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Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Graduate College

2008

Typography in film title sequence design

Li Yu
Iowa State University

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Yu, Li, "Typography in film title sequence design" (2008). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Paper 11366.

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Typography in film title sequence design

by

Li Yu

A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF FINE ARTS

Major: Graphic Design

Program of Study Committee:

Sunghyun Kang, Major Professor
Lisa Fontaine
Suman Lee

Iowa State University

Ames, Iowa
2008
Copyright Li Yu, 2008. All rights reserved.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................. vii
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 The Visual and Cultural Context of Film Title Sequences ............................................. 1
1.2 Objectives and Research Questions ................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER 2. A HISTORICAL LOOK AT FILM TITLE SEQUENCES .............................. 6
2.1 Early Development of Film Titles: 1860s late 1920s .................................................. 6
2.2 The Classical Era: 1930s late1940s ............................................................................. 9
2.3 Postwar Era: 1950s 1960s........................................................................................... 13
2.4 Contemporary Film Titles: 1970s-present .................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 3. TYPOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT................................................................ 22
3.1 A General Historic Review of Typography .................................................................. 22
3.1.1 From the origins of writing to Gutenberg: 3150 B.C. A.D. 1450....................... 22
3.1.2 Typography from Gutenberg to the nineteenth century: A.D. 1450 1800.......... 24
3.1.3 The industrial revolution and Modernism: A.D. 1800 1960s ............................. 24
3.1.4 Information Age: 1970 present ........................................................................... 25
3.2 Typeface Conveys a Special Message .......................................................................... 29
3.2.1 The second level of communication ...................................................................... 30
3.2.2 Typography aspects ............................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 Typeface persona in history ................................................................................... 33
3.2.4 Semantic quality and differential scaling............................................................... 34
3.2.5 The practitioners lore............................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER 4. TYPOGRAPHY ON SCREEN ....................................................................... 37
4.1 Basic Design Issues....................................................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Choice of font ........................................................................................................ 39
4.1.2 Image resolution..................................................................................................... 39
4.1.3 Color ...................................................................................................................... 40

iii
4.2 Designing Over Space................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1 Visual perceptions.................................................................................................. 41
4.2.2 Frame and aspect ratio ........................................................................................... 52
4.2.3 Design structure: pictorial composition ................................................................. 54
4.3 Designing Over Time.................................................................................................... 56
4.3.1 Frames, shots, scenes and sequences ..................................................................... 56
4.3.2 Computer animation............................................................................................... 56
4.3.3 Other types of animation........................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY: TYPOGRAPHY AND FILM TITLES........................... 59
5.1 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 59
5.2 Film Genres................................................................................................................... 62
5.3 Typeface Variations: A New Typographic Classification System ............................... 63
5.3.1 Manual ................................................................................................................... 70
5.3.2 Non-manual............................................................................................................ 73
5.4 The Effect Phenomenon................................................................................................ 78
5.4.1 Motion and transformation .................................................................................... 78
5.4.2 Three-D effects ...................................................................................................... 81
5.4.3 A tool-set driven classification system of animation effects ................................. 87
5.5 Typefaces and Animation Effects in Title Sequences .................................................. 91
5.6 Statistics of Typeface Usage in Film Titles ................................................................ 107
5.6.1 The matrix............................................................................................................ 107
5.7 A Case Study of Title Sequence Design ..................................................................... 114
5.7.1 Typefaces ............................................................................................................. 115
5.7.2 Animation effects................................................................................................. 117
5.7.3 An example of misuses of typefaces ................................................................ 120
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION.............................................................................................. 122
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 127

