrated (2003, at anta forest) the values of physiological parameters in two
species of oaks are smaller than those in trees without chemical treatment (Poieni forest).
The multiple stressor action is a more realistic hypothesis. The pesticide applications and
soil depositions besides climatic conditions (drought and winds) and biotic actions (insects and
diseases) will always influence the ecophysiological response of Quercus petraea and Q. robur
trees.
References
Acatrinei, L., Andor, I. 2006. Physiological researches at varieties of grapes in Cotnari vineyards under
pesticides treatments (in Romanian with an English abstract). Lucrrile tiinifice USAMV Ion Ionescu de
la Brad, Seria Horticultur 1(49): 317-322.
Antohe, A., Murariu, A., Pisica-Donose, A. 1995. Recherches sur la biosynthese des pigments dassimilation
et sur lintensite de la photosynthese au Quercus petraea, Carpinus betulus et Tilia tomentosa dans certains
ecosystemes forestiers du Plateau Central de la Moldavie (Roumanie). An. Muz. Na. al Bucov., Fasc.
tiinele Naturii 13: 97-107.
Ciornei, C., Ciuc, L., Hance, Th. 2003. Predator soil fauna with impact on defoliator populations from oak
forests of Moldavia. Analele ICAS, Seria I 46: 187-196.
Hance, Th., Cambier, V. 2003. Relationships between soil fauna and Apethymus filiformis outbreaks in
Romania. Analele ICAS, Bucharest, Seria I 46: 39-48.
Hager, A., Meyer-Bertenrath, T. 1966. Die Isolierung und quantitative Bestimmung der Carotenoide und
Chlorophylle von Blttern, Algen und isolierten Chloroplasten mit Hilfe dnnschicht-chromatographischer
Methoden. Planta 69: 128-217.
Ivnescu, L., Toma, C. 2003. Influence of air pollution in plant structure (in Romanian). Ed. Fund.Andrei
aguna, Constana, 394 p.
Murariu, A., tefan, M., tefan, N., Davidescu, G. 1997. Physiological and Biochemical modifications in
leaves of woody species under air pollution (in Romanian). Stud. cerc., Seria biol. Veget. 49: 1-2, 77-89
tirban, M. 1985. First processes in photosynthesis (in Romanian). Ed. Did. Ped. Bucureti.
233
234

October 23-25, 2008

Bucharest, Romania
Principii de management al populatiilor

piscicole din
,
apele de munte
I. Cristea
Cristea I. 2009. Principii de management al populaiilor piscicole din apele de munte.

