220 Deformabiy of Rocks 10. Mody gions 625 and 624 accor fora rock mass with thee Seetly poenti sta nn ‘Show ator ok ct by oe et of its ith spec Sth normal " ‘trains and normal stresses referred to n, 5, ¢ coordinates are related by ()-af= 23 |) hee p= 1+ Bl nd where End» ae Your's mals a oi a ete oki tensa ssc ofthe jom’s, and ne BRL erence the ot lanes ‘ert ok ake, wh edge Ith 0m, suet 0 a al rund "2 Aiki et peur es volume sum crv recorded pen ree nas the Yok cnn tee mally erent 2a ear Cache mal sess ofthe Aa Se tal presnis cnesponing oe Start of niga GR Sasa 103 Ma 13, Let, vv and » be respectively the Poisson's ratios for asi, total and ‘Sassi that, fr sri apie nthe x Seton. » = eo, ‘Deve formula expressing» a8 function of, Ms ¥ a, Chapter 7 Applications of Rock Mechanics in Engineering for Underground Openings 7 Introduction Enginceing underground space has many facets, some of which are unrelated torock conditions: However, rock mechanic ax direct Dearing om man ofthe ital specs of engineering work, for example planning he location, dimen sions, shapes, and onestatons of chamber, selecting supports, aranging for constuction acess, engineering blasting, and designing instrumentation. Rock mechanics provide information of utmost relevance: measurement of inl Stress: monitoring stresses developed in the peripheries of openings; measure ment of materi properties nals of sreaes, defornttons, temperatures, {nd water flow in suppor of design; and interpretation of istumentatin readings, especially displacements “The wse of underground space ste many, varying rom simple openings in the dy, to large complexes of openings in thie dimensions, filed with hot or ‘old ids of varying viscosity and pressure. Tunnel bait for highways and Fala may’be shor sections beneath valley side, oF very Tong stuctres Underneath major mountain anges. Ventilation fequemeats for highvay un hosted to make these ver large (eg, 18m wide). Water supply and sewage tunels are generally smaller, but the maybe ver long and frequently operate Under internal restore. For hyrcelecie power proton, pressure Read>22 spplains of Hock Mechanisb gine for tndergrond Openings race tunnels lead water to surface underground penstocks and thee ato frface or nerground power station. Large Water presses are supported by rook lone in sme cases, The main machine hall chambers ae oom th spans ofthe order afm, wile access tnnels nd other openings may also be ‘ite large. These chambers are feasible nly i the rook i esseaaly se Supporting (Figure 7.1. Pumped storage projets may require rock tunnels, underground power: houses and other openings as well (Figure 7.2) Energy storage is n0W also ‘demanding underground space-for storage ool (igure 1), and eventually ort sr or hot water ded in peak demand enrg) conversion schemes of varios kinds Liquefied natural gas (LNG) may be sored in rock caverns more Widely ifthe problems of thermal cracking and loss of product can be over ‘ome, Nuclear wastes are tobe stored in specially mined repsitories ia rock salt, chosen forts high heat conductivity and general continuity without fac tures. In the fl! of mining, there re two types of underground openings those tht ae intended toe stale white oes removed, snd thse tha are intemonaly collapsed to price broken rock that i drain of the ground caves, For defense, deep cviies are required 10 protect instalations from ‘hock, Finally, ndosry has ned for underground space Tor product storage fice, and even public flies ike swimming pool ‘With sch a vist range of underground usage, many kinds of ock mechan ics considerations need fo be addressed. However there are certain felures ‘common 10 all underground werks. They are usally inaccessible until actual onsruction, Occasionally, when an existing installation is being expanded, the enginer wil have access fo the site tthe initiation of the jobs more usually, Rowever he or she wil have to Bega deliberations fom iteration scquired in dil hoes, shaf's, and galleries. All underground workings are Constructed in rock that i inal tested and al openings cause changes in the inal stress when they are constructed. Most underground workings are ‘made below the wate abe. And al opening ae constructed in an environ ‘meat of even temperature equal to the mean surface temperature plus the product of geothermal gradient and depih. The gradient of temperature varies From 05°C 100m toss much ae 57100 m ‘When working wth rack mechanics below ground, ther are certincond- tions tat shouldbe appreciate. The underground environment is very oes hostile for insirument de to water, blasting and rock rae. Working sBace ‘soften cramped, poorly it snd wet. Ava el, experiments and concepts fr instrumentation underground should be as simple ts possible andthe equip tment must be ugaed. Overly sophisticated testing technique or data handing. tnd overly precise measurements are tobe avoided, However, amon any data taken underground nea the site ofthe jb wl be more useful than data b tained remotly or fom boreholes, As fr ue posible, then, malo experiments find measurements should be deferred ntl the opportunity to work in the Figure 7.4 Peto: of Cuchi Falls underround powerboat ing onto Spire DA Meret Aces Coming Series, Nae al Cua ive eh Bm wie a the as, an 3 ih224 Applications of Nock Mechanic in Paginering for Underground Opening? gure 72 scheme fora twostge underground pumped storage pot (Bepeodaced vm McCocath and Wie (973) wth