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Metric Spaces V2
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Merging man and maths
Metric Spaces
Available online @ http://www.mathcity.org/msc, Version: 2.0
v Metric Spaces
Let X be a non-empty set and denotes the set of real numbers. A function
d : X X is said to be metric if it satisfies the following axioms " x, y, z X .
[M1] d ( x, y ) 0 i.e. d is finite and non-negative real valued function.
[M2] d ( x, y ) = 0 if and only if x = y.
[M3] d ( x, y ) = d ( y, x)
(Symmetric property)
(Triangular inequality)
[M4] d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
The pair (X, d ) is then called metric space.
d is also called distance function and d(x, y) is the distance from x to y.
Note: If (X, d) be a metric space then X is called underlying set.
v Examples:
i) Let X be a non-empty set. Then d : X X defined by
if x y
1
d ( x, y ) =
if x = y
0
is a metric on X and is called trivial metric or discrete metric.
ii) Let be the set of real number. Then d : defined by
d ( x, y ) = x - y is a metric on .
The space ( , d ) is called real line and d is called usual metric on .
iii) Let X be a non-empty set and d : X X be a metric on X. Then d : X X
defined by d ( x, y ) = min (1, d ( x, y ) ) is also a metric on X.
Proof:
[M1] Since d is a metric so d ( x, y ) 0
as d ( x, y ) is either 1 or d ( x, y ) so d ( x, y ) 0 .
[M2] If x = y then d ( x, y ) = 0 and then d ( x, y ) which is min (1, d ( x, y ) ) will be
zero.
Conversely, suppose that d ( x, y ) = 0 min (1, d ( x, y ) ) = 0
d ( x, y ) = 0
x = y as d is metric.
[M3] d ( x, y ) = min (1, d ( x, y ) ) = min (1, d ( y, x) ) = d ( y, x)
Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
[M4] We have d ( x, z ) = min (1, d ( x, z ) )
d ( x, z ) 1 or d ( x, z ) d ( x, z )
We wish to prove d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
now if d ( x, z ) 1 , d ( x, y ) 1 and d ( y, z ) 1
then d ( x, z ) = 1 , d ( x, y ) = 1 and d ( y, z ) = 1
and d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z ) = 1 + 1 = 2
Metric Spaces
therefore d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
Now if d ( x, z ) < 1 , d ( x, y ) < 1 and d ( y, z ) < 1
Then d ( x, z ) = d ( x, z ) , d ( x, y ) = d ( x, y ) and d ( y, z ) = d ( y, z )
As d is metric therefore d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
Q.E.D
iv) Let d : X X be a metric space. Then d : X X defined by
d ( x, y )
d ( x, y ) =
is also a metric.
1 + d ( x, y )
Proof.
d ( x, y )
= d ( x, y ) 0
[M1] Since d ( x, y ) 0 therefore
1 + d ( x, y )
d ( x, y )
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0
= 0 d ( x, y ) = 0 x = y
1 + d ( x, y )
Now conversely suppose x = y then d ( x, y ) = 0 .
d ( x, y )
0
Then d ( x, y ) =
=
=0
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + 0
d ( x, y )
d ( y, x)
=
= d ( y, x )
[M3] d ( x, y ) =
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + d ( y , x )
[M4] Since d is metric therefore d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z )
a
b
Now by using inequality a < b
<
.
1+ a 1+ b
d ( x, z )
d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
We get
1 + d ( x, z ) 1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
d ( x, y )
d ( y, z )
d ( x, z )
+
1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z ) 1 + d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
d ( x, y )
d ( y, z )
d ( x, z )
+
1 + d ( x, y ) 1 + d ( y , z )
d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
Q.E.D
v) The space C[a, b] is a metric space and the metric d is defined by
d ( x, y ) = max x(t ) - y (t )
tJ
where J = [a, b] and x, y are continuous real valued function defined on [a, b].
Proof.
[M1] Since x(t ) - y (t ) 0 therefore d ( x, y ) 0 .
