000byrne2015 - Helical Piles - An Innovative Foundation Design Option For Offshore Wind Turbines

06/04/2015 Helicalpiles:aninnovativefoundationdesignoptionforoffshorewindturbines|PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondonA:Mathe
Abstract
OffshorewindturbinesplayakeypartintherenewableenergystrategyintheUKandEuropeaswell
asinotherpartsoftheworld(forexample,China).Themajorityofcurrentdevelopments,certainlyin
UKwaters,havetakenplaceinrelativelyshallowwaterandclosetoshore.Thislimitsthescaleofthe
engineeringtorelativelysimplestructures,suchasthoseusingmonopilefoundations,andthesehave
beenthemostcommondesigntodate,inUKwaters.However,aslargerturbinesaredesigned,orthey
areplacedindeeperwater,itwillbenecessarytousemultifootingstructuressuchastripodsor
jackets.Forthesedesigns,thetensionontheupwindfootingbecomesthecriticaldesigncondition.
Drivenpilefoundationscouldbeused,ascouldsuctioninstalledfoundations.However,inthispaper,
wepresentanotherconcepttheuseofhelicalpilefoundations.Thesefoundationsareroutinely
appliedonshorewherelargetensioncapacitiesarerequired.However,foruseoffshore,asignificant
upscalingofthetechnologywillbeneeded,particularlyoftheequipmentrequiredforinstallationofthe
piles.Aclearunderstandingoftherelevantgeotechnicalengineeringwillbeneededifthisupscalingis
tobesuccessful.
1.Introduction
InUKwaters,asofSeptember2014,thereare1075offshorewindturbinesinstalledandoperating,with
anetcapacityofover3.6GW.Thereareapproximately1000moreturbinesbeingconstructedorwith
planningpermission.Manythousandsmorearecurrentlybeingdesigned,andthereareplansfor
perhapsupto10000tobeinstalledoverthenextfewdecades.Inaddition,tomaintainthestockof
operatingturbines,averysignificantprogrammeofmaintenanceandrenewalwillberequired.Thereis
thepotentialforasubstantialmanufacturingandconstructionindustrytobedevelopedintheUK,and
therearesimilarplansinothercountriesaroundEuropeaswellasworldwide.Oneofthemain
challengesforbuildingoffshorewindturbinesisthedesignandinstallationofthefoundations,asthis
representsasignificantfractionoftheinstalledcost,withestimatesupto35%[1].Moreefficient
foundationdesign,leadingtolowercosts,willcontributetoafasterdevelopmentoftheoffshorewind
sectorandconsequentlyamoresustainableandsecureenergysupplyforthecountriesinvolved.
Geotechnicalengineershaveasignificantroletoplayinthisprocessandwillneedtodevelopnew
foundationconceptsifthefoundationcostsaretobereduced.Inthispaper,weproposetheuseof
helicalpilesasonesuchconcept.Table1providesnotationreferredtoindiscussionofthisproblem.
Collapseinline
Table1.
Notation.
D
diameterofhelicalpileshaft
data:text/htmlcharset=utf8,%3Cdiv%20class%3D%22section%20abstract%22%20id%3D%22abstract1%22%20style%3D%22webkitfontsmoothing
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Dp
diameterofhelicalplate(s)onhelicalpile
horizontalload
lengthofhelicalpile(groundsurfacetotopoftipdetailoncethepileisfully
installed)
numberofhelicalplates
pitchofthehelicalplates
verticalspacingofhelicalplates(centretocentre)
su
undrainedstrengthoffinegrainedsoil
installationtorque
downwardvertical(compression)loadonpile
Vt
upwardvertical(tension)loadonpile
Wpile
pileweight
soilbulkunitweight
soileffectiveunitweight=w
waterunitweight
2.Loadingconditionsforoffshorewindturbines
Theloadingconditionsonoffshorewindturbineshavesignificantdifferenceswhencomparedwith
standardoffshoreengineeringdesignfortheoilandgasindustry.Therearesignificantloadsfromthe
windactingontheturbineblades,andtheheightatwhichthisforceactsleadstolargemomentsacross
thebase.Inaddition,therearethewaveandcurrentloadsactingclosertothebase,similartothosein
standardoffshoreengineeringdesign.Typicalloadsfora3.55MWturbine,inwaterdepthsfrom20to
50m,areshowninfigure1.Typically,theextremehorizontalloadsmaybe60%ofthenetverticalload.
