Animal emotions: The ability of animals to experience more complex emotion

Allison Vineyard
Sponsor: Dr. Deborah Waller

Abstract:

In the field of animal behavior, a growing research focus has been

placed on understanding the cognitive ability of animals to display complex
emotions. This emphasis is being pursued in order to understand if animal
behavior is inherently more primal in nature, or if complex emotions such as
jealousy, love, and even empathy are present in their psyche. By placing
various animals in different environments and situations, researchers are
mirroring multiple scenarios to understand their effect on the animals state
of mind. This research has led observers to conclude that animals do in fact
exhibit emotion similar to humans. Numerous case studies have
demonstrated that animals ranging from dogs and chimpanzees to rats and
geese all present evidence of complex emotions when placed in difficult,
stressful, or loving situations.
Introduction:
Humans come into contact with animals on a daily basis, whether it is
with pets or wild and domestic animals that live near their home and/or
work. The ability to recognize animal emotions could positively affect the
lives of both humans and animals involved as they learn to develop a deeper
and more complex bond. Research in animal cognition and emotions has
found some animals capable of recognizing emotions in other species and
being able to react to them. It is not so much a question of whether or not
these animals have feelings but more of a question of how deep these
emotions run. For my paper, I intend to show that animals are more like
humans in regards to emotions, such as empathy and jealousy, than
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commonly thought. This is important from an evolutionary standpoint

because emotional processes may enable many animals to survive and
adapt to their surroundings.
Body:
Sentience has a broad definition of an individual having the capability
to experience one or more emotions and to feel, perceive, or experience
subjectively (Griffin 2003). To be considered a sentient being, an animal must
meet a few criteria, such as the ability to evaluate the actions of others in
relation to itself and third parties, be able to remember some of its own
actions and their consequences, ability to assess risks and benefits, to have
some feelings, and to have some degree of awareness (Broom 2014).
Animals have been shown to be capable of all of these things and have
shown their capability to make choices of actions to acquire what they need
or to avoid circumstances they dislike or fear (Griffin and Speck 2003).
Humans understand that others and their own selves are sentient and aware
of themselves and able to communicate that awareness to others. However,
humans are not born into the world with the ability to have complex
cognitive abilities; this is something that must be developed through time
and learning through experiences. At birth, humans may even have less
cognitive ability than many other animals have. While sentience is a capacity
that grows with development, it can also fade over time as animals become
older, or through illness or unavoidable accidents (Broom 2016). While
humans have the ability to communicate and demonstrate their capacity for
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sentience, other mammals do not all have the ability to communicate to

humans. Humans must gather information from their non-verbal interactions
with these animals and try to guess what they are thinking. Along with nonverbal cues there are new methods that can aid in the study of brain
mechanisms, such as electroencephalography (EEG), positron-emission
tomography (PET-scanning), magneto-encephalography (MEG), and
frequency-modulated magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Broom 2014). The
aid of these machines in brain imaging could be the next step to finding
definitive support for sentience in non-human animals.
An important aspect to learning is memory. Studies on memory in both
humans and non-humans have found that memory does not rely on one
faculty but is supported by multiple systems that differ in the type of
memory they facilitate (Poldrack and Packard 2003). Early learning is a part
of the hippocampal system and after repeating the task multiple times the
dorsal striatal system takes over memory (Poldrack and Packard 2003). Rats
were used in a study of learning and memory. They were placed in a maze
and given the chance to find a reward (Poldrack and Packard 2003). Rats
were allowed to memorize the maze always coming in from the same side
(south end) and food was located in the west end of the maze. Rats were
then placed in the maze from different sides. Following training, rats were
given a probe trial in which they are placed in the start box opposite to that
used during training (north). During this trial, rats that enter the west arm,
were food is located, are place learners, and rats that enter the east arm
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are response learners. In a second trial, Place (control) learner rats were
given saline infusions and placed in the maze and allowed to find the reward
while the response (experimental) rats were given an injection of lidocaine,
a local anesthetic used to produce neural inactivation Poldrack and Packard
2003). Results reveal that saline-infused rats switch from the use of place
learning to response learning tendency. In contrast, rats that received
lidocaine prior to the second probe trial exhibit place learning, demonstrating
a blockade of the expression of response learning. The study of these rats
produces the possibility that there are many processes of the brain involved
in memory learning (Poldrack and Packard 2003). This leads us to believe
that animal brains may be capable of these higher competencies.
Emotions are heavily linked to chemicals in the brain. An example of
one such chemical would be oxytocin, which is normally produced in
the hypothalamus and known as a feel good chemical. In humans, oxytocin
plays a role in social bonding, sexual reproduction in both sexes, and both
during and after childbirth (Magon and Kalra 2011). The release of oxytocin
after childbirth is thought to aid in maternal bonding with offspring. Oxytocin
is released into the bloodstream as a hormone linked to empathy, emotion
recognition, and socioemotional engagement (Burkett et al. 2016). In
rodents, this chemical has been associated with consolation behavior.
Consolation behavior is comfort received by an individual after a loss or
discomfort. In a study published in Science magazine it was found that
consoling behavior is increased between partners exposed to stress (Burkett
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et al. 2016). In this experiment prairie voles, which are known to mate for
life, were placed in separate enclosures and then reunited where consolation
behaviors were timed and
recorded. The control group had
nothing happen to them during
the separation period. In the
experimental groups, voles were
separated and one was given
small electric shocks. In one
experimental group, the voles
were given shots of oxytocin
before the separation and the