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0 x(t ) - y (t ) = 0 x(t ) = y (t )
Conversely suppose x = y
Then d ( x, y ) = max x(t ) - y (t ) = max x(t ) - x(t ) = 0
tJ
tJ
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Metric Spaces
tJ
tJ
tJ
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
Q.E.D
vi) d : is a metric, where is the set of real number and d defined by
d ( x, y ) =
x- y
viii) d : is not a metric, where is the set of real number and d defined by
d ( x, y ) = ( x - y ) 2
Proof.
[M1] Square is always positive therefore ( x - y ) 2 = d ( x, y ) 0
[M2] Let d ( x, y ) = 0 ( x - y ) 2 = 0 x - y = 0 x = y
Conversely suppose that x = y
then d ( x, y ) = ( x - y )2 = ( x - x)2 = 0
[M3] d ( x, y ) = ( x - y ) 2 = ( y - x) 2 = d ( y, x)
[M4] Suppose that triangular inequality holds in d. then for any x, y, z
d ( x, z ) d ( x - y ) + d ( y , z )
( x - z )2 ( x - y ) 2 + ( y - z ) 2
Since x, y, z therefore consider x = 0, y = 1 and z = 2 .
(0 - 2)2 (0 - 1)2 + (1 - 2) 2
4 1+1
42
which is not true so triangular inequality does not hold and d is not metric.
Metric Spaces
xi Cx " i = 1, 2,3,...
where C x is fixed real number. The metric is defined as
d ( x, y ) = sup xi - yi
where y = ( yi )
i
x
j =1
< .
1
p
p
The metric is defined by d ( x, y ) = x j - h j
j =1
h
j =1
<
Proof.
1
p
p
[M1] Since x j - h j 0 therefore x j - h j = d ( x, y ) 0 .
j =1
[M2] If x = y then
p
p p
p p
p
d ( x, y ) = x j - h j = x j - x j == 0 = 0
j =1
j =1
j =1
Conversely, if d ( x, y ) = 0
1
p
p
x j - h j = 0 x j - h j = 0 (x j ) = (h j ) x = y
j =1
1
p
1
p
p
p
[M3] d ( x, y ) = x j - h j = h j - x j = d ( y, x )
j =1
j =1
z
j =1
p
then d ( x, z ) = x j - z j
j =1
<
1
p
p
= x j -h j +hj - z j
j =1
*
Using Minkowskis Inequality
1
p
1
p
p
p
x j -h j + h j - z j
j =1
j =1
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y , z )
1
p
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Metric Spaces
Q.E.D
v Pseudometric
Let X be a non-empty set. A function d : X X is called pseudometric
if and only if
i) d ( x, x) = 0 for all x X .
ii) d ( x, y ) = d ( y, x) for all x, y X .
iii) d ( x, z ) d ( x, y ) + d ( y, z ) for all x, y, z X .
OR
A pseudometric satisfies all axioms of a metric except d ( x, y ) = 0
may not imply x = y but x = y implies d ( x, y ) = 0 .
Example
Let x, y 2 and x = ( x1 , x2 ) , y = ( y1 , y2 )
Then d ( x, y ) = x1 - y1 is a pseudometric on 2 .
Let x = (2,3) and y = (2,5)
Then d ( x, y ) = 2 - 2 = 0 but x y
xi + hi
i =1
1
p
xi
i =1
1
p
+ hi
i =1
1
p
zA
= d ( x, y ) + d ( y, A)
d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) d ( x, y ) (i)
Next
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Metric Spaces
d ( y, A) = inf d ( y, z ) d ( y, x) + inf d ( x, z )
z A
zA
= d ( y, x) + d ( x, A)
- d ( x, A) + d ( y, A) d ( y, x)
- ( d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) ) d ( x, y ) (ii )
Combining equation (i) and (ii)
d ( x, A) - d ( y, A) d ( x, y )
Q.E.D
Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
v Diameter of a set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A X , we define diameter of A denoted by
d ( A) = sup d (a, b)
a , b A
where a A, b B .
Q.E.D
v Open Ball
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space. An open ball in ( X , d ) is denoted by
B( x0 ; r ) = { x X | d ( x0 , x) < r}
x0 is called centre of the ball and r is called radius of ball and r 0 .
