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Rebecca Maisto
Problems in Pre-Columbian Art
A. Rajagopalan
Between Art and Artifact: Display Methods at the Mint Museums
Art of Ancient Americas Exhibit
From the moment Europeans gazed upon objects from the New World, ideas about what
they meant to the artistic realm began to form. Questions concerning whether or not these objects
of mystery could be considered art were raised. The ambiguity surrounding Pre-Columbian
objects led to a variety of display techniques in museums. The Mint Museums Art of Ancient
Americas exhibit shrinks the gap between art and artifact in the display of Pre-Columbian
objects. When questioned about which display methods are the best and most effective, Dr.
Budet the curator of the Art of Ancient Americas exhibit replied, What does one mean by best?
For the purposes of this paper, best will be defined by the exhibits ability to provide an
aesthetic lure and educational approach for the Pre-Columbian items.
Interpreting artifacts such as the pre-Columbian objects resembles the intentions and
outcome of examining a dead body. Knowing there is a limited amount of information the
objects can supply is the basis of interpreting them. There is always room for prejudice within
interpretation. Like a corpse, artifacts provide the aesthetics of an object, including injuries and
ecological information. Beyond that, everything is subjective. Once an artifact is on display and
exposed to the public, entire civilizations risk becoming subverted in mass culture and modern
tendencies of consumption. It is important for the remains of civilizations to be understood,
because at the core humans strive to be unstated.

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The recognition of Pre-Columbian objects by viewers, scholars and museum circles is
still occurring today. George Kubler states that recognition arises after finding, inventing, and
then discovering what has already been invented. Elizabeth Boone points out the receptions of
the Coatlicue and Calendar Stone by scholars in the eighteenth century, noting that dualistic
elements of discourse in each object led them to be set aside for display or study for years.
Boone notes that the early response to these objects by Europeans shows
The recognition of Pre-Columbian objects within the worlds of art and archaeology.
The process was halting at first, until firm conceptual categories could be devised for the
objects. Then once it was established, the categories themselves served to define the
pieces (Kubler 338).
In the centuries to come, recognition of Pre-Columbian objects by scholars was not effortless and
led to an array of display methods.
The treasures being sent back to Europe on ships in the sixteenth, seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries were small trinkets of gold and feather work since the large stone objects
were too heavy to move. They were placed in curiosity cabinets as objects of virtue (Kubler).
In 1790 the gigantic Coatlicue and Calendar Stone were discovered- but they were too large to
ship to Europe. The negation of large pieces from collections due to a lack of optimal
transportation to Europe had an affect on the European reception of Pre-Columbian items. The
viewers of collections perceived the objects as small treasures and trinkets unbeknownst of the
monumental works like Coatlicue.
In the nineteenth century, museums accepted Pre-Columbian objects into the collections.
Unlike earlier curiosity cabinets, museums at the time had to demonstrate a clear foundation.
There was an unmistakable distinction between natural history museums instructing, and art
museums showing splendor. During this time Pre-Columbian objects were placed in

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ethnographic museums. At the Louvre in Paris, Henri de Longperier organized one of the first
Pre-Columbian exhibits. Henri was an antiquarian and in 1859 helped found the Societe d
Ethnographie, whose emphasis was philological, and this impacted his Louvre exhibit. The
Louvre had more than nine hundred pieces from multiple sites in Central and South America.
Utensils, adornments and small-scale sculptures were presented as objects from unknown and
curious civilizations. Henri denied the objects beauty and focused his efforts in understanding
the meanings, origins, and iconography- although the exhibit had no distinction between Central
and South America.
In 1878, objects from Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Colombia were displayed by ErnestTheodore Hamy at the Trocadero (Williams). Known as the Wiener Peruvian Collection, the
exhibit received good attendance and press. There was a reproduction of a faade from
Tiahuanaco and mannequins for displaying adornments and attire. Objects were organized by
their aesthetic affect as a grouping and their origin and dating were disregarded- showing that an
artistic reception was a major concern of Hamy (Williams). As a result from the Trocaderos
earlier success, in 1889 the Exposition Universelle had a Mexican mock village as well. The
history of ancient America presented in early exhibitions became the history of that which could
be effectively reproduced (Molyneaux).
In 1938, Robert Goldwater wrote Primitivism and Modern Painting. Goldwater claimed
ethnographers enduring collections unconsciously affected European artists and projected the
Primitivist revolution. Ethnographers like Theodore Hamy definitely held an enduring love for
these objects, but he was more interested in understanding them than presenting their aesthetic
value. Regardless, the primitive revolution continuously rooted itself in ethnographic museums
like the Trocadero. Although anthropologists and ethnographers found the jumbled appearance