permission) underground site itself. This may requie that certain planning decisions be postponed unl access gain For example an underBround powerhouse Eonstructed att depth of AO m in Colombia was fixed lsaton But no in ‘enation, pening the compton ofthe aces une, which wa ul na Seporte, carly construction contrat. Sess measurements, deformability 22 Openings Competent Rack 235 measurements, and other tests were conducted in a gallery dtven from the ‘ccs tune ate to permit ther ategrtion int the fal design process. Rock mechani oF underground engineering begins wih proper appre tion ofthe character ofthe rock. Rock that abe lo ridge arose a Opening 19f 20m or more without appeciale support could be considered competent 19 uch rocks, design ean be sided by conldrsions of stress conectrations bround the pening as deduced from the theory of elatiy "When the rock's ayered where bending and separation of tata are posi tie, the theory of elastic beams and plates can be invoked. For rock th ‘resents time-dependent propertizs, such as rock salt, the theory of tear Eiscorletcty provides useful concepts. In Weak rocks, stesses around open- ings may reach the lit according to the citeria of Tale, resulting in slow ‘onvergence squeeze: in sbchocks, asoluton for sess and displacements Served from the theory of plasticity provides useful bass for engineering trorks In jointed rock, ony individual lt equllbrium analysis or staes with rumerical or physical models may be appropriate. The discussions of compe: tent rock, layered rock, and plastic rock that follow are intended aly to pro- ‘de'simple models for guldance in engineering practice. These models can sways be improved by using powerful queria echriques, bt the engoet ‘snot resort to sich fechnigues for every question —he or she fas to have Some working tools to provide checks on computation, order of magnitude predictions, and sensitivity tudes through parameter variation, This i the Spirit which the following theory is presente. 7.2 Openings in Competent Rack In rack stressed below its east Hii, that s, Below about one-half of the ompessive strength and in which ois are widely spaced snd aly pee= ompressed or hele it often acceptable fo consider an opening a lng hole of constant cross seston in an init volume, Thief he plane sia uvaent of a olen a plate ad we can use the soon Lo the robles of 2 ‘ieularhole in ial loaded plate of homogeneous, tropic, continuous, Tneaty ease mateil—the Kirsch solution, A pont located at polar coord rater, # near an opening with rads 0 (Pigre 7.3) bas 4685 0 or ven by 1%) 10)igure 7.3 Syses sound cic 38 1 7 Openings in Competent Rock 287 where isthe stress inthe direction of changing Fan. the sess i the {rection of chaning ‘Substituting the value r ~ ain Equation 7. gives the variation of tresses, ‘onthe walls of the opening. The radial and shear stresses are zero sige tis fee surface. The tangential sesso varies fom a maxim of 3p, ~ po at 8 90 oa minimum af ps ~ py at 8 0 (esl used ia Chapter 4 Away from the opening, the stress concentrations fll ef quickly, as shown in Figure 7.30 find Table 7 The Kirsch solution allows clelations of the potential inuence of joints the region of «tunnel Assuming that aot of given positon and orientation Introduces no change inthe stess eld, we compare the shear ahd nora streses slong its surfce with the Lining values of shear stresses consistent ‘withthe criteria of peak shea strength presented in Chapter 5. This exercise ‘efines a region of jolt infueace, which can be overtain on the setal ot assumed geological section to isolate potential problem aeas inthe root Or wall Figure 7.4 shows regions of joint sip according to such an approach for thre directions of jointing for at example in which K'= 2.35 (spy = 0.8), The joins were assumed to obey Coulomb's law with & ~ 31. The contour values give the number of tines the lateral pressure of 100 psi must be mlti- pled t produce slip on joints ofthe given orientation in the closed region Inside the contour The contour values mst be multiplied bythe sear tength, imercep ofthe joint and divided by 10. For example, int striking paral tothe tunnel and dipping at 30°, with rcton angle of 31 anda shea strength intercept of $0 psi would slip throughout the region enclosed within the con tour marked 030i the horizontal stress were equal to 280 psi andthe vertical strese were 108 ps ‘An ffectve method for monitoring an underground opening iso measure relative displacements of points on the wal, for example witha precision tape Stretched between prs of pons or with eds anchored at diferent depths ina borehole (a"multiposition extensometer). To interpret such dat, tis helpful to know the order of magniae of displacements associated with elastic beha= ior, The dlplacements ean be determined from the Kirsch soliton, assuming ‘ondtions of plane stain Nake Biifetesetad tpt, po Gr S(u-9-Seos2 20) a2)(90 According 0 Kirsch Solution Table 7.1 ress Concentration 74 in Roof @ = 0 and Wal 72. Openings Competent Hock 239 eter Te > ‘Pure 74 The ext flip om jos of seer ations son cca {unt! whose st of sess sven bythe Rasch slaon (Equation 71 Contr vis gv he puter of tints he tisted boundary pres Seed oa sp Malye rer aes yh cron in which wis the radial tard displacement and vite tangential iplace- ‘ent, ae shown in Figure 7 3a, Gis the shear modulus, ad is Poisson's io should be understood thatthe effect of gravity not fly represented in ity creates