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Metric Spaces
v Closed Ball
The set B( x0 ; r ) = { x X | d ( x0 , x) r} is called closed ball in ( X , d ) .
v Sphere
The set S ( x0 ; r ) = { x X | d ( x0 , x) = r} is called sphere in ( X , d ) .
v Examples
Consider the set of real numbers with usual metric d = x - y " x, y
then B( xo ; r ) = { x | d ( xo , x) < r}
i.e. B( xo ; r ) = { x : x - xo < r}
i.e. x0 - r < x < x + r = ( x0 - r , x0 + r )
i.e. open ball is the real line with usual metric is an open interval.
And B( xo ; r ) = { x : x - x0 r}
i.e. x0 - r x x0 + r = [ x0 - r , x0 + r ]
i.e. closed ball in a real line is a closed interval.
And S ( xo ; r ) = { x : x - x0 = r} = { x0 - r , x0 + r}
i.e. two point x0 - r and x0 + r only.
v Open Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and set G is called open in X if for every x G , there
exists an open ball B( x ; r ) G .
v Theorem
An open ball in metric space X is open.
Proof.
Let B( x0 ; r ) be an open ball in ( X , d ) .
Let y B ( x0 ; r ) then d ( x0 , y ) = r1 < r
Let r2 < r - r1 , then B( y ; r2 ) B ( x0 ; r )
Hence B( x0 ; r ) is an open set.
Alternative:
Let B( x0 ; r ) be an open ball in ( X , d ) .
Let x B( x0 ; r ) then d ( x0 , x) = r1 < r
Take r2 = r - r1 and consider the open ball B ( x ; r2 )
we show that B( x ; r2 ) B ( x ; r ) .
For this let y B ( x ; r2 ) then d ( x, y ) < r2
and d ( x0 , y ) d ( x0 , x) + d ( x, y )
< r1 + r2 = r
hence y B ( x0 ; r ) so that B( x; r2 ) B ( x0 ; r ) . Thus B( x0 ; r ) is an open.
Q.E.D
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Metric Spaces
Metric Spaces
r
r
For this let z B y ; 2 then d ( z, y ) < 2
2
2
By the triangular inequality
d ( x, y ) d ( x, z ) + d ( z , y )
d ( x, y ) d ( z , x ) + d ( z , y )
Q d ( y, z ) = d ( z , y )
d ( z , x ) d ( x, y ) - d ( z , y )
2r - r
2r - r + r
r
r +r
d ( z, x) > r1 - 2 = 1 2 = 1 1
= 1
Q r2 = r1 - r
2
2
2
2
r+r
d ( z, x) >
=r
Q r1 - r = r2 > 0 \ r1 > r
2
z B ( x ; r ) This shows that z C
r
B y; 2 C
2
Hence C is an open set and consequently B( x ; r ) is closed.
Q.E.D
v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A X . If x X is a limit point of A. then every
open ball B( x ; r ) with centre x contain an infinite numbers of point of A.
Proof.
Suppose B( x ; r ) contain only a finite number of points of A.
Let a1 , a2 ,..., an be those points.
and let d ( x, ai ) = ri where i = 1,2,..., n .
also consider r = min(r1 , r2 ,..., rn )
Then the open ball B( x ; r ) contain no point of A other than x. then x is not limit point of
A. This is a contradiction therefore B( x; r ) must contain infinite numbers of point of A.
v Closure of a Set
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and M X . Then closure of M is denoted by
M = M M where M is the set of all limit points of M. It is the smallest closed
superset of M.
v Dense Set
Let (X, d) be a metric space the a set M X is called dense in X if M = X .
v Countable Set
A set A is countable if it is finite or there exists a function f : A which is oneone and onto, where is the set of natural numbers.
e.g. , and are countable sets . The set of real numbers, the set of irrational
numbers and any interval are not countable sets.
v Separable Space
A space X is said to be separable if it contains a countable dense subsets.
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10
Metric Spaces
e.g. the real line is separable since it contain the set of rational numbers, which is
dense is .
v Theorem
Let (X, d) be a metric space, A X is dense if and only if A has non-empty
intersection with any open subset of X.
Proof.
Assume that A is dense in X. then A = X .
