Protasiakos Kai Katigorimatikos Logismos

Dom
tou
Majmatoc
I Protasiak Logik (Propositional
Logic).
I Kathgorhmatik Logik (Predicate
Logic),
h opoa enai
gnwst kai wc Prwtobjmia Logik (First-Order
Logic).
Autc oi shmeiseic enai basismnec stic shmeiseic tou
Hodkinson
ap to Kolgio
Imperial,
Ian
tou Panepisthmou tou
Londnou.
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Bibla
Prolog.
I Ap th Logik sto Logik Programmatism kai thn

G. Mhtakdhc. Ekdseic Kardamtsa.
I Stoiqea Majhmatikc Logikc. A. Tzoubrac.

Ekdseic Zth.
I Logik: H dom tou Epiqeirmatoc. D. Portdhc, S.

Ylloc kai D. Anapolitnoc. Ekdseic Neflh.
I Diakrit Majhmatik kai Majhmatik Logik, Tmoc G':

Majhmatik Logik. K. Dhmhtrakpouloc.
Ellhnik Anoikt Panepistmio.
Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and Reasoning about

Systems. M. Huth kai M. Ryan. Cambridge University Press.
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. S. Russel

Norvig.
kai
P.
Kuklofore ellhnik kdosh me ttlo Teqnht Nohmosnh Ma Sgqronh Prosggish, ekdseic Kleidrijmoc.
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1.
Logik:
Eisagwg
I To kommti thc Filosofac pou pragmateetai morfc

sullogismo kai skyhc, eidik epagwgc kai episthmonikc
mejdouc. Epiplon, Logik enai h susthmatik qrsh
sumbolikn teqnikn kai majhmatikn mejdwn gia ton
upologism morfn gkurou epagwgiko epiqeirmatoc.
I Se aut to mjhma ja asqolhjome me th qrsh thc

Logikc gia thn perigraf kai anptuxh prodiagrafn
(specification) logismiko, kai ton sumperasm (reasoning)
sqetik me tic prodiagrafc.
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Logik:
Eisagwg
I H Logik enai o
logismc
thc Plhroforikc: ma
majhmatik bsh gia thn antimetpish plhroforac kai

gia ton sumperasm sqetik me th sumperifor
logismiko.
I Parqei ma kal exskhsh gia to swst sumperasm kai

thn akrib perigraf.
I Merikc ap tic polplokec efarmogc Plhroforikc

qreizontai kai qrhsimopoion Logik. Pq, h
Prolog
enai
ma glssa programmatismo Logikc. H glssa bsewn

dedomnwn
SQL
enai basismnh se idec Logikc. Oi
prodiagrafc eufun praktrwn logismiko (intelligent
software agents)
ekfrzontai me th qrsh thc Logikc.
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Logik:
Eisagwg
H Logik brskei
efarmog
(sunjwc apotele to upbajro)
se arketc epistmec:
I Fusik: Kbantologikc Logikc (quantum
logics)
qoun
epinohje gia thn jemelwsh thc kbantomhqanikc (quantum
mechanics).
I Yuqologa: qrsh Logikn gia thn melth thc anjrpinhc
skyhc.
I Glwssologa: qrsh Logikc gia thn jemelwsh Logikn

Grammatikn (logical
grammar)
me skop thn anlush thc
qrshc thc glssac ap touc anjrpouc. Pc, gia

pardeigma, qrhsimopoiontai ta onmata, oi antwnumec,
oi posodektec (loi-meriko-kpoioi klp), oi qrnoi
(upersuntlikoc -aristoc, klp).
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Logik:
Eisagwg
'Ena ssthma Logikc perilambnei:
I Suntaktik (Syntax): ma tupik glssa (pwc ma

glssa programmatismo) h opoa qrhsimopoietai gia na
ekfrsei nnoiec, gia thn anaparstash thc gnshc.
I Shmasiologa (Semantics). H shmasiologa tou

sustmatoc exetzei ton trpo me ton opoo oi ekfrseic
pou epitrpontai ap to suntaktik thc glssac
sqetzontai me to pragmatik touc perieqmeno.
I Snolo kannwn sumperasmatologac (Proof
theory).
Oi
kannec sumperasmatologac epitrpoun thn exagwg

logikn sumperasmtwn ap th gnsh tou sustmatoc.
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2.
Protasiak Logik
Paraktw enai na mroc progrmmatoc:
if count>0 and not found then

decrement count; look for next entry;
end if
I To prgramma perilambnei basikc (atomikc)
protseic, pwc
count>0, found,
oi opoec enai alhjec
yeudec ktw ap orismnec sunjkec.
I Mporon na qrhsimopoihjon sndesmoi pwc
not
and, or,
gia na anaptuqjon pio polplokec protseic ap tic
atomikc protseic.
I h telik polplokh prtash ja enai alhjc yeudc.

H protasiak logik den enai pol ekfrastik. H
kathgorhmatik logik enai pio ekfrastik.
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Protasiak
Logik
I 'Ola ta edh Logikc baszontai se kpoio bajm sthn

Protasiak Logik.
I Jloume na antimetwpzoume
if-tests
opoiasdpote
poluplokthtac kai na meletsoume ta genik

qarakthristik touc.
if-tests
if-tests qoun to dio nhma,
llo, an na if-test mpore
I Den jloume apl na apotimome

Jloume na gnwrzoume an do
pte to na sunepgetai to
pot na enai alhjc ( yeudc).
I H Protasiak Logik perilambnei ma shmantik omda

upologistikn problhmtwn, kai sunepc enai antikemeno
melthc twn algorjmwn kai thc jewrac poluplokthtac.
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2.1
Sun taktik
Prta, prpei na dsoume na akrib orism sta edh twn
if-tests
ta opoa ja antimetwpsoume. Autc o orismc ja mac
dsei thn tupik glssa (formal
language)
thc Protasiakc
Logikc. To alfbhto thc glssac thc Protasiakc Logikc

qei 3 sustatik.
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Prto sus tatik:
'Atoma
De mac apasqole poia atomik gegonta (pq,
found)
count>0,
ja antimetwpsoume. Arke na mporon na proun ma
alhjotim (dhlad na enai alhj yeud).

Oi protasiakc metablhtc (propositional
(propositional
wc
atoms )
variables ) toma
p, p 0 , p0 , p1 , p2 , . . .
grfontai sunjwc wc
q, r , . . .
Enai san tic metablhtc
x, y , z
sta Majhmatik.
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Detero
sus tatik:
Logiko
sndesmoi
'Eqoume touc paraktw sundsmouc (connectives):
I szeuxh (kai): grfetai wc
I rnhsh (den): grfetai wc
I dizeuxh (): grfetai wc
I sunepagwg (an-tte): grfetai wc
I isodunama (an kai mno an): grfetai wc

I
truth
kai
falsity:
grfontai wc
>
kai
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Paradegmata
I To test
count>0 and not found grfetai

(count > 0) found, swc p q
wc
I Ta smbola gia szeuxh, dizeuxh, sunepagwg kai

isodunama parnoun do paramtrouc kai grfontai wc:
p q,
p q,
I H rnhsh
p,
I Ta
>,
p q,
pq
parnei ma parmetro kai grfetai wc:
den qoun paramtrouc.
Enai logikc stajerc (pwc to
).
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Trto
sus tatik:
Shmea Stxhc
Qreiazmaste parenjseic gia na aposafhnsoume ta
Pq, sthn arijmhtik to
12+3
den enai xekjaro, up thn
nnoia ti mporome na to diabsoume wc
1 (2 + 3).
Omowc, to
if-tests.
(1 2) + 3
H diafor pazei rlo.
pqr
(p q) r
p (q r )
mpore na diabaste wc:
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Protseic
'Olec oi akoloujec sumblwn pou ekfrzoun toma,

sundsmouc kai parenjseic onomzontai ekfrseic.
Aut pou qoume onomsei
if-tests
sth Logik lgontai
protseic (formulas ) kalosqhmatismnec (well-formed)

ekfrseic.
Orismc 2.1
(Prtash)
I Kje tomo (p, q, r klp) enai prtash.

I Ta
>
I An to
kai
enai protseic.
enai prtash tte enai kai to (A).
A, B enai protseic tte enai kai

(A B), (A B), (A B) kai (A B).
I An ta
ta
I Oi mnec ekfrseic thc glssac pou enai protseic, enai

autc pou kataskeuzontai me touc parapnw kannec.
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Paradegmata Protsewn
Ta paraktw enai protseic:
(p)
((p) >)
(((p) >))
((p) (((p) >)))
Qreiazmaste kpoiouc kannec gia na meisoume ton arijm

parenjsewn.
Austhr milntac, ta apotelsmata ja enai suntomografec
protsewn. All jewrontai protseic.
Mporome pnta na paraleyoume tic exwterikc parenjseic:
pq, ta
kai
((p) >)
enai saf.
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Kannec Apaloifc
Parenjsewn
Gia na paraleyoume perissterec parenjseic, orzoume thn

paraktw proteraithta sundsmwn:
(isqurteroc)
, , , ,
(pio adnamoc)
Enai pwc sthn arijmhtik pou to
+ kai sunepc to 2+34

(2+3)4. Omowc:
enai isqurtero ap to
diabzetai wc
pqr
p q
p q r diabzetai wc (p (q)) r
p ((q r )) p ((q) r ))
diabzetai wc
diabzetai wc
p (q r )
2+(34)
(p) q
kai qi wc
kai qi wc
kai qi wc
(p q) r
(p q)
kai qi wc
Genik mwc protenetai h qrsh twn parenjsewn tan bohjei

thn anagnwsimthta, parlo pou oi parenjseic mporon na
apaloifjon. Pq, to
p q r s t
enai pol dskolo
na katanohje.
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Kannec Apaloifc
Parenjsewn
Ti gnetai me protseic pwc
p q r;
H proteraithta twn
sundsmwn den mac bohjei se aut thn perptwsh. H

parapnw prtash prpei na diabaste wc
p (q r )
wc
(p q) r ;
Se ttoiec periptseic prpei opwsdpote na qrhsimopoiome
parenjseic.
Ap thn llh, oi protseic
pqr
kai
pqr
enai safec
pwc enai.
'Opwc ja dome h logik shmasa enai h dia kai stic do
periptseic pwc kai na qrhsimopoisoume tic parenjseic. Oi
protseic
(p q) r
kai
p (q r )
enai diaforetikc. 'Alla
pwc ja dome qoun thn dia alhjotim se kje perptwsh:

enai
logik
isodnamec.
'Ara de mac apasqole pc ja aposafhnsoume thn prtash
p q r.
(Sunjwc enai
(p q) r .)
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Dndra
'Eqoume dexei pc na diabzoume me safneia ma prtash

(formula).
Se kje prtash antistoiqe na dndro (formation
tree ),
na
digramma dhlad pou deqnei pc kataskeuzetai h prtash

aut ap toma me th bojeia twn sundsmwn.
Pq, h prtash
p q (p q r )
qei to paraktw dndro:
->
V
->
q
/\
r
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Krioc Sndesmoc
Prosxte ti o sndesmoc sth rza (koruf) tou dndrou enai
Autc enai o krioc sndesmoc (principal
prtashc
p q (p q r ).
A B.
connective )
thc
Aut h prtash qei thn
logik morf
Kje mh atomik prtash qei na krio sndesmo, o opooc

kajorzei th logik morf thc prtashc.
pq r
A B.
qei krio sndesmo
(p q)
A.
.
.
qei krio sndesmo
H logik thc morf enai
H logik thc morf
enai
pqr
qei krio sndesmo
logik thc morf enai
pqr
A B.
(pijantata to detero). H
A B.
qei krio sndesmo
H logik thc morf enai
Poia enai ta dndra autn twn protsewn;
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Upo-protseic
Oi upo-protseic (subformulas ) mac prtashc
enai oi
protseic pou qrhsimopoiontai gia thn anptuxh thc
A,
pwc
aut orzetai ap ton Orism 2.1.
Oi upo-protseic antistoiqon stouc kmbouc, sta

upo-dndra, tou dndrou thc
A.
p q (p q r ) enai:
p q (p q r )
p q
p qr
p
q
p
qr
p
q
r
Oi upo-protseic thc
Prosoq: uprqoun duo diaforetikc upo-protseic
Ta
pq
kai
pq
p.
den enai upo-protseic, enai
upo-akoloujec (sub-strings) sumblwn.
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Sun tomografec
1in
n
^
Ai ,
Ai ,
i=1
Vn
i=1 Ai ,
Ai
1in
Ta parapnw enai suntomografec gia thn prtash
A1 A2 An .
W
1in
n
_
i=1
Ai ,
Ai ,
Wn
i=1 Ai ,
Ai
1in
Ta parapnw enai suntomografec gia thn prtash
A1 A2 An .
Enai pwc sthn 'Algebra, pou to
tou
a1 + a2 + + an .
Pn
i=1 ai enai suntomografa

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Orologa
Orismc 2.2
I Ma prtash thc morfc
>, , p , gia na tomo p ,

(atomic formula).
onomzetai atomik prtash
I Stoiqeidhc tpoc
(literal)
enai kje atomik prtash h
rnhsh thc.
I Programmatikc tpoc
(clause)
enai ma dizeuxh enc
perissotrwn stoiqeiwdn tpwn.

Pq, oi protseic
p, r , , >
enai lec stoiqeideic tpoi.
Paradegmata programmatikn tpwn:
p,
p,
p q r ,
p p p > q .
O kenc programmatikc tpoc, o opooc den periqei kanna

stoiqeidh tpo, antimetwpzetai pwc h prtash
biblo o kenc programmatikc tpoc sumbolzetai me
(sto
).
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2.2
Shmasiologa
Gnwrzoume pc na diabzoume kai na grfoume protseic

(formulas). Poio enai mwc to nhma touc; Me lla lgia,
poia enai h shmasiologa touc;
Oi logiko sndesmoi (, , , , ) qoun kpoia antistoiqa
me thn Ellhnik glssa.
All ta Ellhnik enai ma fusik glssa, gemth me

asfeiec kai eidikc periptseic. H metfrash metax
Ellhnikn kai Logikc den enai pnta ekolh.
Qreiazmaste na akrib trpo me ton opoo na dnoume nhma

stic protseic thc Logikc.
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Kats tash, Aponom
aljeiac
Ma katstash (situation) enai kti to opoo orzei an kje

tomo enai alhjc yeudc.
Aponom aljeiac onomzoume kje sunrthsh

pou
F : Q 7 {, }
enai to snolo twn atmwn thc glssac. Dhlad ma
aponom aljeiac dnei alhjotimc sta toma thc glssac.
Gia ta
if-tests
ma katstash enai na shmeo sthn ektlesh
tou progrmmatoc. Oi trqousec timc twn metablhtn tou

progrmmatoc kajorzoun an kje atomik kfrash enc
(pq,
x > 0, x=y
if-test
klp) enai alhjc yeudc.
Gia thn kfrash
if (it rains) then (it is cloudy)
ma katstash
enai o kairc.
Gia ta toma
p, q, . . .
ma katstash diatupnei poia ap
aut enai alhj kai poia enai yeud.
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Kats tash, Aponom
aljeiac
Uprqei pnw ap ma katstash. Profanc, se ma

diaforetik katstash oi alhjotimc ja enai diaforetikc.
Gnwrzontac ma katstash mporome na upologsoume to

nhma kje prtashc, dhlad an h prtash enai alhjc
yeudc se aut thn katstash. Phganoume ap aplc
protseic se pio snjetec, pwc ja dome eujc amswc.
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Ermhnea
Orismc 2.3
( Ermhnea
Evaluation
) )
H alhjotim mac prtashc se ma dedomnh katstash

orzetai wc exc.
I H katstash mac plhrofore gia tic alhjotimc twn

atmwn.
I H prtash
>
enai alhjc kai h
Ac upojsoume ti
A, B
enai yeudc.
enai protseic, kai ti gnwrzoume tic
alhjotimc touc sth dedomnh katstash. Tte se aut thn

katstash:
I H prtash
an h
enai alhjc an h
enai yeudc, kai yeudc
enai alhjc.
I H prtash
AB
A kai h B enai alhjec.

A B enai yeudc.
enai alhjc an h
Se opoiadpote llh perptwsh h
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Ermhnea
Orismc 2.3 (Ermhnea) (sunqeia)
I H prtash
AB
enai alhjc an h
enai alhjc kai h
kai h
opoiadpote llh perptwsh h
enai alhjc h
enai alhjec. Se
AB
enai yeudc.
(Periektik dizeuxh.)
I H prtash
AB
enai alhjc an h
enai alhjc. Allic, an h

yeudc tte h
I H prtash
AB
AB
enai yeudc h
enai alhjc kai h
enai
enai yeudc.
enai alhjc an h
kai h
qoun thn
dia alhjotim (enai kai oi do alhjec kai oi do

yeudec).
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Pnakec Aljeiac
gia touc sundsmouc
Mporome na ekfrsoume autoc touc kannec

qrhsimopointac pnakec aljeiac gia touc sundsmouc.
Grfoume 1 gia thn tim
alhjc kai 0 gia thn tim yeudc.