vertical tes, rpeesnted by py OF P=: but also exerts following force onloowened rock aar the oot, force tha pursues the rock no matter where it might move. This effect cannot be modeled byany cheice af loads on the boundary. One approach co ntrducing gravity in the computation ofa tunnel would be to consider the weight of rock the zone ‘of joint slip calculated according tothe Kirsch solution stresses assigned Joint or material properties asin Flgue 7.4. This ued weight cou bea Signed o' system of supports such 5 rock bls or shterete, The omission of sarvity sone reason why the Kitsch slution does not offer a size eft that the seen om the walls predicted by Equation 7-1 are the sme epadless ‘ofthe diameter ofthe tunnel This snot be the whole trash or we know fom ‘experience that a smal tunnel more sable thana large one Size effect can be Inteduced in real tunels st only by including the ational Toad doe ‘savy acing onthe ook near the anne, bu sso by infroducng size effect nteralsrengh. Ava sfester umber of discontimitis ar contained witha230 Apptcations of Nock Mechanics ngincering for Underground Openings sample of rock, its strength must decrease, Accordingly, when the span of an ‘opening is many times greater tan the average spacing Between iscontini- tes, he opening cannot be expected to stand without aril suppor. ‘Openings of ober shapes have been solved mathematical and solutions «an be found in Muskhelshvi (1953) Elitical and other idealized shapes are ‘scunsed hy Jager and Cook (197) and Obert und Duvall (1967). For tree ‘dimensional problems, spheres an elipsoid solutions ae presented "The inward radial deplacement x of point dintance fom a spherical cavity of rads a excated in rock mas under hydrostatic nil stress pis pe ee 20) Comparing Equations 7.2¢ and 7.24 when pe = p indicates that the rain Asplacement of a pint on the wall o aspherical cavity under hydrostatic ressre is half that ofa circular tunnel of equivalent ads also under hyro- Sta pressure and assuming both rock masses behave elastically. This ear ‘ioasip is useful in approaching the relative response of istruments placed in Tong and shor chambers, respectively ‘In nonetcular or nonspherical openings, stresses generally tend to concen ‘wate at corners and concave bend of small aus and to decreas toward 20 at convex bends. Unsresed fock suffers opening of joints and accelerated ‘weathering and is often more burdensome than highly sessed rock unde round a shallow or intermediate depth tress concentration are vay high inthe side walls and lowest where the line faction othe resent ial stress intersects the opening. Stress concenrations wil generally be the lest roube- Some if smooth shapes ae used, without corners and reetrats, and if the major axis aligned tothe major principal sires, with the rato of width to Felt proportional o (Duval, 1976). Table 7. ives some stress concenss- ‘ble £2 Stree Concentrations around Openings under Vertical ‘Stress Only = 0 (ean Stipe eign Wit ae Ese 1 50 On t a Recon (ound comer) 1 2 ice i So ise 2 20 On 2 is Recange 2 3 172. Openings in Competent Rock 231 tions under vertical tress alone (K'~ 0) for ellipses, ovals, and rectangles, at extreme points ro, and side) BY superposition, he stress concenratons can be found corresponding to ater values of K- “Mali openings have been studied in models nd results represented by (Obert and Duval (1967), Under elastic conditions, two openings wil interact swith each ater if separated by a thickness of rock less than two times the sam ‘oftheir dimensions the direction paral othe separation. As the opeings Sporoach each other, the average stress inthe pil between them incretes and approaches the maximum tangential stress. The manimum compressive Stress concentraton in the wall when K =O e.,ofly vertical stress increases from 3, the value for one opening, to 4.2 Tor two openings separated by a distace equal to one-fifth of the opening width In practice, mull openings fae usualy designed onthe bass of the average tes inthe pila given by the inbutary area theory: a) where isthe atea supported by one pillar, is the aren ofthe pla, and i ‘he vertical stessat the level ofthe roo ofthe opening. For «square par (Figure 75a), equals w, + mp) where wis the width of the roms and ‘he width ofthe plas netined joins ina square pillar willimersect he sides, redcng sibility. For this reason it is sometimes elected to use long rooms perpendicular othe sie ofthe most troublesome, steeply inclined joins. The ‘most severe reduction in strength of a ilar occurs when the discontinue Strke paral tothe nibs and dipat an angle of 45 ~ #2" Discontinties at ot ‘lose fo this attitude should gover the eretations of rs. In single chambers, itis usally desirable to choose the Jong ais oblique to the strike of ll major Aiscontnuty sets. (See section 73) “To determine the dimensions ofa ilar oF to evaluate the degree of safety of given pila configuration, the average pillar stress 2, clelated with Equation 73 must be compared with the pla strength oy. The ler i not Simply the uncoafaed compressive strength of the material comprising the pili q, because shape and size effets intrducesigniean modicatons fom {he breaking srengh of unconfined compressive evinders. Hust (1976) reviewed size and shape comections applicable to coal for which, due the presence of mimerous sures, the effect of sie i reat: Tor example, the ‘rength ofa ilar Im igh in coal sof the order of