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. The stunning opening credits of Kiss Kiss Bang Bang (2005)............................... 1
Figure 2.1.1. Nosferatu (1922), a movie featuring mise en scene......................................... 7
Figure 2.1.2. Title card from The Knockout (1914) directed by Charles Avery....................... 9
Figure 2.2.1. Screen shot from the title sequence in Walt Disneys Fantasia (1940). ........... 10
Figure 2.2.2. Screen shot from the film title sequence of King Kong (1933)......................... 12
Figure 2.2.3. Screen shot from the title sequence of Annie Oakley (1935). ........................... 13
Figure 2.3.1. The rose and animated flame in the title sequence of Carmen Jones (1954).... 16
Figure 2.3.2. Screen shot from the opening credits of The Man with the Golden Arm (1955).
......................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.3.3. Screen shot from the opening sequence of the James Bond film series............ 18
Figure 3.1.1.1. The earliest written clay tablets (c. 3150 B.C.). ............................................. 22
Figure 3.1.1.2. Calligraphic writing in the ancient Roman font of the same name. ............... 23
Figure 3.1.1.3. The earliest known example of the Monoline Sans-serif. .............................. 23
Figure 3.1.2. The capital P shows a decorative style. ......................................................... 24
Figure 3.1.4.1. Modernism typefaces in film titles, screen shot from the title sequence of
Come Live With Me (1941). ............................................................................ 26
Figure 3.1.4.2. A spread from Raygun, a typical Postmodernism style magazine. ................ 28
Figure 3.2.2.1. Wijnholds Aspects of typography................................................................. 31
Figure 4.1.3.1. RGB and CMYK color mode. ........................................................................ 41
Figure 4.2.1.1. An example of the law of figure and ground.................................................. 42
Figure 4.2.1.2. An example of the law of similarity. .............................................................. 43
Figure 4.2.1.3. An example of the law of closure................................................................... 44
Figure 4.2.1.4. Screen shot from the opening credits of Dr. Strangelove (1964)................... 45
Figure 4.2.1.5. Screen shot from the opening credit of Catch Me If You Can (2002)............ 45
Figure 4.2.1.6. Screen shot from the opening credits of Alien vs. Predator (2004). .............. 46
Figure 4.2.1.7. Differential motion parallax. Adapted from Ware (2004).............................. 47
Figure 4.2.1.8. Title sequences of Kung Fu Panda (2008)..................................................... 48
Figure 4.2.1.9. Linear perspective. ......................................................................................... 48

v
Figure 4.2.1.10. One-point perspective................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.2.1.11. Two-point perspective. ................................................................................. 49
Figure 4.2.1.12. Three-point perspective. ............................................................................... 50
Figure 4.2.1.13. Screen shot from the title sequence of Star Wars (1977)............................. 50
Figure 4.2.1.14. Screen shots from the title sequences of Hostage (2005)............................. 51
Figure 4.2.2.1. A comparison of movie frame aspect ratios. .................................................. 53
Figure 4.2.3.1. Screen shot from the title sequence of Mimic (1997)..................................... 56
Figure 4.3.3.1. Screen shot from the clay animation Wallace & Gromit (2005).................... 58
Figure 5.3.1. Classification of typefaces (Latin alphabets). ................................................... 64
Figure 5.3.2. Classification of typefaces (graphics). .............................................................. 65
Figure 5.3.4. Mixed fonts, the Suburban from migr........................................................... 67
Figure 5.3.5. An English version of the Star Wars alphabet. ................................................. 68
Figure 5.3.1.1. Different Blackletter scripts ........................................................................... 72
Figure 5.3.1.2. Swash typeface ............................................................................................... 73
Figure 5.3.2.1. Different Serifs ............................................................................................... 75
Figure 5.3.2.2. Serifs and Sans serifs...................................................................................... 76
Figure 5.3.2.3. Film title of City Slickers (1991). ................................................................... 77
Figure 5.4.1.1. Frames of a bouncing ball animation. ............................................................ 79
Figure 5.4.1.2. Screen shots from the opening title of Seven (1995)...................................... 80
Figure 5.4.2.1. Screen shots from the title sequence of A Fistful of Dollars (1964). ............. 81
Figure 5.4.2.2. Screen shot from the title sequence of Crash (1996). .................................... 82
Figure 5.4.2.3. Screen shots from the title sequence of The Dreamers (2003). ..................... 83
Figure 5.4.2.4. Screen shots from the title sequences of Donnie Brasco (1997).................... 84
Figure 5.4.2.5. Screen shots from the title sequence of Sky Fighters (2005) ......................... 85
Figure 5.4.2.6. Screen shots from the title sequence of Iron Man (2008) .............................. 85
Figure 5.4.2.7. Screen shots from the title sequences of Panic Room (2002). ....................... 86
Figure 5.4.3.1. Screen shot from the opening credits for Catch Me If You Can (2002). ........ 90
Figure 5.4.3.2. Screen shots from the title sequence of Dangerous Parking (2007).............. 91
Figure 5.4.5.1. Screen shots from the title sequences of Se7en (1995). ................................. 93
Figure 5.5. Screen shots from selected film title sequences. .................................................. 95