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of museums like the Trocadero to be off-putting, artists fostered inspiration among the cluttered
room of so called primitive antiquities.
Primitivism rose with artists such as Picasso, Gaugin and Matisse. The induction of
Primitivism into the artistic realm contributed to the formalist display methods of Pre-Columbian
items. The items were regarded as sources of modernism (Sanchez) in the art world and
presented in starkly formalist environments. In May of 1940, the Museum of Modern Art
displayed an exhibit entitled Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art. Along with Primitivism, the
emergence of the exhibit was clearly influenced by the Good Neighbor Policy in 1933 as well as
Pan Americanism, which was a cultural phenomenon of the time. Hemispheric unity in the
United States was embraced with the upsets of the World War. The sleek design choice
contrasted with the Pre-Columbian objects, except towards the end of the exhibit that housed
modern Mexican art. The Director of the MOMA, Alfred H. Barr stated the exhibit was not
intended merely as an artistic and historical demonstration, but also as a gesture of admiration for
the great culture of Mexico, and he hoped for a real contribution to the mutual understanding
of the two great North American republics (Sanchez).
The path taken by Pre-Columbian objects to be displayed as art was that of Primitivism
and Modernism. Although there was an acceptance into the artistic community in the twentieth
century, there was still cultural prejudice and explicit racism towards Mexico and the rest of
Latin America, whether ancient or modern. There was a growing need for North Americans to
become educated about their neighbors. The process of cultural appropriation by Western
cultures lent a hand to the development and acceptance of Pre-Columbian art objects into the
museum and academic realm. Pan Americanism appropriated the objects into North American
culture, striving for hemispheric unity. The result is the items becoming property of North

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American culture, leaving them to be inducted into North American society as an outcome of
their inherent differences (Clifford). Regardless of the cultural tensions, the inclusion of PreColumbian items in North American culture led to the desire for understanding them. Further,
the discovery and growing ability of excavations in the twentieth century created a growing
context for Pre-Columbian items (Pearce).
In the late twentieth century a new role of museums emerged. Collecting was no longer
emphasized for a number of reasons; one reason being a result of the UNESCO Convention
preventing site looting. Museums now collect from the private sector with hopes of serving the
world community by preserving the objects for the public. The new role of museums is to
preserve, study and communicate (Boone). Contemporary exhibitions are preferred as they draw
in viewers and attract sponsorship. Conservation is a larger concern in modern museums, as
well. Returning to the disciplines earlier functions, improving the public through education has
become a role of the modern museum.
The display methods at the Mint Museum are a result of centuries of practice and cultural
appropriation. The Mint Museums Art of Ancient America exhibit draws on multiple methods
from early and modern displays. As stated in their catalogue, The Mint Museums are unique
gathering places for people to experience art through significant and varied collections, engaging
exhibitions, and innovative educational programs (Hoffman). The concept of museums as
gathering places is controversial, since many people do not feel educated enough to treat
museums as community spaces. By this I mean, unfortunately, the average person does not feel
at place in museums, due to the institutionalized scholarly setting and atmosphere. At times, one
can find many museums almost quiet, with faint whispers. The Art of Ancient America exhibit
combats this scholars-only notion with interactive areas between exhibits where discussion and

