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Carbohydrates Qualitative Test PDF
Carbohydrates Qualitative Test PDF
Carbohydrates Qualitative Test PDF
Skills to build:
Introduction
Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates, or sugars, are one of the three main
classes of food used to sustain life. They are essential components of all living
organisms and constitute the most abundant class of biological molecules. The
classification carbohydrate stems from the general molecular formula for
monosaccharides, (CH2O)n where n 3, which implies that these compounds are
hydrates of carbon. However, carbohydrates are not true hydrates in the chemical sense.
Carbohydrates, chemically, are polyhydroxy aldehydes (CHO) or ketones (C=O) or
compounds which upon hydrolysis yield these compounds. Note that each carbon in a
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone structure, except for the carbonyl functional group (in
yellow), bears a hydroxyl (OH) functional group (in green). Polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones with the same number of carbons are structural isomers of each other.
H
C
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
polyhydroxy aldehyde
CH2OH
polyhydroxy ketone
H
HO
H
H
2
3
4
5
6
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
D-glucose
CH2OH
H
OH
OH
O H
H
1
2
OH
OH
-D-glucose
The cyclic structures of galactose, fructose, and ribose, are given below.
CH2OH
OH
CH2OH
O H
H
H
OH
H
O
H
D-galactose
H
H
OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
OH
OH
D-fructose
OH
D-ribose
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis (reaction with water) yield
two monosaccharide structures. The most abundant disaccharide is sucrose, which is
hydrolyzed to D-glucose and D-fructose. The two sugar units are covalently joined
through an oxygen atom at carbons 1 and 2 on glucose and fructose, respectively. The
covalent link between the two sugar units is referred to as an (12)
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
H
OH
O H
H
OH
OH
OH
H
-H2O
OH
CH2OH
OH
O
H
OH
glycosidic bond
CH2OH
O
HO
H
CH2OH
H
OH
O H
H
1
H
OH
HO
CH2OH
H
OH
sucrose
glycosidic linkage. The structures of the disaccharides maltose and lactose are given
below.
Maltose contains two D-glucose units joined by an (1 4) glycosidic bond,
while lactose consists of D-galactose and D-glucose joined by a (14) linkage. The
glycosidic linkages are destroyed when disaccharides undergo hydrolysis back to the
individual monosaccharides.
CH2OH
H
O H
H 1
H
OH
CH2OH
O H
H
H
4 OH
O
OH
H
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
O
H
O H
H
H
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
maltose
lactose
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides consist of large numbers of monosaccharides joined by
glycosidic linkages. When the monosaccharide units are all identical, the molecule is
referred to as a homopolysaccharide. If the monosaccharide units differ, the molecule is
classified a heteropolysaccharide. Starch is a homopolysaccharide synthesized by plants
for the storage of -D-glucose units and serves as a source of carbohydrates in animal
diets. Plant starch occurs as a mixture of two different polymeric structural units. amylose is a linear polymer of several thousand glucose units joined by (14)
glycosidic bonds. Amylopectin is a branched polymer with glucose connected in linear
chains by (14) bonds and by (16) bonds at the branch points which occur on the
average every 24 to 30 glucose units. Containing up to a million glucose residues,
amylopectin is the larger of the two polymeric structures. Glycogen, the storage
polysaccharide for glucose in animals and humans is structurally similar to amylopectin
except that branching occurs every 8 to 12 glucose residues.
CH2OH
O
H
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
1
O
4H
O
H
O
CH2OH
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
O
amylose
CH2OH
O
H
O
CH2OH
H
O
CH2OH
1
O
4 H
O
H
O
1
O
O
6
H
1
CH2OH
O
4H
O
CH2
H
O
CH2OH
O
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
O
amylopectin
-naphthol
OH
O
CH2OH
O
H
H
H
OH
OH
OH
ribose
conc.
H2SO4
-naphthol
O
H
-2 H2O
[O]
OH
OH
furfural
colorless
dehydration product
purple
OH
OH
HO
OH
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
Cu2+ / OH(blue)
CH2OH
CH2OH
glucose
gluconic acid
The formation of a red to orange precipitate indicates the presence of a reducing sugar.
Tollens's Test
The Tollens's test also involves a mild oxidizing agent. In the Tollens's test,
silver(I) ion is reduced to metallic silver. The formation of a silver mirror on the inside of
the test tube indicates the presence of a reducing sugar. The Tollens's reagent must be
freshly prepared to produce the proper results.
H
OH
OH
HO
OH
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
glucose
Ag(NH3)2+
+ Ag (mirror)
CH2OH
gluconic acid
Barfoed's Test
Barfoed's reagent also uses the reduction of copper(II) ion to red Cu2O as an
indication of a reducing sugar. However, it not as reactive as Benedict's reagent, and the
OH
H3C
OH
OH
orcinol
resorcinol
O
H
H
H
OH
OH
OH
ribose
conc.