one-fourth the strength of {est ylinder Sem in diameter and 10m igh (Beniawski, 198). On the other hand, the shapes of any underground plas approach rectangular prisms ‘having width-to-helght ratios considerably more than oneal the ws vale for an unconfined compressive specimen hs produces conrary corestion, the strength of reatively sor pls being greater than the strength of rla- ‘ely lng pl of the same Volume1282 Applications of Hock Mechanic In Engnering for Underground Openings Qld Pentel rewey ae es ‘one £5 Concent of rr ne ep argent 73) Morzontaly Layer Rock 333 ‘An analysis of data reviewed by Hustrulid yeh the folowing estimate of strength in compression for rectangular pillars f square cross sen a y= (oars + 0250) (fe & on where ap isthe strength ofa pil corrected for shape and size effects ane "ssumedtohave a height greater than hay; W an Hage he with and height of ‘he pillar, respctivey: gis the unconfined compressive strength of the pla ‘materi performed on Ansme thatthe contruction ofthe tunnel ceats intolerable stress condition thet ‘est n failure ofthe rock according to the Mol-Coulom theory. To permit the analysis of the extent of aure—the “plastic zone" simplisng as sumptions made that the sate of stress is auismmeti, that R= Within ISITE Te ee eae mame og Pits trannies on ac rh Tan gh (Telomere tne ee oe ‘expe Gt Rigor RIM, Val 7, Wo (0 tn ry GSA sy one and ete Pebadegng mirarnae aL ghee ‘Bint wl aoe mca ih eaany Cos of anc Oma vine edgar scr bay Novo ee Ape‘igre 740 Conon asim for Bry’scascpastic soon, the plastic 20, which extends to radius, Bray assumed te fractures were Jog spirals inlined at degrees withthe ral direction ax predicted by atric, application ofthe Mohr-Coulomb theory see Figur 7.10 Thisis at appropri {efor analysis of many rocks in which, as note, the cracks wl form ssbs Parallel to the wall and lor (ring cracks"). Ip shales and clays, however, Bray's assumption of fg spirals comsdered wo he accepiabe. For ium trent, the appropriate value of 4 + 6/2 but the quam 8 wil eet as !m independent parameter ofthe soltion, It proves uel to define a quantity Caen by tan moa uy Assuming thatthe broken rock aside the plastic zone comin log spiral sur- faces with shar strength characteristic y= 8) + an the radius R ofthe Plasiclstic zone Boundary i ivea by wa (BTL tts + dS, cot 4" nets remo esctay) OD tere she ial oc sos gs =~ uth unconfined compressive $leength ofthe lta och, he infernal pressure in the tunel provided Suport, and ¢ isthe angle of intra ftion ofthe intact rock ‘Within the elastic zone, Bray's solution determines the adil and tngen tial stestes as 6 and where aes + a Us) ‘The ras and tangential stresses in he plastic zone ate defined by (+ Scot 6(2)°— 5,001 4 and on) a = oy al “The displacements are important also fr they provide an bsertinal frame work forthe engineer. The vada inward displacement wf given by 20 = (> Scots) cod * (ot — wr) ot aay ir +50) ~ in so (8) LE» co. (bas given in Egoton 7.13) or examp, vonndt a cse withthe flowing properties the fates we escribe by = A$) 0.5 = 8 the roek hs properties = 1300p and = 39.9 then stress p= 400 pi nthe support eee p80 Psi Then Q= 2a, R= hear ana b= SNe ‘The esis (nthe asic 2s ay tied by w= 40(f246 Applications of Rock Mechanis i tghncerng for Underground Opening a= 9 (2) While he stresses (pin the els 9, = 4000 — 33,7323 9, = 4000 + 33.7325) Figure 7.1 shows how the stesses vary around the tunnel in hi example and for casein which the matrlfelasie everywhere (Kirsch slaion In the plas cae, this sess aference i intolerable andthe tangential tres has Felatedo the maximum value consistent withthe strength ofthe materi, 149 pri, For some distance behind the tunnel wal the tangential srestes ae lower than those predicted by elastic theory: thereafter, they are higher. The zone of relatively highly stressed rock behind the tunel wall ean sometimes be de {ected by seismic refraction measurements alog the wall ofthe tunnel “The plastic Behavior ofthe region near the tunnel has the effect of extend- Jing he influence ofthe tunel considerably farther into the suroundig rock Inthe wholly elstic case the tangential stresses would have fallen to ony 16 shove the inal stresses at radius oF. tmes the tunnel ads inthe elastic- Dstic case considered in Figure 1, the clastic zone stesses are 70% greater {han the sna stresses at tis dtc and 10 cad ae required before the stress perturbation ofthe tunel has fen wo 10%. Thus, to tnnels that do ‘ot interact with one another in elastic ground might intratn plstic Eon ‘Pigure 714 Siceses around ie yelling ue in the example, Displacements forthe example canbe discussed values are sven fr,» the elastic properties and tunnel radius. Let ~ 10 pir = 02, and = ein ‘Then = 6221 and w ~ 0462 in. This displacement is measned tthe tunnel sll wile the elastic displacement atthe elsticplastc boundary is 1 i I the coresponding wholly elastic problem, the elstiedspiacemet tthe tt el wal would be 0.046 in. These vals of displacement are seniive to the Salve fp. Had the internal pressure, been itl installed tS pinta ‘of a0 psi, would have been 7a and, would have been | SSin, Corespond ing top, equal to Ips, R would have been 13.420 giving waa Wo428 i, Such large value for indicates that «substantial volume of ock exit ia loosened state around the tunnel. It would be prodent to assume that thi ‘atrial could continae o move under the infuence of gravity and to allot a ional increment