CHAPTER4BIPOLARJUNCTIONTRANSISTORS(BJTs)

ChapterOutline
4.1DeviceStructureandPhysicalOperation
4.2CurrentVoltageCharacteristics
4.3BJTCircuitsatDC
4.4ApplyingtheBJTinAmplifierDesign
4.5SmallSignalOperationandModels
4.6BasicBJTAmplifierConfigurations
4.7BiasinginBJTAmplifierCircuits
4.8DiscreteCircuitBJTAmplifiers

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4.1DeviceStructureandPhysicalOperation
Physicalstructureofbipolarjunctiontransistor(BJT)
Bothelectronsandholesparticipateintheconductionprocessforbipolardevices
BJTconsistsoftwopn junctionsconstructedinaspecialwayandconnectedinseries,backtoback
Thetransistorisathreeterminaldevicewithemitter,base andcollector terminals
Fromthephysicalstructure,BJTscanbedividedintotwogroups:npn andpnp transistors

Modesofoperation
ThetwojunctionsofBJTcanbeeitherforwardorreversebiased
TheBJTcanoperateindifferentmodesdependingonthejunctionbias
TheBJToperatesinactivemodeforamplifiercircuits
Switchingapplicationsutilizeboththecutoffandsaturationmodes

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Mode

EBJ

CBJ

Cutoff

Reverse

Reverse

Active

Forward

Reverse

Saturation

Forward

Forward

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Operationofthenpn transistorintheactivemode
ElectronsinemitterregionsareinjectedintobaseduetotheforwardbiasatEBJ
MostoftheinjectedelectronsreachtheedgeofCBJbeforebeingrecombinedifthebaseisnarrow
ElectronsattheedgeofCBJwillbesweptintocollectorduetothereversebiasatCBJ
Emitterinjectionefficiency ( )=iEn/(iEn+iEp)
Basetransportfactor (T)=iCn/iEn
Commonbasecurrentgain ()=iCn/iE = T <1
TerminalcurrentsofBJTinactivemode:
iE(emittercurrent)=iEn(electroninjectionfromEtoB)+iEp(holeinjectionfromBtoE)
iC(collectorcurrent)=iCn(electrondrift)+iCBO(CBJreversesaturationcurrentwithemitteropen)
iB(basecurrent)= iB1(holeinjectionfromBtoE)+iB2(recombinationinbaseregion)

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Terminalcurrents:

AE qDnB ni2 vBE /VT

e
I S e vBE / VT
Collectorcurrent: iC iCn AE qDnB dnB ( x) / dx AE qDnB nB (0) / W
N BW

Basecurrent:
AE qD pE ni2 v
e
Holeinjectionintoemitterduetoforwardbias: iB1 AE qD pE dpE ( x) / dx

BE

/ VT

N E L pE

Eelectronholerecombinationinbase: iB 2
Totalbasecurrent: iB iB1 iB 2 I S (
Emittercurrent: iE iC iB

AE qWni2 vBE / VT
1

Qn / n AE q nB (0)W / n
e
2
2 N B n

D pE N B W 1 W 2 vBE /VT iC

)e

DnB N E L pE 2 DnB n

i
I
1
iC C S e v

BE

/ VT

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LargesignalmodelandcurrentgainforBJTinactiveregion
Commonemitter currentgain
(1)

iC

iB

Commonbase currentgain
(+1)

iE

iC

iB

iE
1

D pE N B W 1 W 2 1
iC

) /(1 )
Commonemittercurrentgain: (
iB
DnB N E L pE 2 DnB n

Commonbasecurrentgain: /( 1)

Thestructureofactualtransistors
Inmodernprocesstechnologies,theBJTutilizesaverticalstructure
Typically, issmallerandclosetounitywhile islarge