>, ta opoa enai protseic kai
Aut den qoun sqsh me ta

qi alhjotimc.
>
AB
AB
AB
AB
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Paradegmata
Ac upojsoume ti h prtash
enai alhjc kai h
enai
yeudc se ma sugkekrimnh katstash. Tte se aut thn

katstash h prtash:
enai yeudc.
enai alhjc.
pq
enai yeudc.
pq
enai alhjc.
pq
enai yeudc.
qp
enai alhjc.
pq
enai yeudc kai h
p q
enai alhjc.
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Paradegmata
Ac upojsoume tra ti h prtash
enai yeudc kai h
enai
alhjc. Se aut thn kainorgia katstash h prtash:
enai tra alhjc.
enai tra yeudc.
pq
enai akma yeudc.
pq
enai akma alhjc.
pq
enai tra alhjc.
qp
enai tra yeudc.
pq
enai akma yeudc kai h
p q
enai akma
alhjc.
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Paradegmata
Ac upojsoume pli ti h prtash
enai alhjc kai h
enai
yeudc se ma sugkekrimnh katstash. Poia enai h alhjotim

twn paraktw protsewn:
p q
qq
p q
pq q
(p >)
(q (p q))
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2.3
Sqsh
tou Protasiako
Logismo me
th Fusik
Glssa
H tupopohsh thc fusikc glssac, dhlad h metfrash twn

protsewn thc fusikc glssac sthn Protasiak Logik den
enai pnta ekolh. Enai mwc aparathth gia orismnec
efarmogc.
Merik stoiqea pou prpei na prosxoume sthn tupopohsh
thc fusikc glssac:
I Apomonnoume tic atomikc protseic.

I Prosqoume an kpoiec ap tic atomikc protseic enai
tautshmec.
I Antikajistome diakritc atomikc protseic me diakrit

toma (p, q, r , . . . ).
I Entopzoume louc touc logikoc sundsmouc (aut apaite

thn apdosh twn sundsmwn thc fusikc glssac se
antstoiqouc thc tupikc).
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Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
I Entopzoume tic mikrterec (snjetec) protseic oi opoec

apotelon th snjeth prtash, kai tic diakrnoume me
parenjseic.
I Entopzoume ton krio logik sndesmo pou sundei tic

snjetec protseic metax touc, kai proqwrome ap' autn
stouc epimrouc sundsmouc.
I Apoddoume thn prtash qrhsimopointac ta sqetik

logik smbola kai parenjseic.
Paradegmata tupopohshc thc fusikc glssac uprqoun sto
biblo
Logik:
H Dom tou Epiqeirmatoc.
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Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
Pardeigma:
An
glssac
den psei o plhjwrismc kai anboun ta
epitkia, tte to dhmsio qroc ja psei an kai mno an

katafgoume se exwterik daneism.
Atomikc protseic:
p:
q:
r:
s:
o plhjwrismc pftei
ta epitkia anebanoun
to dhmsio qroc pftei
katafegoume se exwterik daneism
Logiko sndesmoi: an
...
tte, den, kai, an kai mno an
Prth prosggish logikc morfc:

an (den
kai
q ),
tte (r an kai mno an
s)
. . . tte
(p q) (r s)
Krioc sndesmoc: an
Logik morf:
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Problmata s thn
To
all
ja
ja
tupopohsh
mpore na shmanei
thc fusikc
glssac
kai.
bgw xw all brqei metafrzetai se

bgw xw
brqei.
ektc an genik shmanei

ja bgw xw ektc an brqei metafrzetai se
ja bgw xw ja brqei.
Epshc mpore na ekfraste wc (ja brqei)
ja bgw xw.
suqn shmanei kai

mporec na preic kotpoulo yri sunjwc shmanei
mporec na preic kotpoulo mporec na preic yri
To
Ginnhc kai h Mara enai eutuqismnoi maz prpei na
metafraste wc ma atomik prtash, qi wc
Ginnhc enai eutuqismnoc
h Mara enai eutuqismnh
36 / 232
Ap
thn tupik
glssa s th
fusik
Arqik h metfrash thc tupikc glssac sth fusik fanetai

ekolh. Pq:
p q
brqei
metafrzetai se
kai
q.
ja bgw xw metafrzetai se
an
brqei tte
den ja bgw xw.

All uprqoun kai problmata. Oi polplokec protseic thc
Protasiakc Logikc enai dskolo na apodojon sth fusik
glssa.
O sndesmoc
enai dskolo na apodoje. Sth fusik glssa
qrhsimopoiome to
an . . .
tte me diaforetikoc trpouc, kai
qi pnta prosektik.
H prtash
Emai
o Ppac
emai jeoc enai alhjc
(giat;). All ja lgame pot ti h prtash thc fusikc

glssac
An
emai o Ppac tte emai jeoc enai alhjc;
37 / 232
3.
Epiqeirmata, egkurthta
Gnwrzoume pc na diabzoume, na grfoume kai na

ermhneoume (evaluate) protseic thc Protasiakc Logikc.
Gnwrzoume epshc merik prgmata sqetik me th metfrash
metax thc fusikc glssac kai thc Protasiakc Logikc.
H Logik qrhsimopoietai kai gia epiqeirhmatologa. Pq,

paraktw qoume to exc epiqerhma:
I O Swkrthc enai ndrac.

I Oi ndrec enai jnhto.
I 'Ara o Swkrthc enai jnhtc.
Enai aut na gkuro epiqerhma;
38 / 232
3.1
'Egkura
epiqeirmata
To prohgomeno epiqerhma enai gkuro an gia kje

katstash sthn opoa o Swkrthc enai ndrac kai oi ndrec
enai jnhto, o Swkrthc enai ndrac.
'Opwc qoume anafrei, sthn Protasiak Logik ma

katstash orzei thn alhjotim kje atmou.
Orismc 3.1
( 'Egkuro Epiqerhma (
Dojousn twn protsewn
Valid Argument
A1 , A2 , . . . , An , B ,
A1 , . . . , An ,
enai gkuro an: h prtash
ra
) )
na epiqerhma
enai alhjc se kje katstash
A1 , . . . , An enai alhjec. 'An isqei

A1 , . . . , An |= B .
To smbolo |= diabzetai wc logik sunpeia (logical
entailment/implication).
sthn opoa lec oi protseic
aut tte grfoume
39 / 232
Paradegmata epiqeirhmtwn
Ac upojsoume ti
A,
ra
A, B
enai gkuro giat se kje katstash, an h
enai alhjc tte h
A B ,
A,
enai tuqaec protseic. To epiqerhma:
ra
enai alhjc.
enai gkuro.
A |= A.
A B |= A.
A B den enai gkuro: uprqoun katastseic

A enai alhjc kai h A B enai yeudc. Sunepc
A 2 A B.
ra
pou h
A, A B ,
ra
epiqeirmatoc enai
A B, B ,
ra
enai gkuro. To noma auto tou
modus ponens.
enai epshc gkuro. To noma
auto tou epiqeirmatoc enai
A B, B ,
ra
modus tollens.
den enai gkuro.
A B, B 2 A.
40 / 232
3.2
'Egkurec,
ikanopoisimec, isodnamec protseic
Treic basikc idec sqetzontai me ta gkura epiqeirmata.

Orismc 3.2
( 'Egkurh Prtash
Valid Formula
) )
Ma prtash enai logik gkurh logik alhjc an enai

alhjc se kje katstash. Grfoume
|= A
tan ma prtash
enai gkurh.
Oi gkurec protseic onomzontai kai tautologec (tautologies ).
Satisfiable Formula
Orismc 3.3 ( Ikanopoisimh Prtash (
) )
Ma prtash enai ikanopoisimh epalhjesimh an enai

alhjc se toulqiston ma katstash.
Orismc 3.4 ( Isodnamec Protseic (
Duo protseic
A, B
Equivalent Formulas
) )
enai logik isodnamec an enai alhjec
stic diec akribc katastseic. Sumbolik
A B.
41 / 232
Paradegmata
Prtash
'Egkurh
Ikanopoisimh
>
p
p p
pp
nai
nai
qi
qi
qi
nai
qi
qi
nai
nai
Isodnamh;
>
pq
pp
p p
p q
nai
qi
qi
qi
nai
qi
qi
qi
nai
42 / 232
3.3
Sqseic
metax twn tessrwn
ennoin
Ta gkura epiqeirmata kai oi gkurec, ikanopoisimec kai

isodnamec protseic orzontai metax touc. Pq:
epiqerhma
egkurthta
ikanopoih-
isodunama
simthta
A |= B
AB
gkurh
A B
(A B) >
mh ikanopoisimh
> |= A
gkurh
A>
mh ikanopoisimh
43 / 232
4.
Elgqon tac thn
egkurthta
twn
protsewn
'Ara qreizetai na antimetwpsoume mno gkurec protseic.

Pc katalabanoume an ma prtash enai gkurh; Elgqoume
ti h prtash enai alhjc se kje katstash.
Aut mpore na epiteuqje gia protseic thc Protasiakc

Logikc, all upologistik enai na dskolo prblhma.
Gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik, thn opoa ja dome sta

epmena majmata, enai pol pio dskolo prblhma, giat oi
katastseic enai pollc kai pio polplokec. All uprqoun
kpoioi trpoi na dexoume ti orismnec protseic thc
Kathgorhmatikc Logikc enai gkurec.
44 / 232
Trpoi
na elegqje h
egkurthta
twn
protsewn
Uprqoun diforoi trpoi na upologsoume an ma prtash

thc Protasiakc Logikc enai gkurh qi:
I Pnakec aljeiac. Elgqoume an se lec tic pijanc

sqetikc katastseic h prtash enai alhjc.
majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa (direct

mathematical argument).
I 'Amesh
I Isodunamec. 'Eqoume ma lsta ap qrsima zeugria

isodnamwn protsewn. Qrhsimopoiome autc tic
isodunamec gia na metatryoume thn arqik prtash sthn
prtash
>,
h opoa enai gkurh.
I Difora sustmata apodexewn (proof
systems), pwc pq,

deduction),
pnakec (semantic
kannec fusikc sumperasmatologac (natural

sustmata
Hilbert,
shmasiologiko
tableaux).
45 / 232
4.1
Pnakec
aljeiac
Ac dexoume ti h prtash
(p q) (p q)
enai gkurh.
Grfoume 1 gia thn tim alhjc kai 0 gia thn tim yeudc.
'Eqoume do toma, pou to kajna parnei ma ap tic do

alhjotimc. Oi alhjotimc llwn atmwn den mac apasqolon.
'Ara qoume tsseric sqetikc katastseic. Ermhneoume lec
tic upo-protseic thc prtashc mac se kje katstash:
pq
p q
(p q) (p q)
Blpoume ti h prtash
(p q) (p q)
enai alhjc (qei
tim 1) se lec tic tsseric katastseic. 'Ara enai gkurh.
46 / 232
Isodunama kai
ikanopoihsimthta
O dioc pnakac deqnei ti oi protseic
pq
kai
p q
enai
isodnamec: se kje ma ap tic tsseric katastseic qoun

thn dia alhjotim.
Ti elgqoume gia na dexoume ikanopoihsimthta;
47 / 232
Meionektmata kai pleonektmata twn pinkwn aljeiac
Enai kourastik kai enai ekolo na gnei ljoc.
All douleoun pnta, toulqiston gia thn Protasiak

Logik pou mno peperasmnec katastseic sqetzontai me
ma prtash. (Aut den isqei gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik.
Sthn perptwsh aut prpei na brome llouc trpouc.)
Oi pnakec aljeiac mporon epiplon na qrhsimopoihjon gia

na dexoume ikanopoihsimthta kai isodunama.
Deqnoun pso dskolo enai na apodeiqje h egkurthta,

ikanopoihsimthta, klp. Ma prtash me
toma qreizetai
2n grammc ston pnaka aljeiac thc. Prosjtontac na tomo

diplasizei tic grammc tou pnaka.
48 / 232
4.2
'Amesh majhmatik
epiqeirhmatologa
Direct
argument
p pq
enai gkurh.
Ac proume ma tuqaa katstash, h opoa dnei alhjotimc

sta toma
p, q .
Ja dexoume ti h prtash
p pq
enai
alhjc se aut thn katstash.
'Ara prpei na dexoume ti AN to
enai alhjc se aut thn
katstash TOTE enai alhjc kai h prtash
An to
enai alhjc, tte kai na ap ta
h prtash
pq
enai alhjc, ra
enai alhjc.
: dexte ti h prtash
'Askhsh
p, q
p q.
A (A B) B
enai gkurh.
49 / 232
'Amesh
majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa
(A B) C enai logik isodnamh

A (B C ). (Omowc, ja mporosame na
prtash (A B) C A (B C ) enai gkurh.)
me thn prtash
dexoume ti h
Ac proume ma opoiadpote katstash.
(A B) C enai alhjc se aut thn katstash an kai mno

A B kai h C enai alhjec (smfwna me ton orism thc
shmasiologac tou ).
H
an h
To parapnw isqei an kai mno an h

kai h
Aut isqei an kai mno an h

h
kai h
enai alhjec,
enai epshc alhjc, dhlad enai lec alhjec.
enai alhjc, kai epshc h
kai h
kai
enai alhjec.
B C
enai alhjec.
50 / 232
'Amesh
majhmatik epiqeirhmatologa
'Ara oi protseic
(A B) C
A (B C )
kai
enai alhjc.
A (B C )
qoun thn dia
alhjotim se aut thn katstash. H katstash tan tuqaa,

ra oi protseic enai logik isodnamec.
51 / 232
'Amesh
Majhmatik Epiqeirhmatologa
((p q) p) p ,
Peirce, enai gkurh.
gnwst wc nmoc tou
h opoa enai
p enai alhjc se
((p q) p) p enai
morfc A B enai alhjc
Ac proume ma tuqaa katstash. An to

aut thn katstash, tte h prtash
alhjc, giat kje prtash thc
tan h
An to
enai alhjc.
den enai alhjc tte ja enai yeudc se aut thn
katstash.
Tte h prtash
morfc
AB
pq
enai alhjc, giat kje prtash thc
enai alhjc tan h
enai yeudc.
(p q) p enai yeudc giat kje prtash

A B enai yeudc tan h A enai alhjc kai h B
Tte h prtash
thc morfc
enai yeudc.
52 / 232
'Amesh
Majhmatik Epiqeirhmatologa
((p q) p) p enai alhjc giat kje

morfc A B enai alhjc tan h A enai yeudc.
Tte h prtash
prtash thc
Aut h morf epiqeirhmatologac onomzetai

epiqeirhmatologa me periptseic (argument
enai alhjc to
by cases):
to
enai yeudc. Den uprqoun llec
periptseic. Autc enai o nmoc thc tou trtou apoklesewc

(law
of excluded middle).
53 / 232
4.3
Isodunamec
Oi isodunamec mac bohjon sto na aplopoisoume ma

prtash na metatryoume ma prtash se ma llh, pnta
diathrntac th logik isodunama.
'Ara an mporsoume na metatryoume ma prtash sthn

prtash
>
tte xroume ti h arqik prtash enai gkurh.
Ja anafroume ma lsta isodunamin oi opoec enai qrsimec

gi' aut ton skop.
Oi isodunamec enai pollc, all lec ekfrzoun basikc

logikc arqc pou ja prpei na gnwrzete. Na elgxete ti oi
protseic enai ntwc isodnamec qrhsimopointac pnakec
aljeiac mesh epiqeirhmatologa.
54 / 232
Isodunamec pou
perilambnoun to sndesmo
Stic paraktw isodunamec ta
A, B, C
ekfrzoun tuqaec
protseic. Gia suntoma pollc forc ja grfoume
isodnamec
ant gia
1. H prtash
AB
logik
enai logik isodnamh me thn
(antimetajetikthta tou
2. H prtash
AA
(autopjeia tou
3. H prtash
A>
4. Oi protseic
5. H prtash
isodnamec.
B A
).
).
kai
(A B) C
A A
enai isodnamec me thn
enai isodnamh me thn
(prosetairistikthta tou
A.
.
A (B C )
).
55 / 232
Isodunamec pou
6. H prtash
AB
(antimetajetikthta tou
7. H prtash
AA
B A
).
(autopjeia tou
).
8. Oi protseic
9. H prtash
10. H prtash
A>
kai
A A
enai isodnamec me thn
(A B) C
A.
(prosetairistikthta tou
>.
A (B C )
).
56 / 232
Isodunamec pou
kai
perilambnoun touc
sundsmouc
11. H prtash
>
12. H prtash
>.
13. H prtash
14. H prtash
AA
>.
15. H prtash
>A
A.
16. H prtash
A>
>.
17. H prtash
>.
18. H prtash
A.
19. H prtash
AB
A B
A.
kai thn
(A B).
20. H prtash
(A B)
A B .
57 / 232
Isodunamec pou
21. H prtash
I
I
I
I
I
AB
enai isodnamh me tic:
(A B) (B A),
(A B) (A B),
A B.
22. H prtash
I
(A B)
enai isodnamh me tic:
A B,
A B,
(A B) (A B).
58 / 232
Nmoi
De Morgan
Nmoi
kai epimeris tikthtac twn
De Morgan:
23. H prtash
(A B)
A B .
24. H prtash
(A B)
A B .
Nmoi epimeristikthtac twn
, :
A (B C )
(A B) (A C ).
A (B C )
(A B) (A C ).
25. H prtash
26. H prtash
27. Oi protseic
me thn
A (A B)
kai
A (A B)
enai isodnamec
A.
59 / 232
Apodeiknon tac
egkurthta
me isodunamec
Prte opoiadpote upo-prtash mac prtashc
kai
antikatastste thn me ma isodnamh prtash.