of reserve suport capacity to old it in place. As simp cation, we can adda support pressure equal 0 portion of he weight Of the overlying material witia the loosened zone cy(R ~ a), where cls a constant SEI Then the total pressure that must be supplied bythe supports Pama = P+ WR ~ ae on (Gravitational load would be fl a the root and sso he sides due to Poisson effect. The load increment due to loosening ofthe rock he "loosens sure") wl increas inversely with p, because Ra increases inversely WP, (Figure 72a). AS a esl the ttl suppor pressure will exhibit minimum ‘when plotted against the inaly installed support pressure (Fire 7.128), Since the displacements ls increase with Rl the eve ofp, vera splice ment wl ikewise display a minimum (Figure 7-126) ata value of = wg THE {uel wil be stable i the supports are installed with an intial pressure such tha the equilibrium between cock and suppor i reached aa valde a ) so that p: ~ 468 psi (vertical tnd p; = 927 psi. The displacements of points on the Wall of the tunnel are ploted agunst time in Figure 7-14. There isa small last, instantaneous Ssplacement, then a delayed elastic response tapering af afer about # days, followed by slow, secondary creep. Ifthe material stound the tunel can de- form without rupture, secondary creep might continue for a ong time. Othe ise, the sain will reach a sufficient magnitude to cause local upure, chang Ing the state of stress bythe development of «plastic zone. If ook ball ate {nsale, the displacements ofthe walls will be ony slighty reduced. This can be calulated approximately by superimposing on Equation 7-1 the displace ‘ents predict by Equation 63, with ir in pace of a and the rock bolt [pressure ps i place of p assuming the Bll ae lng). Near the tunel the Secondary creep fate would then be reduced 1a wsc+am A stnctra ning would et quite dierent 27 ‘Time-Dependent havior of Tumels 23 ar 714 Ral pene 0 900 wal of he in te |ALINED CIRCULAR TUNNEL IN A HYDROSTATIC STRESS FIELD ‘When a stifling is as spss the rock so that it remains in contact withthe rock surface as the tunnel rock deforms, displacement boundary condition lmposed. Now the Kirsch solution sess felt no longer apps tthe rock ‘chaves as «Burgers bod in time the pressure wl bud upon the Liing while the tes diferencia the rock decins, The fal presse onthe lining can be Sspproximated by assuming it to be loaded as a thick-walled liner By a uniform ous pressure equa to the nt stress in the rock. According othe ‘les of mands hs tay rire years F fem of Fats Lets consider he special case of ssf elastic ning nse an incompres- sible visconti materi Gai and Johnson (1964 discussed this problem fr ‘Burgers materi. For the resent purposes, since the lining wll ot usally£254 Applications of Hock Mechanic in Engineering for Underground Openings be construsted until the instantaneous clastic displacement fas already oc ‘ured itis suffice to consider the rock to be an incompressible peeraizd Marvell body (Figure 6.17). Let m,n, and G describe the time-dependent Properties of the fock and » and "represent the elastic properties of the Fining. The rock tunnel is rade b wile the nig as internal radi The pressure pu that develope a the lining rock interface is wven by al) ~ pl + Cow + Des) 7.29 hese piste inital sess inthe rock Cv} = 0 = pe) my, (rid + min) + Gil -Br a cee) 200 (2d + mim + Gm 7 a ae) 0.208) ad rae the real roots of nae + [oes (1+2))+ 8-0 7.20) inwhich 1 (aw se a 7.208 a= g(a » “The stresses and displacements inthe fining (a =r = B) ae a2 20) and ote) ile the stresses and dslacements inthe rook r= are ( e eens -8) «rs ox 27 Time-Dependent havior of Pamela 253 _ Ez) at bmw se wo ooo) om In Equations 721 and 7.2, varies with ine aconig to 20, ‘As an example suppose sing 2 hick were ned ine a ccular tunel 30 in dame vapor rocks wih = P= p= 100 pa Th fookis characterised by = 09 1 pi Ge = 05. pm S10 Palins = 1 10" pli, and K'= "(0 p, The ela contans fhe Covert are’ = 02 and 24% 1 paving = 1 pt, Subst ine cy = 0.5% 1 palin Egonton 7.2 wah r= py ~ 100 pl eters he ttaneouy ela dpacement ofthe lined tunel be = 8 i imran thease saves of Gsm an my Estos 3.20 to 125 ‘ele the apacemees and ses isd in Table 73" igre 7. shows ‘fetime dependent clcements ofthe eck surface wih and witout ann. “he snout of placement ofthe ned tunnel clay sal = ‘044i aller 10 years. Hower ice the coer sf he matin conprsive sess becomes ge enough crash concrete inabwt alfa ear and theoreti reaches 45 p10 oars Pigue71S0). One sltion {orsque rig tno sto sea 38 or eng spp sem, or xa, ‘ith reste ond king or ons cnc fhe mad sty ‘Table 75 Digplacements and Stresses for the Beample Rock Dsienet Sesser ane ‘AterPassment Maximum Stes it'scns Tine Unines —““Sinng Nin Cones RES Gato) in) oo ee Teas 003 o 5 Ise ot oars Pa 5 Bis 251 0 ps be Sans a0 ont ir 2 Ver tae oa 461 5 tal year aah os sy mam Beas oss eon ms IT ‘Wyere 2am oe Se ft256 Applications of Hock Mechanics in Engincering for Underground Openings igure 7.45 Tne deendet behavior o the tne! in the ‘rimpl: (a Inward ovement of he rock val te lied Shae cane Warton of stress wth ine he lod he ining is athe value input inthe example, the maximum stress after 10 Sear S268 pa wth displacement of 64m. the rock-lning interface. AB ‘lastic mols forthe ining one-tenth that used inthe example reduces the ‘maximam lining stress 102907 pri witha displacement of I-34 in tthe rock Surface, Tn comparson the dieplcement ofthe unin tunnel