Althoughtheabsoluteloadsonmostoilandgasstructuresaremuchlarger,asaproportionofthe
verticalloadtheyaresmaller,rarelymorethanabout15%.Bothhorizontalloadsandoverturning
momentsarethereforeofmoreimportanceforthedesignofoffshorewindturbines.
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Figure1.
Loadingonoffshorewindturbines.(Onlineversionincolour.)
Astheseabedmomentincreases(e.g.owingtoincreasingwaterdepth),itislikelythatamultifooting
structurewillbepreferred,asshowninfigure2,suchthatthemomentissupportedbypushpull
reactionsacrossthebase.Structuralengineerswillbeseekingtominimizetheweightofthestructure,
andaweightintheregionof610MNistypicalforastructureofthissize.Theywillalsoseekto
minimizethefootprint,asthisminimizesbothmaterialrequirementsandtransportationandinstallation
costs.Giventhesedesigndrivers,theupwindfootingwillprobablybeundera(significant)tensionload
fortheultimatelimitstate.Simplecalculations,usingtheforcesshowninfigure1,andconstrainingthe
structuralfootprint,wouldindicateatensionloadoneachupwindfoundationofbetween5and20MN.
Thiscouldbeaccommodatedbyusingstandardpiling,asusedforanoilandgasstructureofsimilar
loading.However,theoffshorewindfarmmayconsistofmorethan100structures,andforafour
leggedstructure,thiswouldleadtodrivingmorethan400pilesintotheground.Significantnoise
pollutionisgeneratedbythispiledriving,whichhasconsequentialenvironmentaleffects.Specifically,
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strictlimitsonnoiselevelsarebeingimposedinsomesectorsbecauseofconcernsaboutlasting
damagetomarinemammalpopulations.Alternative,quietermethodsofanchoringmaybeneeded,and
suctioninstalledfoundationsmaybeused[1].However,thepurposeofthispaperistoexplorethe
possibilitiesofusinglargediameterhelicalpiles,installedusinglargehydraulictorquemotors.These
pilesareroutinelyusedonshoreforavarietyofapplicationswhichinvolvelightweightstructures
subjectedtolargeoverturningmoments(e.g.overheadgantrysignsonmotorways).Theinstallationby
torquemeansthatnoisepollutionissignificantlyreduced,andtheburialoflargeplatesintothesoil
providestherequiredtensioncapacity.
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Figure2.
Distributionofloadingonamultifootingstructure.(Onlineversionincolour.)
Helicalpilesarenotnewtotheoffshoreenvironment,andasdiscussed(aswellaspatented)by
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Mitchell[2]theywereusedasthefoundationsfortheMaplinSandslighthouseaslongagoas1838.
Thelighthousewasfoundedonninescrewpiles(eightforminganoctagonplusoneinthecentre).The
pileseachhadasinglehelicalplate,1.2mdiameteronashaft0.125mindiameter,andtheywere
installedbymanualefforttoadepthof7mbelowthemudline.Thelighthouseoperatedforover90
yearsuntil1931,butthefoundationwaseventuallyunderminedbyscour,andthestructurecollapsedin
1932.
SincethepioneeringworkofMitchell,screwpileshavebeenusedforarangeofoffshoreandonshore
structures.Recently,however,theyhavenotseensignificantuseoffshore,andspecificallytheyhave
notbeenusedforoffshorewindturbines,inspiteofthefactthattheircharacteristicswouldseemto
lendthemselvesratherwelltothisapplication.
3.Helicalpilegeometry
Atypicalhelicalpileisshowninfigure3.Dimensionalanalysisindicatesthatthefollowing
dimensionlessgroupswouldbeuseful:
inclay
insand
5/14
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Figure3.
Geometricalparametersforahelicalpile.