[Management principles of fish populations in mountain waters]. In: Olenici N.,
Teodosiu M., Bouriaud O. (eds.), Proceedings of the conference Sustainable forestry in a changing environment, October 23-25, 2008, Bucharest, Forest Research
and Management Institute ICAS, pp. 235-240.
Abstract. The studies already carried out permit to estimate that salmonides populations will be recreated by applying specific recommendations regarding mountain
water fish-breeding management, according to the ecology of the species and according to the action plan elaborated through this research work by better protecting
fish-breeding populations and by facilitating salmons migration to their reproduction
places. As an example, by guaranteeing longitudinal connexion between mountainous torrents, regarding the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), the capture rate
by recreative-sportive fishing (TAC) will significantly increase. Adopting ecological
reconstruction measures for mountainous aquatic ecosystems regarding both the biotope (river/creek; lake) and the aquatic biocenosis (ichtyofauna mainly represented
by salmons, and benthic invertebrate fauna, main source of food for the ichtyofauna)
has generated a considerable improvement in environmcnt conditions. Ecological
reconstruction was established to be made on the fishing funds with a higher level
of trout potenial. It was established a number of ecologica! reconstruction measures
on short, medium and long term, both in the rivers and lakes. Minimum ecological
water flow, down stream of the systematic dams from the mountain running waters,
was established different, according to with trout productivity and in direct relation
with the reliability of the forest area. So, on the fishing funds from the first category,
water usage for energetic purpose will be < 1/3 from the natural water flow up stream
the dam. For the fishing funds from the second category of trout productivity, water
flow used will be between 1/3 and 2/3 from the natural up stream water flow. For the
fishing funds from third category, water flow used can be > 2/3, till the total usage. In
this situation, hydro-electric-power has a benefic purpose, to improve the water flow
balance. As a conclusion, we can state that in order to harmonize the national legislation with the European one regarding environment, and more precisely regarding the
protection of aquatic ecosystems in mountainous hydrographic basins, it is necessary
Io adopt a plan of sustainable management, so as this study does.
Key words: mountain water, fish populations, management principles
Author. Ioan Cristea - Forest Research and Management Institute, Bd. Eroilor 128,
077190 - Voluntari, Romania. Colaboratori RNP Romsilva: Drd. Petre Grgrea,
Ing. Sabin Bratu, Ing. Mugurel Minca, Colaboratori ICAS Bucureti, tehn. pr. Adriana Gruia, silv. Victoria Dobre
235
Consideratii
, generale
Pentru realizarea unui echilibru durabil n timp, implicit a stadiului de climax al ecosistemului
acvatic montan, este necesar s se asigure o integrare in ecosistemul forestier zonal, corespunztor
bonitii staionale naturale, a amenajrilor hidrotehnice, astfel nct impactul antropic s fie ct