fcr 10 years 78 Underground Openings Blcky Hoch—"Bck Theory” 257, 7.8 Underground Openings in Blocky Rock—"Block Theory” Excavations cut into rock masses with several sets of disconimites may lierate rock Blocks of various size. The potenti movement ofthe mt tstclly located ofthese may then undermine neighbor blocks nd the easing tock falls and sides can menace the integrity ofthe engncering scheme. H the txcavation i unsupported, block movements may unacceptably ale the exca- ‘ation perimeter and the blocks may ease property damage and persona injury. Ifthe excavation has been supported, the Mock mevement tendency ‘ul Wansfer loads to the suppor system, which ould alli they have not been ‘esgned specifically to handle thexe loads inc the rock self usally quite ‘strong its mainly the potential block falls ad sides that eed to be addressed bythe designer, andi these are adequately handled, or found tbe unl, ‘the excavation stability wil be assured. Suppose that a block of rock is isolated by the intesetion of discotinui ties and eajvation surfaces. No mater how many face it as, the block ean ‘move italy i aly afow way: by fling, by siding on one face, or by siding ‘te faces (orb combined sliding nd reaton). Alf these motions require that certain faces open, Ths, the fst waring of Mock movetent i the ‘widening of parce joints. On the ater and if the potentially dangerous blocks are found pric to movement an thee stability is snsured, then no Block movements wil occur anywhere, This isthe principle of “block theory” (Goodman and Shi. 1989). The most dangerously located blocks are called “key blocks.” The theory establishes procedures for describing aod locating key blocks ad fr establishing their support requirements, By using the proce dress posible to plan optimum reinforcement schemes, and to select ‘xcnvationoresatons and shapes tat minimize oe completly eliminate the eed for artical support. "The supe and locations of key blocks are fly thre dinensonal. some types of engincetng analyses, simpler two-dimensional configurations ar ade- ‘uate, For examples layered mine roof canbe analjzed asa beam rather than {Sa pistes ora potest shear fre cam be analyzed as cial rather than Spherical Inthe cate of ned rock masses, however, two-dimensional analy ‘is would bean unwise simplification. In neglecting the thi dimension, the Savings realizable through geometry are abandoned, whichis paticuaty fol {sh since thee-dimensonal analysis using Bock theory is quite easy. Tee: ‘dimensional block geometry allows one t find safe spatial directions fr mini= ‘mally sopprted excavations even when some joints are very weak. To simpli explanations, a series af tvo-dimensona ratios ae examined inital then three dimensional analysis lnreduced, with extensive use of stereo: stapic projection284 Appcations of Rock Mechanics Engineering for Underground Openings Figure 7.16 identies sx types of blocks around an excavation. Type VI isa jin block, having no faces on the excavation perineter, thats, no foe faces, ‘Type V hus a free face but the block is lft. Unless there are ne cracks formed around the excavation, neither ofthese Hock types canbe key Blocks ‘The same stu for block IV, which asa tapered shape hee is diction toward the excavated space in which the Tapered block can mave without pushing int ts neighbors ‘All ofthe other blocks ate fite and removable. Whether they will move tions, the same set foi planes and ction anges may crete the ned for laige suport force. Thi largely due othe changing sizeof the maxim Key blocks tthe direction ofthe tunnel evar (CASE HISTORY “TUNNEL, SUPPORT SPECTRUM “The effect of tunnel direction on rock mass supost requirments wl be ils trated forthe ck mass of Figure 7.20 by sodyin the support force for 7A. Underground Openings in Block Rock ock Theory" 75 ‘igre 7.30 Two! scons showing maximum removal Hock fr ec JP spe imposed onthe sereopapicpectn ofthe 1s aulbrium of the most eral block asa function of « complete sweep of ‘uae! direction. All the examples considered thus far correspond to & ri- onal tunnel ans in dieetion N21” E. Considerig oly horizontal tunes for the time being, we can observe she roaive size ofthe most erica key Block, for five tunnel directions, in Figure 731. The maximum kay blocks become dramatically lager asthe direction 315°(N 48° W) appeased Limit equi: "ium analysis ofthis systom, fora horseshoe tunel & m wide and 54m ih, Yields required suppor forts forthe uimum key Back varying from 4 low fess than Tmetne to per meter length af tng, oa maxim of 33 metric278 Applications of Rock Mechanic in Engrg for Underground Openings Mf y CV CY ey es fortune i flee: Gectons dae Oy the tons pr meter of tunnel, as poten Figure 7.32. The sharpnes ofthe peak in this diagram supests the name "Wunnel support specum’” for this type of “A microcomputer program was used to perform a complete analysis of key block support requirements over the compete se of tunel direction in space “The input otis program consists othe aitades ofthe Sts ojo planes and 73 Underground Opening in Blocky Rock—"Wock Theory? ar7 i i & Fre 7.2 Toe “tunel port pei —Ihe sport ming eqlibcun forthe mont teal roma ck or Serene dt se en275. pplication of Rock Mechanls In Eghoerng for Underground Openings {heir ction angles as well asthe shape and densions of the tune! section, ‘The outputs contoured “equal area projection” of suppor force require- ‘meni foal tunnelsbat directions in space, and