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Operationofthenpn transistorinthesaturationmode
Saturationmode:bothEBJandCBJareforwardbiased
Carrierinjectionfrombothemitterandcollectorintobase
Baseminoritycarrierconcentraiton changeaccordingly leadingtoreducedslopeasvBC increases
CollectorcurrentdropsfromthevalueinactivemodefornegativevCB
ForagivenvBE,iC dropssharplytozeroatvCB around0.5VandvCE around0.2V
BJTinsaturation:VCEsat =0.2V
i
Currentgainreduces(from toforced): forced C saturation
iB

np0exp(vBE/VT)

np0exp(vBC/VT)
vBC increases

np0

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EbersMollmodel
InEMmodel,theEBJandCBJarerepresentedbytwobacktobackdiodesiDE andiDC
CurrenttransportedfromonejunctiontotheotherispresentedbyF (forward)andR (reverse)
EMmodelcanbeusedtodescribetheBJTinanyofitspossiblemodesofoperation
EMmodelisusedformoredetaileddcanalysis
v /V
1) iDC I SC (e v / V 1) F I SE R I SC I S
Thediodecurrents: iDE I SE (e
iC iDC F iDE
iB iE iC
Theterminalcurrents: iE iDE R iDC
BE

BC

ApplicationoftheEMmodel
Theforwardactivemode:

1
iC I S e vBE / VT I S
1
R
1
I
1

iB S e vBE / VT I S
F

R
F

I
1

iE S e vBE /VT I S 1
F
F

iDE

RiDC

iC I S e vBE /VT I SC e vBC / VT

iE I SE e

ISe

iC

iE

Thesaturationmode:
v BE / VT

iDC

FiDE
iB

v BC / VT

iB I SE (1 F )e vBE / VT I SC (1 R )e vBC / VT

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Thecutoffmode
ICBO (CBJreversecurrentwithemitteropencircuited)
ICBO =(1RF)ISC
BothEBJandCBJarereversebiased
Inrealcase,reversecurrentdependsonvCB
ICEO (CBJreversecurrentwithbaseopencircuited)
ICEO =ICBO/(1F)
F isalwayssmallerthanunitysuchthat ICEO >ICBO
CBJcurrentflowsfrom(CtoB)so CBJisreversebiased
EBJcurrentflowsfrom(EtoB)so EBJisslightlyforwardbiased

(3) RISC

iB

(3)iDE

iC

iE =0
(2)RISC

iE

iC

iC =ICBO =(1RF)ISC (5)

FiDE (4)

(2)RISC

RFISC (4)

ISC (1)

ISC (1)

iB =0

iB =(R1)ISC+(1F)iDE =0 iDE =ISC(1R)/(1F) (5)

iC =ISC+FiDE =ISC(1RF)/(1F) ICEO =ICBO/(1F) (6)

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Thepnp transistor
Transistorstructure:
emitterandcollectorareptype
baseisntype
Operationofpnp issimilartothatofnpn

Operationofpnp intheactivemode
Collectorcurrent: iC I S e
Basecurrent: iB iC /
Emittercurrent: iE iC iB

v EB / VT

LargesignalmodelandcurrentgainforBJTinactiveregion
Commonemitter currentgain
(1)

iC

iB

Commonbase currentgain
(+1)

iE

iC

iB

iE
1

Exercise4.1(Textbook)
Exercise4.3(Textbook)
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4.2CurrentVoltageCharacteristics
Circuitsymbols,voltagepolaritiesandcurrentflow
Terminalcurrentsaredefinedinthedirectionascurrentflowinactivemode
Negativevaluesofcurrentorvoltagemeaninoppositepolarity(direction)

SummaryoftheBJTcurrentvoltagerelationshipsintheactivemode
TheterminalcurrentsforaBJTinactivemodesolelydependonthejunctionvoltageofEBJ
TheratiosoftheterminalcurrentsforaBJTinactivemodeareconstant
Thecurrentdirectionsfornpn andpnp transistorsareopposite
npn transistor

pnp transistor

iC I S e
i
I
iB C S e vBE /VT

iC I S e
i
I
iB C S e vEB / VT

v BE / VT

iE

iC

IS

e vBE /VT

v EB / VT

iE

iC

IS

e vEB /VT

iE iC iB

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CurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofBJT
TheiCvCB characteristics

TheiCvCE characteristics

TheEarlyeffect
AsCBJreversebiasincreases,theeffectivebasewidthWeff reducesduetotheincreasingdepletion
ForaconstantjunctionvoltagevBE:
TheslopeofnB(x)increases iC increases
nB (0)
VZ
ChargestorageQn reduces iB decreases
VY
Currentgaina andb increases
VX
Earlyvoltage (VA)isusedforthelinearapproximationofEarlyEffect
LineardependenceofiC onvCE: iC I S e v /V (1 vCE / VA )
BE

i
Exhibitfiniteoutputresistance: ro C
vCE

V
A
v BE constant
IC

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nB0
0

WX WY WZ

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Commonbaseoutputcharacteristics