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Figure 5.6.1.1. Percentage of typeface usage........................................................................ 112
Figure 5.7.1. Opening title of Catch Me If You Can (2002). ................................................ 114
Figure 5.7.1.1. Typefaces used in Catch Me If You Can (2002)........................................... 115
Figure 5.7.1.2. Comparison between Helvetica and Coolvetica........................................... 116
Figure 5.7.2.1. Shape effect: stretching and growing. .......................................................... 118
Figure 5.7.2.2. Blurring, shape distortion, interacting with other elements. ........................ 118
Figure 5.7.2.3. Path and arrangement effect: motion in straight path................................... 119
Figure 5.7.2.4. Color effect: glowing.................................................................................... 119
Figure 5.7.3.1. Screen shots from the opening credit of Love Me Tonight (1932). .............. 121

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1.2. Image resolution and mass storage size.............................................................. 40
Table 5.4.3. Typographic animation effects ........................................................................... 88
Table 5.5. Typefaces and effects in title sequences ................................................................ 98
Table 5.6.1. Usage of typefaces and animation effects in opening / ending credits............. 109
Table 5.6.2. Usage of typefaces in opening / ending credits ................................................ 110

viii

ABSTRACT
The present study sets off to examine the typography in film title sequence design.
Particularly, two major aspects in film sequence design, the choice of typefaces and the
choice of animation effects, are examined, and they are connected to the history of
typography evolution, the development of computer technology, the theories in psychology,
and different film genres. After drawing connections in historical reviews and theories, the
present study provides tangible examples to illustrate how different designs are realized in
film title sequences. With an emphasis on usages in film title sequences, a new classification
system for typefaces and a classification system for animation effects are developed. Then,
statistical evidence is gathered to identify certain typefaces and animation effects associated
with particular film genres, adding quantitative measures in connecting the different aspects
in film title sequence design. Finally, a case study is included to further explain the findings
in a concrete context.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Visual and Cultural Context of Film Title Sequences
Settling into seats with popcorn in hand, when lights go down in the cinema people
are first impressed by those two to three minutes worth of quick segments, along with the
film logo, dedicated images and stylized texts on the screen they are called the main title
sequences (see Figure 1.1). Film titles create the primary impression of a film. They have
the distinct function to foreshadow the film we have come to see. Vartanian (2003), the
founder of Goliga Books, Inc., a company specializing in art and design, said in his book
Typo-graphics: Movie titles and opening credits play an important role in the feature
presentations they introduce. They set the mood, facilitating the audiences smooth entrance
into the world created by the film (p. 94). Counts (2005), a film critic, noted, Title
sequences, other than coming-attraction trailers and marketing elements, can be the most
important moment in a film.

Figure 1.1. The stunning opening credits of Kiss Kiss Bang Bang (2005).
Source: artofthetitle.com