alist ofl sing moses and tliding force directions. The equal ares projection it distortion of steoo- fsraphic projection that yelds equal areas Tor squares” ofthe stereonet no ‘ater where they projet Figure 7.3 shows Such a dlagram forthe problem being discussed. It demonstrates thatthe worst tuonel orientations ae horizontal to azimuth 315° (N 4S" W, and 25” above horizon to azimuth SIS" (N 5° W). Most tunnel! ‘shalt directions that are nt near these orientations have very much emule ‘Support nee “Another example is presented in Figure 7.34, where a fourth joint set has ‘been added to the thre previously considered: he adtonal jit set has ip and lp direction equal {075 and 190, respectively, and has ben assigned & gure 7.38 The sport force a in Fg, 72 fs tunnel and hat ectos ‘Berek mas ov he ont es mp the como aes By 93 ti tons ‘meter of tan ent igure £34 The senor force asin Fig, 7.3 for eel an sha rections for Ihe eck mas th four st; ml he contr vas by 8} mt tes per retcrafune enh, fiction ange of 1S". The tunael/shaft suppor force contours are ony slihtly less polarized, with vertical shafts now showing increased suppert needs. The ‘nemations ofthe tunnel requiring greatest force and the maga of is Support force isthe sume as that in Figue 7.33, with three jot ses. The Imagitode ofthe support force fr the mort tunnel is 32 Tons per meter of tunel enh suMMaRy For hard, jointed rock, the design of tunnel supports should be based on the force required to staize ptentil key Blocks formed by the intersection of ‘reeisting joint planes andthe tunnel surface: Describing and analyzing these blocks necessitates thee dimensional approach, Block theory isa coavesient ‘way to determine the most critical blocky given any tunnel dtecton, shape,280 Applications of Rack Mechaniee i gineering for tnderground Opeinge nd dimensions. The information reuied to describe the rock mass consists ‘imply ofthe orientations of the Joint planes and their fetion anges, “This section intoduced the theoretical bass and praphialprocedres for pplication of block theory tothe computation of tunnel support forces, These procedures offer the possibility to optinize tunel and shaft desian wth respect {o suppor requirements Th information about the rock requied 10 perform ‘his nals sii andthe compuations are nol edu, pricey since ‘microcomputer prosrams are available. Block theory offer potenti cost s- {ngs in tailoring the layout and design of tunnels and shafts to the geometric ‘propertes of jointed rock sss. References Benson, .P Conlon, RJ, Merit A. H. Joh Coeur, Pan Deer, D.V. (971) Rock mecha st Chive alt, Proceeding, Symposia on Underground ack Chambers (ASCE, pp 7-46 Biss, 198) op. Se Chapter Benak, Z (198 op: ei, Cpe 3 Bleniwak, T9755) Cae nts redcon of rock mass eho he ome “Suns clncaion, Proceeding, 2nd AualosNew Zeland Conference ov Geomechanics Brian 9p 3. Bieta ZT 199) op. Cheer. nwa ZT. (188 op. it Cage Bry, 3. W. (967) 4 stl fied ng Pactred oc, I. Thery a ting eit ‘ium, Feimechan and Digeneurgecone (Rock Mechanics and Engineering Ge ‘on 8197-26 Costs. F. (970 See efrencer, Cape (Ceuta. EJ. Deere. ¥(1972) Rock tnnel sports an eld mesure, ‘Preceding, st Rapid Eatin and Teneling Confrence (AME. Vo Cond. E-J and Maar, J. W. (1974) The est fara elo scons on Tehavie af rock in tunel, Procerigh 1974 Etewation and Tuna Com (AIMED, Vol I pp 18 Dobe, AK. (979) Geomechanclevalation of unl stably under fling ok onidacs na Himalayan tant, Yh. Thess, Unierty of Rok, Ini val W. (1979 General principles of werd peng sen incompetent ok, ‘Proceangs, 17 Symposium on Rock Mechans(Uaversy of Ua. Paper sat ‘nik PF an Jotwson, RE (196) The deformational bens of cea mine ‘at stata ma tcosale meta under byrne sess Poesia eh ‘Sympoton on Rock Mech, Unierty of Mise (Rol), pp. 23-398 Goodman yi W196) Now ine onal for xelaing te support of rock ick stant jt aes Fes 3-208. Cola, RE. amt Shi, GH (188) Blck Theory and ls Applation 2 Rock ‘naiering, bowie Hal Englewood Cis, NI Hold, CT (97) ir den fr permanent sd espera spat ofthe ‘retard incl mines, Proceeding, Hh Canadien Rac Meshantcs Spe Han, W. A (0976 Aree of oir eee oma, Rack Meck 8 115- Indra, 8 and Kabsr, PK (957) Control of oe conerpne by outed bl, Pro. Rapid Exceed Tuncig Con (RETC). New Oca, Jaeger. ed Cook, NG. W. 191) Se relereces, Cape ‘Gi. GB) Evaluation of mek presse in eee troup avering nd in ‘hs lor Hilayan, Pe, thee Unversty of Rowke, In Joti, 11. sad Singh, B. (180) Esinaton of slit roc pessue fo tunel ning ener seuecsng rock conan. Proverdne, [SRM Symosian on De ign and Peformance of Underground Exewtton (Cambie, pp 23-238 (ire. Geotsh, So Lenton Kase, Kean Merger, NR, (96, 1982) Tane-dependent deformation of “Sal nes. Expres ales Typ tet daa re faare ay io ft. Rack Mech: Mim Se, 159-10: HB -15 I, 185 07-3 Kase, H (1980 Stat de ead stlenbaus. Springer Ver, Bes, Kosa 7g procetares for the analysis of deep nel problema ‘und, Proceeds. 17th Symposia om Rock Methane (Univer of Uh Ladanyi B57 Use of he longterm strength concent inthe determination of ound ‘esse on tunnel nites. Proc Sef Cone SRM (Denver, Va. 23, pp SO mise Lang TA. (961 Theory and pecs of oek blag, Trane Soe Min. En. AIME. Ling TA ond isco. A. (98) Research stay fc min rock reformat, "repo tthe US. Boren af Mines, Spokane (avaae om NTIS, #PBS. iano, ang. isha J A. and Wagner, P (199) Program pla or determing ptm of bol test Teor and appt frock erent tems econ mies A repr tothe U-S- Bare of Mines, Spolane vale rm NTs, #PB40 9099, McCrea, BR: 0970 Ener related andersroundstorge, Proce, 1976 Rapid Brcaation and Tansetng Conf (AIME), pp. 80-28, Creat Dan Watt BC (973) Unersound sero for pumped storage, Bul Ase Eng Geol 1: 608, Muses. 