Figure 1: Experimental results of consolation

behaviors in voles.

separation was carried out both

Burkett 2016

with and without shocks. The study found that in the groups not given
oxytocin, consolation behaviors lasted much longer in the vole partners that
were shocked than the voles that were just separated with no stressors other
than being separated. It was also found that the voles given oxytocin
injections before separation consoled their partners much less in both
categories (Burkett et al. 2016). These conclusions support the biological
mechanisms that likely provide a basis from which many complex social
behaviors have evolved, including empathy (Burkett et al. 2016). Detection
of distress is important in social learning to determine when consolation is

required. An individual must be able to identify distress in others and identify

this as a potential benefit (Chen et al. 2009).
Consolation behaviors are observed in not only other mammals but
also in many birds (Fraser and Bugnyar 2010). Crows have been observed
performing consolation behavior after conflicts but only when benefits
outweigh the costs. This behavior must happen after a short while of
confrontation as not to catch any remaining aggression (Fraser and Bugnyar
2010). This consolation behavior helps repair the opponents relationship and
alleviates post conflict distress. In order for bystanders to console a victim,
they must first recognize the victim is distressed and act appropriately to
alleviate that distress. This requires sensitivity to emotional needs previously
thought to be present only in humans as sympathetic concern. In geese,
observation as a bystander observing conflict in either their paired partner or
family member resulted in an increase in heartrate indicating an empathetic
response (Fraser and Bugnyar 2010). Studies with consolation were also
done with chimpanzees, an animal closely related to humans, and it was
found that consolation calmed the recipients of aggression (Fraser et al.
2008).
A study with around 26 unrelated female Asian elephants was recently
done in Thailand (Plotnik and de Waal 2014). Elephants were allowed to
socialized and meet the other elephants before the study was done.
Researchers observed the herd and looked for signs of distress (trumpeting,
raised trunk, extended ears, etc.) and then watched for the response from
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the herd. Results showed that when an individual shows signs of distress
there was much more consoling behavior by the remainder of the herd,
including touching of the trunk to genitals, mouth, and head (Plotnik and de
Waal 2014). Consolation behaviors calm the individual and build a bond

Figure 2: Frequency of each type of first contact or bystander response.

Vocalizations: VC - chirp, TS - trunk smack or trunk bounce, VT - trumpet, VS - roar, VR rumble. Touches: TG - genitals, TM - mouth, TF - rest of face/head, TB - rest of body, TT trunk/trunk, BF - breast-feeding. The y-axis indicates the percent (%) occurrence of each
type of vocalization or trunk touch as the first affiliative contact or response across all
dyads. (Plonik and de waal 2014)

between the consoler and the consoled. This is a beneficial behavior because
individuals will remember these actions and will be able to reciprocate in the
future, reducing the stress of both parties.

