a ty | Fg in seh ya U Ue MIs nas mnTechnique he G roup Discussion Jaime Bulatao, S.J. ATENEO DE MANILA UNIVERSITY PRESSAteneo de Manila University Press Bellarmine Hall, Katipunan Avenue ; Loyola Hts., Q.C., P.O. Box 154, 1099 Manila Cover and book design by J. B. de la Pefia COPYRIGHT 1965 BY THE ATENEO DE MANILA First Printing. June 1965 Second Printing, December 1966 ‘Third Printing, January 1969 Fourth Printing, April 1971 Fifth Printing, July 1975 Sixth Printing, September 1980 Seventh Printing, July 1993 Eighth Printing, March 1999 Alll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the Publisher. The National Library of the Philippines CIP Data Recommended entry: Bulatao, Jaime, S.J, The Technique of group discussion / Jaime Bulatao. - Quezon City : ADMU Press, c1965 lv 1. Discussion - Handbooks, manuals, etc, 2. Forums (Discussion and debate) « Handbooks, manuals, etc, 1. Title, ‘ LC6519 374.22 1965 ISBN 971-550-167-2 eeIntroduction ‘The aim of this little booklet is to provide an introduction to Group Discussion which may be useful in leadership seminars, social order clubs, student organizations, business training courses, group guidance classes, barrio councils, etc. It is somewhat in the form of a how-to-do-it handbook with instructions written with the Filipino personality in mind, Filipinos will find group discussion very much in accord with the Filipino trait of “small-group centeredness.” At the same time it is good training in the art of democracy, in the ability to speak out one’s mind and think on one’s own feet. For the discussion leader, it provides an experience in democratic leadership, an experience which is quite different from theory as learned from lectures or books and is much more effective because it is alive. The future social progress of the Philippines is said to lie in the formation of civic groups which will mediate between the passivity of the masses and the authoritarian power of the old caciques and politicos. The secret of group formation lies in organization, the ability of people to work together. But to work together, we Filipinos have to learn to trust each other, and to trust each other we have to learn to communicate with each other not from our surface selves, but from deep down in our true selves. May the rise of discussion groups of various kinds assist in the promotion of personal growth in the Filipino and national growth in the Filipino people. _ JAIME BULATAO, S.J.CHAPTER 1 The Essentials of Group Discussion Goals What is Group Discussion Fundamental Attitudes Three Commandments Communication CHAPTER 2 External Arrangements Atmosphere Number of Members in a Group Seating Arrangement Length of the Discussion Introducing the Discussion Technique Itself CHAPTERS. The Discussion Format: The Question The Typical Format of a Discussion Type of Questions Suitable for Discussion Phrasing the Question Posing the Question Agreeing Upon the Question CHAPTER 4 The Discussion Format: The Discussion Proper Speaking Procedure Interaction The Typical Contribution The Running Summary Consensus and Final Summary ContentsCHAPTER 5. The Role of the Leader Neutral Role: Not Take Sides _ Positive Task: Orderly Interaction Main Instrument: Understanding Getting Others to Speak Other Tasks CHAPTER 6 = 23 The Role of the Members A Share in Leadership Main Roles Played by Members Group-Building Roles « Task-Oriented Roles Individualistic Roles + Participation in Leadership The Resource Person CHAPTER7 27 Special Techniques Handling Large Groups: The Workshop Method . A Variation of the Workshop: The Senate Method Role Playing Introducing and Forming Small Groups from a Large Group CHAPTER 8 30 A Psychological Theory of Group Discussion The Uniqueness of the Individual’s World The True Self, the Source of Creativity Difficulty of Tapping and of Correcting the True Self ‘The Discussion Group, Liberation of the True Self The Double Fruit of Discussion: Problem Solving and Personal Growth —— : a roup Discussion in Nation BuildingCHAPTER The Essentials of GroupDiscussion GOALS Every humfn being bom into this earth sooner or later discovers that life, especially life in society, has its problems. Each one meets other human beings faced with similar problems and feels a need to associate with them in order to solve these problems together. Even when these problems are personal, one still feels the need for another who will understand and help one understand. Yet, it is especially with problems which are known as “social problems,” things about which an individual, standing alone can do little or nothing to change, that the need for joining a group gains strength within oneself. The goals then that human persons, thus banding together, set to themselves may be summed up under three headings: 1. To understand better the world in which one lives, especially the people in it, one’s relations with them, and oneself; 2. To plan a course of action for solving the problems that one encounters; 3. To act together upon this plan, to leave this world better than they found it. + For some, those who valye wisdom even for its own sake, the first goal, that of knowing the world and themselves, is satisfying and sufficient. For others, especially the starry eyed young-at-heart, the third, that of action, is the be-all and end-all of the group. Often they have to be warned that success depends upon the successful attainment of the first two goals, that time spent in understanding a problem is not lost, that self-knowledge must precede action; otherwise, the strange devil known as ningas kugon will inevitably show his horned head and kill all purposeful activity.2 The Technique of Group Discussion For many or all of these goals, group discussion has Proven itself g useful tool. Even where the ningas kugon or any similar devil shows itself, a well-handled discussion group can discuss that problem as g problem and, by facing up to it, solve it. WHAT IS GROUP DISCUSSION / / Group discussion may be defined as Cooperative Thinking. There are two elements in this definition: (1) thinking, (2) in cooperation with others. . L. Thinking is the most natural thing for a human being to do and at the same time the hardest to do right. Daydreaming is a form of thinking, of the less productive kind. What makes thinking productive is a sense of realism, the force that brings thinking down to the realities of life, that pushes the thinker to keep asking himself, “Is this true?” “Just what do I mean by this?” “Does my experience tally with the statement just made?” “What are the facts?” “Are there other possible explanations for these facts?” Thinking means looking hard at something with your mind and asking yourself questions about it. People, unless pushed by the sense of realism, tend to “think in capsules.” Mothers are always “wonderful.” Sin is always “hateful.” There are no such things as delinquent children but “only delinquent parents.” Juvenile deliquency is caused by “bad movies and dirty comics.” Rarely are such capsule-thinking people forced to ask themselves, “yes, but are not the so-called wonderful mothers, who claim to love their children so, the very ones who cripple their children for life by rendering them dependent on them?” “Sin is hateful but can we not pause a bit to sce what is driving the sinner to sin?” “Delinquency oe eae but what precisely in the home makes for how is it cia so nan delins Sie peek edae ed seomoriie wrefere i, inquents cannot read and for that matter rare y eae g the thrills of real life to the imaginary one of th eget hs he ein of en's hing ast at causes people to pool their thinking togetherThe Essentials of Group Discussion 3 and to make of ita cooperative venture. Coo; perative