Earlyeffect

breakdown

iC versusvCB plotwithvariousiE asparameterisknownascommonbase outputcharacteristics

TheslopeindicatesthatiC dependstoasmallextentonvCB Earlyeffect
iC increasesrapidlyathighvCB breakdown
BCJisslightlyforwardbiasedfor0.4V<vCB <0
NosignificantchangeisobservediniC
TheBJTstillexhibitsIVcharacteristicsasintheactivemode
BCJturnsonstronglyandtheiC startstodecreaseforvBC <0.4V
IVcharacteristicsinthesaturationmodeandvCEsat isconsideredaconstant( 0.2 V)
Currentgain():largesignal iC/iE andsmallsignal(incremental) iC/iE

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Commonemitteroutputcharacteristics(I)
iC versusvCE plotwithvariousvBE asparameter
Commonemittercurrentgainisdefinedas =iC / iB
TheBCJturnsonwithapositivevBC atlowvCE
BJToperatesinsaturationmode
TheiC curvehasafiniteslopeduetoEarlyeffect
ThecharacteristicslinesmeetatvCE =VA
VA iscalledtheEarlyVoltage (~50to100V)

Commonemitteroutputcharacteristics(II)
PlotofiC versusvCE withvariousiB asparameter
BJTinactiveregionactsasacurrentsourcewith
high(butfinite)outputresistance
Thecutoffmodeincommonemitterconfiguration
isdefinedasiB =0
Currentgain:largesignalbdc iC/iB andbac iC/iB

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Earlyeffect

breakdown

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Saturationofcommonemitterconfiguration
Insaturationregion,itbehavesasaclosedswitchwithasmallresistanceRCEsat
ThesaturationIV curvecanbeapproximatedbyastraightlineintersectingthevCE axisatVCEoff
ThesaturationvoltageVCEsat VCEoff+ICsatRCEsat
VCEsat isnormallytreatedasaconstantof0.2VforsimplicityregardlessthevalueofiC
Incrementalb insaturationislowerthanthatinactiveregion: forced ICsat/IB <
Overdrivefactor /forced

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Transistorbreakdown
Transistorbreakdownmechanism:
Avalanchebreakdown:avalanchemultiplicationmechanismtakesplaceatCBJorEBJ
Basepunchthrougheffect:thebasewidthreducestozeroathighCBJreversebias
InCBconfiguration,BVCBO isdefinedat iE =0
ThebreakdownvoltageissmallerthanBVCBO foriE >0
InCEconfiguration,BVCEO isdefinedatiB =0
ThebreakdownvoltageissmallerthanBVCEO foriB >0
Typically,BVCEO isabouthalfofBVCBO
BreakdownoftheBCJisnotdestructiveaslongasthepowerdissipationiskeptwithinsafelimits
BreakdownoftheEBJisdestructivebecauseitwillcausepermanentdegradationof

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Exercise4.13(Textbook)
Exercise4.14(Textbook)
Example4.3(Textbook)
Exercise4.21(Textbook)

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4.3BJTCircuitsatDC
BJToperationmodes
TheBJToperationmodedependsonthevoltagesatEBJandBCJ
TheIVcharacteristicsarestronglynonlinear
Simplifiedmodelsandclassificationsareneededtospeedupthehandcalculationanalysis
Mode

EBJ

CBJ

Active

Forward

Reverse

Cutoff

Reverse

Reverse

Saturation

Forward

Forward

Inverse

Reverse

Forward

pnp transistor

npn transistor
vBC
InverseMode
vBE 0,vBC 0

SaturationMode
vBE 0,vBC 0

CutoffMode
vBE 0,vBC 0

ActiveMode
vBE 0,vBC 0

vCB

vBE

InverseMode
vEB 0,vCB 0

SaturationMode
vEB 0,vCB 0

CutoffMode
vEB 0,vCB 0

ActiveMode
vEB 0,vCB 0

vEB

Simplifiedmodelsandclassificationsfortheoperationofthenpn BJT
Cutoffmode:
iE =iC =iB =0
vBE <0.5VandvBC <0.4V
Activemode:
vBE =0.7VandiB :iC :iE =1: :(1+)
vCE >0.3V
Saturationmode:
vBE =0.7VandvCE =0.2V
iC/iB =forced <
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Equivalentcircuitmodels