2
As modern film title sequence design makes progress in creativity and sophistication,
it becomes an increasingly prominent issue and draws lots of attention. There are some who
believe that good title sequences are serious art forms unto themselves. Some scholars
believe that title sequence design enjoys a high reputation not only in the history of film
industry but also in the art field as a whole. Vartanian (2003) said, Film credits and title
sequences are one of the best devices for introducing new uses of typography to a receptive
audience (p.94). Bellantoni and Woolman (1999) go as far as to suggest that film title
design is the mother of all moving typography, now common in music and art videos (p. 2).
People nowadays have easier-than-ever access to the study of title sequences. Show
cases on title design can be found in many graphic design books and journals, occasional
articles have profiled the works of title designers, and every now and again computer design
magazines publish articles focusing on technical innovations in title design. With assistance
of todays high technique tools, say, the Internet a fast growing media and huge
information source, it becomes very convenient for people to watch and study the title
sequence without having to go through the whole movie. The Internet connects and brings
thousands of title sequence lovers together. On www.youtube.com, one can view any kind of
title sequences and share his/her collections with others; by posting on online bulletin boards
or visiting personal blogs, one can enjoy the discussion with people even if s/he is on the
another side of the world and read those fresh thoughts that sometimes even come from
famous filmmakers and designers. In this context, many people turn out to be fans of film
titles. Not just designers but also many filmgoers savor the title sequence of the film,
relishing it the way it sets up the mood and iconizes the movie.

3
Besides books and journals, there are lectures, seminars and conferences offered by
researchers, historians and design and film organizations. Among the most notable ones,
there was a two-day conference, For Openers: The Art of Film Titles, organized by the
American Cinmathque and American Graphic Design Association. It was held in 2001 in
Los Angeles. This multimedia event featured screening of 50 memorable title sequences
from the 1950s to the present day to celebrate modern motion picture title sequence design.
Many famous curators and designers attended, included David Peters, Ken Coupland and
Dav Rauch.
Although there is no doubt that visual artists, graphic designers and even amateur
filmgoers have drawn on their richness, title sequences remain an untouched area for film
criticism. One of the representatives holding such a viewpoint is David Peters, who founded
a San Francisco-based non-profit organization, Design Film, in 1999 with Ken Coupland and
Dav Rauch to research and present projects related to multimedia design history. David
Peters pointed out that film title design was grossly underappreciated by academic studies.
He gave his speech on the evolution of film title design in his lecture series Titles Then,
Titles Now, and Titles Highlights. He explained his goal as to establish film title design as a
legitimate academic discipline and build a historical context for study, as well as giving longoverdue credits to the forms masters and innovators. He also hoped to create a new
Academy Award for title design (Peters, 2001). Since Design Films 2000 debut at the Film
Society of Lincoln Center, New York City, David Peters and his colleagues have developed
entertaining and educational programs that explore how film titles have evolved over the
years. Those programs have been introduced in film festivals and conferences at over 14
locations all over the state and worldwide, including Taiwan, Australia and Canada.

1.2 Objectives and Research Questions

The lack of academic attention to title sequences was the reason to initiate this study.
From the literature review, it is found that few have taken any fundamental, systematic, or
analytical approach to title sequence design. As visual communication study becomes
central, the semantic quality study of typography is more prominent in the field, which
stimulates a lot more new inquires. The fast-developed digital techniques also create more
challenges and more opportunities as well for research. A vast amount of work could be done
in this fairly new field.
This thesis sets off to systematically study the applications of typography in film title
sequence designs, with an emphasis on the selection of typefaces, animation effects, and their
relationships to the film genres. As a starting point, the present study aims to answer the
following questions: How has the title sequence design evolved into the current state? How is
the development of typography reflected in the title sequence design, especially with the aids
from modern computer technologies? Since the ultimate goal of the design is to impress the
audience, are there any psychological theories that can be utilized? Can we find any
guidelines by examining the real design cases regarding the connections among the
expressional ability of typefaces, the kinetic effects and the relevant theme of a film?
To answer these questions, the thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter 2 reviews
the history of title sequence development. Chapters 3 and 4 start with literature reviews on
the history of typography and the typography development in digital environment,
respectively. Besides literature reviews, each of these two chapters also makes connections
among historically detailed studies of film titles, typefaces and the kinetic typography, for
example, how the principles of Gestalt psychology can be applied in designing title

5
sequences. Chapter 5 presents a new classification system for typeface identification, a
simple classification of film genres according to the tone of the movie, and a categorized list
of animation effects. At the end of Chapter 5, title sequences from 45 films are recorded, then
a matrix of statistics is generated and analyzed to show how different typefaces, combined
with animation effects, have been applied in the title sequence designs of different genres. To
explain the findings in a concrete context, a case study is included at the end. Chapter 6
concludes and points to the limitations of the present study and possible directions in future
studies.