thinking means an exchange of views, a putting together of two different sets of experiences in an attempt to push through further into reality. An insane Person in a mental hospital may do a lot of thinking but he cannot check the realism of his thinking against another’s. He cannot enter into cooperative thinking. However, most sane people can, because they are able to modify their own views in the light of others’ experiences. They are able to enter into “dialogue” with others and by the fusion of two views come up with and create a third view, which is more real because it is more broadly based. Cooperative thinking, then, has potentialities of being very creative, ina realistic sense, Not only is there creativity in the speculative order, as in philosophy, but even in the order of action there can be creativity. When people discover that others think the same way as they do within their secret selves, there arises the possibility of action, which is stronger because it is cooperative and based on common conviction. Concrete problems can be analyzed imaginatively and solved courageously because of the pushing of the group. FUNDAMENTAL ATTITUDES Cooperative thinking and problem-solving demands a certain minimum of self-respect for others in a group. Each member should have some opinions of his own and some sense of values, which he really holds. He cannot be an empty, passive listener with nothing to contribute. On the other hand, he should have some respect for the opinions of others. He has to realize that every human being has a set of experiences which are unique and that he is bound to see things in a way at least slightly different from his own. Hence, every person must respect it but must admit, at least temporarily, the possibility of its being right, or that some aspect of it is right, if only he or she could understand it properly. Real, mutual respect will preclude any one person’s monopolizing the conversation. The assumption is that no one person has a monopoly of the truth, that all people are fallible, and that there is a kernel of4 The Technique of Group Discussion truth in every statement sincerely made. The key attitude in group discussion is “respect.” Self-respect and respect for others are the two wings on which group discussion flies. A minimum of both is needed to start. With practice, both tend to grow and develop. THREE COMMANDMENTS ‘The fundamental attitudes, mentioned above, which are absolutely necessary for group discussion, may be put into the following three commandments for practical use. 1. Thou shalt hear the speaker with thy whole heart, with thy whole soul, with thy whole mind, and with all thy strength. To listen thus means to say to oneself “What is the speaker trying to say? Let me try my best to see his or her viewpoint as possible, without judging its truth or falsity.” A test of successful listening is the ability to put in one’s own words exactly what the other person said, no more, no less. The good listener will often be caught saying to the speaker, “Let me see if I understood you right,” followed by an objective summary of what was said. Too often, one listens to a speaker but not with one’s whole heart. Like a debater, listening to the opponent in order to trap him or her, one is really more occupied with one’s own prejudgments rather than with the substance of what is being said. A true listener, who is a respectful listener, is objective and is open to truth no matter from what source it comes. 2. Thou shalt speak out thy whole mind, with thy whole heart, with thy whole soul, and with all thy strength. A discussion group runs on positive contributions as a car motor runs ‘on gasoline. No problem will be solved unless people speak out. Of what use are the best of thoughts if they are kept locked up in one’s head? Of what use is the coconut meat unless the coconut is first broken open? Among Filipino groups there may often be a tendency for members to keep quiet out of a sense of hiya, timidity, shame, or embarrassment. Such members should realize that the success of the group, as well as their own growth as human beings, will depend upon their willingnessThe Essentials of Group Discussion 5 to contribute their own real opinions, to give and not merely to receive Every opinion, sincerely expressed, whether for or against the Proposition at hand, helps the group forward towards its goal of understanding, problem-solving, or action. 3. Thou shalt not whisper to thy neighbor. This third commandment, which is really contained in the first two, is added precisely for Filipino groups, especially of girls, who are too timid to speak out their whole mind to the group but prefer to whisper their thoughts to their neighbor much to the annoyance of the person who may be speaking at the time. Such behavior is really a violation of the fundamental attitudes of self-respect and respect for others, and is an act of impoliteness. A good motto for such whisperers can be: “Whatever is worth saying, is worth saying out loud.” With growing self-respect and respect for others, one learns gradually to direct all of one’s communications more and more for the whole group to hear, rather than to any one particular person. COMMUNICATION When these commandments are followed, communication develops between individual and individual, and between the individual and the group. Communication means the opening up of a person’s real self to another. It is something quite different from the small talk of conversation, whose purpose just as often is to conceal the truth, to kill time, or just to “make conversation.” Diplomacy, they say, is the art of concealing the truth, and we are all, to a certain extent, diplomatic. Yet, when a person puts into words something he has personally experienced, or something into which he has had personal insight, and offers this bit of himself to another, the tendency is for that other to wish to make a return gift. Communication, once established, continually increases in depth and earnestness. It is when people search themselves at such depths that they find the answers they have been looking for. Alone they may not have had the courage and strength to search, but in a group the mutual stimulation of cooperative thinking pushes the mind to dare look where it never dared look before.HAPTER aaa External Arrangements ATMOSPHERE The immediate goal of one who is in charge of the arrangements for a group discussion is to create a situation which will be most favorable for interpersonal communication. He asks himself: How can I best prepare everything so that people will want to talk to cach other and will not be inhibited? ‘A great deal of research has gone into answering. this question. However, different groups apparently work best at different levels of formality or informality. All are agreed that some formality is needed, otherwise the discussion lapses into a conversation, or even into several simultaneous conversations, and never faces the problem at any depth. On the other hand, all are also agreed that the prevailing atmosphere should be an informal one, allowing for a maximum of spontaneity and freedom of expression. Ultimately every group will have to discover for itself where this optimum balance lies between the spontaneity of the individual and the total needs of the group. The goal to be kept in mind is to allow the maximum communication among the largest number of individuals. In other words, there should be room for a maximum degree of interpersonal interaction, All of the following external arrangements are only means for heightening such interaction, Doubtless, other arrangements can be invented to suit special circumstances and