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DCanalysisofBJTcircuits
Step1:assumetheoperationmode
Step2:usetheconditionsormodelforcircuitanalysis
Step3:verifythesolution
Step4:repeattheabovestepswithanotherassumptionifnecessary

Example4.4

Example4.5

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Example4.9(Textbook)

Example4.11(Textbook)

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Exercise4.22(Textbook)
Exercise4.23(Textbook)
Exercise4.24(Textbook)
Exercise4.25(Textbook)
Exercise4.28(Textbook)
Example4.12(Textbook)

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4.4ApplyingtheBJTinAmplifierDesign
BJTvoltageamplifier
ABJTcircuitwithacollectorresistorRC canbeusedasasimplevoltageamplifier
Baseterminalisusedtheamplifierinputandthecollectorisconsideredtheamplifieroutput
Thevoltagetransfercharacteristic(VTC)isobtainedbysolvingthecircuitfromlowtohighvBE
Cutoffmode:
0V vBE <0.5VandiC =0
vO =vCE =VCC
Activemode:
vBE >0.5VandiC =ISexp(vBE/VT)
vO =VCC iCRC =VCC RCISexp(vBE/VT)
Saturation:
vBE furtherincreases
vCE =vCEsat =0.2V
vO =0.2V

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Biasingthecircuittoobtainlinearamplification
TheslopeintheVTCindicatesvoltagegain
BJTinactivemodecanbeusedasvoltageamplification
PointQ isknownasbiaspointordcoperatingpoint
IC =ISexp(VBE/VT)
ThesignaltobeamplifiedissuperimposedonVBE
vBE(t)=VBE+vbe(t)
ThetimevaryingpartinvCE(t)istheamplifiedsignal
Thecircuitcanbeusedasalinearamplifierif:
Aproperbiaspointischosenforgain
Theinputsignalissmallinamplitude

Thesmallsignalvoltagegain
TheamplifiergainistheslopeatQ:
Av

dvCE
dvBE

v BE VBE

IC
RC
VT

VoltagegaindependsonIC andRC
Maximumvoltagegainoftheamplifier
Av

IC
V VCE VCC
RC CC

| Av max |
VT
VT
VT

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DeterminingtheVTCbygraphicalanalysis
Providesmoreinsightintothecircuitoperation
Loadline:thestraightlinerepresentsineffecttheload
iC =(VCCVCE)/RC
Theoperatingpointistheintersectionpoint

LocatingthebiaspointQ
Thebiaspoint(intersection)isdeterminedbyproperlychoosingtheloadline
TheoutputvoltageisboundedbyVCC (upperbound)andVCEsat (lowerbound)
Theloadlinedeterminesthevoltagegain
Thebiaspointdeterminestheheadroomormaximumupper/lowervoltageswingoftheamplifier

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4.5SmallSignalOperationandModels
Thecollectorcurrentandthetransconductance
Thetotalquantities(ac+dc)ofthecollectorcurrent:
vBE VBE vbe
iC I S e vBE / VT ( I S eVBE / VT )e vbe / VT I C e vbe / VT

Smallsignalapproximation:vbe <<VT
v
I
iC I C ic I C 1 be I C C vbe
VT
VT
I
i
g m C iC I C C
VT
vBE

Thetransconductance indicatestheincrementalchangeofiC versuschangeofvBE

Thetransconductance gm isdeterminedbyitsdccollectorcurrentIC
General,BJTshaverelativelyhightransconductance comparedwithFETsatthesamecurrentlevel

Thebasecurrentandtheinputresistanceatthebase
Thetotalquantities(ac+dc)ofthebasecurrent:
iB

IC

IS

e vBE / VT

IS

eVBE / VT e vbe / VT I B e vbe / VT

Smallsignalapproximation:
v
I
iB I B ib I B 1 be I B B vbe
VT
VT
v
VT
r be

ib
gm I B

Resistancer isthesmallsignalinputresistancebetweenbaseandemitter(lookingintothebase)
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Theemittercurrentandtheinputresistanceattheemitter
Thetotalquantities(ac+dc)oftheemittercurrent:
iE I E ie