Epanalbete to prohgomeno bma. To apotlesma ja enai
A.
> tte h A
p p q enai
ma prtash logik isodnamh me thn

An to apotlesma enai h prtash
enai gkurh.
Pq, ac dexoume ti h prtash
gkurh.
I Aut h prtash enai isodnamh me thn
p (p q)
(ap
thn isodunama 19).
I H teleutaa enai isodnamh me thn
(p p) q
(ap thn
isodunama 10).
>q
(ap thn
isodunama 8).
>
(ap thn 8 pli), h
opoa enai gkurh.

Ftsame sthn prtash
prtash
p pq
>,
h opoa enai gkurh. 'Ara h
enai gkurh.
60 / 232
Pardeigma
AB
B A.
I H prtash
B A
(B) A
(ap thn isodunama 19).
A B
(ap thn
isodunama 6).
A B
(ap thn
isodunama 13).
AB
(ap thn
isodunama 19).
61 / 232
Pardeigma
isodnamh me thn
(p q) (p q)
enai logik
p.
(p q) (p q) enai isodnamh me thn

p (q q) (anstrofh qrsh thc isodunamac 26).
I H prtash
(ap thn
isodunama 4).
(ap thn isodunama
9).
62 / 232
Kanonikc morfc
Oi isodunamec mac epitrpoun na metatryoume ma prtash

se ma isodnam thc se kanonik morf (normal
form).
Uprqoun do koinc kanonikc morfc:

Orismc 4.1
Kanonik
(Diazeuktik Kanonik
Morf, Suzeuktik
Morf)
I Ma prtash enai se diazeuktik kanonik morf (DKM)

(disjunctive
normal form (DNF))
an enai ma dizeuxh
suzexewn stoiqeiwdn tpwn, kai den mpore peraitrw na

aplopoihje allzontac morf.
Paradegmata:
p q r
(p q) r (p q r )
Anti-pardeigma: (p p) (q > q)
63 / 232
Kanonikc morfc
Orismc 4.1 (sunqeia)
I Ma prtash enai se suzeuktik kanonik morf (SKM)

(conjunctive
normal form (CNF))
an enai ma szeuxh
diazexewn stoiqeiwdn tpwn (dhlad ma szeuxh

programmatikn tpwn), kai den mpore peraitrw na
aplopoihje allzontac morf.
Pardeigma:
(p q) (q r ) (p q)
O Orismc 2.2 orzei touc stoiqeideic tpouc kai touc
programmatikoc tpouc.
64 / 232
Metatrpon tac ma prtash
se kanonik morf
1. Apalofoume touc sundsmouc
, :
Antikajistome lec tic upo-protseic

Antikajistome lec tic upo-protseic
AB
AB
me
A B .
me
(A B) (A B).
2. Prowjome tic arnseic msa stic parenjseic mqri ta
De Morgan. Bgzoume
thn A me thn A).
toma qrhsimopointac touc nmouc

tic diplc arnseic (antikajistome
3. Qrhsimopoiome touc kannec epimeristikthtac gia na

katalxoume sthn epijumht kanonik morf.
p p me
, kai tic p p me >. Antikajistome tic > p me >, tic
> p me p , tic p me p , kai tic p me . H isodunama
4. Aplopoiome: antikajistome tic upo-protseic
27 enai epshc suqn qrsimh. Epanalambnoume mqri h

prtash na mhn enai peraitrw aplopoisimh.
65 / 232
Pardeigma:
p q (p r )
p q (p r )
(p q) (p r )
(p q) ((p r ) (p r ))
p q (p r ) (p r )
p (p r ) (p r ) q
p (p r ) q
se DKM
[arqik prtash]
]
, ]
[De Morgan, apaloif ]
[apaloif
[apaloif
[isodunama 6]
[isodunama 27]
H teleutaa prtash enai se DKM. Mporome na thn

aplopoisoume peraitrw an jloume proswrin na fgoume
ap thn DKM:
[(p p) (p r )] q
[> (p r )] q
p r q
[isodunama 26-epimeristikthta]
[isodunama 8]
[isodunama 3]
H shmantik aplopohsh thc arqikc prtashc deqnei to

pleonkthma thc metatropc mac prtashc se kanonik morf.
66 / 232
5.
Sus tmata
apodexewn:
fusik sumperasmatologa
'Ena ssthma apodexewn mac bohjei na deqnoume ti ma

prtash enai gkurh qrhsimopointac mno suntaktikoc
kannec den qrhsimopoiome to nhma twn protsewn. Ja
mporosame na gryoume na prgramma logismiko to opoo
efarmzei autoc touc kannec.
H automatopoihmnh sumperasmatologa (automated
reasoning)
enai ma anaptussmenh ereunhtik perioq.
Uprqoun arket sustmata apodexewn. Sta epmena

majmata ja asqolhjome me to ssthma kannwn fusikc
sumperasmatologac (natural
deduction (ND)).
67 / 232
Ti
enai
to
ss thma
ND;
I Ma tupopohsh thc meshc epiqeirhmatologac (direct
argument).
I Xekinntac swc ap kpoia dojnta gegonta kpoiec
protseic
A1 , . . . , An
qrhsimopoiome touc kannec tou
sustmatoc gia sumperasmatologa proc ma prtash

An epitqoume, grfoume
B.
A1 , . . . , An ` B .
I Kat th sumperasmatologa pargontai endimesec

protseic. Autc apotelon thn apdeixh thc
A1 , . . . , An .
ap tic
Kje bma thc apdeixhc enai na gkuro
epiqerhma.
I Uprqoun do kannec gia kje sndesmo: nac gia na

eisgoume to sndesmo (dhlad na eisgoume ma prtash
thc opoac enai o krioc sndesmoc), kai nac gia na
qrhsimopoisoume to sndesmo (na qrhsimopoisoume ma
prtash thc opoac enai o krioc sndesmoc). Oi kannec
enai basismnoi sthn shmasiologa twn sundsmwn, thn
opoa edame sta prohgomena majmata.
68 / 232
5.1
Kannec
ND
gia touc
sundsmouc
, ,
Uprqoun do kannec gia kje sndesmo. Oi kannec

baszontai sto nhma twn sundsmwn.
Kannec gia to sndesmo
I (eisagwg
-introduction, I ). Gia na eisgoume ma

A B , prpei na qoume dh eisgei
A kai B .
prtash thc morfc

tic protseic
1
to qoume apodexei aut
.
.
.
2
3
B
AB
...
(lla sumpersmata)
kai aut
...
I (1,2)
H arjmhsh twn grammn enai aparathth gia thn

katanhsh thc apdeixhc.
69 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
, -elimination, E ). An qoume katafrei na

A B , tte mporome na gryoume A kai/ B .
I (apaloif
gryoume
1
2
3
AB
A
B
E (1)
E (1)
70 / 232
Upojseic
Stic apodexeic
ND
prpei suqn na knoume upojseic gia na
apodexoume aut pou jloume.

Ma upjesh enai apl ma prtash, all qrhsimopoietai me
na eidik trpo. Upojtoume ti (qoume ma katstash sthn
opoa) h prtash enai alhjc. 'Epeita mpore na
proqwrsoume sthn apdeix mac kajc gnwrzoume
perisstera gia thn katstash.
Pq, o Srlok Qolmc upojtei gia mia stigm ti autc pou

kleye to logo th nqta tan gnwstoc. Tte enai sgouroc
ti ta skuli tou stblou ja gbgizan kai sunepc ja eqan
xupnsei oi flakec tou stblou.
All oi flakec den xpnhsan kat th dirkeia thc nqtac. O
Qolmc sumperanei ti ta skuli den gbgisan th nqta, ra
autc pou kleye to logo den tan gnwstoc.
H upjesh tou tan ljoc parl' aut mporose na knei

aut thn upjesh, kai tan qrsimo pou thn kane.
71 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
I (eisagwg
sndesmo
-introduction, I ). Gia na eisgoume

A B , upojtoume ti A kai
ti B .
ma prtash thc morfc

apodeiknoume
Kat th dirkeia thc apdeixhc, mporome na

qrhsimopoisoume thn
kai otidpote llo qoume dh
apodexei. All den mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn

otidpote llo ap thn apdeixh thc
ap thn
argtera (giat aut h apdeixh tan basismnh se ma

epiplon upjesh). Sunepc, apomonnoume thn apdeixh
thc
ap thn
1
se na kout:
upjesh
(h apdeixh)
2
3
B
AB
to apodexame!
I (1,
2)
Kama ap tic protseic pou enai msa sto kout den

mpore na qrhsimopoihje argtera.
72 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
Sto ssthma
ND
sndesmo
ta kouti qrhsimopoiontai tan knoume
epiplon upojseic. H prth gramm msa sto kout prpei

pnta na onomzetai
upjesh
me ma exaresh, thn opoa
ja dome argtera.
73 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
sndesmo
, -elimination, E ). An qoume katafrei

A kai A B , me opoiadpote seir, tte
na gryoume B (Modus Ponens).
I (apaloif
na gryoume
mporome
AB
to apodexame aut
...
.
.
.
2
3
A
B
...
E (1, 2)
kai aut
74 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
I (eisagwg
sndesmo
-introduction, I ). Gia na apodexoume

A B , apodeiknoume thn A, (an
B.
ma prtash thc morfc

protimme) thn
1
2
H
...
I (1)
to apodexame aut
mpore na enai opoiadpote prtash!

1
A
AB
B
AB
to apodexame aut
...
I (1)
mpore na enai opoiadpote prtash!
75 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
-elimination, E ). Gia na apodexoume

kti ap ma prtash thc morfc A B , prpei na to
apodexoume upojtontac thn A, KAI na to apodexoume
upojtontac thn B .
I (apaloif
sndesmo
Aut enai epiqeirhmatologa me periptseic.
AB
1
2
.
.
.

5
prth apdeixh
.
.
.
to apodexame
upjesh
deterh apdeixh
to apodexame xan
E (1,
Oi upojseic
upjesh
A, B
2, 4, 5, 7)
den mporon na qrhsimopoihjon
argtera, sunepc topojetontai se (diplan) kouti.

Kama ap tic protseic pou enai msa sta kouti den
mpore na qrhsimopoihje argtera.
H
mpore na enai ma opoiadpote prtash, all kai ta
do kouti prpei na teleinoun me thn dia prtash
C.
76 / 232
5.2
Paradegmata
Akma den qoume dexei touc kannec gia touc sundsmouc
, >, .
Parl' aut mporome na dome kpoia paradegmata.
Pardeigma
5.1
Ac apodexoume ti
A AB
me to ssthma
ND
(pou oi
A, B
enai tuqaec protseic).

Thn egkurthta autc thc prtashc thn apodexame me mesh
epiqeirhmatologa nwrtera sto mjhma. Sugkrnete tic do
apodexeic.
1
2
3
A
AB
AAB
H apdeixh sth fusik glssa:

upojtoume ti h
'Ara h
AAB
upjesh
I (1)
I (1, 2)
Se
kpoia katstash
enai alhjc. Tte kai h
AB
enai alhjc.
enai alhjc se opoiadpote katstash.
77 / 232
Oi
kannec enai
sun taktiko
Oi kannec tou sustmatoc
ND
enai basismnoi sthn
shmasiologa twn sundsmwn. Parl' aut enai suntaktiko

kannec. Ma apdeixh me to ssthma
ND
enai suntaktik.
78 / 232
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.2
Dojeshc thc prtashc

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Sth fusik glssa:
A (B C )
apodexte ti
A B C.
A (B C ) dedomno
AB
upjesh
A
E (2)
BC
E (1,3)
B
E (2)
C
E (4, 5)
AB C
I (2, 6)
Jewrome
ti h prtash
A (B C )
enai alhjc (se kpoia katstash). Gia na dexoume ti h
AB C
enai alhjc, upojtoume ti h
AB
enai epshc
C enai
A B tte qoume kai A. Epomnwc,
qrhsimopointac thn A (B C ) blpoume ti h B C enai
alhjc. H A B mac dnei th B . Sunepc qoume kai thn C .
alhjc (se aut thn katstash), kai deqnoume ti h

alhjc. Efson qoume
79 / 232
Sumperanoume:
Se kje katstash sthn opoa h prtash

alhjc, h
AB C
A (B C )
enai
enai epshc alhjc.
Ap ed kai sto exc suqn ja paralepoume th frsh
enai
alhjc.
80 / 232
To
smbolo
Apodexame thn
AB C
ap th dojesa
A (B C ).
Sunepc mporome na gryoume:
A (B C ) ` A B C
Orismc 5.3
'Estw
A1 , . . . , An , B
tuqaec protseic.
A1 , . . . , An ` B
shmanei ti h uprqei ma apdeixh (fusikc
(ND)) thc B ,
A1 , . . . , An (dedomna).
sumperasmatologac
protseic
`B
(dhlad tan
apodexoume thn
n=0)
xekinntac ap tic
shmanei ti mporome na
qwrc dedomna. Me lla lgia h
jerhma (thc fusikc sumperasmatologac).

A1 , . . . , An ` B diabzetai wc h B enai apodeximh ap tic
A1 , . . . , An kai ` B diabzetai wc h B enai jerhma.
enai
81 / 232
To
smbolo
I Den prpei na sugqoume to

To
To
`

me to
.
enai suntaktik kai perilambnei apodexeic.

enai shmasiologik kai perilambnei katastseic.
82 / 232
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.4
A B C ` A (B C ).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
AB C
A
B
AB
C
BC
A (B C )
dedomno
upjesh
upjesh
I (2,3)
E (1,4)
I (3, 5)
I (2, 6)
Jewrome ti h prtash A B C enai

alhjc. Gia na dexoume ti h A (B C ) enai alhjc,
upojtoume A kai deqnoume ti B C . Gia na dexoume B C
upojtoume B kai deqnoume ti C . All tra qoume A kai B ,
ra kai A B . Gnwrzoume ti A B C . Sunepc qoume C .
Sth fusik glssa:
83 / 232
5.3
Kannec
ND
O sndesmoc
gia to
sndesmo
qei treic kannec. Oi do prtoi
antimetwpzoun thn
wc thn
A .

ma prtash thc morfc A, upojtoume A kai
apodeiknoume .
Wc sunjwc, den mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn A
argtera. Sunepc klenoume thn apdeixh tou ap thn
A se na kout:
I (eisagwg
.
.
.
upjesh
lla sumpersmata
to apodexame!
I (1,
3)
84 / 232
Kannec
ND
gia to
I (apaloif
sndesmo
-elimination, E ).
.
sumperanoume
1
.
.
.
sumperanoume
Ap thn
to apodexame
kai thn
...
lla sumpersmata
I (apaloif
to apodexame kai aut
E (1,
-elimination, ).
3)
Ap thn
A.
1
2
A
A
...
(1)
to apodexame
To pardeigma 5.8 knei qrsh tou kanna
85 / 232
5.4
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.5 (O Qolmc kai to logo)
s : autc
b : o
w : oi
pou kleye to logo th nqta tan gnwstoc
skloc gbgise th nqta

flakec tou stblou xpnhsan
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
s b dedomno
b w dedomno
w
dedomno
s
upjesh
b E (4, 1)
w E (5, 2)
E (3, 6)
s
I (4, 7)
86 / 232
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.6
Ac apodexoume ti
A ` A.
1
3
4
dedomno
upjesh
E (1, 2)
I (2, 3)
87 / 232
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.7
(A B) ` A.
Ac apodexoume ti
1
2
3
4
5
Sth fusik glssa:
eqame
(A B)
A
AB
dedomno
upjesh
I (1)
E (1, 3)
I (2, 4)
Dojeshc thc prtashc (A B), an

A B , dhlad ja eqame antfash.
tte ja eqame
'Ara qoume
A.
Aut enai ma akma kfansh tou nmou thc
tou trtou apoklesewc (law
of excluded middle).
88 / 232
Otidpote enai
Pardeigma
apodeximo ap
thn an tfash
5.8
Ac apodexoume ti
`A
1
gia kje prtash
3
4
5
Prosxte th qrsh tou
dedomno
A
A
A.
upjesh
(1)
I (2, 3)
(4)
sth gramm 3 gia na
dikaiologsoume ma prtash h opoa enai dh diajsimh.
Otidpote enai apodeximo ap thn antfash.
89 / 232
Otidpote enai
apodeximo ap
thn an tfash
Uprqoun do trpoi na to katanosoume:

1. Apl efarmzoume touc kannec
ND.
2. Jewrsame wc dedomno ma katstash sthn opoa h

enai alhjc kai apodexame ti kai h
den uprqei katstash pou h
enai alhjc. All
enai alhjc. Sunepc
den uprqei lgoc na mhn deqtome opoiadpote sunpeia

autc thc jerhshc.
Epeid den uprqei katstash sthn opoa h
mporome na apodexoume thn
enai alhjc,
mno ktw ap antifatikc
upojseic se na kout miac apdeixhc. Suqn knoume ttoiec

upojseic. Pq, se epiqeirhmatologa me periptseic (qrsh
kanna
E ).
Se autc tic periptseic mporome na
sumpernoume opoiadpote prtash (kajc apodexame thn
).
Sunepc enai qrsimo na deqnoume ti
Dete to
pardeigma 5.11 paraktw.
90 / 232
Apodeiknon tac
Pardeigma
thn
5.9
` A A
Ac apodexoume ti
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
(pol qrsimh apdeixh).
(A A)
A
A A
A
A A
(A A)
A A
Sth fusik glssa:
A A,
A A
Upojtoume
A A
I (2)
E (1,3)
I (2,4)
I (5)
E (1, 6)
I (1, 7)
(8)
(A A). An A tte
'Ara A (gramm 5). Tte
to opoo enai antfash. Ara h arqik
upjesh enai yeudc, dhlad enai
A A.
upjesh
ti
dhlad ja eqame antfash.
mwc qoume
upjesh
(A A).
Sunepc
91 / 232
5.5
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
I (eisagwg
>,
eisgoume to
>
>-introduction, >I ). Mporome na

sndesmo > opoudpote. Aut bbaia
den
enai pol qrsimo.
I (apaloif
>,
>-elimination, >E ).
apodexoume tpota kainorgio ap
Den mporome na
>.
92 / 232
5.6
Kannec
gia to sndesmo

prpei na apodexoume A kai A (gia opoiadpote
prtash A).
I (eisagwg
.
.
.
to apodexame
lla sumpersmata
3
4
...
to apodexame kai aut
I (1,
Autc o kannac enai o dioc me ton
E .
3)
Uprqoun dhlad
do onmata gia ton dio kanna.
I (apaloif
-elimination, E ).
Mporome na
apodexoume opoiadpote prtash ap
(Dete to
pardeigma 5.8).
1
2
...
E (1)
to apodexame
93 / 232
5.7
Lmmata
'Ena lmma enai kti pou qoume dh apodexei kai mac

bohjei na apodexoume aut pou jloume.
Sto pardeigma 5.9 apodexame
` A A.
Aut h apdeixh
enai pol qrsimh. Diaire to epiqerhma se do periptseic,

kai
A.
Aut dieukolnei ma apdeixh giat gnwrzoume
perisstera gia kje perptwsh.
Stic apodexeic
A A
ND
ja mporete na eisgete thn prtash
wc lmma (dhlad ja grfete
lmma
sth dexi stlh
thc apdeixhc), qwrc na qreizetai na thn apodexete.
Enai to monadik lmma pou ja mporete na qrhsimopoisete

(qwrc na to apodexete).
Prpei mwc esec na dialxete poia prtash
ja
qrhsimopoisete.
94 / 232
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.10
Ac apodexoume ti
(A B) A
A A
1
2
3
` ((A B) A) A
upjesh
(nmoc tou
Peirce).
upjesh
lmma
upjesh
A
upjesh
7
I (5,6)
8
B
E (7)
9
A B I (6,8)
A
(3)
10
A
E (1,9)
A
E (2, 3, 4, 5, 10)
((A B) A) A
I (1, 11)
6
4
11
12
95 / 232
5.8
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
A B wc
(A B) (A B).
Antimetwpzoume mia prtash thc morfc
(A B) (B A),

A B apodeiknoume A B kai B A. Enallaktik,
gia na apodexoume A B apodeiknoume A kai B ,
apodeiknoume A kai B (poia perptwsh protimme).
I (eisagwg
kai isodnama wc
Prth enallaktik. . .
1
2
3
BA
...
AB
AB
to apodexame
...
kai aut
...
I (1,2)
Deterh enallaktik. . .
1
2
3
B
...
A
AB
to apodexame
...
...
I (1,2)
kai aut
96 / 232
5.8
Kannec
gia to sndesmo
Trth enallaktik. . .
1
2
3
A
...
B
AB
to apodexame
...
...
I (1,2)
kai aut
97 / 232
Kannec gia
to
A,
-elimination, E ). Ap
B.
A B kai thn B , qoume thn A.
I (apaloif
thn
sndesmo
thn
AB
kai
qoume thn
Ap thn
2
3
2
3
AB
...
A
B
to apodexame
AB
...
B
A
to apodexame
...
...
E (1,2)
kai aut
...
...
E (1,2)
kai aut
98 / 232
5.9
Anakpton tec kannec (
Derived Rules
Oi basiko kannec tou sustmatoc
ND
(oi opooi qoun
parousiaste wc tra) mporon na sunduaston gia

paraqjon noi kannec. Oi anakptontec auto kannec DEN
enai aparathtoi se mia apdeixh, all knoun thn apdeixh
pio sunoptik.
'Enac anakptwn kannac pou ja mporete na qrhsimopoiete

onomzetai
apdeixh
ap antfash (Proof
by Contradiction
(PC)):
Gia na apodexoume
A,
upojtoume
kai apodeiknoume
99 / 232
Anakpton tec
O kannac
PC
kannec
enai o sunduasmc twn kannwn

1
.
.
.
3
4
5
kai
upjesh
lla sumpersmata
A
A
to apodexame!
I (1, 3)
(4)
H parapnw apdeixh grfetai wc exc me th qrsh tou

kanna
PC:
1
.
.
.
lla sumpersmata
H qrsh tou kanna
upjesh
to apodexame!
PC (1,3)
PC
meinei thn apdeixh kat ma gramm.
100 / 232
5.10
Sumboulc gia apodexeic
ND
1. Mjaite touc kannec. Lste askseic.

2. Gryte thn apdeixh me mesh majhmatik
epiqeirhmatologa. 'Epeita tupopoiste thn apdeixh me
touc kannec
ND.
3. An duskoleeste na apodexete ma prtash
A,
tte ta
paraktw mpore na bohjsoun:

I
A ( ,
proof by contradiction (PC) ).
B B
B.
. 5.10
.
101 / 232
Paradegmata
Pardeigma
5.11
A B, C A, (B C ) ` C .
Ac upojsoume ti qoume
qoume wc dedomno ti
dhlad
C , to opoo
(B C ).
kai
wc dedomno
C . Tte ja qoume kai A. All

B , ra ja qoume B . 'Eqoume
'Ara prpei na qoume
dhmiourge antfash, kajc qoume
C.
H parapnw epiqeirhmatologa enai ekolo na metafraste se

apdeixh
ND.
102 / 232
Pardeigma
5.11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
11
12
13
14
AB
C A
(B C )
C
A
A upjesh
I (5,6)
B
E (7)
B
B C
dedomno
dedomno
dedomno
upjesh
E (2,4)
9
10
E (1,
upjesh
(9)
6, 8, 9, 10)
I (11, 4)
I (3, 12)
PC (4, 13)
103 / 232
Kouti:
ti
prpei na
jummas te
Kje kout msa se ma apdeixh prpei na plhro tic

paraktw propojseic:
1. 'Ena kout pnta arqzei me ma upjesh (h monadik
exaresh afor ton kanna
sthn kathgorhmatik
logik.)
2. Ma upjesh mpore na lbei qra mno sthn prth
gramm enc koutio.
3. Msa se na kout mporome na qrhsimopoisoume
opoiadpote prtash ap prohgomenec grammc thc
apdeixhc, ektc ap tic protseic pou brskontai se
kouti pou qoun klesei prin ap to trqon shmeo thc
apdeixhc.
104 / 232
Kouti:
ti
prpei na
jummas te
4. Oi monadiko trpoi na exgoume plhrofora ap na
I , E , I , kai PC
kannwn E kai I sthn
kout enai me th qrsh twn kannwn

(epiplon me thn qrsh twn
kathgorhmatik logik). H prth gramm met ap kje

kout prpei na dikaiologhje me th qrsh enc ap autoc
touc kannec.
5. Kama ap tic protseic pou enai msa se na kout den
mpore na qrhsimopoihje xw ap to kout, ektc an
exaqje smfwna me touc kannec pou anafrontai sthn
propjesh 4.
An na kout den plhro ma ap tic parapnw propojseic
tte h apdeixh enai ljoc.
105 / 232
Qrsh koutin
'Estw ti jloume na apodexoume ti

1
2
A
A
A ` A.
dedomno
(1)
h kalterh apdeixh!
2
3
4
dedomno
upjesh
I (2,1)
I (1,2)
swst all qi xupno
106 / 232
Ljoc
qrsh koutin
A
A
2
3
4
dedomno
upjesh
I (2,1)
E (3)
ljoc!
3
4
5
dedomno
upjesh
I (2,1)
E (3)
(4)
ljoc!
107 / 232
5.11
kai
O basikc mac stqoc enai na exetzoume th logik sunpeia

(
).
Jumhjete ti
A1 , . . . , An B
se kje katstash pou oi

H
enai alhjc an h
A1 , . . . , An
enai alhjc
enai lec alhjec.
den enai qrsimh an den mac bohjei na dexoume
.
Orismc 5.12
'Ena jerhma enai ma prtash h opoa mpore na apodeiqje

ap na dojn ssthma apodexewn.
Mac endiafrei to ssthma kannwn fusikc
sumperasmatologac. 'Ara na jerhma enai kje prtash
pou
` A.
Orismc 5.13
'Ena ssthma apodexewn enai orj an kje jerhma enai

gkuro, kai plrec an kje gkurh prtash enai jerhma.
108 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta tou sus tmatoc
ND
Mpore na deiqte ti to ssthma kannwn fusikc

sumperasmatologac (ND) enai orj kai plrec.
Jerhma 5.14
(orjthta sus tmatoc
'Estw ti oi A1 , . . . , An , B enai tuqaec

A1 , . . . , An ` B , tte A1 , . . . , An B .
ND
protseic. An
n=0:
Kje apodeximh prtash enai gkurh.
To ssthma ND den knei pot ljh.
Gia
Jerhma 5.15
(plhrthta sus tmatoc
'Estw ti oi A1 , . . . , An , B enai tuqaec

A1 , . . . , An B , tte A1 , . . . , An ` B .
Gia
ND
protseic. An
n=0:
Kje gkurh prtash enai apodeximh.

To ssthma ND mpore na apodexei lec
protseic.
tic gkurec
109 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta tou sus tmatoc
'Ara mporome na qrhsimopoiome to ssthma
ND
ND
gia na
elgqoume thn egkurthta twn protsewn.
110 / 232
Sunpeia
Orismc 5.16
Mia prtash
(sunpeia)
'Ena snolo protsewn
1in
0 A.
{A1 , . . . , An } enai
enai sunepc an
sunepc an
Ai .
Smfwna me ta jewrmata orjthtac kai plhrthtac

(Jewrmata 5.14 kai 5.15) qoume:
Jerhma 5.17
Mia prtash enai sunepc an kai mno an enai ikanopoisimh.
H nnoia thc ikanopoihsimthtac dnetai ap ton Orism 3.3.
111 / 232
Pandora
Pandora: www.doc.ic.ac.uk/pandora
New Pandora: www.doc.ic.ac.uk/pandora/newpandora
Aut enai do ekdseic enc progrmmatoc logismiko me to
opoo mporete na knete apodexeic qrhsimopointac touc
kannec
ND.
'Eqei anaptuqje ap foithtc tou Kolegou
Imperial.
Oi
foithtc tou majmatoc Majhmatikc Logikc to qoun brei

pol qrsimo sto na majanoun na anaptssoun apodexeic me
to ssthma
ND.
help tou progrmmatoc Pandora kai exaskhjete

me ta tutorials tou. Lste tic askseic sto Pandora sto
New Pandora kai elgxte an oi lseic sac enai swstc.
Diabste to
Pandora onomzei
law of Excluded Middle).
Shmewsh: To prgramma
EM
(ap to
to lmma
` A A
112 / 232
6.
Pnakec
Beth
Oi pnakec
Beth
apl pnakec (tableaux) apotelon na
ssthma apodexewn. Qrhsimopointac suntaktikoc kannec

mporome na exetzoume an ma prtash enai gkurh.
O pnakac miac snjethc prtashc kataskeuzetai me bsh

touc pnakec twn protsewn pou emfanzontai sth snjeth
prtash.
113 / 232
Atomiko
pnakec
Orzoume atomikoc pnakec gia touc sundsmouc thc

Protasiakc Logikc.
A /\ B
-(A /\ B)
-A
-B
O isqurismc ti ma prtash
alhj kai thn
enai alhjc apaite thn
alhj (gramm).
O isqurismc ti ma prtash
thn
AB
yeud thn
(A B)
enai alhjc apaite
yeud (diakldwsh).
114 / 232
Atomiko
pnakec
AVB
-(A V B)
-A
-B
A -> B
-A
-(A -> B)
-B
Mia diakldwsh stouc atomikoc pnakec dhlnei dizeuxh en

ma gramm dhlnei szeuxh.
115 / 232
Atomiko
pnakec
-(A <-> B)
A <-> B
-A
-A
-B
-B
- -A
-p
116 / 232
Pardeigma
Gia na kataskeusoume ton pnaka miac snjethc prtashc

xekinme grfontac
sthn koruf tou pnaka. Met
anaptssoume ton pnaka thc
smfwna me touc atomikoc
pnakec.
Pardeigma
6.1
Na kataskeuaste o pnakac thc
(A A) (B (C D)).
(A /\ -A) V (B V (C /\ D))
A /\ -A
A
-A
B V (C /\ D)
B
C /\ D
117 / 232
Pardeigma
Autc enai nac teleiwmnoc pnakac me treic kldouc. Oi

kldoi arqzoun ap thn koruf. O aristerc kldoc enai
antifatikc, periqei tic antifatikc protseic
kai
A.
Sumbolzoume thn antifatikthta enc kldou

upogrammzontac thn teleutaa tou prtash.
Oi lloi do kldoi den enai antifatiko.
Msw tou pnaka thc
(A A) (B (C D))
blpoume ti h
upjesh ti aut h prtash enai alhjc enai ktw ap

orismnec sunjkec swst, pq tan h
enai alhjc oi
kai
enai alhjec.
Mporete na xeqwrsete touc atomikoc pnakec ston parapnw

pnaka;
118 / 232
Orismo
Orismc 6.2
'Enac kmboc enc pnaka lgetai qrhsimopoihmnoc an

emfanzetai san koruf atomiko pnaka. Allic lgetai
aqrhsimopohtoc.
Orismc 6.3
A kai A
prtash A).
'Enac kldoc enc pnaka lgetai antifatikc an oi

enai kmboi tou kldou (gia kpoia tuqaa
Orismc 6.4
'Enac pnakac lgetai teleiwmnoc an kannac mh antifatikc

kldoc den qei aqrhsimopohtouc kmbouc. Allic lgetai
hmitelc.
Orismc 6.5
'Enac pnakac lgetai antifatikc an loi oi kldoi tou enai

antifatiko.
119 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.6
Na kataskeuaste o pnakac tou nmou tou
Peirce
((A B) A) A.
-(((A -> B ) -> A ) -> A )
(A -> B ) -> A
-A
-(A -> B)
A
-B
120 / 232
Pardeigma
Diaisjhtik: An nac teleiwmnoc pnakac me koruf
breje
antifatikc, aut shmanei ti dokimsame louc touc dunatoc

trpouc pou ja mporosan na knoun thn prtash
kai apotqame. 'Ara h
yeud
enai alhjc se lec tic katastseic.
121 / 232
Pardeigma
((A -> B ) -> A ) -> A
-((A -> B ) -> A)
A -> B
-A
-A
122 / 232
To
smbolo
`B
Orismc 6.7
Ma
Beth-apdeixh
Beth-apodeximh
K enai nac teleiwmnoc

K . H prtash K lgetai
miac prtashc
antifatikc pnakac me koruf
Beth-apdeixh.
enai Beth-apodeximh
an qei
To ti ma prtash
to sumbolzoume me
`B K
K enai Beth-apodeximh ap tic protseic
A1 , . . . , An an uprqei teleiwmnoc antifatikc pnakac me
koruf K kai epmeno kmbo A1 An . Sumbolik
H prtash
A1 , . . . , An `B K
Orismc 6.8
Ma
Beth-diyeush
K enai nac teleiwmnoc

K . H prtash K lgetai
ma Beth-diyeush thc.
miac prtashc
antifatikc pnakac me koruf
Beth-diayesimh
an uprqei
123 / 232
Sus tmata apodexewn
`ND kai `B gia na xeqwrzoume

ND ap tic Beth apodexeic.
Ja qrhsimopoiome ta smbola
tic apodexeic tou sustmatoc
124 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.9
Na apodexete ti
`B ((p q) (p q)).
- -((p V q) <-> (-p /\ -q))
(p V q) <-> (-p /\ -q)
pVq
-(p V q)
-p /\ -q
-(-p /\ -q)
-p
-p
-p
-q
-q
-q
- -p
p
- -q
q
125 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.10
Na apodexete ti
M K , M K `B K .
-K
(M V K) /\ (M -> K)
MVK
M -> K
M
-M
K
K
126 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta twn
Jerhma 6.11
(orjthta
Beth
-apodexewn
Beth
-apodexewn)
'Estw ti oi A1 , . . . , An , K enai tuqaec

A1 , . . . , An `B K , tte A1 , . . . , An K .
protseic. An
n=0:
Kje Beth-apodeximh prtash enai gkurh.
To ssthma Beth-apodexewn den knei pot ljh.
Gia
Jerhma 6.12
(plhrthta
Beth
-apodexewn)
A1 , . . . , An , K enai tuqaec
A1 , . . . , An K , tte A1 , . . . , An `B K .
'Estw ti oi
protseic. An
n=0:
Kje gkurh prtash enai Beth-apodeximh.
To ssthma Beth-apodexewn mpore na apodexei
gkurec protseic.
Gia
lec tic
127 / 232
Orjthta
kai Plhrthta twn
Beth
-apodexewn
'Ara mporome na qrhsimopoiome touc pnakec
Beth
gia na
elgqoume thn egkurthta twn protsewn.
128 / 232
Sunpeia
Mia prtash
0B
1in
0B A.
{A1 , . . . , An } enai
enai sunepc an
'Ena snolo protsewn
sunepc an
Ai .
Smfwna me ta jewrmata orjthtac kai plhrthtac twn
Beth-apodexewn
ma prtash enai sunepc an kai mno an
enai ikanopoisimh.
H nnoia thc ikanopoihsimthtac dnetai ap ton Orism 3.3.
129 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.13
Na apodexete ti
p (p q).
Epeid to ssthma
Beth-apodexewn enai
`B p (p q).
orj kai plrec,
arke na dexoume ti
-(p -> (p V q))
p
-(p V q)
-p
-q
130 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.14
p q kai q p enai isodnamec.