places but the immediate purpose, heightened interaction, should be the same. NUMBER OF MEMBERS IN A GROUP Experience in a Philippine situation shows that maximum interaction ishad when a group is limited to six or eight members, with possiblyExternal Arrangements 7 ten as an outside limit. Once a group grows beyond that number, it tends to split into two subgroups, and it is then better to form a new group. Large numbers tend to lessen the individual's involvement in the common venture, lessening his sense of responsibility to contribute to its successful outcome. On the other hand, when there are less than six, there is a tendency for the group to be easily carried along by one forceful character, since there is not enough braking power to slow him down. Moreover, the chances that a necessary bit of information will be found within the group are lessened with smaller numbers in the group. Especially among younger members, such as those of high school age, there may be a need to enlarge the group slightly, at least in the beginning, otherwise the discussion may die from inanition. Nevertheless, the never-more-than-ten rule should generally be followed. When there is a large group, it becomes necessary to split it up into small groups. The small groups can afterwards be put together by having their reporters repeat their findings to the big group, or by another method which will be described in chapter 7. SEATING ARRANGEMENT The seats should be so arranged that every member sees everyone else’s face. The best arrangement is usually in the form of a circle as in fig. 1. The discussion leader should be pretty much on equal terms with the rest of the group, not sitting apart or on a special chair. oP oO Oo © — Discussion leader 050 Fig. 1. Members should face each other ina circle.8 The Technique of Group Discussion Notice should be taken of members who remove themselves from the circle or who hide behind another member, or who turn their seat away, since such actions are generally signs of an unwillingness to be involved. Such a member should gently be invited to “come closer,” but if he or she persists in maintaining distance, he or she should be left alone until the discussion warms up and he or she can again be invited to move in. Sitting around a table is possible provided the table is such that it permits everyone to be conveniently seen by everyone else. Most rectangular tables fail to do this since those who sit on one of the long sides are bound to have difficulty tuming to cach other. In any case, a table szives more formality to a discussion, Where greater informality is desired, the table should be removed and the members made to come closer to each other. Sofas and easy chairs in the parlor of an ordinary home provide the maximum opportunity for spontaneity and informality. ‘Acclassroom or hall which has been set up in the traditional classroom manner may readily be transformed into a form suitable for group discussion by the following technique. Count off the odd and the even rows from the front seats around so as to face those in the next row. Groups of six or eight can then be formed. \ wy elt 1 bsg | \ 44 i OoOOooOos iooolooo Soolooore rooolooo Son 5o0W 7 weoseo Hoon co0o ano jo00 odd arrows face the even arrows.External Arrangements 9 Obviously, most auditoriums, which have seats fixed permanently to the floor, provide very poor accommodations for group discussions. An unhappy compromise is to form groups of five by removing the middle man in the odd rows and having the two end-men face the three in the row behind them. Generally. it is better to move somewhere else, even outdoors on the grass, when the time comes to break up into small. groups. LENGTH OF THE DISCUSSION Within one small group, a good discussion on one problem usually needs a minimum of forty-five minutes, most discussions taking a little over an hour. Others, especially those involving various subtopics, may goon much longer. It is usually best to set two hours as an outside limit for any discussion. While the setting of a limit may have the disadvantage of killing a discussion when it is at its greatest heat, it has the advantage of insuring the members a set time for going home and thus a willingness to return the next time. Moreover, where it is known that a discussion has to end at such and such a time, the talk tends to close itself to suit the time limit and at least a temporary truce is reached until the next meeting allows the topic to be resumed. The problem of people coming late, and hence prolonging the time beyond the expected limit, is a real problem that has to be faced by the group itself and may provide the group a topic for one of its discussions. A group of young people solved this problem by “punishing” the latecomer by having him sing a song or put on some act at the close of the session, Absentees who did not give previous notice of their forthcoming absence were similarly “disciplined.” Where there had been previous agreement on such measures, there was little resentment and in fact, additional fun. INTRODUCING THE DISCUSSION TECHNIQUE ITSELF Many, if not most, groups in the Philippines are not used to the technique of group discussion and when first placed in such a free10. The Technique of Group Discussion situation do not quite know how to handle: themselves. They may expect the chairperson to do most of the talking. Accordingly, for a group whose members are using the free discussion technique for the first time, it is useful to have someone explain to the members the fundamentals of group discussion, especially the fact that the discussion’s success depends upon the members’ contributions. Such a structuring of the situation gently places the responsibility for the discussion upon the individual members. A minimum amount of instruction should be given, since more would give the impression that discussion is a highly technical and complicated process. The material included in chapter 1 of this booklet seems to be sufficient in amount and people can start discussing right after receiving such introductions.- CHAPTER The Discussion Format: The Question THE TYPICAL FORMAT OF A DISCUSSION A typical discussion goes through the following steps: 1. The question is proposed, usually by the chairperson; 2. The question is clarified, sharpened and finally agreed upon by the group; 3. Tentative answers are given. Debate ensues, while more and more facts and opinions are gathered and assimilated by the group; 4. One answer gradually prevails, usually after modification and improvement by the group; 5. Consensus is reached. A summary is made which is given the group's approval. TYPE OF QUESTIONS SUITABLE FOR DISCUSSION Not all questions are equally suitable for discussion. Highly technical material such as higher mathematics or facts of a very esoteric nature, such as an unusual finding in archaeology, are better presented in lecture form than in discussion. The most suitable questions are those whose answers lie within the members’ experience, those involving a weighing, of facts which are easily supplied by the members themselves. The best questions most intimately concer the particular group. How does one go about choosing a career? How should we invest the association’s money? Why do people come late for meetings? Why are people shy at meetings? What is the image of the priest in Philippine society? What is the theme of the movies The Virgin Spring or La Dolce Vita? How do we go about raising funds for the Philippine Mental Health Association? What is the main quality of a leader? What is the big problem facing Philippine society today? What are we to think of42. The Technique of Group Discussion social clubs