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curiosity are nurtured. Books and tangible objects, along with hands-on workshops take place in
these interactive areas. The goal of education is furthered through the Mint Museum by
providing a website to museum goers that can be accessed on mobile and home devices;
allowing viewers to retrieve as much information about the exhibit as they would like.
The Internet being used by museum goers in the exhibit is controversial. What is the
point of going to the museum in the first place when viewers have the ability to see objects
online accompanied by endless amounts of information? The Internet widens the gap between
objects and viewer, resulting in the creation of a power relationship due to the one-sided surplus
of information provided to the viewer. The exhibit that was once full of intriguing curiosities is
transformed into a room full of web links and loading pages. If used in moderation, I do believe
the Internet functions in exhibits can be used effectively. The Mint Museum also uses their
website to display events for all ages of people. Museum goers can attend lectures, workshops
and films related to exhibits.
The goal of avoiding stereotyping cultures is almost impossible to reach in museum
exhibits. Many museums alienate the objects and cultures on display through unconscious
stereotypes. The people and culture represented cannot become museum objects as well, as it
leads to prejudice (Stone). More specifically stated, the viewers should not leave an exhibit on
Mexican Pre-Columbian art with the belief that modern Mexicans are primitive. The Mint
Museum prevents this stereotyping from occurring by displaying twentieth century objects such
as a huipil from Mexico, which is a traditional blouse of Mexican women. Lectures from Latin
American scholars like Debora Rango and Frida Kahlo have been given, as well as workshops on
Mayan Scratch Art. These events offered by the Mint Museum in connection to their Art of

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Ancient America exhibit show the items as having more than a claim to intrinsic worth by
educating viewers on the items cultural and historical values.
The of the Arts of Ancient America exhibit is described on the Mint Museum website as a
display that equally views these pieces as art- that is, manifestations of human creativity and
technical expertise that highlight the universal impulse to produce well crafted, emotion filled
objects. The website also states the exhibit uses the anthropological and archaeological
approaches by treating the objects as material culture that can indicate daily customs, religious
practices and social norms. The abundance of labels, maps and timelines seen throughout the
exhibit attests to these notions of presenting the objects in an anthropological manner. The
viewers are not estranged from the items and unconsciously forced to view them as individual
pieces unrelated to an alien culture. As Susan Pearce has stated, Physical objects are
meaningless without social content (Pearce).
Simultaneously, the objects are presented as artistic achievements; resting in glass cases,
illuminated by overhead lighting- isolating and grouping objects together. The objects are
organized by function within their geographical culture. Large labels are strategically placed
around the walls of the exhibit: Olmec, Western Mexico, Teotihuacan, Maya and Central
America. Smaller labels group the objects by function: supernatural, feasting vessels, royal
splendor and shamanism. The exhibit plays on the form, color and character of the pieces while
grouping them with cultural and social constructs.
One of the most notable elements of the exhibit is its method of providing context. A
large, life size photograph covers a wall near a group of items related to the supernatural and
shamanism. The ball court from Copan, Honduras is plastered onto the wall behind the objects,
giving a striking context to the exhibit. The pedagogic approach is emphasized extensively with

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this manner of bringing a framework to the mysterious objects seen by the average viewer. By
placing the objects within a representation of their natural context, I believe the power relation
ship between the viewer and the items themselves is diminished, since they are placed into their
natural environment and not appropriated to the modern design of the museum. Instead of the
viewers looking in on the objects that can provoke unconscious feelings of dominance towards a
culture, the life size photograph consumes them.
Dr. Dori Reents Budet is the current curator of the Arts of Ancient America exhibit. In
regards to providing a context and extensive label copy for Pre-Columbian items, she explained,
As with language, context provides as much as 95% of the information about an
object. But there are millions and millions of objects in collections worldwide without
provenience. This goes for art museums, natural history museums, and even
archaeological collections. Yet without provenience, these objects remain valuable for
scholarly research and public display for a variety of educational and entertainment
ventures. In an ideal world, we would have context for every object; but this is not
reality. So we must do whatever we can to study, preserve, and display objects. In this
way, we discover, preserve and disseminate human culture history and understanding.
The Mint Museums Art of Ancient America display provides an aesthetic and educational lure
while preserving the objects. Pre-Columbian items cannot be subverted into Western culture, yet
attempting to distinguish them would result in cultural appropriation. The issue is combated by
the Mint Museum due to its variety of display elements including: a life size photograph of a ball
court stemming from early plaster casts and models, aesthetically pleasing lighting and glass
cases as a result of twentieth century practices, and extensive labels and interactive facets.
Perhaps the most exceptional part of the exhibit is the ability to attract and engage viewers of all
ages through hands on activities, which educate and connect visitors with the items. The Mint
Museums Art of Ancient America display shrinks the fissure between art and artifact, which
resulted and stemmed from the variety of display techniques over centuries.