mai redus, prin optimizarea soluiei tehnice cu cerinele ecologice conform Directivei Cadru
pentru Ap a Uniunii Europene. Astfel, problematica actual prioritar const n asigurarea
conectivitii longitudinale i laterale a cursurilor de ap, practic a migraiei pstrvului comun n
amonte de baraje i meninerea unui debit minim ecologic n aval de aceste captri.
Productivitatea salmonicol medie n apele de munte din ara noastr este n prezent de 14 kg/
km, conform ultimei cartri efectuate de ICAS, n anul 2003. Aceasta reprezint de fapt recolta
de extras prin pescuit recreativ-sportiv (TAC - Total Admisible Capture), dintr-un fond gospodrit
raional. Prin msurile de reconstrucie ecologic aceasta poate reveni ntr-o prim etap la 17
kg/km, valoare estimat n anul 1992, ca obiectiv int. Pentru refacerea populaiilor piscicole n
scopul realizrii acestui obiectiv, s-a propus recoltarea a 25% din recolta calculat de pe fiecare
fond de pescuit, productivitatea calculat fiind mult peste cea real.
Stadiul cunotintelor
,
ICAS a efectuat studii privind debitele minime ecologice n aval de baraje (Cristea 1988-1998) i
migraia pstrvului comun (Salmo trutta fario L.) toamna la boite n amonte de aceste captri
(Vioianu et al. 1982). Marcarea petilor s-a efectuat prin tierea vrfului nodlcii.
Specialitii de la Facultatea de Piscicultur Galai i Institutul de Biologie Bucureti au
constatat, n perioada 1970-1980, impactul nefavorabil al barajului Porile de Fier asupra migraiei
sturionilor. Recent s-a efectuat un studiu privind migraia sturionilor in Delta Dunrii.
Pentru realizarea conectivitii longitudinale i laterale a cursurilor de ap, conform directivelor
Uniunii Europene, de exemplu n Frana, pentru refacerea cursului de ap Garonne, s-a dezafectat
prin dinamitare un baraj al unui lac de acumulare colmatat. n Olanda exist un pasaj pentru peti
tip by-pass pe lng barajul de pe insula Maurik.
n SUA, pentru tranzitul petilor anadromi (care triesc n mri i oceane, i care migreaz
pe distane de peste 1500 km la izvoarele cursurilor de ap dulcicole, de exemplu somonul de
Atlantic (Salmo salar) pentru depunerea icrelor n vederea reproducerii), n amonte de localitatea
Conowingo, barajul pe rul Maryland s-a amenajat cu un lift n valoare de 12 mil. $, prin care
tranziteaza anual peste 100.000 de peti.
Un alt tip de pasaj pentru peti, functional prin lungime i nlimea treptelor, este de exemplu
cel din Scoia de pe rul Clunie.
^
Scopul cercetarilor
Se preconizeaz realizarea unui management durabil al resurselor acvatice vii, conform
legislaiei UE, principiul de baz fiind protejarea acestora.
^
Obiectivele cercetarii
Pentru atingerea scopului acestei lucrri conform Directivei Cadru pentru Ap 60/E.C. s-au
stabilit urmtoarele obiective de management, pe urmtoarele etape de realizat:
Etapa a I-a. Date generale privind fauna piscicol existent. Evaluarea strii de sntate
a ecosistemelor acvatice montane: (i) biotop (ru, pru, lac) ca mediu de via; (ii) biocenoz
- fauna: vertebrate (peti), conform cartrii din studiul fcut de Cristea (2003).
236
Etapa a II-a. Msurile i obiectivele de management pentru pescuitul sportiv. Elaborarea