Inthefollowing,weshallassumethatthescrewpileisusedinpushpullmodeasinfigure2,sothat
verticalloadsbecomeofprimaryconcern.Weshallnot,therefore,discussfurthertheroleofthe
horizontalload,althoughclearlyinadetaileddesignthistoowouldhavetobeaddressed.
Inadditiontothegroupsdefinedabove,thereareotherimportantdimensionlessgroupsgoverningthe
problem.Forgeometricsimilitude,forexample,theratiosL/Dp,p/Dparerelevant.Itiscommoninthe
literaturetomakeuseofcorrelationsbetweentorqueandcapacity[3],andafactorthatisoftenusedis
theratiocapacity/installationtorquewhichinconvenientlyhasdimensionsof(length)1.Sometypical
valuesrangefrom10to33m1,anddependonthetypeofhelicalpilebeingused(e.g.squareshaft,
circularshaft).Moreobviously,thesedimensionedparametersdependonthesizeofthehelicalpile.
Whileindividualcompanieshavetheirproprietaryinterpretationoftherelevantfactorsfordesign,there
arealsostandardrecommendationsforthefactors.Muchmorelogical,aswouldbeapparentfromthe
abovedimensionlessgroups,wouldbetousecapacityplatediameter/installationtorque(VtDp/T),
whichisdimensionless.Greaterconfidencecanbeplacedintheuseofthisfactorforexploringpile
designsoutsidetheempiricaldatabase.Theotherusefulratio,lesscommonlyseeninthehelicalpile
literature,istheratiooftensiletocompressivecapacityVt/V.
Currentapplicationsofhelicalpilesaremostlylimitedtoonshoreapplications,andarerelativelysmallin
scale.Thereissomeoffshoreapplication,suchasforanchoringofpipelines,forwhichthehelicalpiles
arealsorelativelysmall.Onshorepilehelixdiametersareabout0.20.5m,andshaftdiametersare
about0.050.3m.Thelargestknownhelicalpileshavehelixdiametersof1.21.5m.Helicalpilesare
usuallyfairlyshortusuallylessthan10mlongandoccasionallyupto20m.Thisisduetotherelatively
lightloadingapplied,withtheoverallsizebeingcomparabletoboredpileordrivenpiledesignsforthe
sameloading.Contractorshaveasignificantamountofexperienceofhelicalpiledesignand
installation.Manyempiricaldesignmethods,basedonthisexperience,canbefoundinthepublic
domain.Inaddition,therearenumeroussmallscalemodelteststudiesreportedintheliterature[4,5],
aswellasaverysmallnumberoflargerscalefieldtests[6,7].Somedetailsofthesestudiesareshown
intable2,focusingonthedimensionlesstorquegroup(VtDp/T).Amorecomprehensivesummaryof
existingworkcanbefoundinPerko[11],andissummarizedintable3.Thedataaresplitintotension
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andcompression,andthenumberofdatapointsineachcategoryistypicallyover150,sothedatacan
beconsideredrepresentativeofcurrentexperience.Thekeyobservations,fromthisdataset,arethat
theplatediametertoshaftdiameterisbetween2and4andthepitchtoplatediameterisabout1/3.As
aresult,thedimensionlesstorquefactorisintheregionof8.Itisalsonotedthatinthisdatabasethe
maximumplatediameterisabout1m,withamaximumcapacityintheregionofafewMNand
maximumtorquerequiredforinstallationofabout0.25MNm.
Collapseinline
Table2.
Selectedresultsfromtheliteratureonhelicalpiles.
VtDp/T
source
testtype
soil
min.
mean
max.
Tsuhaetal.[8]
centrifuge
sand
6.0
8.3
12.5
Raoetal.[5]
laboratory
softclay
Sakr[6]
field
oilsand
Livneh&El
Naggar[9]
field
clayey
silt
6.4
8.0
10.9
Ghalyetal.[10]
laboratory
sand
3.2
5.0
6.1
Cerato&Victor
[7]
field
layered
soil
2.6
14.4
23.3
Perko[11](table
3)
various
various
1.6
8.5
(mean)
24.6
Vt/V
0.64
5.2
0.52
0.80.96
(implied)
6.9
(median)
Collapseinline
Table3.