like the Kahirup and the Mancommunided? Why did the Citizen’s League of Quezon City fall flat in the elections? The question will naturally be dictated by the nature. and Purpose of the group. A student council will more readily consider problems concerning the cafeteria, student leadership, freedom of the press, housing facilities, etc. The social action group will gravitate towards problems involving labor, the redistribution of wealth, education of labor leaders, etc. A group studying the New Testament will try to read more deeply into the words of Scripture to understand the hidden meanings of Christ’s words and actions as well as their applications in daily life. These are the problems that the group came together for in order to do “cooperative thinking” on them. These are the questions whose answers fall within their area of experience and interest. ‘The questions to be proposed may have been listed down ahead of time like an agenda. Or the group itself may use the last five minutes of ameeting to decide on the topic to be discussed next. The first approach is more characteristic of formal groups or of conventions and workshops, the latter probably more suitable to informal groups, or to one that is still trying to find itself, Where no one has an idea about which questions agitate a group, a discussion can be held precisely to locate the problems of the group. This technique, called “Posting Problems” is described in chapter 7. PHRASING THE QUESTION The formulation of the question is important in involving the members and in insuring that there can be a discussion on the plane of reality rather than an argument over terminology. Some rules may be helpful for the one responsible for formulating the questions: 1. The statement of the problem should encourage freedom of thought. It should not imply a solution and if possible should not even suggest alternatives. One does not ask: “Which is better: Communism of Christianity?” A better i i ? question might be“ istians tum to Communism?” save times CusThe Discussion Format: The Question 13 2. The statement of the problem should be such as to bring about interaction and even a clash of opinions. One should, for instance, avoid those questions which can be answered by a mere listing of items, Such as “What are the problems of Manila youth today?” A much better format would be: “What is the main problem of Manila youth today?” The latter formulation insures a comparing of problems, rather than a mere listing. 3. The statement of the problem should be brief. Elaboration on the question often only raises other questions. Exposition of background material should be as brief as possible, and the problem itself should be Stated in a simple, direct question. POSING THE QUESTION The chairperson usually presents the problem to the group in the form of an “overhead question,” i.e., he or she directs the question not to any one person but to the group as a whole. Moreover, the chairperson proposes it not as if it were his or her question, to which the group is supposed to answer (the way a teacher might ask a question in class), but as an objective question which everyone, himself or herself included, has to face. The attitude is: We are now faced with this question. . . . None of us, myself perhaps least of all, may know the complete answer, but let us put our minds together and look for some solution. A pause generally follows the posing of the question. The chairperson should expect such a pause and be willing to wait twice as long as he might ordinarily think right while the group consolidates its thoughts. The silence itself acts as a vacuum to draw the members out, and almost always someone in the group makes the next move. AGREEING UPON THE QUESTION It is of the utmost importance that the question be properly understood and agreed upon by the group before discussion starts. Usually, the first move following the pause after the posing of the question will be a demand from one of the members for a clarification14. The Technique of Group Discussion ‘of some aspect of the question. The chairperson either gives the needed clarification, or more adroitly, refers the question back to the group and allows the group to form its own understanding of the question. Such demands for clarification, followed by the group’s own choice of the aspect under which the question is to be treated, are the group's positive attempts to assimilate the question, to adapt it to its own abilities to answer. The group has to take such time in order to allow the question to sink in. Once in a while, a “philosopher” will be found in the group who will insist on a definition of terms. Such insistence often leads to an inane argument over concepts, leading to much loss of time and much bickering. Moreover, there is the added danger that once such a definition has been agreed upon, the “philosopher” will seek to deduce the rest of the discussion from the definition like a geometry problem, rather than examine the question in the light of experiential reality. Much better, then, it is to give some kind of a working description of the things being discussed, just enough to make sure that the group knows what is being spoken about, and to go ahead from there.HAPTER The Discussion Format: The Discussion Proper SPEAKING PROCEDURE The posing of the question and its agreement upon by the group . starts the discussion proper. Usually then a hand is raised seeking recognition from the chairperson. Later on in the session and in following sessions, hands are raised less and less often, and instead, members speak out spontaneously. The chairperson sees to it that only one person is speaking at a time. Parliamentary procedure, the method used to conduct debate in large assemblies, is not only superfluous but even a hindrance in a small group. Spontaneity, freedom of the individual to talk on a question exactly as he sees it, absence of factionalism or subgroup behavior— these are the marks of small-group discussion. One never calls for a vote or for a “division of the house,” a term indicative of the atmosphere which dominates most large assemblies. Rather, there is a continuous attempt to gain unanimity. While an objector remains, the group listens wholeheartedly to the objection and positively tries to reconcile it with the prevailing view, ever forming new syntheses. It is this continuous attempt to reconcile opposites that gives the smal] group its creativity. Undoubtedly, once in a very rare while, a view remains which is irreconcilable with the majority’s. The group then accepts the existence of the dissenting opinion and incorporates it as such in the final summary. Nevertheless, unanimity remains the usual working norm. The group always aims at “consensus.” INTERACTION The first few contributions are most often directed by the members to the chairperson. He acknowledges these, and if necessary, summarizes16 The Technique of Group Discussion them. But gradually, if the chairperson is skillful, the members begin directing their contribution, their questions or their opinions to each other. The crisscrossing line, such as are seen in fig. 3, are indicative that group interaction is on its way. The skillful chairperson tries to bring about such interaction as soon as possible, thus making the group group-centered, rather than Jeader-centered. Chairman Chairman Leader-centered Group-centered Fig. 3. Lines of interaction differ within a group when it is leader-centered and when it is group-centered. Characteristically, growing interaction is accompanied by a rising tempo of give-and-take responses and a relaxing in inhibition and hiya. The noise in a roomful of groups rises to a pitch. Humor enters to