msurilor manageriale pentru refacerea populaiilor piscicole la nivelul optim, corespunztor
categoriei de productivitate salmonicol. Restabilirea conectivitii longitudinale a cursurilor de
ap montane.
Etapa a III-a. Monitorizarea ecosistemului acvatic dup implementarea msurilor
manageriale
Metoda de cercetare
S-a utilizat metoda analitic pe teren i n laborator i a constat n analize, observaii i evaluri
specifice. Pe teren activitatea s-a desfurat n staii de lucru i pe itinerar, pentru evaluarea
bonitii salmonicole, conform punctajului obinut prin utilizarea cheilor de determinare elaborate
de ICAS. Pentru evaluarea populaiilor piscicole, s-a folosit metoda Leger-Huet completat de
ICAS (Vioianu, Cristea) i metoda anchetei sociale n rndul pescarilor localnici. n faza ulterioar
s-au sintetizat i prelucrat datele nregistrate n urma lucrrilor de teren i s-au concluzionat
rezultatele n urma efecturii analizelor de laborator.
Rezultate preconizate - principii manageriale
Etapa I - Identificarea factorilor limitativi care contribuie la scderea productivitii salmonicole
a apelor de munte, n scopul diminurii sau eliminrii impactului acestora. Barajele amenajate
pe cursurile de ap montane constituie una din principalele cauze ce afecteaz fauna piscicol.
Acestea constituie obstacole pentru salmonide toamna la boite, prin fragmentarea ecosistemului
acvatic, prin absena scrilor de peti fracionate i a debitelor n aval de acestea.
Poluarea chimic a cursurilor de ap montane se produce prin deversarea n apele rurilor
a rezidurilor industriale locale (ex. prul Nov-Vieu) i menajere (hotelier etc.) care sunt
extrem de periculoase asupra faunei i florei acvatice. Deasemenea poluarea se poate produce prin
braconaj, folosindu-se diverse substane chimice. Poluarea se poate produce i prin precipitaii
pluvio-nivale cu metale grele (Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd) provenite din halde de steril minier, antrenate
n atmosfer de vnt. n general, sursa cea mai important de poluare cu reziduuri industriale
n zona montan este reprezentat de ntreprinderile miniere (ex. ntreprinderea minier Bora
de pe Vieu) prin sterilul de flotaie, prin substanele chimice utilizate n procesul de splare a
minereului. Astfel s-a produs catastrofa ecologic din anul 2000, prin spargerea barajului de pe
prul Nov, cnd cianurile rezultate din splarea minereurilor neferoase au ajuns n Ungaria.
Printr-o lucrare viznd protecia lostriei, finanat de Ministerul Mediului i efectuat de ICAS
n perioada 1993-1996, s-a avertizat asupra pericolului de poluare prin amenajarea acestei captri
pe prul Nov.
Exploatrile forestiere abuzive provoac o serie de fenomene negative cum ar fi degradarea
solului, formarea de toreni i viituri, cu modificri majore ale albiei rului. Datorit creterii
vitezei apei, n urma unor cantiti sporite de precipitaii, crete i cantitatea de suspensii din ap
(> 80 g/l), producndu-se asfixia piscicol i colmatarea albiei. Alt consecin a despduririlor
montane este i creterea temperaturii apei, prin absena umbririi, ceea ce limiteaz posibilitile de
supravieuire n apa rului a salmonidelor i a nevertebratelor bentonice, prin absena detritusului,
resturi vegetale care constituie hrana acestora. n zona izvoarelor, despdurirea are adeseori
consecine dezastruoase, modificndu-se nivelul pnzei freatice, avnd ca urmare o afectare a
biotopului nc din zona din amonte a cursului de ap.
Exploatrile balastiere ilegale accentueaz caracterul torenial al cursului de ap, afecteaz
habitatul petilor i diminueaz oferta trofic constituit de nevertebratele bentonice din albia
minor.
Pragurile artificiale sunt construite pentru a diminua viteza i puterea eroziv i a crea bulboane
237
pentru adpostul petilor i o mai bun oxigenare a apei. Praguri de acest tip s-au constatat pe
fondurile de pescuit Putna mijlocie i Ialomia superioar la Horoabe. Aceste praguri de beton
nu reprezint ns o soluie ecologic, putndu-se alege o alt variant, mai simpl, i anume
amplasarea de bolovani din albia major sau buci de stnc, din poieni nvecinate n albia
minor a rului, ncastrate n mal. n acest fel se nbuntete coeficientul de sinuozitate al
malurilor, creindu-se astfel locuri de adpost pentru puiet, n primul rnd, i pentru instalarea