SummarydatafromPerko[11].
shaft,
pitch,
helices,
depth,
torque,
load,
D(m)
p(m)
Dp(m)
L(m)
T(kNm)
V(kN)
VDp/T
VD
count
178
152
341
148
148
178
148
148
st.dev.
0.059
0.011
0.121
4.1
23.9
372.1
4.6
1.0
min.
0.025
0.025
0.076
0.9
1.2
0.7
2.3
0.5
average
0.089
0.073
0.283
7.0
16.3
287.1
8.8
2.1
median
0.075
0.076
0.305
5.8
7.8
186.8
8.5
1.9
compression
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max.
0.325
0.081
0.914
21.3
118.6
2491.0
30.7
7.7
count
135
131
140
129
110
140
110
110
st.dev.
0.048
0.022
0.126
5.8
28.9
256.3
5.1
0.7
min.
0.013
0.010
0.051
0.3
0.0
0.6
1.6
0.4
average
0.063
0.060
0.206
5.9
12.6
171.8
8.5
1.7
median
0.044
0.069
0.203
4.9
6.0
144.6
6.9
1.7
max.
0.219
0.081
0.762
43.0
257.6
2023.9
24.6
4.1
tension
Giventheloadingconditionsforoffshorewindturbines,thehelicalpilesrequiredwillbesubstantially
largerthanthoseusedonshore,bothinhelixdiameterandinlength.Theywillalsorequireconsiderably
moretorqueforinstallation.Forexample,takingthetorquefactoras8andassumingthatatension
capacityof20MNisrequiredforasinglehelicalpilethisgivesthequantitytorquedividedbyplate
diameterof2.5MN.Choosingaplatediameterof2mgivesaninstallationtorqueof5MNm.Alower
platediameterwouldgivealowertorque,butmightnotdeliversufficientcapacity.Groupsofhelical
pilescouldbeused,ratherthanasinglehelicalpile,butinteractioneffectswillneedtobeaccountedfor.
Thevaluesdescribedaboveareconsiderablygreaterthanthedatabaseofcurrentexperience.Careful
geotechnicalinputisrequiredtodeveloprobustdesignapproaches.
4.Designmethods
Fortheinitialdesignofahelicalpile,therearetwomainissues:(i)calculationofcapacities
(compressionandtension)and(ii)assessmentoftheinstallationtorque.Formoredetaileddesign,
therewouldbeconsiderationsoffoundationstiffness,performanceundercyclicloading,structural
designandsoon.Althoughthesemoredetailedissuesareofsignificantimportance,weonlyfocushere
ontheultimatecapacityandtheinstallationtorque.
Thecapacityiscalculatedbyconsideringtwodifferentfailuremechanismstheindependentplate
mechanismandtheenvelopemechanism.Fortension,theseareshowninfigure4.Thereareof
coursepossiblecombinationsofthetwomechanisms,andthesewouldneedtobechecked.Forthe
independentplatemechanism,thecapacitywillprincipallyconsistof(i)frictionalongtheshaftand(ii)
bearingcapacityofeachofthehelicalplates.Fortheenvelopemechanism,itisassumedthatasoilon
soilshaftfailureoccursatthediameterofthehelicalplates.Dependingonthedepthofthetopplate,
theremaybeabearingfailureatthetopplateortheenvelopemayextendtothesoilsurface.Therewill
alsobesomecontributionfromtheshaftfrictionbelowthebottomplateand(forcompression)a
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contributionfromendbearingonthepile.Aconsiderableamountofworkisavailabletoaid
developmentofdesignapproaches(forexample,upliftplatefactorsfromMerifield[12]or
Llamparuthietal.[13]),andstandardcalculationapproachesfromtheAmericanPetroleumInstituteor
DetNorskeVeritaspiledesignmethodsmayalsobeapplicable[14,15].Forpulloutinundrainedsoils,
thereneedstobeacarefulconsiderationoftheresponseatthebaseofthepile,particularlyifthewater
depthsaresufficientlyshallowthatcavitationmayoccur.