(p q) (q p). (Giat;).
Na apodexete ti oi protseic
Arke na dexoume ti
`B
-((p /\ q) <-> (q /\ p))
p /\ q
-(p /\ q)
-(q /\ p)
q /\ p
-q
-p
-p
-q
131 / 232
Sumboulc gia
Beth
-apodexeic
I Mjaite touc atomikoc pnakec. Lste askseic.

I Den uprqei ousidhc lgoc pou na kajorzei th seir
anptuxhc twn protsewn, all mejodologik h anptuxh
prta twn suzexewn (grammc) kai peita twn diazexewn
(diakladseic) odhge kat kanna se aplosterouc
pnakec.
132 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.15
Na exetsete an
M K , M K `B M .
-M
(M V K) /\ (M -> K)
MVK
M -> K
K
M
-M
O parapnw pnakac enai teleiwmnoc all mh antifatikc.

'Ara
M K , M K 0B M .
133 / 232
Pardeigma
Pardeigma
6.16
Na brejon oi katastseic stic opoec h prtash
(p q) (p q)
enai yeudc.
-((p -> q) <-> (p V q))
p -> q
-(p -> q)
-(p V q)
pVq
-p
-p
-p
-q
-q
-q
Ap touc mh antifatikoc kldouc enc teleiwmnou pnaka me

koruf
A,
parnoume tic katastseic pou h
enai yeudc. 134 / 232
Kathgorhmatik
Logik
H Kathgorhmatik Logik ( Prwtobjmia Logik) enai ma

epktash thc Protasiakc Logikc.
Sta epmena majmata:
I ja parousisoume to suntaktik kai th shmasiologa thc

Kathgorhmatikc Logikc,
I ja dome th sqsh thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc me th

fusik glssa,
I ja dsoume touc orismoc tou gkurou epiqeirmatoc kai

thc gkurhc prtashc sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik, kai
I ja dome trpouc gia na apodeiknoume thn egkurthta

sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik:
I
I
I
.
.
.
135 / 232
H angkh
gia ma
pio
ekfras tik
glssa
H Protasiak Logik enai ma plosia glssa, all enai

perioristik sthn diatpwsh idiottwn kai sqsewn.
Pq:
An
o Girgoc enai njrwpoc tte o Girgoc enai jnhtc
grfetai wc
A B.
Ti gnetai me th Mara, ton Ksta, klp;
Epiplon den mpore na elegqje me thn Protasiak Logik h

egkurthta twn epiqeirhmtwn pwc:
I 'Oloi oi gtoi enai templhdec (p ).

I O Mtsoc enai gtoc (q ).
I 'Ara o Mtsoc enai templhc (r ).
136 / 232
7.
Perlhyh
Kathgorhmatikc
Logikc
7.1 Nec Atomikc Protseic

Mqri stigmc, jewrosame frseic pwc
Sun
kai
upologistc enai
Fthc agrase staflia wc atomikc, dqwc
eswterik dom.
Tra ja dome thn dom touc.
Jewrome thn mrka
Sun
wc ma idithta (property,
attribute )
thn opoa nac upologistc (kai lla prgmata) mpore na

qei na mhn qei. 'Ara eisgoume:
I 'Ena smbolo kathgormatoc (relation
symbol ) Sun. 'Eqei

tou (arity ) enai 1.
symbol, predicate
1 parmetro ra lme ti o bajmc
I 'Ena smbolo kathgormatoc
'Eqei 2 paramtrouc
ra lme ti o bajmc tou enai 2.
I Stajerc (constants ), gia na onomzoume antikemena. Pq,
, , -002, .
Sunepc
Sun()
kai
(, )
enai do nec
atomikc protseic.
137 / 232
7.2
Posodektec
Arqik mpore na fanetai ti to
(, )
den enai diaforetik ap aut pou grfame sthn Protasiak
Logik:
o Fwthc agorase stafulia

All h Kathgorhmatik Logik qei mhqanismoc gia na
metablei tic paramtrouc tou kathgormatoc
Sunepc mporome na ekfrsoume tic idithtec thc sqshc
.
Oi mhqanismo auto onomzontai posodektec.
138 / 232
Ti
enai
oi posodektec
'Enac posodekthc ekfrzei ma posthta (ap prgmata ta

opoa qoun ma idithta).
Paradegmata:
I 'Oloi oi foithtc diabzoun pol.

I Kpoioi foithtc koimontai.
I Oi perissteroi kajhghtc enai trelo.
I Okt stic dka gtec to protimon.
I Kannac den enai pio xupnoc ap esna.
I Toulqiston xi foithtc den koimontai.
I Uprqoun peiroi prtoi arijmo.
I Uprqoun pio poll
PC
ap
Mac.
139 / 232
Posodektec
s thn Kathgorhmatik
Logik
'Eqoume do posodektec:
(A)
):
gia
(E )
):
uprqei
kje (kajolikc posodekthc).

(uparxiakc posodekthc).
Kpoioi lloi posodektec mporon na ekfraston me touc

parapnw. (Kje nac ap touc parapnw posodektec mpore
na ekfraste msw tou llou.) All den uprqoun posodektec
sthn Prwtobjmia Logik gia na ekfrsoun sqseic pwc
uprqoun
peiroikai
perisstero
ap.
Edame ekfrseic pwc
, .
Aut enai stajerc pwc
to
Gia na ekfrsoume protseic pwc
Sun
loi
oi upologistc enai
qreiazmaste metablhtc oi opoec mporon na proun
timc ap to snolo lwn twn upologistn.
140 / 232
7.3
Metablhtc
Ja qrhsimopoisoume metablhtc gia na ekfrsoume

posodeixa. 'Eqoume na snolo
metablhtn: pq
x, y , z, u, v , w , x0 , x1 , x2 , . . .
Merikc forc ja grfoume
gia na pome
opoiadpote
metablht.
Pra ap tic protseic pwc
protseic pwc
Sun(),
I Gia na ekfrsoume thn prtash

grfoume
Gia
kje
x,
I Gia na ekfrsoume thn prtash
pnta enai
Sun
ja
enai
Sun.
kti
enai
Sun
to
ja
x Sun(x).
Aut diabzetai wc:
ta
x Sun(x).
Aut diabzetai wc:
grfoume
ja grfoume kai
Sun(x ).
Uprqei x
to opoo enai
Sungrfetai wc
x (Sun(x) (, x))
x , to opoo enai Sun kai o Fthc to
Sun.
Fthc agrase na
Uprqei
agrase.
141 / 232
8.
Sun taktik Kathgorhmatikc Logikc
'Opwc kname sthn Protasiak Logik, tsi kai tra ja dome

prta to suntaktik kai met th shmasiologa.
8.1 Glssa
Orismc 8.1
Ma glssa enai na snolo ap stajerc kai smbola

kathgorhmtwn sugkekrimnou bajmo.
Sunjwc sumbolzoume ma glssa wc

gia stajerc kai
P, Q, R, S, . . .
L.
Grfoume
c, d, . . .
gia smbola kathgorhmtwn.
Argtera ja exetsoume kai ta smbola sunartsewn.
142 / 232
Ma apl
glssa
To snolo twn sumblwn mac glssac
exarttai ap aut
pou jloume na ekfrsoume.

Ja qrhsimopoisoume wc pardeigma ma glssa
h opoa
perilambnei:
I tic stajerc
-002,
, , , , , ,
kai c
I ta smbola kathgorhmtwn
Sun, ,
(bajmc 1)
I to smbolo kathgormatoc
Shmewsh:
(bajmc 2)
perilambnei smbola (suntaktik). Gia na
dome to nhma (shmasiologa) twn sumblwn ja prpei na

dome poia morf qei ma katstash sthn Kathgorhmatik
Logik.
143 / 232
8.2
'Oroi
(Terms)
Gia na grfoume protseic sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik

qreiazmaste rouc (terms ), me touc opoouc onomzoume
antikemena. Oi roi den enai protseic, den qoun alhjotimc,
Orismc 8.2
('Oroc)
Dojeshc mac glssac

1. Kje stajer thc
L:
enai nac
2. Kje metablht enai nac

3. Tpota llo den enai
L-roc.
L-roc.
L-roc.
'Enac basikc roc (ground
term)
enai nac roc o opooc den
perilambnei metablhtc.
Paradegmata rwn:
x, y , x56
(basiko roi).
(mh basiko roi).
Argtera ja exetsoume kai ta smbola sunartsewn.
144 / 232
8.3
Tpoi Kathgorhmatikc
Orismc 8.3
( Tpoc (
'Estw ma glssa
Logikc
formula
) )
L.
R enai na smbolo kathgormatoc bajmo n thc L,

kai t1 , . . . , tn enai L-roi, tte to R(t1 , . . . , tn ) enai nac
atomikc L-tpoc.
1. An
2. An
t, t 0
3. Oi
, >
enai
L-roi
tte
enai atomiko
t=t 0
enai nac atomikc
L-tpoc.
L-tpoi.
A, B enai L-tpoi, tte kai oi (A), (A B), (A B),

(A B), (A B) enai L-tpoi.
4. An
A enai nac L-tpoc kai x ma

(x A) kai (x A) enai L-tpoi.
5. An h
metablht, tte oi
L-tpoc.
H proteraithta twn sundsmwn enai pwc sthn Protasiak

Logik. Oi posodektec
kai
enai tso isquro so kai h
145 / 232
Paradegmata tpwn
1.
(, x)
Fthc agrase to
x.
2.
x (, x)
O Fthc agrase kti.
3.
x ((x) (x))
Kje kajhghtc enai njrwpoc.
4.
x ((, x) Sun(x))
'O,ti agrase o Tsoc enai Sun.
Anaptssoume to dndro (formation

grfoume touc upo-tpouc tou
tree) enc tpou kai

(subformulas) pwc sthn
Protasiak Logik.
146 / 232
Paradegmata tpwn
5.
x ((, x) (, x))
H Sofa agrase ti agrase kai o Tsoc.
6.
x (, x) x (, x)
An o Tsoc agrase ta pnta, tte kai h Sofa
agrase ta pnta.
7.
xy (x, y )
Ta pnta agrasan
8.
9.
kti.
y x (x, y )
Kti agorsthke ap
ta pnta.
xy (x, y )
Kti agrase ta pnta.
147 / 232
9.
Shmasiologa
Kathgorhmatikc Logikc
'Opwc sthn Protasiak Logik, tsi kai tra prpei na

diatupsoume
I ti enai ma katstash sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik

I pc na ermhneoume touc tpouc thc Kathgorhmatikc
Logikc se ma dedomnh katstash
9.1 Domc (katastseic sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik)
Orismc 9.1
'Estw ma glssa
L.
onomzetai montlo)
Ma
L-dom
(h opoa merikc forc
M:
M
gnwrzei. To snolo aut onomzetai to pedo timn
(domain) smpan (universe) thc M , kai grfetai wc
dom(M).
I qei na mh-ken snolo ap antikemena ta opoa h
I diatupnei ti shmanoun ta smbola thc
se sqsh me ta
parapnw antikemena.
148 / 232
Domc
H apdosh (interpretation) mac stajerc sth

antikemeno sto
enai na
dom(M).
H apdosh (interpretation) enc sumblou kathgormatoc sth
enai ma sqsh sto
dom(M).
149 / 232
Pardeigma
domc
Gia thn glssa
L-dom
pou qrhsimopoiome wc pardeigma, ma
prpei na diatupnei:
I poia antikemena enai sto smpan thc

I poia ap ta antikemena thc enai o Tsoc, h Sofa, klp
I poia antikemena enai
Sun,
kajhghtc, njrwpoi
I poia antikemena agrasan lla antikemena

Paraktw uprqei na digramma miac sugkekrimnhc
thn opoa onomzoume
L-domc,
M.
Uprqoun 12 antikemena sto smpan thc

'Eqoume blei etiktec (pq
Fthc)
M.
se merik antikemena gia
na dexoume to nhma twn stajern thc
(pq
Oi apodseic (nnoiec) twn kathgorhmtwn
).
Sun,
anaparstantai wc perioqc sto digramma.

H apdosh (nnoia) tou kathgormatoc
anaparstatai me marec koukkdec.

H apdosh (nnoia) tou kathgormatoc
anaparstatai
me kateujunmenec grammc metax antikeimnwn.
150 / 232
H dom
151 / 232
Tsoc
Tasoc
Den prpei na uprqei sgqush metax tou antikeimnou

thn etikta
(stajer)
Tsoc,
tou smpantoc thc
thc glssac
M,
me
me to smbolo
L.
(Qrhsimopoi diaforetikc grammatoseirc gia na diakrnw

metax twn sumblwn mac glssac kai twn antikeimnwn tou
smpantoc mac domc thc glssac.)
Aut enai diaforetik prgmata. To smbolo

suntaktik, en to
enai
M ,
Tsoc.
enai shmasiologik. Gia th dom
enai na noma gia to antikemeno
me thn etikta
152 / 232
Tsoc
Tasoc
Gia na apofgoume thn sgqush ja uiojetsoume thn

paraktw smbash:
Smbash 9.2
'Estw
ma
L-dom
gia thn apdosh thc

thc
'Ara
kai
ma stajer thc
sth
M.
antikemeno
Se ma llh dom, to smbolo
Grfoume
cM
To antikemeno tou smpantoc
enai aut pou onomzei h
M =to
L.
sth
M.
me etikta
Tsoc.
mpore na onomzei (na
shmanei) kti llo.
H nnoia mac stajerc

apodoje sto
L)
ap th
M.
enai to antikemeno
cM
to opoo qei
Ma stajer (kai kje smbolo thc
qei tsec nnoiec sec kai o arijmc twn
L-domn.
153 / 232
Ta uploipa
H glssa
smbola
pou qrhsimopoiome wc pardeigma qei stajerc
kai kathgormata prtou kai deutrou bajmo.

Gia na anaparastsoume grafik ma dom
autc thc
glssac:
I zwgrafsame na snolo ap antikemena (to smpan thc
M)
I dhlsame poia antikemena thc
stajerc thc
onomzontai ap poiec
I dhlsame poia antikemena ikanopoion ta kathgormata

prtou bajmo (Sun,
, )
smfwna me th
M
I zwgrafsame kateujunmenec grammc metax twn
antikeimnwn pou ikanopoion to kathgrhma deutrou
bajmo () smfwna me th
M.
H katejunsh thc
grammc qei shmasa.
154 / 232
Ta uploipa
smbola
An uprqan perisstera ap na kathgormata deutrou

bajmo sthn
tte ja tan aparathto na bloume etiktec
stic kateujunmenec grammc.
Genik, den uprqei ekoloc trpoc na anaparastsoume

grafik apodseic kathgorhmtwn trtou megalterou
bajmo.
Kathgormata bajmo 0 enai ta dia me ta toma thc

Protasiakc Logikc.
155 / 232
9.2
Alhjotimc
se ma
dom (mh tupik perigraf)
Pte enai nac tpoc qwrc posodektec alhjc se ma dom;
Sun()
I O tpoc
na antikemeno
Prosoq:
M,
M
Sun.
giat
M lei ti enai
M Sun().
h M lei ti Sun().
to opoo h
Aut to grfoume
To diabzoume wc
enai alhjc sth
Aut enai ma diaforetik qrsh tou
enai
ap
aut tou Orismo 3.1.

To smbolo
qrhsimopoietai gia do diaforetikoc
skopoc.
(, ) enai alhjc sth M .

M (, ).
O tpoc (, ) enai yeudc sth M , giat h
M den lei ti h stajer onomzei na antikemeno
I Omowc, o tpoc
Sumbolik
to opoo
ton eaut tou.