soften the bluntness of a remark, It is here that people discover that they have within themselves the power to solve their own problems. THE TYPICAL CONTRIBUTION You may often experience in daily conversation that a person with whom you have been talking suddenly makes a remark that isThe Discussion Format: The Discussion Proper 17 completely off the topic. It is a sign of two things: he or she has not been listening to you, and you have been so wrapped up in your own talking that you were unaware that he or she was not listening. A good member makes sure that he or she has been listening to the previous speaker. One can tell such a one because he or she characteristically prefaces his or her own remark implicitly or explicitly with an acknowledgement of what the previous speaker said. At times the remark may take the form of a question, seeking clarification: “Can you tell us what you mean?” At other times, the statement may take this form: “Tony’s suggestion is very good. Let me just add one modification.” The good member builds upon what previous speakers have said. Moreover, the good member makes sure that everyone has heard and, if possible, understood his or her own remarks. He or she looks around at the other’s faces to see if his or her own views are reflected in their eyes. Any good speaker does the same thing. A good speaker is, in other words, sensitive to “feedback” because it tells him or her when to explain further, when to move on to the next point, and when to stop. A bore is one who is insensitive to feedback. THE RUNNING SUMMARY A very useful tool in the middle part of a discussion is the running summary. A speaker may use it, summarizing an opposing view before answering it. By so doing the speaker shows respect for the adversary’s thinking, at the same time assuring the group that his or her remarks are not directed at a straw person which he or she himself has set up in order merely to knock down, Likewise, where two members have been arguing vigorously for several minutes, a third member or the chairperson can clear the air by impartially summarizing both sides of the point at issue. The summary serves as clarification and at the same time allows that breathing spell during which other uninvolved members of the group may enter the two-sided discussion.18 The Technique of Group Discussion Every now and then the chairperson or a member might summarize the entire discussion itself in order to orient the group where it is at the moment in relation to the goal. Such running summaries prevent the group from wandering too far afield. CONSENSUS AND FINAL SUMMARY As discussion progresses, one can sense a growing consensus around a particular solution to the problem proposed. Such consensus is seen not only in explicit statements but also in the nodding of heads and the relaxed expressions on people's faces. It is the chairperson’s task to determine exactly when to summarize what the group has agreed upon, putting consensus into words, seeking help when necessary from the members. The final summary is the expression of the group solution to the original question.CHAPTER The Role of the Leader A necessary cog in the discussion process is the discussion leader or chairperson, without whom the group is like an orchestra without a conductor: The musicians may be able to play some music together, but they cannot reach the height of creativity. So also, without a discussion leader the group’s solutions tend to be of poorer quality. THE NEUTRAL ROLE: NOT TO TAKE SIDES The discussion leader asks the question, but does not give the answer. In fact, insofar as one is chairperson one does not know what the answer is. One cannot even pretend not to know while actually manipulating the group towards the answer one has already determined in one’s mind. He or she must really and sincerely trust the group to find the answer. The one exception to this rule is in case the chairperson has information of facts that no one else has. He or she may then state these facts in the manner of a resource person and having stated them return to the chairperson’s neutral role. Accordingly, he or she does not take sides in any controversy. His or her task is to clarify, to objectify, at times to pacify quarreling members, but remains neutral. He or she refrains from praising or condemning contributions offered by members. He or she may summarize them, and throw them back to the group for their judgment, but does not judge. THE POSITIVE TASK: ORDERLY INTERACTION Like a traffic policeman, he or she guides traffic in the sense of encouraging traffic flow, but not in the sense of telling individuals where to go for their vacation or for anything else. Hence, he or she presents20 The Technique of Group Discussion the question, then sees to it that the group constantly faces up to the question. He or she may allow a little side-excursion now and then, but is always careful to bring the group back to the problem at hand. “Orderly interaction” means discussion which is goal-directed and which does not go around in circles. Like a traffic police officer, he or she makes sure that even the little vehicles can have the right of way when they want it. He or she encourages the shy ones, not by demanding that they speak up, but by looking at them every once ina while, waiting for them to gather enough courage to speak. On the other hand, he or she gently prevents the talkative ones from monopolizing the conversation, not by telling them to shut up, but by summarizing what was said and then turning to the others questioningly, saying, “I am sure there are other opinions on this.’ The immediate task is, as soon as possible, to bring about group interaction (cf. chapter 4), refraining from interfering except in his or her duties as director of traffic. These interferences he or she keeps at a minimum and generally shows a preference to remain silent. Nonetheless, he or she always clearly remains in control and always makes sure that the group keeps moving forward towards its goal. THE MAIN INSTRUMENT: UNDERSTANDING The chairperson has to be sensitive to what each member wants to say. Sometimes, when he or she feels that what a member said was not properly understood by the group, he or she summarizes what was said, At times he or she has to repeat in a louder voice some remarks that a shy member made, but which failed to be heard by the crowd. Such acts encourage members to speak. They feel understood, accepted. He or she keeps his hand on the group’s pulse, knowing when the group wants to stay on a point or move forward to the next point. He or she senses when the group has reached consensus. In all these actions, he or she realizes that he or she is the group mouth, expressing accurately what the group feels. The chairperson’ spirit of understanding and acceptance gradually infiltrates the members and they learn by example, rather than by words,The Role of the Leader 21 to understand and accept even the least competent person’s contributions. ‘The group can do this because they gain faith 7 their own group's power to evaluate, within human limitations, the solutions offered, as well as the honesty to say, where evidence is lacking, that evidence is lacking. Security within oneself leads to openness to others Self-respect gives rise to respect for others, The leader, by his or her understanding and acceptance, creates security and respect. GETTING OTHERS TO SPEAK Areal problem, especially with younger groups or with groups from the provinces, is the difficulty of getting people to speak out ina group. Some people prefer to play it safe and not say a word, like the Japanese speaker during the war who stood up to speak saying, “Many