IC

IC

ic

Smallsignalapproximation:
IC
I
vbe E vbe

VT
VT
v

1
V
re be T

ie
I E gm gm

ie

ic

gm

vbe

Relationbetweenr andre:
re
r

gm

r (1 )re

gm

OutputresistanceaccountingforEarlyeffect
UsethecollectorcurrentequationwithlinearvCE dependence:
v
iC I S e vBE / VT 1 CE
VA
1
iC

V
ro
A
v BE constant
IC
vCE

Theoutputresistancero isincludedtorepresentEarlyEffectoftheBJT
Theresultingro istypicallyalargeresistanceandcanbeneglectedtosimplifytheanalysis
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BJTsmallsignalmodels
Twomodelsareexchangeableanddoesnotaffecttheanalysisresult
Thehybrid model
Typicallyusedastheemitterisgrounded

Neglectro

TheTmodel
Typicallyusedastheemitterisnotgrounded

Neglectro

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4.6BasicBJTAmplifierConfiguration
Threebasicconfigurations
CommonEmitter(CE)

CommonBase(CB)

CommonCollector(CC)

Characterizingamplifiers
TheBJTcircuitscanbecharacterizedbyavoltageamplifiermodel(unilateralmodel)
TheelectricalpropertiesoftheamplifierisrepresentedbyRin,Ro andAvo
Theanalysisisbasedonthesmallsignalorlinearequivalentcircuit(dccomponentsnotincluded)
vo
RL

Avo
vi RL Ro
v
Rin
Rin
RL
Overallvoltagegain: Gv o
Av
Avo
vsig Rin Rsig
Rin Rsig RL Rso

Voltagegain: Av

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Thecommonemitter(CE)amplifier
CharacteristicparametersoftheCEamplifier
Inputresistance: Rin r
Outputresistance: Ro RC || ro RC
Opencircuitvoltagegain: Avo g m ( RC || ro ) g m RC
Voltagegain: Av g m ( RC || RL || ro ) g m ( RC || RL )
Overallvoltagegain: Gv

r
r
g m ( RC || RL || ro ) g m
( RC || RL )
r Rsig
r Rsig

CEamplifiercanprovidehighvoltagegain
Inputandoutputareoutofphaseduetonegativegain
LowerIC increasesRin atthecostofvoltagegain
Outputresistanceismoderatetohigh
SmallRC reducesRo atthecostofvoltagegain

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Thecommonemitter(CE)withanemitterresistance
Characteristicparameters(byneglectingro)
Inputresistance:
Rin (1 )(re Re ) r (1 ) Re

Outputresistance:
Ro RC

Opencircuitvoltagegain:
Avo

g m RC
g R
m C
1 Re / re
1 g m Re

Voltagegain:
Av

g m RC
g ( R || RL )
RL
m C
1 g m Re RL RC
1 g m Re

Overallvoltagegain:
Gv

r
g m RC
r
g m ( RC || RL )
RL

r Rsig 1 g m Re RL RC
r Rsig 1 g m Re

EmitterdegenerationresistanceRe isadopted
Inputresistanceisincreasedbyadding(1+)Re
Gainisreducedbythefactor(1+gmRe)
Theoverallgainislessdependenton
Itisconsideredanegativefeedbackoftheamplifier

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Thecommonbase(CB)amplifier
CharacteristicparametersoftheCEamplifier(byneglectingro)
Inputresistance: Rin re
Outputresistance: Ro RC
Opencircuitvoltagegain: Avo g m RC
Voltagegain: Av g m ( RC || RL )
Overallvoltagegain: Gv

re
g m ( RC || RL )
re Rsig

CEamplifiercanprovidehighvoltagegain
Inputandoutputareinphaseduetopositivegain
Inputresistanceisverylow
AsingleCBstageisnotsuitableforvoltageamplification
Outputresistanceismoderatetohigh
SmallRC reducesRo atthecostofvoltagegain
Theamplifierisnolongerunilateralifro isincluded