Sumbolik M 2 (, ).
I Omowc,
M 2 Sun() (, ).
156 / 232
Ma llh
dom
Paraktw enai ma llh
L-dom,
M 0.
Uprqoun mno 10 antikemena sto smpan thc
M 0.
157 / 232
Sqetik me
th
M0
M 0 2 (, ).
M 0 =.
M 0 () Sun().
M 0 (, ) (, c).
Poia h alhjotim twn paraktw tpwn;
(, ) ().
(c, ) Sun() ().
158 / 232
Ermhneon tac tpouc me
posodektec (mh tupik
perigraf)
Pte enai nac tpoc me posodektec alhjc se ma dom;
159 / 232
Ermhneon tac posodektec
Pc exetzoume an o tpoc
sth
x (x, )
enai alhjc
M;
Sumbolik,
Sth fusik
M x (x, );
glssa, uposthrzei h M
ti kti agrase ton
Erm;
Gia na enai alhjc o parapnw tpoc, prpei na uprqei na

antikemeno
sto smpan thc
tsi ste
M (x, ).
Me lla lgia, h
prpei na uposthrzei ti
(x, ),
pou
=M .
Uprqei ttoio antikemeno: blpoume sto digramma ti to

mpore na enai, pq,
Sunepc,
M .
M x (x, ).
160 / 232
Pardeigma:
M x(agorase(Tasoc, x) agorase(Sofia, x));

Gia
kje antikemeno
sto smpan thc
(, x) (, x)
Sth
uprqoun 12 pijan
x.
M,
enai o tpoc
alhjc sth
M;
Prpei na elgxoume an o tpoc
(, x) (, x)
enai alhjc sth
gia
kje na ap aut.
O tpoc
(, x) (, x)
alhjc sth
gia kje na antikemeno
(, x)
na elgxoume ta
enai yeudc sth
M.
ja enai
ttoio ste o tpoc
(Giat;) 'Ara qreizetai
gia ta opoa o tpoc
(, x)
enai alhjc.
161 / 232
Pardeigma:
M x(agorase(Tasoc, x) agorase(Sofia, x));
O tpoc
(, x)
enai alhjc mno gia na
x,
gia to
M .
=M , o tpoc (, ) enai
epshc alhjc sthn M . 'Ara o tpoc
(, ) (, ) enai alhjc sth M .
Gia to antikemeno
'Ara o tpoc
(, x) (, x)
enai
x thc M . Sunepc,
M x((, x) (, x)).
alhjc sth
gia kje antikemeno
162 / 232
'Askhsh:
Poia enai alhj
s th
M;
x(Sun(x) (, x))
x((x) (x))
x(Sun(x) y (y , x))
163 / 232
Ermhneon tac tpouc (mh tupik
Gia na snjeto tpo pwc
perigraf)
x(Sun(x) y (y , x)):
Brete pc metafrzetai kje upo-tpoc sth fusik glssa,

xekinntac ap touc atomikoc upo-tpouc (ta flla tou
dndrou (formation
tree)
) ftnontac mqri thn arqik prtash
(rza tou dndrou).
Autc enai suqn nac kalc trpoc na ermhneoume tpouc.

Pq, o parapnw tpoc anafrei ti uprqei na
enai
Sun
to opoo
kai kti to agrase (enai dhlad h katlhxh mac
kateujunmenhc grammc). 'Ara elgqoume tic grammc.
164 / 232
9.3
Alhjotimc
se ma
dom (tupik
perigraf)
Edame pc na ermhneoume orismnouc tpouc se ma dom

koitntac to digramma thc domc.
Qreiazmaste mwc na pio tupik/majhmatik trpo gia na

ermhneoume louc touc tpouc thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc
se domc.
Sth Protasiak Logik, upologzame thn alhjotim mac

prtashc se ma katstash upologzontac tic alhjotimc twn
upo-protsewn thc, xekinntac ap tic atomikc upo-protseic
(ta flla tou dndrou thc (formation
tree)
) ftnontac mqri th
rza tou dndrou.
Sth Kathgorhmatik Logik ta prgmata den enai tso

apl...
165 / 232
'Ena prblhma
O tpoc
x((, x) Sun(x))
enai alhjc sth dom
thc seldac 163. To dndro tou enai:
Mporome na ermhnesoume autn ton tpo xekinntac ap ta

flla, katalgontac sth rza;
Enai o tpoc
Enai o tpoc
(, x) alhjc
Sun(x) alhjc sth M;
sth
M;
Den enai loi oi tpoi thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc alhjec

yeudec se ma dom!
166 / 232
Elejerec kai
desmeumnec
metablhtc
Prpei na elgxoume pc emfanzontai oi metablhtc stouc

tpouc.
Orismc 9.3
'Estw
nac tpoc.
1. H emfnish mac metablhtc

tou
se na atomik upo-tpo
lgetai desmeumnh (bound) an brsketai ktw ap
na posodekth
sto dndro (formation
tree)
tou
A.
2. Allic h emfnish thc metablhtc lgetai elejerh (free).

3. Oi elejerec metablhtc enc tpou
enai oi metablhtc
oi opoec qoun elejerec emfanseic ston
A.
167 / 232
Pardeigma
x(R(x, y ) R(y , z) z(S(x, z) R(z, y )))
Oi elejerec metablhtc tou tpou enai oi

Shmewsh: h
y, z.
qei elejerec kai desmeumnec emfanseic.
168 / 232
Protseic
Orismc 9.4
Ma prtash (sentence) enai nac tpoc qwrc elejerec

metablhtc.
Paradegmata:
I O tpoc
x((, x) Sun(x))
enai prtash.
I Oi upo-tpoi tou:
I
I
I
(, x) Sun(x)
(, x)
Sun(x)
den enai protseic.

Poiec enai protseic;
I
I
I
I
I
(, )
(, x)
x=x
x(y (y =x) x=y )
xy (x=y z(R(x, z) R(y , z)))
169 / 232
Prto prblhma:
elejerec
metablhtc
Oi protseic enai alhjec yeudec se ma dom.

All oi tpoi pou den enai protseic den enai alhjec
yeudec se ma dom!
'Enac tpoc me elejerec metablhtc den enai alhjc yeudc
M , giat oi elejerec metablhtc tou den qoun

M . Enai san na rwtme enai to x=7 alhjc;
mporome na ermhnesoume na tpo A thc
se ma dom
nhma sth
Den
Kathgorhmatikc Logikc se ma dom pwc ermhneame

protseic thc Protasiakc Logikc se katastseic, giat h
dom den enai ma
oloklhrwmnh
A.
katstash: den dnei nnoiec
stic elejerec metablhtc tou
'Ara prpei na dsoume timc stic elejerec metablhtc prin

ermhnesoume na tpo.
Aut prpei na to knoume akma kai tan oi timc autc den
ephrezoun thn ermhnea tou tpou (pq, tan o tpoc enai
x=x ).
170 / 232
Ekqrhsh timn s tic metablhtc (
assignment
Ma ermhneutik sunrthsh metablhtn (ESM) dnei timc stic

elejerec metablhtc.
Ma ESM enai gia tic metablhtc ,ti ma dom gia tic

stajerc.
Orismc 9.5
M ma dom. Ma ermhneutik sunrthsh metablhtn

h sto plasio thc M antistoiqe se kje metablht na
antikemeno ap to smpan thc M :
'Estw
(ESM)
h : V dom(M)
(V enai to snolo twn metablhtn kai
M .)
metablht x ,
dom(M)
enai to snolo
twn antikeimnwn (smpan) thc

Gia ma ESM
kai ma
grfoume
antikemeno to opoo qei antistoiqhje sth
h(x)
gia to
ap thn
h.
171 / 232
Ekqrhsh timn s tic metablhtc (
Dojeshc mac
qoume ma
L-domc M
assignment
kai mac ESM
oloklhrwmnh
sto plasio thc
M,
katstash. Sunepc, mporome na
ermhnesoume:
I opoiodpote
smpan thc
L-ro.
M.
H tim tou ja enai na antikemeno sto
I opoiodpote atomik ( mh) tpo mac glssac
L.
H tim
tou ja enai alhjc yeudc.
172 / 232
Ermhneon tac rouc
Ma dom kai ma ESM dnoun ma
oloklhrwmnh
katstash.
Mac dnoun tic alhjotimc lwn twn atomikn tpwn.

Ja dexoume prta pc ermhneoume rouc kai met pc
ermhneoume tpouc.
Orismc 9.6
L, M ma L-dom, kai h ma ESM sto

M.
gia kje L-ro t , h tim tou t sth M smfwna me thn h
to antikemeno thc M to opoo qei antistoiqhje ston t
'Estw ma glssa
plasio thc
Tte
enai
ap:
I Th
M,
an to
tim tou
I Thn
h,
an to
h tim tou
enai ma stajer. Se aut thn perptwsh h
enai
tM .
enai ma metablht. Se aut thn perptwsh
enai
h(t).
173 / 232
Ermhneon tac rouc:
pardeigma
sth M smfwna me thn h enai to

Tsoc. (Ap ed kai sto exc ja
M
anaparist wc Tsoc , all qi wc .)
(2) H tim thc x sth M smfwna me thn h enai Ermc.
(1) H tim tou rou

antikemeno
me etikta
to
174 / 232
Shmasiologa tpwn
qwrc
posodektec
Mporome tra na ermhnesoume opoiodpote tpo qwrc

posodektec.
'Estw ma
tpoc
L-dom M
kai ma ESM
enai alhjc sth
grfoume
h.
M, h A
h. Allic
Grfoume
smfwna me thn
an o
M, h 2 A.
Orismc 9.7
n
L, kai t1 , . . . , tn enai L-roi. Ac upojsoume
ti h tim tou ti sth M smfwna me thn h enai ai , gia
kje i=1, . . . , n (dete ton Orism 9.6).
Tte M, h R(t1 , . . . , tn ) an h M uposthrzei ti h ditaxh
(a1 , . . . , an ) qei th sqsh R . Allic, M, h 2 R(t1 , . . . , tn ).
1. 'Estw ti
enai na smbolo kathgormatoc bajmo
mac glssac
M, h t=t 0 an ta t kai t 0 qoun thn

dia tim sth M smfwna me thn h. An den qoun thn dia
0
tim tte M, h 2 t=t .
2. An
t, t 0
enai roi, tte
175 / 232
Shmasiologa tpwn
qwrc
posodektec

3.
M, h >
4.
M, h A B an M, h A
M, h 2 A B .
kai
M, h 2 .
kai
M, h B .
Allic,
5. Omowc orzoume thn ermhnea twn tpwn
AB
kai
A, A B ,
A B.
176 / 232
Ermhneon tac tpouc qwrc posodektec:
I
I
I
pardeigma
M, h (z)
M, h x=
M, h 2 (, v ) z=
177 / 232
Detero
prblhma:
desmeumnec
metablhtc
Gnwrzoume pc na dnoume timc se elejerec metablhtc: me

ma ESM. Me aut ton trpo mporsame na ermhnesoume
louc touc tpouc qwrc posodektec.
All uprqoun tpoi pou qoun desmeumnec metablhtc. Oi
timc autn twn metablhtn den dnontai, kai den prpei na
dnontai, ap thn katstash, kajc oi metablhtc autc
elgqontai ap posodektec.
Pc upologzoume tic timc desmeumnwn metablhtn;
Do trpoi:
1. Elgqoume tic pijanc ESM:
I

.

.
2. Qrhsimopoiome paiqndia (Hintikka
games),
ta opoa mac
bohjon na katalboume tic epidrseic twn posodeiktn,

kai eidiktera twn emfwleumnwn (nested) posodeiktn.
178 / 232
Shmasiologa tpwn
me posodektec

Ac upojsoume ti gnwrzoume pc na ermhnesoume na tpo
sth
smfwna me opoiadpote ESM. 'Estw
opoiadpote metablht, kai

6.
7.
ma
ma opoiadpote ESM. Tte:
M, h xA an uprqei kpoia ESM g h opoa sumfwne

me thn h gia lec tic metablhtc ektc, pijanc, ap th x ,
kai isqei M, g A. An den uprqei ttoia ESM tte
M, h 2 xA.
M, h xA an M, g A gia kje ESM g h opoa sumfwne
h gia lec tic metablhtc ektc, pijanc, ap th x .
Allic, M, h 2 xA.
me thn
H g
h gia lec tic metablhtc ektc, pijanc,

x shmanei ti g (y )=h(y ) gia lec tic metablhtc y
thc x . (Aut den apokleei thn perptwsh g (x)=h(x).)
sumfwne me thn
ap th
ektc
179 / 232
Ermhneon tac tpouc me
I
I
I
posodektec:
pardeigma
M, h x (x)
giat, pq M, g (x) pou g (x)=Fthc.
M, h 2 x (x)
giat, pq M, g 2 (x) pou g (x)='Arhc.
M, h x((, x) (x))
(Elgxte sugkekrimna th g me g (x)=Ermc kai th g
g (x)='Arhc.)
me
180 / 232
Smbash gia
elejerec metablhtc
H paraktw smbash enai qrsimh gia na grfoume kai

ermhneoume tpouc.
Sta bibla suqn blpoume ekfrseic thc morfc:
'Estw A(x1 , . . . , xn )
nac tpoc.
H parapnw kfrash dhlnei ti oi elejerec metablhtc tou
x1 , . . . , xn .
x1 , . . . , xn prpei
enai metax twn
Shmewsh: Oi
na enai lec diaforetikc.
Epiplon, den enai aparathto na qoun lec oi

elejerec emfanseic ston
Pardeigma:
x1 , . . . , xn
A.
'Estw o tpoc
C:
x(R(x, y ) yS(y , z))

Ja mporosame na gryoume ton tpo wc:
C (y , z)
C (x, z, v , y )
I C
(an den
all qi wc C (x).
I
qrhsimopoisoume aut th smbash)
181 / 232
Smbash gia
Ermhneutikc Sunartseic Metablhtn
Gia kje tpo
h(x)
A,
an isqei
M, h A qi, exarttai ap
x oi opoec qoun elejerec
thn
mno gia tic metablhtc
A.
'Ara gia na tpo A(x1 , . . . , xn ), an h(x1 )=a1 , . . . , h(xn )=an , tte
enai OK na gryoume M A(a1 , . . . , an ) ant gia M, h A.
emfanseic ston
I Ac upojsoume ti mac qoun dsei na tpo
C (y , z)
ttoio
ste
x(R(x, y ) yS(y , z))

An pq
h(y )=a, h(z)=b ,

M C (a, b),
tte mporome na gryoume
M x(R(x, a) yS(y , b))
M, h C . Shmewsh: mno oi elejerec emfanseic

C qoun antikatastaje ap to a. Oi
desmeumnec emfanseic tou y paramnoun wc qoun.
Gia ma prtash S , an isqei M, h S qi, den exarttai
kajlou ap thn h. 'Ara mporome na gryoume M S .
ant gia
tou
ston
182 / 232
Pc na
ermhneoume
tpouc
Edame ton orism thc aljeiac se ma dom (Alfred
Tarski,
dekaeta 1950).
Poioc mwc enai o kalteroc trpoc na elgqoume an isqei
M A;
I Se merikc periptseic mporome na metafrzoume ton
sth fusik glssa kai na elgqoume an enai alhjc sth
(dete selda 164).
I Qrhsimopoiome ton Orism 9.7 kai elgqoume lec tic

pijanc ESM. Pq, gia ton tpo
elgqoume, gia la ta
enai kai
x,
an to
x((x) Sun(x))
x enai kajhghtc tte
Sun.
I Qrhsimopoiome ta paiqndia
Hintikka,
ta opoa mac
bohjon na katalboume tic epidrseic twn posodeiktn.

Me ta paiqndia
Hintikka
den ja asqolhjome se aut to
mjhma.
183 / 232
10.
Sqsh
tou
Kathgorhmatiko Logismo
me th
fusik
glssa
10.1 Ap thn tupik glssa sth fusik

H metfrash twn protsewn thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc sth
fusik glssa den enai pol duskolterh ap th metfrash
twn protsewn thc Protasiakc Logikc sth fusik glssa.
Oi metablhtc prpei apaloifjon: sth fusik glssa den tic
qrhsimopoiome.
x((x) (x=) (x, ))

Gia kje x , an to x enai nac kajhghtc kai to x den enai o
Fthc tte to x agrase ton Trtwn.
Kje kajhghtc ektc ap ton Fth agrase ton Trtwn.
(Mpore kai o Fthc na ton agrase.)
184 / 232
Ap
thn tupik
glssa s th
fusik
xy z((x, y ) (x, z) (y =z))

Uprqoun x, y , z ttoia ste to x agrase to y , to x
agrase to z , kai to y den enai to z .
Kti agrase toulqiston do diaforetik prgmata.
x(y z((x, y ) (x, z) (y =z)) x=)
Gia kje x , an to x agrase do diaforetik prgmata, tte
to x enai o Tsoc.
Otidpote agrase do diaforetik prgmata enai o Tsoc.
Prosoq: h parapnw prtash den lei ti o Tsoc agrase
do diaforetik prgmata, all ti kannac lloc den
agrase do diaforetik prgmata.
185 / 232
10.2
Tupopohsh thc
fusikc glssac
Ekfrste tic upo-nnoiec sth logik. 'Epeita sunjste tic

upo-nnoiec se ma logik prtash.
I Upo-nnoia:
to x
agorast:y
agorsthke/
to x
qei
(y , x).
I Otidpote agorsthke den enai njrwpoc:
x(y (y , x) (x)).
Prosoq: h metfrash se
xy ((y , x) (x)) den enai swst.

Sun agorsthke: x(Sun(x) y (y , x)).
Kpoio Sun qei na agorast:
x(Sun(x) y (y , x)).
I Kje
I
I 'Oloi oi agorastc enai njrwpoi kai kajhghtc:
x(y (x, y ) (x) (x)).