speech, many mistake. Few speech, few mistake. No speech, no mistake,” and then sat down. Achairperson should be sensitive to the reason for the silence. Quite often the problem is one of language. If so, a switch to the local dialect, whether Tagalog, Visayan, or Pangasinan, can bring about an instantaneous relaxation and release a flow of speech. It is wonderful how a group judged to be moronic by an English-speaking chairperson suddenly climbs twenty IQ points simply from a switch in language. There are other approaches. A talkative chairperson discourages others from talking. He or she must learn to keep silent, to listen receptively, “with his or her whole heart and soul,” and wait patiently for the shy soul to open up. He or she must not rush in, no more than a stranger who first comes to a house, and wanting to make friends with achild takes the child immediately into his or her arms. The child is more likely to cry out from fear. Rather, the stranger must wait tll the child gets used to his or her presence and then the child will spontaneously come closer. ; Sometimes a nervous chairperson, frightened by silence, begins to call upon particular individuals to answer his or her questions. Sucha move transfers the initiative to the chairperson, removes from the members the sense of responsibility that they are the ones who have to keep the discussion going.22. The Technique of Group Discussion The technique of going around the circle, having everyone in turn make an initial statement of his or her stand on the question is rarely profitable. Most members are not ready to take a stand at the beginning of a discussion and the fact that they are forced to take one publicly when unprepared, makes them all the more defensive of this position later and then the discussion is prolonged on an issue which most of the members were not eager to defend anyway. It is generally better for the chairperson to throw an “overhead question” and let anyone who wishes, answer first. Itis most important for the chairperson to control the natural desire to pass judgment upon contributions made by the group. “You are wrong.” “I am sure you did not study the real facts.” When members find themselves being continually judged, they become cagey and begin to play “segurista.” Hence, creativity is lost. Much better it is to let creativity come up even with the craziest Statements. There will be enough time later for the group to trim the crazy statements, down to its kernel of truth. In any case, the Chairperson should always defend the individual’s right to speak out his or her mind and show that this contribution is accepted as worthy of consideration, even if later on it has to be tejected. Thus, he or she shows not only respect for the individual making the contribution but also faith in the group to make a proper judgment. OTHER TASKS Since the chairperson has his or her hands full just running the meeting, he or she should be freed from as much other work as possible. Thus, extemal arrangements of rooms, microphones, chairs, etc, should be delegated to one of the members who is designated as the “recorder” since note-taking removes the chairperson’s attention from the more important job of fully listening to what is being said at the moment, For a final summary he or she can ask for help from the recorder or from the members.CHAPTER The Role of the Members ASHARE IN LEADERSHIP Unlike authoritarian groups where the leader does all the thinking, planning, and controlling, the members of a discussion group share much more in the functions reserved to the authoritarian leader. It is the members who do the thinking, the leader merely coordinates their thinking. It is the members who make the final decision, the leader merely acts as their voice. Ultimately it is the members who have to take responsibility upon themselves not only for the success of their efforts at problem-solving but for the equally difficult task of keeping the group together, They think, plan, control, and animate. The members’ roles within a group show a great variety. Each member plays one role at one time and another role at another. These roles may be classified under three headings, two of which are positive because they help the group itself or its work, and a third which is negative because it tends to break up the group. There are several classifications: 1. Group-building roles. These aim to keep the group together and help the members work with each other. 2, Task-oriented roles. These aim to help the group solve the problem presented to it, 3, Individualistic roles. These aim to satisfy an individual's neurotic needs rather than group needs, hence they tend to split the group. MAIN ROLES PLAYED BY MEMBERS ‘Under the three headings mentioned above, itis possible to pick out the main roles among members in a discussion group.24. The Technique of Group Discussion GROUP-BUILDING ROLES 1. Encourager. Praises, accepts contributions of others, whether explicitly or implicitly, e.g., by nodding his head, gets others to speak. 2. Peace-maker, Attempts‘to resolve parsonal disagreements between members. Relieves tension through jesting, ete. 3. Efficiency expert. Notices problems that block free functioning of group and makes suggestions to resolve them, e.g., “Why don’t we take a break and come back to the problem,” and “Suppose we limit our contributions to four minutes maximum to give everyone a chance to speak.” TASK-ORIENTED ROLES 1. Asker of questions. Asks for information, for clarification of a statement or for opinions. 2. Information-giver. Gives facts either from his own experience or from reading, encyclopedia-like, 3. Opinion-giver. States his or her belief on a question. Attempts to move the group towards the belief. 4. Fiscalizer. Examinesan opinion minutely for defects. Disagrees often but always objectively. 5. Elaborator. Takes another’s statements and explains it further. 6. Orienter. Summarizes others’ statements; summarizes state of the discussion in relation to the goal Harmonizer. Out of diverse opinions, finds a creative solution embracing all; imaginative thinker, 8. Energizer. Keeps suggesting new ideas, new activities. Attempts to push group onward INDIVIDUALISTIC ROLES |. Recognition-seeker. Calls attention to self by loud talking, griping, opposing, etc. 2. Disagreer. Automatically takes the other side of the question; refuses to look at others" opinions: stubborn,The Role of the Members 25 3. Aggressor. Attacks others Personally in subtle ways. Uses ad hominem arguments, sharp-pointed jokes. 4. Dominator. Asserts authority, gives orders; manipulates others to his view; interrupts contributions of others, 5. Passive listener. Does nothing, says nothing; remains uninvolved. It is to be noted that not all the above roles are desirable or always appropriate. The third group can be disruptive of group process. Most members gravitate towards a few favorite roles. All will at times take on an individualistic role in passing but at those times other members will step in good-naturedly to keep such outbreaks from disrupting the group. In a very extreme case, the extreme individualist may find it impossible to work with the group and will leave it. PARTICIPATION IN LEADERSHIP. . The members should at all times remember that they are part of a democratic group and that accordingly they share in the group’s leadership. Thus, when the chairperson fails in his or her duty to keep the group moving forward in the solution of the problem, the members may, and should, take the initiative to get the group back to its task. For instance, the chairperson may happen to be so passive as to allow two or three members to fight for their own individual views