nevertebratelor bentonice, sporindu-se aportul trofic pentru salmonide.
Igienizarea i dragarea albiilor minore influeneaz nefavorabil fondul piscicol. Bolovanii,
stncile etc. modific regimul de curgere creind alternarea zonelor cu faun lotic, de repezi i de
contracurent, bulboane, cu cele cu fauna lentic, de curent redus. Un efect similar l au i arborii
czui n albie, rdcinile. Plantele acvatice din zonele lentice, n cantitate i diversitate suficient,
pot oferi habitatul optim pentru o larg biodiversitate n ru, de la puiet pn la specii de peti de
mari dimensiuni. Este indicat scoaterea din albie numai a butenilor mari i a arborilor care prin
aglomerri n faa podurilor ar putea duce la ruperea acestora i pot produce inundaii locale.
Etapa a II-a - Conservarea i ameliorarea bonitii naturale a populaiilor piscicole montane.
Pentru reconstrucia ecologic a fondurilor de pescuit care au un potenial natural peste cel actual,
este necesar s se aplice i s se respecte urmtoarele principii: (i) evitarea barrii cursurilor de
ap pentru amenajri hidrotehnice sau piscicole. Singurele baraje care se justific vor fi cele care
amelioreaz caracterul torenial accentuat al rurilor/praielor; (ii) debitul minim de servitute
n aval de baraje se va asigura n funcie de productivitatea salmonicol a fondului de pescuit
respectiv i de debitul natural din amonte (Tabel 1). Debitul minim necesar n aval de barajele
microhidrocentralelor se poate realiza prin adaptarea unei ecluze suedeze Vattenkraftkonsult-AB
(Schweden Technica Suedia nr. 5/86, p. 4). Aceast poart de ecluz regleaz automat nivelul
apei din bazinele de retenie (n cazul nostru din lacul de acumulare din amonte). Ecluza poate
realiza un nivel determinat al apei n bazin (implicit i n aval de acesta) fr surse exterioare de
energie. Scurgerea este cu att mai mare cu ct nivelul din bazin crete. Cnd nivelul revine la
valoarea prescris, poarta se ridic, presiunea asupra ei fiind mai mic. Poarta din ecluz este din
oel inoxidabil; (iii) volumul apei din lacurile de acumulare nu trebuie s scad sub 1/3 din cel
corespunztor NNR pentru protecia faunei piscicole; (iv) amenajarea de pasaje tip ecologic
pentru accesul n amonte al pstrvului comun (Salmo trutta fario L.) la depunerea icrelor, la
boite, n situaia n care exist baraje de tip micro i care nu au scri de peti, sau nu sunt
funcionale. Baza scrii va fi n aval n uvoiul principal, deoarece pstrvul alege instinctiv
traseul cel mai dificil, dar care i asigur protecie maxim, supravieuirea speciei. Fiecare treapt
va avea prundi din albia prului, pentru simularea sitului natural care va menine un nivel
al apei de cca. 20-30 cm n contrapant, pentru odihna i adpostul petilor n tranzit; treapta
nu va avea mai mult de 30 cm nlime, pentru ergonomizarea migraiei salmonidelor; scara
va trece peste baraj direct sau prin lateral, n arc de cerc, cu captul din amonte deasemenea n
uvoiul principal, la coada lacului de acumulare. Panta maxim a pasajului nu o va depi pe
cea maxim a albiei cursului de ap; (v) protejarea i mbuntirea procesului de reproducere
natural a salmonidelor. Prin amenajri specifice n albie, numrul locurilor favorabile pentru
depunerea icrelor poate fi crescut. Prin folosirea la reproducerea artificial n pstrvrii a
reproductorilor de pstrv capturai din liber din pru, se poate obine un randament mai mare
dect prin folosirea de reproductori provenii prin cretere artificial. Aceasta att n ce privete
procentul de supravieuire ncepnd din primvar pn toamna, ct i n privina parametrilor
somatometrici; (vi) amenajarea de toplie cu efect salmonicol i hidrotehnic pe praie afluente,
de form oval i mai adnci, astfel nct s preia o parte din viituri; (vii) amenajarea de poldere
n poieni concave, prin decopertarea malului din meandrele prului, pentru protecia faunei
piscicole, n caz de viituri; (viii) amenajarea de perdele forestiere de protecie a malurilor, fiecare
n lime variabil din amonte spre aval, similar limii medii a albiei majore, cu specii forestiere
din etajul climatic zonal (de ex. puiei de molid - Picea excelsa, butai de anin alb - Alnus incana
238
Nr. crt.
Tabelul 1 Debitele n aval de baraje, recomandate pentru meninerea productivitii salmonicole la