Suppose there is an open set G X such that A G = j .
Then if x G then A ( G - {x}) = j
which show that x is not a limit point of A.
This implies x A but x X A X
This is a contradiction.
Consequently A G j for any open G X .
Conversely suppose that A G j for any open G X .
We prove A = X , for this let x X .
If x A then x A A = A then X = A .
If x A then let {Gi } be the family of all the open subset of X such that x Gi for every i.
Then by hypothesis A Gi j for any i. i.e Gi contain point of A other then x.
This implies that x is an accumulation point of A. i.e. x A
Accordingly x A A = A and X = A .
The proof is complete.
v Neighbourhood of a Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and x0 X and a subset N X is called a
neighbourhood of x0 if there exists an open ball B( x0 ; e ) with centre x0 such that
B( x0 ; e ) N .
Shortly neighbourhood is written as nhood .
v Interior Point
Let (X, d) be a metric space and A X , a point x0 X is called an interior point of
A if there is an open ball B( x0 ; r ) with centre x0 such that B( x0 ; r ) A .
The set of all interior points of A is called interior of A and is denoted by int(A) or Ao .
It is the largest open set contain in A. i.e. Ao A .
v Continuity
A function f : ( X , d ) (Y , d ) is called continuous at a point x0 X if for any
e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that d ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) < e for all x satisfying d ( x, x0 ) < d .
Alternative:
f : X Y is continuous at x0 X if for any e > 0 , there is a d > 0 such that
x B( x0 ;d )
f ( x) B ( f ( x0 ); e ) .
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Metric Spaces
v Theorem
f :( X , d ) (Y , d ) is continuous at x0 X if and only if f -1 (G ) is open is X.
wherever G is open in Y.
Note : Before proving this theorem note that if f : X Y , f -1 : Y X and A X ,
B Y then f -1 f ( A) A and f f -1 ( B ) B
Proof.
Assume that f : X Y is continuous and G Y is open. We will prove f -1 (G ) is
open in X.
Let x f -1 (G ) f ( x) f f -1 (G ) G
When G is open, there is an open ball B ( f ( x); e ) G .
Since f : X Y is continuous, therefore for e > 0 there is a d > 0 such that
y B ( x ;d ) f ( y ) B ( f ( x); e ) G then y f -1 f (G ) f -1 (G )
Since y is an arbitrary point of B( x ;d ) f -1 (G ) . Also x was arbitrary, this show that
f -1 (G ) is open in X.
Conversely, for any G Y we prove f : X Y is continuous.
For this let x X and e > 0 be given. Now f ( x) Y and let B ( f ( x); e ) be an open ball
12
Metric Spaces
such that
e
whenever n > n1
2
Also xn b , given any e > 0 , there is a natural number n2 depending on e
such that
e
d ( xn , b) <
whenever n > n2
2
Take n0 = max(n1 , n2 ) then
e
e
d ( xn , a) <
and d ( xn , b) <
whenever n > n0
2
2
Since e is arbitrary, take e = r then
r = d (a, b) d (a, xn ) + d ( xn , b)
r r
e
< + =r
Q d (a, xn ) = d ( xn , a) <
2 2
2
Which is a contradiction, Hence a = b i.e. limit is unique.
d ( xn , a) <
v Theorem
i)
A convergent sequence is bounded.
ii)
If xn x and yn y then d ( xn , yn ) d ( x, y ) .
Proof.
(i) Suppose xn x , therefore for any e > 0 there is n0 such that
" n > n0 , d ( xn , x) < e
Let a = max {d ( x1 , x), d ( x2 , x),............, d ( xn , x)} and k = max {e , a}
Then by using triangular inequality for arbitrary xi , x j ( xn )
0 d ( xi , x j ) d ( xi , x) + d ( x, x j )
k + k = 2k
Hence ( xn ) is bounded.