with utter disregard for each other’s views and for the good of the rest of the group. When such a situation continues for a long time, the problem-solving process bogs down due to violation of the first commandment to “hear the speaker with thy whole heart.” The member at the sidelines during all this argument has a right to intervene. He or she can’ summarize the opposing views and add, “I am afraid the argument is getting us nowhere. Perhaps we can drop it for the time being and come back to it later. Meanwhile, we can move on to the next point.” If the member times his or her remarks well and if he or she speaks with the voice of the group, such a remark will mobilize group energies to return to the main task of problem-solving. The member has supplemented the leader’s dereliction of duty.26 The Technique of Group Discussion THE RESOURCE PERSON Once in rare while, the group finds that it lacks the proper information or technical knowledge to come toa solution of a problem. The situation then calls for the use of an expert, who has to be brought in from outside to supply what is lacking. © . Such a resource person-must be aware that his or her role is merely to supply the missing information. He or she must be careful not to take over the discussion but must act somewhat like an encyclopedia, waiting on the shelf till consulted for a definite bit of information then returning to the shelf once more when the consultation is over. Any attempt on his or her part to impose his or her own personal views apart from that segment of objective fact of which he or she is expert can do harm to group process because the tendency of the members tpay be’ to give up to him or her all responsibility for solving the entire problem. If he or she should thus step beyond his or her role as Tesource person, the chairperson should remind the group of its responsibility to weigh the main problem for itself.CHAPTER Special Techniques HANDLING LARGE GROUPS: THE WORKSHOP METHOD ; Where several small groups are discussing a question at the same time, a way has to be found for incorporating their results into acommon solution. The simplest way is to gather everyone to a common meeting and ask each recorder or some other reporter designated by the group to summarize the result of the small-group meeting. Such summaries should be very brief, giving only the final results and not the various ways by which they were reached, unless something interesting can be learned from them. Repetition should be kept at a minimum, noting those points only being brought out by which group differs from previous ones. It helps to have a blackboard upon which an overall recorder summarizes the group reports. Such summaries insure accuracy of the overall evaluation, since the group members are there to check it, and at the same time assure the group members that their contribution has been accepted by the main group. The overall chairperson can then throw the discussion into a brief open forum followed by an overall summary. AVARIATION OF THE WORKSHOP: THE SENATE METHOD ‘A variation of the usual workshop approach is the senate method, in which everything is the same within the small group except that each group chooses a “senator,” whose talk is to represent the group’s mind ina further discussion in the “senate.” The “senate” is in tum like another small group, chaired by the overall chairperson. When microphones are available, the “senate” can sil on a stage and its deliberations can be broadcast over the whole assembly. Where microphones are not28 The Technique of Group Discussion available the “senate” can be placed in the middle of the room, closely surrounded by the constituents. Only the “senators” have the right to speak in this assembly. The senate method has the advantage of further extending the small-group discussion and evolving new overall solutions to embrace the diversity of opinions reached by the small groups. Moreover, the original small-group members, even though not actually participating in the “senate” deliberations, feel involved in them, carefully following what their representative has to say, participating vicariously in the person of their “senator.” A further use of this method is in demonstrating before a large group the typical dynamics of a small group, and in particular the correct way of leading small-group discussions. The senate method has successfully been used in large groups involving over 250 persons of all classes in Manila. ROLE PLAYING Role playing is an interesting side technique either to get the discussion started or to solve a problem met within the discussion. A problem situation (e.g., a teenager asking permission from a “strict” father to go on a date) is set up, actors appointed and given their roles, “warmed up” as it were, and told to go ahead. The “warming-up” process consists in taking the role players one by one and agreeing with them upon the role they are to play, their name, their character, their previous escapades, etc. Strangely enough, people who never acted before in their lives respond readily to role playing, and even deeply inhibited individuals lose their inhibition when playing someone else. After the role play, the discussion can go on, with the actors giving a report on the way they felt in their roles, etc. In a big group it is possible to involve everyone by dividing the group into as many small-groups as there are players, Each small group thus takes care to “warm up” its own player. This process again helps the group to identify with the player during the role play. Thus, one role play can take place in front of the entire assembly. It is, of course, also possible to multiply the tole plays by as many groups as are present.Special Techniques 29 POSTING PROBLEMS Sometimes one meets up witha large group about which one knows little. The problem then becomes to find the particular problems which beset this group and which they will be interested in discussing. In such a situation a handy technique is to spend the first meeting at “posting problems.” When posting problems, the leader poses before the smali groups the question: “What is the main problem besetting this organization?” The problem at this session really is to locate the problems, not to furnish solutions. Hence, all attempts to solve the problems raised are put off for a future meeting. The various problems facing the group will then come out and can be listed on the board. By common consent the agenda for future problem-solving discussions can be set up. INTRODUCING AND FORMING SMALL GROUPS FROM A LARGE GROUP Sometimes a large group meets for the first time. A useful and pleasant introduction to group dynamics is the following technique. Have everyone stand up and move about the room any old way. The idea is to mix everybody up and get them away from their friends and cliques. Once they find themselves among strangers, they are told to turn to someone they never met before and to make his or her acquaintance. They are given ten minutes to know each other, Meanwhile the overall chairperson and the assistant stan assigning four Pairs to a group. Each one in the group then introduces his or her partner to the other six. A discussion can then be started on how each one felt and thought when first meeting his or her partner. The humor that follows relaxes everyone and gets them ready for future discussions with their group. Moreover the insights to be gained regarding the problem of overcoming, shyness are a good introduction to a seminar on leadership or group dynamics,CHAPTER A Psychological Theory of Group Discussion After a person has tried out group discussion and has come to find himself changing, becoming more