Mammals that are kept in homes with owners have more of a chance of
recognition of higher level emotions because of the close bond owners will
form with theirs pets. Jealousy is an emotion that is frequently observed in
human behavior. This emotion requires a social triangle, and an intruder in
this relationship that can threaten an important relationship (Harris and
Prouvost 2014). Domestic dogs have been reported as displaying jealousy
towards individuals that come in contact with their owners just as often as
they display anxiety and anger. From this experiment, it might be predicted
that jealousy can occur in not only humans but also in animals that have
formed emotional bonds between individuals that can be threatened by a
third party (Harris and Prouvost 2014). In the jealousy experiment,
experimenters modified a paradigm used to evaluate jealousy in six month
old infants. Thirty six dogs were individually tested and videotaped while
their owners gave their attention to three different objects, ignoring the dog.
One object was a stuffed dog that mimicked a real life dog that barked and
wagged its tail. Owners were instructed to interact with this stuffed dog as if
it was a real dog. The second object was a jack-o-lantern pail and
instructions were to play with pail as if it were a real dog. This object was
used to determine if affection shown towards other individuals was required
to provoke the jealousy response. The third object was a childrens book that
had pop-ups and made noises. Owners were instructed to read the book
aloud as if they were reading to a child. This object was used to determine if
the jealousy in the other conditions was actually jealousy or if it was just a
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more general negative emotion brought on by the loss of attention from the
owners (Harris and Prouvost 2014). Several behaviors were observed that
were linked to jealousy behaviors. These were aggression, attention seeking
or disruption of interaction, and interest or attention (Harris and Prouvost
2014). The results from Harris and Prouvost (2014) showed that the dogs in
this study reacted to the stuffed dog more negatively than the other objects
by snapping at the object, whining, barking, pushing and tugging at the

Figure 3: Harris 2014

Figure 2: Reactions of dogs being tested for jealousy behaviors with their owners. Harris and Prouvost
2014

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Jealousy has also been observed in mountain bluebirds. Although the

most notable study was done in 1976, this information on jealousy provides a
look into non-mammal animals. In this study, a nesting pair of mountain

bluebirds were observed. Once the pair began to build their nest the
researcher waited until the male was away foraging and placed a stuffed
male bluebird in a tree not far from the nest. When the male returned to the
nest and noticed the male not far away he began to squawk, hover, and snap
his bill at the intruding male. Not only did he attack the male but he also
attacked his mate and pulled out feathers (Barash 1976).
Discussion
There have been many more of these experiments, using other
animals and testing different motivations. Evolution plays a big part in these
abilities. Animals have been able to display behaviors that help them to
survive and pass them down to offspring either through genetic information

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or just through social learning. With the aid of these experiments it is very
easy to assume that animals are capable of experiencing these complex
emotions.

References
Barash, D. P. (1976). Male response to apparent female adultery in the
Mountain Bluebird (Sialia currucoides): An evolutionary interpretation. The
American Naturalist, 110, 10971101. DOI: 10.1086/283129

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Broom, Donald M. (2016) Considering animals feelings: Prcis of Sentience

and animal welfare (Broom 2014) Animal Sentience 1(5). Retrieved from
http://animalstudiesrepository.org/animsent/vol1/iss5/1/
Burkett, J.P, Andari, E., Johnson, Z.V., Curry, D.C., de Waal, F.B.M., Young, L.J.
(2016) Oxytocin-dependent consolation behavior in rodents. Science
351(6271): 375-378. DOI: 10.1126/science.aac4785
Chen, Q., Panksepp, J. B., & Lahvis, G. P. (2009) Empathy Is Moderated by
Genetic Background in Mice. PLoS ONE 4(2): e4387.
DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0004387
Fraser, O.N., Bugnyar, T. (2010) Do ravens show consolation? Responses to
distressed others. PLoS ONE 5(5): e10605.
DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0010605
Fraser, O. N., Stahl, D., & Aureli, F. (2008) Stress reduction through
consolation in chimpanzees. PNAS 150(25) 8557-8562.
DOI:10.1073/pnas.0804141105
Griffin, D. R., & Speck, G. B. (2003) New evidence of animal consciousness.
Animal Cognition 7(1): 5-18. DOI: 10.1007/s10071-003-0203-x
Harris C.R., & Prouvost C. (2014) Jealousy in dogs. PLoS ONE 9(7): e94597.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094597

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Magon, N., & Kalra, S. (2011). The orgasmic history of oxytocin: love, lust,
and labor. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 15(Suppl 3): S156S161.
Doi: 10.4103/2230-8210.84851
Plotnik, J. M., & de Waal, F.B.M. (2014) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
reassure others in distress. Peer J 2: e278. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.278
Poldrack, R. A., & Packard, M.G. (2003) Competition among multiple memory
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Neuropsychologia 41(3):245-251. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00157-4

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EDITS:
-All grammatical errors and sentence re-arrangements were made as
requested.
-References were edited, deleted, and some more were added.
-a few more examples were also added.

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