CHAPTER 2. A HISTORICAL LOOK AT FILM TITLE SEQUENCES

It has taken a long time to build up title sequence design from its origins on simple
introductory title cards to where it is today. This study splits the timeline of film title
sequences into four eras: the early development of film titles (1860s late1920s), the
classical era (1930s late1940s), the post war era (1950s 1960s), and contemporary film
titles (1970s present). The division is based upon historical and technological developments
that have significantly influenced film title design. Even though the history of film credits
has been broken into specific time periods, the actual history is not so linear. In this respect,
this division is only meant to be a guide, as there are many overlaps between different time
periods.

2.1 Early Development of Film Titles: 1860s late 1920s

Film was born in the late nineteenth century during the revolution and development
of science and technology. It pushed the envelope of peoples imagination and was regarded
as the marvel that opened a new era of visual expression and narrative communication. Born
as an idol of human culture, film has been largely enjoying the benefits of our civilization.
Neale (1985) stated that styles of entertainment and art contributed to
advancements in visual representations that were necessary for the development of film (p.
7). As early as the 1900s, modern design became an innovative motif in the European film
industry. The German film industry, for example, is known for its German Expressionism
in the filmmaking movement from the 1900s to the 1920s, featured by symbolism and mise

7
en scen, an expression used in the theatre to describe the design aspects of a film (see
Figure 2.1.1).

Figure 2.1.1. Nosferatu (1922), a movie featuring mise en scene.

Source: commentarytrack.com.

Besides the dazzling art styles, dramatic cinematographic technologies secured films
miraculous power. For instance, the film cutting technique known as montage enhanced
films narrative ability. In montage, a film scene is spliced, glued together from different
parts (Moholy-Nagy, 1969, p.278). Montage speaks a very similar visual language with its
cousin, surrealistic painting, giving films the power of demonstrating an unreal space-time
reality that never existed structurally; it is regarded as an art. Montage means joining
together shots of situations that occur at different times and in different places (Arnheim,
1932/2006, p. 94)
Even though film itself had been well developed during this time period, there was a
blank in title sequence design history. There were no title sequences at all in the earliest days
of cinema. The credit cards and inter-titles which were acknowledged by their usages for title

8
sequences later on were not initially used for title sequences but for conveying dialogue
throughout the movie, setting the time, place and action for the scenes (Counts, 2005). Such
entire ignorance of title sequences did not last for long, though. As major studios started to
maneuver some of their energy from the main part of the movie to the opening sequences in
the 1920s, by putting a series of title cards literally at the initial screening of a film, title
sequence design appeared. Title cards are regarded as the first examples of title sequences.
Film studios hired relatively small crews of lettering artists and craftsmen to create
those cards. Those hand-written cards were photographed and then incorporated into the
movie (Boxer, 2000). They were set out in templates derived from nineteenth century handlettered signs (King, 1993), white lettering was superimposed over a black background.
Sometimes the letters were embellished with decorative outlines, and usually the genre of the
film dictated the style (Krasner, 2004, p. 36).
Those scanty title cards functioned on a single responsibility, the so-called pragmatic
communication function (Counts, 2005), which is nothing more than serving the
contractual requirement: to display the movies title, the name of the director, establish the
hierarchy of actors, identify the studio involved and send the signal when the film started and
ended (see Figure 2.1.2).

Figure 2.1.2. Title card from The Knockout (1914) directed by Charles Avery.
Source: Chaplin films made from 1918 onwards, Copyright Roy Export
Company Establishment.
Although the new innovative techniques and special effects continued to be utilized in
the movie, and the new animated type technique trick photography -- a technique with
double exposure of film to create ghostlike images --invented by Georges Mlis, was used
in film titles (Robbins, Drate & Salavetz, 2006, p. 15), most film titles remained the
convention as a dull motionless piece of artwork for many years.