confident, more outspoken, more eloquent, and more concerned about others, he or she begins to wonder what there is about group discussion that has power to change a person. The following theory is one way of seeing how it works. THE UNIQUENESS OF THE INDIVIDUAL’S WORLD Every human being, from the time he or she is born, experiences this world in a different way from every other individual. Parents are different. Homes are different. Even two brothers, one older and one younger, grow up in a different world, one with an older brother and one with a younger brother. Even identical twins grow up in different environments. The picture, then, that the individual gets of the world is unique. To some the world is warm and loving, to others cold and dangerous. To some, sex is dirty, to others a challenge, and still to others a wonderful toy. To some, a sibling is to be competed with, to others to be protected, and still to others, to be ignored. Such pictures may be an overgeneralization of the actual world, nevertheless, they are “reality” for the individual. They are one’s “true” self. Yet, no matter how an individual may really feel, deep inside, about his or her world, he or she gradually comes to learn to hide his or her real feelings, not only from others but even from himself or herself. This change, too, is the work of the society in which he or she lives. Just as the small Filipino child learns to hear the rooster’s crow as “tuktukaok,” or the small American child learns to hear it as‘Psychological Theory of Group Discussion 31 “cock-a-doodle-doo.” whereas the original perception (such as the tape recorder’s) was different from these, s0 also do people begin to think in terms of capsules, stereotypes. They get farther and farther away (are “alienated”) from their own deep feelings. The surface self covers the true self. ‘THE TRUE SELF, THE SOURCE OF CREATIVITY ‘The result of such “socialization” while on the one hand beneficial because it makes for a structured, stable society, also has its weak side in that itcan kil the individual's creativity. When faced with problem, the individual, rather than ask his or her true self, metely follows the tendencies of the surface seif, which is to repeat the capsule phrases, the shibdoleths of his or her own society. It is thus wha we sometimes find the strange split in individuals, clearly delineated in Rizal's Noli, where people profess a set of principles but nevertheless find themselves living lives following very different rules. The true self comes out in spite of suppression by the surface self. As the old folks say, “Lumalabas ang katotohanan.” Now, though the true self is not necessarily @ good rule of life to follow, since it grew as one person's overzeneralized view of the world, it can nevertheless be a source of creativity because it is in contact with the raw data of life, like the child’s ear before it was trained to hear the rooster’s crow as “tuktukaok” or “cock-a-doodle-doo.” The stereotypes of society, like the formalism of the Pharisees, are dead bulls, They cannot meet new challenges, or solve new questions. For problem-solving, one must somehow or other tap the source of creativity, which is the true self. DIFFICULTY OF TAPPING AND OF CORRECTING THE TRUE SELF ‘The farther the surface self is from the real self, the more it will fight to preserve itself and to suppress the true self. It will do so by emphasizing the dangers of the tue self, rather than its beneficial aspects, by overvaluing security over liberty, by fighting for the status quo.32. The Technique of Group Discussion The surface self is not entirely wrong. since the true self can be wrongly oriented, from overgencralization of a single person's experience. However, it is precisely because of the surface self’s suppression tactics that the true self cannot correct its ‘overgeneralization. It is like a cat, which jumped once upon a hot stove, ‘and will never jump upon any other stove. It cannot correct its overgeneralization because its fear keeps it from jumping upon a cold stove. The fear has somehow to be overcome before the cat can learn the distinction between hot and cold stoves. So also the true self cannot correct its overgeneralizations as long as the surface self suppresses it and tries, as much as possible, to help it from acting out according to its principles. Society’s conventions, when blindly overvalued, can often have this effect of preventing the person from living up to the injunction: “This above all, to thine own self be true.” ‘THE DISCUSSION GROUP, A LIBERATION OF THE TRUE SELF Since society at large is so suppressive of the true self, it is possible to set up a miniature society, a small group, that will temporarily take society’splace, but which is much more benign, tolerant of differences, and accepting of the individual's true self. The small group accepts the individual's uniqueness, that each one is different from everybody and that each one has a right to expose this uniqueness before others. Under such encouragement the person dares to be his or her true self, speaking out his or her own deep thoughts and feelings, without censure. without fear of being judged. THE DISCUSSION GROUP, A CORRECTION OF THE TRUE SELF Furthermore, the discussion group serves as a corrective for the true selfs overgeneralization, because now the person can compare, in the light of day, his or her own experiences and views with those of others” true selves. Like a cat, which sees a fellow cat jump on toa cold stove, 4 person also begins to lose the fear of exploring differences he or she never explored before,A Psychological Theory of Group Discussion 33 The result of these new experiences is creativity, which is the spontaneous upsurge of new, open attitudes towards the world, attitudes which nevertheless are forced to be realistic because of “consensual validation” with those of creative others. Thus does the group, with its freedom of thought, freedom of speech, its permissiveness, its sincere pursuit of the truth, its support of the individual, bring that individual to new growth as a human being. In tum, the individual looks at the group and, through his or her experiences with the group, at society at large with new eyes. Consciousness of one’s self as a “person” in the deepest sense of the word makes one conscious of other persons. While the surface self had tried to be one with society by giving up its dignity as a unique person and by conforming with the mass, the true self, remaining itself a free, absolutely valuable human person, establishes new relationships with society on a much more human, dignified plane. “To thine own self be true, and it will follow as the night the day, thou canst not then be false to any man.” THE DOUBLE FRUIT OF DISCUSSION: PROBLEM SOLVING AND PERSONAL GROWTH Originally, one starts off with a problem for discussion. The discussion usually winds up with a fairly good solution to the problem, but it also brings in a dagdag, a side-benefit, which may even be more important, namely, personal growth, greater self-respect, a greater respect for others, deeper insights, courage to speak, conviction, the ability to work with others, In other words, the individual person finds himself. One does not seek personal growth directly. As they say, a person who looks for happiness will never find it. Yet, if one does his or her best to live as a human being, happiness will come and, like a dove, will perch on his or her shoulder. So also, personal growth comes from sincerity in facing up to one’s problems, Where one cannot face up to one’s problems alone, there is need fora group. The group, by helping individuals face up to their problems, helps them grow up.