{z
}
|
o x enai agorastc
I Kannac kajhghtc den agrase na
Sun:
x((x) y ((x, y ) (Sun(y ))).
|
{z
}
o x agrase na Sun
186 / 232
Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
Suqn qreizetai na pome:
'Oloi oi kajhghtc enai njrwpoi:

x((x) (x)).
OQI x((x) (x)).
OQI x (x) x (x).
I 'Oloi oi kajhghtc enai njrwpoi Sun:
x((x) (x) Sun(x)).
I Tpota den enai Sun kai kajhghtc:
x(Sun(x) (x)),
x(Sun(x) (x)).
Sunepc o tpoc x(A B) enai pol suqnc.
Epshc oi x(A B), x(A B), x(A B), x(A B)
qreizontai suqn: lne ti ta pnta/kti enai A kai/ B .
I
O tpoc
ston
A,
x(A B),
eidik tan h
qei elejerh emfnish
enai spnioc.
An gryete autn ton tpo elgxte an qete knei ljoc.
187 / 232
Tupopohsh
thc fusikc
glssac
Sun: x Sun(x).
Sun:
xy (Sun(x) Sun(y ) x6=y ),
xy (Sun(y ) y 6=x).
Uprqoun toulqiston tra Sun:
xy z(Sun(x) Sun(y ) Sun(z) x6=y y 6=z x6=z),
xy z(Sun(z) z6=x z6=y ).
Den uprqei Sun: x Sun(x).
Uprqei to pol na Sun:
I Uprqei toulqiston na
I Uprqoun toulqiston do
I
I
1. xy (Sun(x) Sun(y ) x6=y )

( Sun)
2. xy (Sun(x) Sun(y ) x=y ).
3. xy (Sun(y ) x=y ).
I Uprqei akribc na
Sun:
1. Sun
Sun.
2. xy (Sun(y ) x=y ).
188 / 232
11.
Smbola sunartsewn
Sthn arijmhtik qrhsimopoiome sunartseic pwc pq
+, , ,
x.
Sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik mporome na ekfrsoume

sunartseic.
'Ena smbolo sunrthshc enai san na smbolo kathgormatoc
ma stajer, all apoddetai se ma dom wc ma sunrthsh.
Kje smbolo sunrthshc qei na sugkekrimno bajm (arity).
Sumbolzoume sunjwc ta smbola sunartsewn me
f , g.
Ap ed kai sto exc uiojetome thn paraktw epktash tou

Orismo 8.1:
Orismc 11.1
Ma glssa enai na snolo ap stajerc, kai smbola

kathgorhmtwn kai sunartsewn sugkekrimnou bajmo.
Prosoq:
den prpei na uprqei sgqush metax mac ESM
sto plasio mac domc
M,
me ma sunrthsh
mac glssac
h
L.
189 / 232
'Oroi
me smbola sunartsewn
Tra mporome epektenoume ton Orism 8.2:

Orismc 11.2
('Oroc)
Dojeshc mac glssac

1. Kje stajer thc
L:
enai nac
2. Kje metablht enai nac
L-roc.
L-roc.
f enai na smbolo sunrthshc bajmo n thc L, kai

t1 , . . . , tn enai L-roi, tte o f (t1 , . . . , tn ) enai nac L-roc.
3. An
L-roc.
Pardeigma:
'Estw ti h
qei ma stajer
c,
na smbolo sunrthshc
prtou bajmo, kai na smbolo sunrthshc

bajmo. Tte ta paraktw enai
f (c)
g (x, x)
(wc sunjwc
g (f (c), g (x, x))
I
I
deutrou
L-roi:
enai metablht)
190 / 232
Shmasiologa sumblwn sunartsewn
Prpei epiplon na epektenoume ton Orism 9.1: an h

smbola sunartsewn, ma
L-dom
qei
prpei na diatupnei to
nhma touc.
Gia kje smbolo sunrthshc
bajmo
thc
L,
ma
L-dom M
prpei na lei poio antikemeno (ap to smpan thc)

antistoiqe h
se kje ditaxh
(a1 , . . . , an ),
M.
pou
a1 , . . . , an
enai antikemena tou smpantoc thc

Sumbolzoume wc
thc
pou h
f M (a1 , . . . , an )
to antikemeno tou smpantoc
antistoiqe sth ditaxh
(a1 , . . . , an ).
'Ena smbolo sunrthshc bajmo 0 jewretai ma stajer.
Pardeigma
Sthn arijmhtik, h
kai
mpore na uposthrzei ti oi sunartseic
ekfrzoun thn prsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasm
arijmn: to 5 qei antistoiqhje me to

Den enai aparathto h
2+3,
uposthrzei enallaktik ti h sunrthsh

prsjesh.
to 8 me to
24,
klp.
na to uposthrzei aut. Mpore na
ekfrzei thn
191 / 232
Ermhneon tac rouc me smbola
sunartsewn
Tra mporome na epektenoume ton Orism 9.6:

Orismc 11.3
H tim enc
L-rou t se ma L-dom M
M orzetai wc exc:
smfwna me ma ESM
sto plasio thc
I An o t enai stajer tte h tim tou enai to antikemeno

t M to opoo qei antistoiqhje ston t ap th M .
I An o
h(t)
enai metablht tte h tim tou enai to antikemeno
to opoo qei antistoiqhje ston
ap thn
h.
f (t1 , . . . , tn ), kai oi
t1 , . . . , tn sth M smfwna me thn h enai
antstoiqa a1 , . . . , an , tte h tim tou t enai to antikemeno
f M (a1 , . . . , an ).
I An o
enai sunrthsh thc morfc
timc twn rwn
Sunepc h tim enc rou sth
smfwna me thn
na antikemeno tou smpantoc thc
M.
enai pnta
Me lla lgia nac
roc den qei alhjotim.
192 / 232
Shmasiologa tpwn
me smbola sunartsewn
O orismc 9.7 den qreizetai allag, pra ap to ti

qrhsimopoietai plon me ton Orism 11.3 (kai qi me ton
Orism 9.6).
193 / 232
Arijmhtiko roi
'Estw ma glssa
gia arijmhtik kai gia progrmmata
logismiko pou qrhsimopoion arijmoc, h opoa perilambnei:
I tic stajerc
0, 1, 2,
. . . (upogrammzw aut ta smbola gia
na ta xeqwrsw ap touc fusikoc arijmoc 0, 1, 2, . . . ),
I ta smbola sunartsewn deutrou bajmo
+, , ,
I ta smbola kathgorhmtwn deutrou bajmo
kai
<, , >, .
Apoddoume ta parapnw smbola se ma dom me smpan to
{0, 1, . . . }, pou to 0 apoddetai sto 0, to 1 sto 1,

+(x, y ) ekfrzei x+y , to <(x, y ) ekfrzei x<y , klp.
Shmewsh: h tim tou (34, 55) den mpore na problefje,
snolo
klp,
to
mpore na enai opoiosdpote arijmc.
Paradegmata rwn:
+(x, 1), +(2, +(x, 5)), (+(3, 7), (5, 2)).
'Oqi to
+(x, y , z)
Paradegmata tpwn:
>((3, x), 0), y (>(y , 0) >((y , y ), y )).

194 / 232
Sunoyzon tac
Ma
L-dom M
perilambnei:
I na mh-ken snolo, to
I gia kje stajer
dom(M)
c L,
na stoiqeo
c M dom(M)
I gia kje smbolo sunrthshc f L bajmo

M : dom(M)n dom(M)
sunrthsh f
I gia kje smbolo kathgormatoc R
M sto dom(M), dhlad R M
sqsh R
n,
ma
L bajmo n,
dom(M)n .
ma
n forc
(Gia na snolo
S,
to
Sn
den prpei na uprqei sgqush metax mac ESM
Shmewsh:
sto plasio mac domc

sunrthsh
enai to
}|
{
z
S S S .)
M,
mac glssac
h : V dom(M), me ma
L, pou f M : dom(M)n dom(M).
pou
195 / 232
12.
Epiqeirmata, egkurthta
H Kathgorhmatik Logik enai pio ekfrastik ap thn

Protasiak Logik. All h empeira mac ap thn Protasiak
Logik mac bohjei na diatupsoume ton orism thc
egkurthtac sthn Kathgorhmatik Logik.
Orismc 12.1
A1 , . . . , An , B tpoi thc L.
'Ena epiqerhma A1 , . . . , An , ra B enai gkuro an se
L-dom M kai ESM h sto plasio thc M pou
M, h A1 , M, h A2 , . . . kai M, h An ,, tte M, h B .
Se aut thn perptwsh grfoume A1 , . . . , An B .
'Estw
('Egkuro epiqerhma)
ma glssa kai
kje
Me lla lgia, se kje katstash (dom + ESM) sthn opoa

oi tpoi
A1 , . . . , An
enai loi alhjec, o
prpei epshc na
enai alhjc.
Eidik perptwsh:
Shmanei ti o
ESM.
n=0.
Se aut thn perptwsh grfoume
enai alhjc se kje
L-dom
B.
smfwna me kje
196 / 232
Egkurthta,
Ikanopoihsimthta,
'Estw ma glssa
Orismc 12.2
Isodunama
L.
('Egkuroc Tpoc)
L-tpoc enai (logik) gkuroc an gia kje L-dom M

ESM h sto plasio thc M , qoume M, h A.
Grfoume Aan o A enai gkuroc.
'Enac
Orismc 12.3
'Enac
ESM
(Ikanopoisimoc Tpoc)
L-tpoc enai ikanopoisimoc an gia kpoia L-dom M

h sto plasio thc M , qoume M, h A.
Orismc 12.4
kai
kai
(Isodnamoi Tpoi)
L-tpoi A, B enai logik isodnamoi an gia kje L-dom M

h sto plasio thc M , qoume M, h A an kai mno an
M, h B .
Oi
kai ESM
197 / 232
Egkurthta,
Ikanopoihsimthta,
Isodunama
Oi sqseic metax autn twn ennoin (selda 43) isqoun kai

gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik.
'Ara, pq oi nnoiec tou gkurou, ikanopoisimou tpou, kai thc

isodunamac, mporon na ekfraston me bsh thn nnoia tou
gkurou epiqeirmatoc.
198 / 232
Poia
epiqeirmata enai gkura
Merik paradegmata ap gkura epiqeirmata:
I gkura epiqeirmata Protasiakc Logikc: pq
A B A.
I poll kainorgia: pq
x((x) (x)),
x((x) (x, )),
x((x) (x, ))
Elgqontac an na epiqerhma
A1 , . . . , An B
enai gkuro enai
genik pra pol dskolo.
B enai alhjc se lec tic

A1 , . . . , An enai loi alhjec
Den mporome na elgxoume ti o
L-domc
+ ESM stic opoec oi
(pwc kname me touc pnakec aljeiac).

Aut sumbanei giat uprqoun peirec
Jerhma 12.5
Church, 1935
L-domc.
Den uprqei algrijmoc o opooc mpore na entopsei akribc

ta gkura epiqeirmata thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc.
199 / 232
Trpoi
gia na
elgqoume thn egkurthta twn
epiqeirhmtwn
Par to Jerhma 12.5, sthn prxh mporome suqn na

elgqoume an na epiqerhma thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc
enai gkuro. Aut mporome na to petqoume me touc
paraktw trpouc:
I mesh epiqeirhmatologa
I isodunamec
I sustmata apodexewn pwc to ssthma kannwn fusikc
sumperasmatologac
Qrhsimopoiome touc parapnw trpouc kai gia na dexoume
ti nac tpoc enai gkuroc, dhlad
A.
Oi pnakec aljeiac den enai qrsimoi giat uprqoun peirec

domc.
200 / 232
12.1
'Amesh epiqeirhmatologa
Ac dexoume ti
x((x) (x)),
x((x) (x, ))
x((x) (x, )).
Ac proume ma opoiadpote
L-dom M
(pou
enai h glssa
pou qrhsimopoiome wc pardeigma). Ac upojsoume ti
M x((x) (x)).
(2) M x((x) (x, )).
'Ara prpei na brome na antikemeno sth M ttoio ste
M () (, ).
Smfwna me thn upjesh (2) uprqei na sth M ttoio ste
M () (, ).
'Ara M ().
(1)
Smfwna me thn upjesh (1),
M () ().
'Ara M ().
'Ara M () (, ).
201 / 232
Pardeigma
Ac dexoume ti
x((x) (x)),
x(Sun(x) (x)),
x(Sun(x) (x))
x (x).
Ac proume opoiadpote dom
ttoia ste:
M x((x) (x)),
M x(Sun(x) (x)),
(3) M x(Sun(x) (x))
Prpei na dexoume ti M x (x).
Ac proume na opoiodpote antikemeno thc M . Jloume na
isqei M ().
Smfwna me thn (3) qoume M Sun() ().
An M (), tte ap thn (1) isqei M ().
Allic M Sun(). Tte ap th (2) isqei M ().
'Ara kai ap tic 2 periptseic qoume M ().
(1)
(2)
202 / 232
'Amesh
epiqeirhmatologa me
Ac dexoume ti o tpoc
isthta
xy (x=y zR(x, z) uR(y , u))
enai gkuroc.
Ac proume ma opoiadpote dom
smpan thc
M.
M,
kai antikemena
sto
Prpei na dexoume ti
M = zR(, z) uR(, u)
'Ara prpei na dexoume ti
AN
M = zR(, z)
All AN
TOTE
M = zR(, z),
M uR(, u).
tte ta
enai to dio
antikemeno.
Sunepc
M zR(, z).
'Ara uprqei na antikemeno
sto smpan thc
ttoio ste
M R(, ).
Sunepc
M uR(, u).
Teleisame.
203 / 232
12.2
Isodunamec
H Kathgorhmatik Logik perilambnei tic isodunamec pou ja

dome paraktw kajc KAI tic isodunamec thc Protasiakc
Logikc.
'Estw
A, B
tuqaoi tpoi.
28. O tpoc
xyA
enai logik isodnamoc me ton
y xA.
29. O tpoc
xyA
enai (logik) isodnamoc me ton
30. O tpoc
xA
enai isodnamoc me ton
xA.
31. O tpoc
xA
xA.
32. O tpoc
x(A B)
xA xB .
33. O tpoc
x(A B)
xA xB .
y xA.
204 / 232
Isodunamec me
34. An h
xA
desmeumnec
A, tte oi tpoi
xA enai logik isodnamoi me ton A.
x xP(x) kai x xP(x) enai isodnamoi me xP(x).
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
den qei elejerh emfnish ston
kai
Pq oi
35. An h
metablhtc
A,
tte
x(A B) enai isodnamoc me ton A xB ,

x(A B) enai isodnamoc me ton A xB .
o tpoc
tpoc
36. An h
o tpoc
o tpoc
37.
x(A B)
x(A B)
A,
kai o
tte

A xB ,
A xB .
kai
An h x den qei elejerh emfnish ston B , tte

x(A B) enai isodnamoc me ton xA B , kai
x(A B) enai isodnamoc me ton xA B .
Shmewsh:
o tpoc
o tpoc
Prosoq: O posodekthc allzei!
205 / 232
Metonomzon tac tic desmeumnec metablhtc
38. Ac upojsoume ti:

I
I
I
Q ,
y A,
B A
x A y .
Tte o tpoc
QxA
xy (x, y )
zu (z, u).
Pq o tpoc
QyB .
206 / 232
Isodunamec/egkurthta
39. O tpoc
t=t
me isthta
enai gkuroc gia kje ro
40. Gia opoiodpote rouc

o tpoc
t=u
41. (Arq tou
t, u
Leibniz)
An
kai o
u=t .
enai nac tpoc ston opoo h
qei elejerh emfnish, h
A,
t.
den emfanzetai kajlou ston
prorqetai ap ton
antikajistntac ma
perissterec elejerec emfanseic thc
ap thn
y,
tte o
tpoc
x=y (A B)
enai gkuroc.
Pardeigma: o tpoc
x=y (zR(x, z) zR(y , z))
enai
gkuroc.
207 / 232
Pardeigma
x den enai elejerh metablht tou A tte

x(xB A) enai isodnamoc me ton x(A B).
Ac dexoume ti an h
o tpoc
Oi paraktw tpoi enai isodnamoi:
I
I
x(xB A)
xB A
(isodunama 34, kajc h
metablht tou
xB A
A xB
den enai elejerh
xB A)
(isodunama 30)
(pardeigma sel. 61)
x(A B)
(isodunama 36, kajc h
metablht tou
den enai elejerh
A)
208 / 232
Tpoi
pou DEN
enai
Gia orismnouc tpouc
logik
A, B ,
isodnamoi
oi paraktw tpoi DEN enai
logik isodnamoi. (Pnta mwc isqei

prtoc tpoc
deteroc tpoc.)
x(A B)
x(A B)
kai
xA xB .
xA xB
kai
x(A B).
kai
xA xB .
M kai tpouc A, B
M 2 prtoc tpoc;
Mporete na brete ma dom
M
deteroc tpoc, all
pou
209 / 232
13.
Fusik
sumperasmatologa gia
thn Kathgorhmatik
Logik
To ssthma kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac (natural
deduction (ND))
gia thn Kathgorhmatik Logik perilambnei
touc kannec gia thn Protasiak Logik kai nouc kannec gia
touc posodektec
kai thn isthta
=.
Prin kataskeasoume ma apdeixh me to ssthma
ND
enai
qrsimo na thn anaptxoume prta me mesh

epiqeirhmatologa kai peita na thn metatryoume se ma
apdeixh
ND.
Oi apodexeic protsewn thc Kathgorhmatikc Logikc me to

ssthma
ND
mpore na enai pio dskolec ap tic apodexeic
protsewn thc Protasiakc Logikc, giat tra qoume nouc

kannec oi opooi mac dnoun perissterec epilogc, kai mpore
arqik na knoume ljoc epilogc.
210 / 232
Eisagwg
introduction I
-
xA, prpei na
A(t) gia kpoio basik ro t thc epilogc mac.
Gia na apodexoume ma prtash thc morfc

apodexoume thn
.
.
.
1
2
A(t)
xA
to apodexame aut
...
I (1)
Smbash 13.1
Ap ed kai sto exc

ap ton tpo
A(t)
enai h prtash h opoa prorqetai
A(x) antikajistntac
x me ton ro t .
lec tic elejerec
emfanseic thc
Jumhjete ti nac basikc roc enai nac roc o opooc den

perilambnei metablhtc. Sunepc perilambnei stajerc kai
smbola sunrthshc.
An se kpoia dom
xA
tou
h prtash
A(t)
enai alhjc, tte kai h
enai alhjc giat uprqei na antikemeno sth
sth
M)
to opoo knei thn
(h tim
alhj.
211 / 232
Eisagwg
introduction I
-
Epilgontac ton katllhlo ro
mpore na enai dskolo. Gi'
aut enai qrsimo na anaptssoume ma apdeixh prta me

mesh epiqeirhmatologa kai peita na thn metatrpoume se
ma apdeixh
ND.
212 / 232
Apaloif
'Estw
A(x)
elimination E
-
nac tpoc. An qoume apodexei thn prtash
tte mporome na apodexoume ma prtash
I upojtontac thn
A(c),
pou h
opoa den qrhsimopoietai sthn
xA,
B:
enai ma na stajer h
sthn apdeixh wc
tra, kai
I apodeiknontac thn
ap thn parapnw upjesh.
Kat thn dirkeia thc apdeixhc thc
mporome na
qrhsimopoisoume otidpote qoume dh apodexei.