(ii) By using triangular inequality
d ( xn , yn ) d ( xn , x ) + d ( x, y ) + d ( y, yn )
d ( xn , yn ) - d ( x, y ) d ( xn , x ) + d ( y, yn ) 0 + 0
Next
d ( x, y ) d ( x, xn ) + d ( xn , yn ) + d ( yn , y )
d ( x, y ) - d ( xn , yn ) d ( x, xn ) + d ( yn , y ) 0 + 0
From (i) and (ii)
d ( xn , yn ) - d ( x, y ) 0 as n
Hence
lim d ( xn , yn ) = d ( x, y )
n
as n ...........(i )
as n ..........(ii )
Q.E.D
v Cauchy Sequence
A sequence ( xn ) in a metric space ( X , d ) is called Cauchy if any e > 0 there is a
n0 such that " m, n > n0 , d ( xm , xn ) < e .
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13
Metric Spaces
v Theorem
A convergent sequence in a metric space ( X , d ) is Cauchy.
Proof.
Let xn x X , therefore any e > 0 there is n0 such that
e
e
" m, n > n0 , d ( xn , x) <
and d ( xm , x) < .
2
2
Then by using triangular inequality
d ( xm , xn ) d ( xm , x ) + d ( x, xn )
d ( xm , x ) + d ( xn , x )
Q d ( x, y ) = d ( y , x )
e e
< + =e
2 2
Thus every convergent sequence in a metric space is Cauchy.
v Example
Let ( xn ) be a sequence in the discrete space ( X , d ) . If ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence, then
for e = 12 , there is a natural number n0 depending on e such that
d ( xm , xn ) < 12
" m, n n0
Since in discrete space d is either 0 or 1 therefore d ( xm , xn ) = 0 xm = xn = x (say)
Thus a Cauchy sequence in ( X , d ) become constant after a finite number of terms,
i.e.
v Subsequence
Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ,...) be a sequence ( X , d ) and let (i1 , i2 , i3 ,...) be a sequence of
positive integers such that i1 < i2 < i3 < ... then
( an : n ) .
i2
i3
v Theorem
(i) Let ( xn ) be a Cauchy sequence in ( X , d ) , then ( xn ) converges to a point x X if
( )
( )
( )
Then for any e > 0 there is n0 such that " nk > n0 , d xnk , x <
Further more ( xn ) is Cauchy sequence
e
.
2
e
.
2
Suppose n2 = max(n0 , n1 ) then by using the triangular inequality we have
Then for the e > 0 there is n1 such that " m, n > n1 , d ( xm , xn ) <
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14
Metric Spaces
) (
d ( xn , x ) d xn , xnk + d xnk , x
<
e e
+ =e
2 2
)
" nk , n > n2
" nk > n0
Hence xnk x X .
v Example
Let X = ( 0,1) then ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,...) = ( 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 ,...) is a sequence in X.
Then xn 0 but 0 is not a point of X.
v Theorem
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and M X .
(i)
Then x M if and only if there is a sequence ( xn ) in M such that xn x .
(ii) If for any sequence ( xn ) in M, xn x x M , then M is closed.
Proof.
(i) Suppose x M = M M
If x M , then there is a sequence ( x, x, x,...) in M which converges to x.
If x M , then x M i.e. x is an accumulation point of M, therefore each n the
1
open ball B x ; contain infinite number of point of M.
n
1
We choose xn M from each B x ;
n
1
Then we obtain a sequence ( xn ) of points of M and since 0 as n .
n
Then xn x as n .
Conversely, suppose ( xn ) such that xn x .
We prove x M
If x M then x M .
Q M = M M
If x M , then every neighbourhood of x contain infinite number of terms of ( xn ) .
Then x is a limit point of M i.e. x M
Hence x M = M M .
(ii) If ( xn ) is in M and xn x , then x M then by hypothesis M = M , then M is
closed.
v Complete Space
A metric space ( X , d ) is called complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges
to a point of X.
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15
Metric Spaces
v Subspace
Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and Y X then Y is called subspace if Y is itself a
metric space under the metric d.
v Theorem
A subspace of a complete metric space ( X , d ) is complete if and only if Y is closed
in X.
Proof.
Assume that Y is complete we prove Y is closed.
Let x Y then there is a sequence ( xn ) in Y such that xn x .
Since convergent sequence is a Cauchy and Y is complete then xn x Y .
Y Y
QY Y
Therefore Y = Y
Consequently Y is closed.