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Figure4.
Possiblefailuremechanismsforahelicalpileundertensileloading.(Onlineversionincolour.)
Althoughtheprimaryfoundationdesigncalculationsformultifootingstructuresrelatetotensionand
compressionloads,itwillalsobenecessarytocheckthatthelateralcapacity,providedbythemain
shaftofthehelicalpile,issufficient.Thiscanbeassessedusingstandardlateralpilecapacity
calculations[14,15],althoughthiswouldnotaccountforanycontributionofthehelicalplatestothe
lateralcapacity.Thelateralcapacitycanbeenhancedeitherbyincreasingthediameterofthemain
shaftnearthesoilsurfaceorbyusingawingedsleeveoraskirtedcollar,whereverticalplatesprovide
additionallateralresistance.Thisdetailwouldneedfurtherconsideration,alongwiththeconnection
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arrangementbetweenthehelicalpileandthejacketstructure,duringdetaileddesign.
Itispossibletousethetorquecorrelations,incombinationwiththecapacitycalculations,todetermine
theinstallationtorque.Foronshorehelicalpiledesign,theinstallationtorqueisprobablynotcritical,and
theinstallationtorqueismeasuredduringtheinstallationprocessprincipallyforqualitycontrol
purposes.Foruseoffshore,however,arobustcalculationfortheinstallationtorqueisnecessary,so
thattheinstallationequipmentissizedaccordingly.Acalculationoftheinstallationtorquebasedonan
independentplatemechanismandanenvelopemechanism,asforcapacities,hasbeendeveloped.In
theindependentplatemechanism,theresistingtorquefromthehelicalplatesandfromtheshaftis
calculated.Theeffectoftheadvanceofthepileintothegroundisalsoincludedinthecalculation.The
secondmechanismistheenvelopemechanism,butthisislessplausible,asitwouldrequirethehelical
platestobesocloselyspacedthatacylinderofsoilisrotatedwiththepile.Thesemethodsare
relativelystraightforwardforhelicalpilesinclay,butarestillunderdevelopmentforpilesinsand.The
requiredinstallationtorquecanbereducedbyadditionofsomeverticaldownwardloadduring
installation(socalledcrowdforce).Relationshipsbetweentheappliedtorqueandtheappliedloadcould
bedevelopedforscrewpileinstallations,inasimilarwaytothosedevelopedforshallowfoundations.
Anexamplegeotechnicalcalculationiscarriedoutforahelicalpileinstiffclaywithauniformundrained
strengthof100kPa.Thepileisdesignedtohavealengthof30.0m,helicalplatesofdiameter2.4m
andamainshaftdiameterof0.8m.Thefourhelicalplatesarespaced6.5mapartstartingfromjust
abovethepiletip.Notethatthereisanoptimalspacingofplates,andtypicalcalculationsforclaylead
tos/Dpbetween2and3[16]forthisexample,calculations/Dpisequalto2.7anddeterminestheplate
spacing.Notethattypicalassumptionshavebeenmadeforthebearingcapacityandadhesionfactors
forthepurposeofthiscalculation.Significantengineeringjudgementwillberequiredtoassess
appropriatevaluesforthese,inrelationtospecificsiteconditionsandtheactualdesign.Factorsof
safetyarenotconsideredinthecalculation.Thecompressioncapacityforthispileisabout21.5MN,the
tensioncapacityisabout20.5MNandthetorquerequiredforfullinstallationisabout4.7MNm.Figure
5showstheincreaseofcapacity,inbothcompressionandtension,withdepthofpiletip,
whereasfigure6showstheincreaseoftorquewithdepth.Notethattheresultsfromboththe
independentplateandtheenvelopemechanismareshown,withthelimitingmechanismbeingthe
lowerofthetwo.Thesecalculationscanbecombinedtogivethedimensionlesstorqueratio,andthisis
showninfigure7.Thisshowsanaveragevaluejustabovethevalueof8identifiedintables2and3,
indicatingthatthetwocalculationsappropriatelycapturetheobservationsfromtestinginthefieldandin
thelaboratory.Thesizeofthishelicalpile,asdeterminedbythediameterofthehelicalplatesandthe
pilelength,wouldbeverysimilartothesizeofadrivenpile,principallyowingtothesimilarityofthe
designmethods.