95) Some Bok Problems ofthe Mathematical Theory of la iy ah tata oy RM. Rade, Noord, Crome ‘Ober, an Duval W. 196) Se references Chapter Pek, E.'s) Basg for lig ated rut ros. So. Min. ng. ATE eck RB. Hendon, Je A.J. and Moray, B (1972) State af thea of ft round Tanna, Proceedings fit apt Ecwrton and Tnacting Conference ABHE): ste ‘Stephenson 0. (1971 Stab snl openings in haivonay beled ok, En.282 Applian of Hock: Mecha is Engrg fr Underground Openings ‘Stet K (979) The Art of Tuneling, 2 ed, Akaemindo, Bao “Tertagi,K (146 Rack detects od ae on tne spor, oe Vator sd TL. White, Rock Tuanlng with Set Supors, Commerc Seating sad Samping Co, Youngstown, OH Problems 1. Draw vectors to scale showing the normal and shear stresses in pst along the locus of fault at points A,B, and Cia he following diagram. The alt Strikes pall oa circular tunnel, 18 in radius, and wis cosest pitt {s 101 fom the tunnel. I dips 60 as shown in the diagram. The nna a), The bulking factor ky i the increase in volume ‘nused by rock bretkage and decompression divided by the original Selume before rock expansion, Asrume thatthe outer circle of the nul is stationary (Up = 0. (Solve the relationship o express the ook bulking factor hy a foetion Of Us, a and b where Up = 0 (e) Derive formula fr kya above for the more general ese with Us + 0 16, A eicular tune! of 212 m ros in pyle is squeezing. Extensometers longa radius determine the radial displacement U, ith time as flows {Gata are fom Jethwa (1981) io (as) oom i 7%} m thous ‘cht the tie ing etn chensomete sation toe $ 1070 sates aa tecon ote 17 Entiat he rads of the desrened zone forte extensometer ao Problem 16 using the following two methods: ter dte (2) Date (17) showed that = 27 tines the rads separating the Capanting por om the contig porn ofthe Jetset ne STs rads can be nterpltd from your anaver wo Problem (ota (4) showed ht sth vale oa which nsw ver ingrinerset he curve for ast placement fs ica open of radius. b/s 4 | ie 44 a i a '2286 spplcons of Hock Mechanic in Engerng for Underground Openage Calculate vu ~ [+ #8] pr with p = 04 MPa,» = 0.2, and E = 500 “MPa and plot the curve un Sets log lo the datasets versus log r foreach ime and determin the intersections with 40) 18, Derive a formula for the ratio Bie of support forces 10 Weight to stabi Tine the roof block ender conditions of iting equiiriam. The ition dangles dyare the sme omsll ins see gure). The uit weights. The (by Solve a) of the maximum width bf block such that no support is reauired {9.1m Problem 18, for iting equilibrium one assumes that fll fiction is ‘mobilized. This requires some bck displacement, however. Since the ‘Ses ae paral, symmetry prevents any distant displacement. Assuming ‘diatancy angle Yon each ant und no inal normal stress, find the ratio af Suppor force to lock weight required fer equilvum as function of Bock placement. Hint” Assume righ wal rock; caleulte the stain af the rock lock that would occur if diatancy were allowed. Find the normal ‘res increment fo accommodate this much stain) 20, Restriction of iataney onthe vera joins of Problem 18 corresponds 0 ‘requiring horizontal path across Figre 5.17. Thus if the intl normal Stress corresponded to ofthis gure, the displacement path woul follow line 3,4, 5,4 of Figure 8.17, The consequent values of and r woud then be determined as functions of displacement w apd cold be entered in the ‘equilteium expression to determine B/W ass function of u see Goodman ‘and Boyle 1988), Suppose the Bock in queton were a symmetrical wedge inthe root, as shown in the figure. What would be the corresponding displacement path atoss Figure 5.1767 2 A circular tunnel has asymmetrical wedge of rock nthe rot. Instead of falling oat a whole Block. itbreaks im two andthe Upper psc remains place as the lower pice fall. What expnation can You give or thi behavior? 22. (a) Calculate the abutment reactions 1 and V and their cation for ting ‘quiibriam ofthe three hinged beam (Se gure) in hero ofa under ‘round opening. (Find the limiting value of etlement A a which ninstabilty develops, Wha isthe coresponding value of the horizontal diplacement Sy of cactsbutment? 23 Assume that both ends of tensioned rock bolt produce compressive stress idea cone of 45 centred about te bolt axis (see figut)- Determine the lengtho-spacing ratio Cis to provide a contiouous zone of compressive (a) OF minimum thickness €2 inthe mile of» straight beam of rock (6) OF mim thickness an curved beam with inside rasa et pa)280 Aplications of Rock Mechanin i glen for Underground Opening 24. A system of rock bolt reinforcement fora -bedded roa is shown i the figure. What ithe purpose ofthe anled bolts? Probie 201 28. (a) Determine the joint pyramid codes forall locks that are removable om the north Wal fan underground chamber in rock mass having the following joint ses = Dip Dip Direction v me "er 2 a ue {) Do the same forthe south wall {e) ras the visible ace ofthe ital book in the north wal as seen fom inside the exeavation looking noe) 26. circulate! wl be driven horizontally tothe N 20” E (azimuth 209 in the rockMiae of Problem 25. On section of the tunel, ooking in the Alvection of tunel diving, daw the maximura key block eon for JP 10