Conversely, suppose Y is closed and ( xn ) is a Cauchy sequence. Then ( xn ) is Cauchy in
X and since X is complete so xn x X .
Also x Y and Y X .
Since Y is closed i.e. Y = Y therefore x Y .
Hence Y is complete. 8
v Nested Sequence:
A sequence sets A1 , A2 , A3 ,... is called nested if A1 A2 A3 ...
v Theorem (Cantors Intersection Theorem)
A metric space ( X , d ) is complete if and only if every nested sequence of nonempty closed subset of X, whose diameter tends to zero, has a non-empty intersection.
Proof.
Suppose ( X , d ) is complete and let A1 A2 A3 ... be a nested sequence of
closed subsets of X.
Since Ai is non-empty we choose a point an from each An . And then we will prove
(a1 , a2 , a3 ,...) is Cauchy in X.
( )
Let e > 0 be given, since lim d ( An ) = 0 then there is n0 such that d An0 < 0
n
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16
Metric Spaces
d
d
Consider the open ball B p ; then Ak and B p ; are disjoint
2
2
d
Now ak , ak +1 , ak + 2 ,... all belong to Ak then all these points do not belong to B p ;
2
This is a contradiction as p is the limit point of ( an ) .
Hence p I An .
n
Conversely, assume that every nested sequence of closed subset of X has a non-empty
intersection. Let ( xn ) be Cauchy in X, where ( xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,...)
Consider the sets
A1 = { x1 , x2 , x3 ,...}
A2 = { x2 , x3 , x4 ,...}
Ak = { xn : n k}
Then we have A1 A2 A3 ...
We prove lim d ( An ) = 0
n
( )
lim d ( An ) = 0 .
n
Also A1 A2 A3 ...
Then by hypothesis
IA
We prove xn p X
j . Let p I An
n
( )
17
Metric Spaces
2,
(iv) The space of irrational number with usual metric is not complete.
We take ( -1,1) , ( - 1 2 , 1 2 ) , ( - 13 , 13 ) ,..., ( - 1 n , 1 n )
We choose one irrational number from each interval and these irrational tends to zero as
we goes toward infinity, as zero is a rational so space of irrational is not complete.
v Theorem
The real line is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xn ) be any Cauchy sequence of real numbers.
We first prove that ( xn ) is bounded.
Let e = 1 > 0 then $ n0 such that " m, n n0 , d ( xm , xn ) = xm - xn < 1
In particular for n n0 we have
then b xn a " n .
this shows that ( xn ) is bounded with b as lower bound and a as upper bound.
Secondly we prove ( xn ) has convergent subsequence ( xni ) .
If the range of the sequence is { xn } = { x1 , x2 , x3 ,...} is finite, then one of the term is the
sequence say b will repeat infinitely i.e. b, b ,b ,.
Then (b, b, b,...) is a convergent subsequence which converges to b.
If the range is infinite then by the Bolzano Weirestrass theorem, the bounded infinite set
{ xn } has a limit point, say b.
Then each of the open interval S1 = (b - 1, b + 1) , S2 = ( b - 1 2 , b + 1 2 ) ,
S2 = ( b - 13 , b + 13 ) , has an infinite numbers of points of the set { xn } .
i.e. there are infinite numbers of terms of the sequence ( xn ) in every open interval Sn .
We choose a point xi1 from S1 , then we choose a point xi2 from S2 such that i1 < i2
i.e. the terms xi2 comes after xi1 in the original sequence ( xn ) . Then we choose a term xi3
such that i2 < i3 , continuing in this manner we obtain a subsequence
( x ) = ( x , x , x ,K) .
in
i1
i2
i3
It is always possible to choose a term because every interval contain an infinite numbers
of terms of the sequence ( xn ) .
Since b - 1n b and b + 1n b as n . Hence we have convergent subsequence
( x ) whose limit is
in
b.
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Metric Spaces
e
2
Also since xin b there is a natural number im such that im > n0
Then " m, n, im > n0
xm - xn <
" m, n > n0
d ( xn , b ) = xn - b = xn - xim + xim - b
e e
+ =e
2 2
v Theorem
The Euclidean space n is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xm ) be any Cauchy sequence in n .