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Figure5.
Outputfromcalculationsforcompressionandtensioncapacities.
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11/14
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Figure6.
Requiredinstallationtorqueagainstdepthforhelicalpileexample.
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Figure7.
Calculateddimensionlesstorqueratioforhelicalpileexample.
Wehavenotaddressedherethestructuralissuesinrelationtothedesignofthepile.Clearly,thepile
plateconnectionwillbesubjectedtosubstantialstressingbothduringinstallation(owingtotorque)and
laterduringloading.Thismaydemandplatesofconsiderablethickness,particularlyontheinneredge
oftheplate.Suchdesignrequirementsmaymakesolutionssuchascastplateandpilesegments
attractive,ratherthanusingtheweldedfabricationtechniquesusedcommonlyforscrewpilesonshore.
5.Discussionandconcludingcomments
Thisshortpaperhasoutlinedthepossibilityofusinglargediameterhelicalpilesforoffshorewind
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turbines,forwhichtherearemanyadvantages.Theyhaveverygoodtensileloadingcharacteristics,
andcanbeusedinawiderangeofsoilconditionsasdemonstratedbytheiruseforonshore
applications.Theyarereusableinthesensethattheycaneasilybeunscrewed,andthiswillaidthe
eventualdecommissioningofthestructures.Thetorquemotorsthatcouldbeusedtodrivethehelical
pilesintothegroundwillberelativelyquiet,atleastwhencomparedwithconventionalpiling,andthey
couldbesitedoverwaterorunderwater.Importantly,themeasurementofthetorqueduringinstallation
willprovideaqualityassuranceonthepilecapacity,asgoodevidenceexists(fromcurrentfield
measurementsandtheory)thatrelatestorqueresistancetoverticalcapacity.ItispossiblethatCPT
correlationmethodscouldbedeveloped,andindeedthedesigncanbefurtherrefinedfromtorquedata
gatheredduringpileinstallation,andthismightleadtocostsavings.Muchevidenceexistsfromonshore
usethatreassuresdevelopers,fromageotechnicalperspective,thattheyarefeasibleforlargerscale
useoffshore.However,aconsiderabledevelopmentofthetechnologyisrequiredforexample,the
helicalpileswillbesubstantiallylargerthanthoseusedonshore,andwillrequireaninstallationtorque
thatisuptotwoordersofmagnitudegreaterthanthatrequiredonshore(althoughitisbroadly
comparabletothetorquerequiredforoffshoredrilling).Asubstantialmarketwilldevelopforan
installationcontractorwhocandevelopthistypeoftechnology.Todevelopthemethodattheoffshore
scale,itwillbenecessarytocompletefieldtrialstoverifytheanalyticalgeotechnicaldesignmethods,as
wellastoexploreissuessuchaspilegroupeffects,cyclicloading,pilestiffness,potentialpluggingof
thepilesduringinstallationanditsremediation,installationeffects,aswellastoprooftestlargescale
installationdevices.Arangeofstructuralengineeringissueswillneedtoberesolvedincludingthe
designandfixingofthehelicalplatesaswellasfatigue.However,suchissuescanberesolvedusing
standardfabricationmethods,andindeeditshouldbepossibletodevelopamodularfoundation
system,basedonthehelicalpiletechnology.Thefinalareawherefurtherworkisneededrelatestothe
practicalinstallationactivitiesincludingtheprovisionofthereactiontorque,althoughthemaximum
torqueisnotreacheduntilfullpenetrationofthepile.Ofcourseelegantsolutionsinvolvingtwocounter
rotatinghelicalpilesmayofferanattractivesolution.
Footnotes
Onecontributionof17toathemeissueNewperspectivesinoffshore
windenergy.
2015TheAuthor(s)PublishedbytheRoyalSociety.Allrightsreserved.
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