HCl
orcinol
blue condensation product
-2 H2O
furfural
All other colored products are negative indicators for the presence of a pentose.
Seliwanoff Test
The Seliwanoff test differentiates between ketohexoses and aldohexoses. It
also uses concentrated HCl for the dehydrating agent, but the condensation agent is
resorcinol. Ketohexoses are dehydrated to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, which undergoes
condensation with resorcinol within two minutes to form a red-colored product.
CH2OH
O
CH2OH
conc.
HCl
OH
-2 H2O
HO
OH
H
fructose
O
resorcinol
5-hydroxymethylfurfural
mono- or disaccharide
Barfoed's test
red ppt ~ 10 min
monosaccharide
disaccharide
Benedict's test
no ppt.
nonreducing
disaccharide
( sucrose )
Bial's test
other colors
red ppt.
pentose
hexose
reducing
disaccharide
( lactose
maltose )
blue
Seliwanoff test
red
ketohexose
( fructose )
( ribose
xylose )
other
aldohexose
( glucose, galactose )
Safety considerations
Wear suitable protective clothing, gloves, and eye/face protection!
BENEDICT'S REAGENT
eye, skin, and respiratory irritant
harmful if swallowed; may cause gastrointestinal discomfort
BARFOED'S REAGENT
harmful if swallowed; may cause gastrointestinal discomfort
corrosive to skin and eyes
BIAL'S REAGENT
corrosive to skin and eyes; harmful if ingested
SELIWANOFF REAGENT
corrosive to skin and eyes; harmful if ingested
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE
contact may cause tissue damage to skin, eyes, mucous membrane,
gastrointestinal & respiratory mucosa
SILVER NITRATE
damage to the eyes and can burn skin
inhalation can irritate respiratory passages and mucous membranes
ingestion can cause severe abdominal pain and gastroenteritis, that may be fatal
SUGARS
may cause eye irritation
Molisch Test
Clean and thoroughly rinse with distilled water five test tubes. Label one for
each of the five known carbohydrates. Place 10 drops of each sugar solution in its
labeled test tube. Add 2 drops of the Molisch reagent to each test tube. Mix
thoroughly with a glass stir rod. Be sure to clean the stir rod after each test tube. Hold
the test tube at a 45 angle, and slowly and carefully add 20 drops of concentrated
H2SO4 down the side of the test tube. The more dense acid will form a layer on the
bottom of the test tube. Place in a rack and note the time for the appearance of a red
to purple ring at the interface of the two layers. Aldopentoses, ketopentoses, and
ketohexoses react more rapidly than aldohexoses and disaccharides. Record your
results on your lab report.
Benedicts Test
Clean and thoroughly rinse with distilled water five test tubes. Label one for
each of the five known carbohydrates. Place 5 drops of each solution in its labeled
test tube. Add 20 drops of Benedict's reagent to each solution. Mix thoroughly.
Place all test tubes in boiling water at the same time. Note the time for the
appearance of a red to reddish orange precipitate. After 1 minute remove the test
tubes and place in a rack. Record your results.
Barfoed's Test
Prepare a boiling water bath(add boiling chips to prevent bumping). Clean and
thoroughly rinse with distilled water five test tubes. Label one for each of the five
known carbohydrates. Place 5 drops of each solution in its labeled test tube. Add
20 drops of the Barfoed's reagent to each test tube. Mix thoroughly. Place all test
tubes in the boiling water at the same time. Note the time for the appearance of a red
precipitate and remove the test tube. After 10 minutes remove all the test tubes and
place in a rack. Record your results.
Bial's Test
Clean and thoroughly rinse with distilled water five test tubes. Label one for
each of the five known carbohydrates. Place 5 drops of each solution in its labeled
test tube. Add 20 drops of Bial's reagent to each test tube. Mix thoroughly. Place
all test tubes in boiling water at the same time. Remove after 1 minute. A dark blue
color indicates a pentose. Record your results.
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References
Hendrickson, C. H.; Byrd, L. C.; Hunter, N. W. A Laboratory Manual for General,
Organic, and Biochemistry, 3rd ed.; McGraw-Hill: Boston, 2001, pp 333-342.
Pasto, D. J.; Johnson, C.R.; Miller, M. J. Experiments and Techniques in Organic
Chemistry; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1992, p 336.
Pavia, D. L.; Lampman, G. M.; Kriz, G. S.; Engel, R. G. Introduction to Organic
Laboratory Techniques: A Small Scale Approach, 2nd ed.; Brooks/Cole: Belmont, CA,
2005, pp 444-450.
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Laboratory Report
How accurate are the tests in identifying and classifying carbohydrates? Is your
unknown a mono- or disaccharide? Is it a reducing or non-reducing sugar?
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