Then for any e > 0 , there is n0 such that " m, r > n0
1
( m ) ( r ) 2 2
d ( xm , xr ) = x j - x j < e ..............(i)
(m)
(r )
(m) (m) (m) (m)
(r ) (r ) (r ) (r )
(m) (r )
x j - x j < e 2
(m)
(r )
xj-xj <e
" j = 1, 2,3,K, n
j = 1, 2,3,K, n .
(m)
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Metric Spaces
(n)
x j - x j < e ..........(ii)
every j = 1, 2,3,K
(m)
(m)
(m)
(m)
x j = x j - x j + x j x j - x j + x j < e + km
(m)
d ( xn , x ) = sup x j - x j <
j
e
3
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Metric Spaces
e
3
Then by using triangular inequality we have
( n0 )
( n0 )
x j - xk <
( n0 )
( n0 )
( n0 )
( n0 )
x j - xk = x j - x j + x j - xk + xk - xk
( n0 )
( n0 )
( n0 )
( n0 )
x j - x j + x j - xk + xk - xk
e e e
+ + =e
" j , k > n1
3 3 3
Hence x is Cauchy in l and x is convergent
Therefore x C and C = C .
i.e. C is closed in l and l is complete.
Since we know that a subspace of complete space is complete if and only if it is closed
in the space.
Consequently C is complete.
<
v Theorem
The space l p , p 1 is a real number, is complete.
Proof.
Let ( xn ) be any Cauchy sequence in l p .
Then for every e > 0 , there is n0 such that " m, n > n0
1
(m) (n)
d ( xm , xn ) = x j - x j
j =1
(m)
p
< e .. (i)
(n)
x j - x j < e (ii)
(m)
This shows that x j is a Cauchy sequence of numbers for the fixed j.
(m)
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Metric Spaces
1
k (m) (n)
x j - x j
j =1
k
i.e.
(m)
x
j =1
(n) p
-x j
p
< e
< e p . (iii)
Taking as n , we get
k
(m)
x
j =1
-x j
<ep ,
k = 1, 2, 3, .
-x j
< e p (iv)
" j = 1,2,3,..........
tJ
where J = [ a, b] .
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Metric Spaces
as m
v Theorem
If ( X , d1 ) and (Y , d 2 ) are complete then X Y is complete.
(m) (n)
(m) (n)
(m)
(1) (2) (3)
(m)
(m)
Hence xm x X Y .
This proves completeness of X Y .
Also
v Theorem
f : ( X , d ) (Y , d ) is continuous at x0 X if and only if xn x implies
f ( xn ) f ( x0 ) .
Proof.
Assume that f is continuous at x0 X then for given e > 0 there is a d > 0
such that
d ( x, x0 ) < d d ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) < e .
Let xn x0 , then for our d > 0 there is n0 such that
d ( xn , x0 ) < d , " n > n0
Then by hypothesis d ( f ( xn ), f ( x0 ) ) < e , " n > n0
i.e.
f ( xn ) f ( x0 )
Conversely, assume that xn x0 f ( xn ) f ( x0 )
We prove f : X Y is continuous at x0 X , suppose this is false
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Metric Spaces
Then there is an e > 0 such that for every d > 0 there is an x X such that
d ( x, x0 ) < d but d ( f ( x), f ( x0 ) ) e
1
In particular when d = , there is xn X such that
n
d ( xn , x0 ) < d but d ( f ( xn ), f ( x0 ) ) e .
This shows that xn x0 but f ( xn ) f ( x0 ) as n .
This is a contradiction.
Consequently f : X Y is continuous at x0 X .
The proof is complete.
v Rare (or nowhere dense in X )
Let X be a metric, a subset M X is called rare (or nowhere dense in X ) if M
has no interior point i.e. int M = j .
( )
c
and an open ball B1 = B ( p1; e1 ) M 1 , where e1 < 1 .
2
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Metric Spaces
c
p Bm
" m
i.e. p M m
" m
Q Bm = M 2 B pm-1; 12 e m-1
c
Bm M m
Bm M m = j
p Mm " m p X
This is a contradiction.
Bairs Theorem is proof.
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