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Thecommoncollector(CC)amplifier
CharacteristicparametersoftheCCamplifier(byneglectingro)
Inputresistance: Rin (1 )(re RL )
Outputresistance: Ro re Rsig /
Opencircuitvoltagegain: Avo RL /( RL re ) 1
Overallvoltagegain: Gv

Rin
( 1) RL
RL

1
Rin Rsig RL re ( 1)( RL re ) Rsig

CCamplifierisalsocalledemitterfollower.
Inputresistanceisveryhigh
Outputresistanceisverylow
Thevoltagegainislessthanbutcanbecloseto1
CCamplifiercanbeusedasvoltagebuffer
Itisnotedthat,intheanalysis,theamplifierisnotunilateral

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4.7BiasinginBJTAmplifierCircuits
DCbiasforBJTamplifier
Theamplifiersareoperatingataproperdcbiaspoint
Linearsignalamplificationisprovidedbasedonsmallsignalcircuitoperation
TheDCbiascircuitistoensuretheBJTinactivemodewithapropercollectorcurrentIC

Theclassicaldiscretecircuitbiasarrangement
Asinglepowersupplyandresistorsareneeded
Thevenin equivalentcircuit:
VBB =VCCR2/(R1+R2)
RB =R1||R2
VBB VBE
BJToperatingpoint: I C
RB / RE (1 1 / )

RC ischosentoensuretheBJTinactive(VCE >VCEsat)

Atwopowersupplyversionoftheclassicalbiasarrangement
Twopowersuppliesareneeded
Similardcanalysis
VEE VBE
BJToperatingpoint: I C

RB / RE (1 1 / )

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Biasingusingacollectortobasefeedbackresistor
Asinglepowersupplyisneeded
RB ensurestheBJTinactive(VCE >VBE 0.7V)
BJToperatingpoint: I C

VCC VBE
RB / RC (1 1 / )

ThevalueofthefeedbackresistorRB affectsthesmallsignalgain

Biasingusingaconstantcurrentsource
TheBJTcanbebiasedwithaconstantcurrentsourceI
TheresistorRC ischosentooperatetheBJTinactivemode
ThecurrentsourceistypicallyimplementedbyaBJTcurrentmirror
Currentmirrorcircuit:
BothBJTtransistorsQ1 andQ2 areinactivemode
Assumecurrentgain isveryhigh:
I I REF

VCC VEE VBE

R

Whenapplyingtotheamplifiercircuit,thevoltage
V hastobehighenoughtoensureQ2 inactive

Exercise4.49(Textbook)
Exercise4.50(Textbook)
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4.8DiscreteCircuitBJTAmplifiers
Circuitanalysis:
DCanalysis:
Removeallacsources(shortforvoltagesourceandopenforcurrentsource)
Allcapacitorsareconsideredopencircuit
DCanalysisofBJTcircuitsforallnodalvoltagesandbranchcurrents
FindthedccurrentIC andmakesuretheBJTisinactivemode
ACanalysis:
Removealldcsources(shortforvoltagesourceandopenforcurrentsource)
Alllargecapacitorsareconsideredshortcircuit
ReplacetheBJTwithitssmallsignalmodelforacanalysis
ThecircuitparametersinthesmallsignalmodelareobtainedbasedonthevalueofIC
Completeamplifiercircuit

DCequivalentcircuit

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Thecommonemitter(CE)amplifier

Thecommonemitteramplifierwithanemitterresistance

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Thecommonbase(CB)amplifier

Thecommoncollector(CC)amplifier

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Theamplifierfrequencyresponse
Thegainfallsoffatlowfrequencybandduetotheeffectsofthecouplingandbypasscapacitors
ThegainfallsoffathighfrequencybandduetotheinternalcapacitiveeffectsintheBJTs
Midband:
Allcouplingandbypasscapacitors(largecapacitance)areconsideredshortcircuit
Allinternalcapacitiveeffects(smallcapacitance)areconsideredopencircuit
Midband gainisnearlyconstantandisevaluatedbysmallsignalanalysis
ThebandwidthisdefinedasBW =fH fL
AfigureofmeritfortheamplifierisitsgainbandwidthproductdefinedasGB =|AM|BW

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Exercise4.52(Textbook)
Exercise4.53(Textbook)
Exercise4.54(Textbook)
Exercise4.55(Textbook)

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