All tan apodexoume thn
den mporome na
qrhsimopoisoume argtera kanna mroc thc apdeixhc thc

sumperilambanomnhc kai thc
apdeixh thc
B
1
ap thn
xA
A(c)
c.
Sunepc klenoume thn
se na kout:
A(c)
B,
upjesh
h apdeixh
3
4
to apodexame
E (1,
2, 3)
213 / 232
Apaloif
H stajer
elimination E
-
lgetai stajer
Skolem.
214 / 232
Aitiolghsh
kanna
An h prtash
xA enai alhjc se ma dom M , tte uprqei

sto smpan thc M ttoio ste M A().
na antikemeno
To
mpore na mhn onomzetai ap kpoia stajer sth
M.
Mporome mwc na prosjsoume ma na stajer, pq thn

stajer
c,
gia na to onomsei. Epiplon, prosjtoume thn
plhrofora sth
H stajer
ti h
onomzei to
prpei na enai kainorgia giat oi uploipec
stajerc mpore na mhn onomzoun to
sth
M.
A(c) gia kpoia na stajer c enai san thn

xA. An mporome na apodexoume thn prtash B ap
upjesh A(c), tte enai san na apodeiknoume thn B ap
xA.
'Ara h prtash
prtash
thn
thn
215 / 232
Pardeigma
qrshc kannwn
Ac dexoume ti
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
kai
x(P(x) Q(x)) ` xP(x) xQ(x).

x(P(x) Q(x))
dedomno
P(c) Q(c)
upjesh
P(c)
E (2)
xP(x)
I (3)
Q(c)
E (2)
xQ(x)
I (5)
xP(x) xQ(x) I (4, 6)
xP(x) xQ(x)
E (1, 2, 7)
x(P(x) Q(x)). Tte
P() Q(). 'Ara P() kai Q().
xQ(x). Sunepc xP(x) xQ(x).
Sth fusik glssa: Jewrome ti

uprqei na
'Ara
xP(x)
Shmewsh:
ttoio ste
kai
Mno protseic uprqoun se ma apdeixh
ND.
Se
autc tic apodexeic den prpei na uprqoun tpoi me elejerec

metablhtc.
216 / 232
Eisagwg
introduction I
-
Gia na eisgoume ma prtash thc morfc

tpo
A(x),
xA,
gia kpoio
prpei na eisgoume ma na stajer, pq
c,
h opoa
den qei qrhsimopoihje wc tra sthn apdeixh, kai na

apodexoume thn prtash
A(c).
Kat thn dirkeia thc apdeixhc thc
A(c)
mporome na
qrhsimopoisoume otidpote qoume dh apodexei.

All tan apodexoume thn
A(c)
qrhsimopoisoume argtera thn

apdeixh thc
A(c)
1
den mporome na
c.
Sunepc klenoume thn
se na kout:
stajer
h apdeixh
2
3
A(c)
xA
to apodexame
I (1,
Aut enai h monadik for sto ssthma
ND
2)
pou grfoume
ma gramm (gramm 1) h opoa perilambnei na ro kai qi

ma prtash. Epiplon, enai h monadik for pou na kout
den arqzei me ma gramm h opoa onomzetai
upjesh.
217 / 232
Aitiolghsh
Kanna
Gia na dexoume ti
M xA, prpei na dexoume

sto smpan thc M .
ti
M A()
gia kje antikemeno
, prosjtoume ma na
, kai apodeiknoume thn
Sunepc dialgoume na tuqao

stajer
prtash
A(c).
H stajer
h opoa onomzei to
Epeid to
enai tuqao, qoume dexei ti
xA.
prpei na enai kainorgia giat oi stajerc pou
qoun dh qrhsimopoihje mpore na mhn onomzoun to
218 / 232
Apaloif
elimination E
-
'Estw nac tpoc

prtash
xA,
A(x).
An qoume katafrei na gryoume thn
tte mporome na gryoume kai thn
opoiodpote basik ro
A(t)
thc epilogc mac (poion ro
gia
ja
epilxoume;).
.
.
.
1
2
Aitiolghsh: an h
xA
A(t)
xA
...
E (1)
to apodexame aut
enai alhjc se ma dom, tte kai h
ja enai opwsdpote alhjc, gia opoiodpote basik ro
H epilog tou katllhlou
A(t)
t.
mpore na enai dskolh. Gi' aut
enai qrsimo na anaptssoume ma apdeixh prta me mesh

epiqeirhmatologa kai peita na thn metatrpoume se ma
apdeixh
ND.
219 / 232
Pardeigma
qrshc kannwn
Ac dexoume ti
kai
P xQ(x) ` x(P Q(x)).

P enai smbolo kathgormatoc
Se aut thn perptwsh to
bajmo 0, dhlad enai na tomo.

1
P xQ(x)
I stajer
P
upjesh
xQ(x)
E (3, 1)
Q(c)
E (4)
P Q(c)
I (3, 5)
x(P Q(x))
I (2, 6)
3
4
5
6
7
dedomno
P xQ(x). Tte gia kje

xQ(x), ra Q().
'Ara gia kje antikemeno , an P , tte Q().
Me lla lgia, gia kje antikemeno , qoume P Q().
'Ara x(P Q(x)).
antikemeno
an
tte
220 / 232
Pardeigma
qrshc lwn twn kannwn twn
Ac dexoume ti
posodeiktn
xyG (x, y ) ` y xG (x, y ).

xyG (x, y )
1
2
dedomno
yG (c, y )
G (c, d)
xG (x, d)
xG (x, d)
y xG (x, y )
3
4
5
6
7
stajer
upjesh
E (3)
I (4)
E (1, 3, 5)
I (2, 6)
xyG (x, y ). Tte uprqei

yG (, y ).
, qoume ti G (, ), ra

kpoio antikemeno
ttoio ste
'Ara gia opoiodpote antikemeno

kai
xG (x, ).
tan
Epeid to
na tuqao antikemeno, qoume
y xG (x, y ).
221 / 232
Ljoc
qrsh kannwn
Prpei na gnwrzoume wc tra ti
xy <(x, y ) 2 y x <(x, y ).
xy <(x, y ) enai
Pq stouc fusikoc arijmoc h prtash

alhjc, en h
y x <(x, y )
enai yeudc.
'Ara h paraktw apdeixh prpei na enai LAJOS:

1
2
4
5
6
7
8
y <(c, y )
<(c, d)
<(c, d)
<(c, d)
x <(x, d)
y x <(x, y )
Skolem d,
dedomno
H stajer
xy <(x, y )
stajer
E (1)
upjesh
(4)
E (3, 4, 5)
I (2, 6)
I (7)
LAJOS
thn opoa eisgame sth gramm 4, den
prpei na emfanzetai sto sumprasma (grammc 5, 6). Dete

thn selda 213. 'Ara h qrsh tou kanna
sth gramm 6 enai
ljoc.
222 / 232
Anakptwn Kannac:
Autc o kannac enai san ton kanna
PC:
meinei thn apdeixh
kat ma gramm. Enai qrsimoc kannac all den enai

aparathtoc.
'Estw ti qoume apodexei tic protseic
A(t),
gia kpoiouc tpouc
A(x), B(x),
x(A(x) B(x))
Gnwrzoume ti ap aut sumperanoume ti

1
2
3
4
O kannac
1
2
3
x(A(x) B(x))
A(t)
A(t) B(t)
B(t)
kai
kai kpoio basik ro
t.
B(t):
to apodexame aut. . .
. . . kai aut
E (1)
E (2, 3)
E :
x(A(x) B(x))
A(t)
B(t)
. . . kai aut
E (2,
1)
223 / 232
Pardeigma
qrshc kanna
Ac dexoume ti
xy (P(x, y ) Q(x, y )), xP(x, a) ` yQ(y , a).

1
2
3
4
5
6
xy (P(x, y ) Q(x, y )) dedomno

xP(x, a)
dedomno
P(c, a)
upjesh
Q(c, a)
E (3, 1)
yQ(y , a)
I (4)
yQ(y , a)
E (2, 3, 5)
Qrhsimopoisame apeujeac ton kanna

posodektec
se do
Aut enai akma pio qrsimo.
224 / 232
Kannec gia
isthta
I Anaklastik idithta isthtac (reflexivity
refl).
Se opoiadpote gramm mac apdeixhc mporete na

eisgete ma prtash thc morfc
basik
L-ro t
t=t ,
gia opoiodpote
kai gia opoiadpote glssa
L.
.
.
.
1
Aitiolghsh: opoiadpote
alhj (o
t=t
refl
L-dom
knei thn prtash
t=t
enai basikc roc).
225 / 232
Kannec gia
isthta
I Antikatstash swn rwn (=substitution

An
A(x)
=sub).
t, u enai basiko roi, qete
u=t , tte mporete na gryete
enai nac tpoc, oi
apodexei
A(t)
kai
t=u
A(u).
1
A(t)
.
.
.
3
4
t=u
A(u)
Aitiolghsh: an oi
t, u
antikatastsoume ton
ston tpo
. . . kai aut
=sub(1,
3)
enai soi tte mporome na
me ton
wc proc th metablht
A.
226 / 232
Pardeigma
me isthta
Ac dexoume ti
c=d ` d=c.
1
2
3
Oi
c=d
d=d
d=c
c, d
enai stajerc.
dedomno
refl
=sub(2,
1)
Aut enai suqn qrsimo, gi' aut mporome na to

qrhsimopoiome wc anakptonta kanna:
1
2
c=d
d=c
dedomno
=sym(1)
227 / 232
Pardeigma
me isthta
Ac dexoume ti
` xy (y =f (x)).
1
2
3
4
f (c)=f (c)
y (y =f (c))
xy (y =f (x))
stajer
refl
I (2)
I (1,
3)
Sth fusik glssa: Gia opoiodpote antikemeno
qoume
f ()=f ().
'Ara gia opoiodpote
uprqei kti so me to
qoume
f ()
(to dio to
f ()).
'Ara gia opoiodpote
Epeid to
y (y =f ()).
tan na tuqao antikemeno, qoume
xy (y =f (x)).
228 / 232
Pardeigma
me isthta
Ac dexoume ti
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
xy (P(y ) y =x), xP(f (x)) ` x(x=f (x)).

xy (P(y ) y =x)
dedomno
xP(f (x))
dedomno
y (P(y ) y =c)
upjesh
P(f (c))
E (2)
f (c)=c
E (4, 3)
c=f (c)
=sym(5)
x(x=f (x))
I (6)
x(x=f (x))
E (1, 3, 7)
229 / 232
Didaqjesa lh
Protasiak Logik
I Suntaktik
I Shmasiologa
I Metfrash Logikc se fusik glssa kai antstrofa
I Epiqeirmata, egkurthta
I
I
I
I
I

,

Beth
Kathgorhmatik Logik
Ta dia me thn Protasiak Logik, ektc ap
.
230 / 232
Merik ap
ta jmata pou
den
kalyame
I apodexeic orjthtac kai plhrthtac twn susthmtwn

kannwn fusikc sumperasmatologac kai
Beth
apodexewn
I jerhma sumpgeiac
I jerhma tou
Godel
I mh klassik edh Logikc, pq Tropik Logik (Modal
Logic), Qronik
(Linear Logic)
Logik (Temporal
Logic),
Grammik Logik
I peperasmnec domc kai upologistik poluplokthta
231 / 232
Logik se
ereunhtik eppedo
Sthn Plhroforik gnetai qrsh diafrwn eidn Logikc, pwc

Protasiakc, Kathgorhmatikc, Tropikc, Qronikc kai
Dunamikc Logikc. Uprqoun efarmogc sta peda teqnhtc
nohmosnhc, bsewn dedomnwn, parllhlwn kai
katanemhmnwn susthmtwn, polu-praktorikn susthmtwn,
anaparstashc gnshc, diatpwshc kai epaljeushc
diergasin, klp. H Jewrhtik Plhroforik qreizetai th
Logik.
H Logik apotele antikemeno melthc kai gia llouc tomec,

pwc ta Majhmatik, thn Filosofa, kai th Glwssologa.
232 / 232

Protasiakos Kai Katigorimatikos Logismos

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Protasiakos Kai Katigorimatikos Logismos

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Dom

I Protasiak Logik (Propositional

I Kathgorhmatik Logik (Predicate

gnwst kai wc Prwtobjmia Logik (First-Order

Autc oi shmeiseic enai basismnec stic shmeiseic tou

tou Panepisthmou tou

I Ap th Logik sto Logik Programmatism kai thn

I Stoiqea Majhmatikc Logikc. A. Tzoubrac.

I Logik: H dom tou Epiqeirmatoc. D. Portdhc, S.

I Diakrit Majhmatik kai Majhmatik Logik, Tmoc G':

Logic in Computer Science: Modelling and Reasoning about

Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. S. Russel

I To kommti thc Filosofac pou pragmateetai morfc

I Se aut to mjhma ja asqolhjome me th qrsh thc

majhmatik bsh gia thn antimetpish plhroforac kai

I Parqei ma kal exskhsh gia to swst sumperasm kai

I Merikc ap tic polplokec efarmogc Plhroforikc

ma glssa programmatismo Logikc. H glssa bsewn

enai basismnh se idec Logikc. Oi

prodiagrafc eufun praktrwn logismiko (intelligent

ekfrzontai me th qrsh thc Logikc.

(sunjwc apotele to upbajro)

I Fusik: Kbantologikc Logikc (quantum

epinohje gia thn jemelwsh thc kbantomhqanikc (quantum

I Glwssologa: qrsh Logikc gia thn jemelwsh Logikn

me skop thn anlush thc

qrshc thc glssac ap touc anjrpouc. Pc, gia

'Ena ssthma Logikc perilambnei:

I Suntaktik (Syntax): ma tupik glssa (pwc ma

I Shmasiologa (Semantics). H shmasiologa tou

I Snolo kannwn sumperasmatologac (Proof

kannec sumperasmatologac epitrpoun thn exagwg

Paraktw enai na mroc progrmmatoc:

if count>0 and not found then

oi opoec enai alhjec

yeudec ktw ap orismnec sunjkec.

I Mporon na qrhsimopoihjon sndesmoi pwc

gia na anaptuqjon pio polplokec protseic ap tic

I h telik polplokh prtash ja enai alhjc yeudc.

I 'Ola ta edh Logikc baszontai se kpoio bajm sthn

poluplokthtac kai na meletsoume ta genik

I Den jloume apl na apotimome

pot na enai alhjc ( yeudc).

I H Protasiak Logik perilambnei ma shmantik omda

Prta, prpei na dsoume na akrib orism sta edh twn

ta opoa ja antimetwpsoume. Autc o orismc ja mac

dsei thn tupik glssa (formal

Logikc. To alfbhto thc glssac thc Protasiakc Logikc

Prto sus tatik:

De mac apasqole poia atomik gegonta (pq,

ja antimetwpsoume. Arke na mporon na proun ma

alhjotim (dhlad na enai alhj yeud).

Enai san tic metablhtc

'Eqoume touc paraktw sundsmouc (connectives):

I szeuxh (kai): grfetai wc

I rnhsh (den): grfetai wc

I dizeuxh (): grfetai wc

I sunepagwg (an-tte): grfetai wc

I isodunama (an kai mno an): grfetai wc

count>0 and not found grfetai

I Ta smbola gia szeuxh, dizeuxh, sunepagwg kai

parnei ma parmetro kai grfetai wc:

den qoun paramtrouc.