nivelul natural
Debite (l/s)
minime
necesare n
aval de baraje
(% din Q
natural n
amonte)
2/3
1.
2.
1/3-2/3
3.
1/3
Condiii
ecologice
Categoria de
productivitate
salmonicol
Productivitate
salmonicol
P (kg/km)
Productivitate
nevertebrate
p ( g/m2)
Capacitate
biologic
(B)
habitat
(h)
Vmn = 0,5-1 m/s

hmn = 0,5-1,5 m
60
1
7
0,7
Vmn = 0,5 m/s

hmn = 0,2-,0,5 m
a-II-a
40-60
0,5-1
5-6
0,5-0,6
Vmn = 0,25-0,5 m/s

hmn = 0,2-0,5 m
a-III-a
40
0,5
4
0,4
Note: Q = debit; Vmn = viteza minim a apei necesar n aval de baraje; hmn = adncimea minim a apei necesar n
aval de baraje
etc.).
Concluzii
Prin aplicarea acestor msuri specifice de reconstrucie ecologic, productivitatea salmonicol
a fiecrui fond de pescuit va crete considerabil. Amenajrile hidrotehnice se vor putea efectua,
din punct de vedere ecologic, salmonicol, integral pe fondurile de categoria a III-a i partial pe
cele de categoria a II-a. Fondurile de categoria I se vor proteja pentru a nu se deregla echilibrul
ecologic stabilit n timp. Asigurarea pasajelor pentru salmonide se poate realiza n prezent doar la
microhidrocentrale (MHC). Se poate aprecia faptul c debitul minim ecologic n aval de baraje,
se poate asigura prin pasaje de tip by-pass, eficiena ecologic fiind maxim, conform legislaiei
Uniunii Europene.
Bibliografie
Cristea, I. 2003. Studiu privind rebonitarea i recartarea fondurilor de pescuit din apele de munte. ICAS
Bucureti.
Cristea, I. 2007. Managementul fondurilor piscicole din apele de munte Ed. Silvic Bucureti;
Cristea, L. 1988. Stabilirea debitelor minime n aval de captrile executate pe apele de munte. Studiu ICAS
Bucureti.
Cristea, I. 2007. Reconstrucia ecologic a fondurilor de pescuit din apele de munte, studiu ICAS.
Directiva Cadru pentru Ap 2000/60/EC.
H.G. 202/2002. Norme Tehnice privind calitatea apelor de suprafa care necesit protecie i ameliorare n
scopul susinerii vieii piscicole.
239

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ICAS 2008 Conference

October 23 25, 2008

Gavril Budu, Mihai Ispas, Mihaela Cmpean .......................................117

ICAS 2008 Conference

October 2325, 2008

ICAS 2008 Conference

October 23-25, 2008

Impact of Natura 2000 sites designation on forest

Myths about Natura 2000 and forestry

ICAS 2008 Conference

October 23-25, 2008

Istoricul Institutului de Cercetari i Amenajari Silvice

n ordine cronologic prezentm principalele aciuni i promotorii acestora referitor la

Localizarea n teritoriu a centralei i a subunitilor ICAS

Prof. Marin Drcea - fondatorul Institutului

Sediul actual al Institutului de Cercetri i

Bneasa, n vederea construirii pavilioanelor i laboratoarelor necesare I.C.E.F.-ului. n anii 1939

Agricole i Silvice Gheorghe Ionescu-ieti.

3.1. Realizari tiintifice

Bucureti, 20 oct. 2008

ICAS 2008 Conference

October 23-25, 2008

Fig. 1 Map of Carpaii de Curbur Mountains. Territorial subunits

Fig.4 The climatic year structure in the Carpaii de Curbur Mountains

ICAS 2008 Conference

October 23-25, 2008

Efects of accidental fluorine pollution on Prahova

M. Ianculescu, I. Popa, t. Neagu, C. M. Macarescu

Azuga Forest District

of damage, according to the formula (2).

Fig. 1 Average growth series for spruce stands (1947-2007)

Fig. 2 Average growth index for spruce stands (1947-2007)

Fig. 3 Average growth index for spruce stands (1996-2007)

Fig. 6 Average growth index for beech stands

still under the witnesses reference values, considered 100%.

Ratio between growth index of forest stands that

Current volume growth

* From Forest management planning, 1999

* From Forest management planning, 1999

ICAS 2008 Conference

October 23-25, 2008

Hungarian oak and Turkey oak fructification in the

Quantity and quality of the Hungarian oak disseminated acorn

Number of seedling after one

Hungarian oak plateau forest

Dried & deteriorated

Dried & deteriorated

be found (u.a. 112 B in U.P. II Argetoaia).

Turkey oak and Hungarian oak

13.1 13.4 2.2 87.8

12.6 13.3 5.3 94.7

14.5 15.1 4.0 96.0

16.4 17.1 4.1 95.9

Fig. 1 Hungarian oak abundant fructification in 2003 autumn

Craiova 22.8 32.1 79.7 98.6

Craiova 15.2 0.8

Craiova 51.6 11.6 11.7 103.2 76.9

Craiova 65.5 27.5 33.9 17.6

66.9 123.4 31.7

Craiova 71.8 55.7 34.7 57.8

117.9 104.5 170.5 215.8 113.7