2.2 The Classical Era: 1930s late1940s

In the 1930s, large budgets became common for large-scale cinematic productions.
Movies such as Charles Chaplins City Lights (1931), 42nd Street (1933), and The
Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) all were enjoying great popularity. Introducing of sound
(1927) to film was one of the major evolutions at that time, and it announced the beginning
of the classical period in cinema.
As mentioned earlier, title sequence design was universally dull and conservative in
the 1920s. As for the classical period during the 1930s 1940s, according to many

10
journalistic articles, the convention almost remained the same. The arrival of sound did little
to alter title sequences except to invent a musical prelude to accompany them. The music
over the credits sometimes had the mood of the picture to come, but the graphics themselves
were classical lettering on a bland background (Thomson, 1998, p. 19).
It cannot be denied that there were still a lot of films at this time that ignored the
opening credit sequence completely. For example, Walt Disneys Fantasia (1940), the first
sound movie, began with nothing more than the movie title and the displaying of the line
Color by Technicolor (see Figure 2.2.1). Yet there were a few exceptions that started to
acknowledge the various possibilities of title sequences, These (title sequences) were
generally studio-created early experiments, used primarily as special effects (Robbins, Drate
& Salavetz, 2006, p. 15). In this context, many movie theatres even kept the curtains closed
during the credits, revealed only after the film started.

Figure 2.2.1. Screen shot from the title sequence in Walt Disneys Fantasia (1940).
Source: Fantasia (1940), Copyright Walt Disney.
Some scholars who hold an opposite view argued this was an inaccurate picture.

11
They said the addition of sound was an indispensable technique for title sequence design, and
it had helped title sequences transfer from their initial function of purely introductory to
narrative. Scholars such as James Counts said, As cinema evolved, so did the titles. After
the implementation of sound, titles began to function as a transition (Counts, 2005).
Through the achievement of its narrative function, the title sequence started playing an
isolated artistic role in the movie, which was, obviously, a landmark improvement. Allison
(2006) said, It is historically important to remember that in its pastiche of title sequences
from the 1930ssome of the sorts of novelty sequences produced at that time. She also
mentioned, actually as early as 1930s, title sequences was far more lively and various than
many of us thought.
It is said that early in the 1930s many motion picture studios took on the challenge of
changing their approach in presenting screen credits. The more complete list of credits with a
higher quality of artwork appeared on the silver screen. The idea of getting the viewer ready
for the coming-attraction film started to occupy the marketplace around this period of time.
Prominent artists designed their artwork to set a mood and capture the audience before
the film began. The title sequence for King Kong (1933), for instance, was trendy in that era
to present the audience with more than simple text (see Figure 2.2.2).

12

Figure 2.2.2. Screen shot from the film title sequence of King Kong (1933).
Source: King Kong (1933), Copyright RKO Radio Pictures.

The title sequence designers in this era ranged from self-taught sign painters to
advertising art department staff who knew a great deal about typography, and the
development of film typography accelerated. In America, a vernacular visual vocabulary of
film titling was developed in Hollywoods major studios. Those Hollywood-vernacular
typefaces, which are by the nature of their shape decorative and script-like, were used with
slight alterations to accommodate sound, color and other technological developments to title
mainstream American films until the mid 1950s. For instance, opening credits for romances
were often written in letters that appear to be fashioned in pink ribbon and those for slapstick
humor in paint-stroke typefaces that suggest hastiness and incompetent workmanship.
These Hollywood-vernacular typefaces were communicative, very expressive (King, 1993).
However, the texts of the credits and the background images were not woven tightly
at this time. The words were usually printed in black or white, sometimes drop-shadowed, to
be apart from the background. The film titles of Annie Oakley (1935) were in this style with

13
the credits on still images (see Figure 2.2.3). Other movies that also used this approach
included Woman Wanted (1935), The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1939) and so forth.

Figure 2.2.3. Screen shot from the title sequence of Annie Oakley (1935).
Source: Annie Oakley (1935), Copyright RKO Radio Pictures.
Although there are different interpretations regarding film titles, which make it a
challenge to overview and to make generalizations to the situation about this time period, one
thing is for certain: title sequence design truly started to attract attention during this time.

2.3 Postwar Era: 1950s 1960s

Overall the two decades after the Second World War were years of crises for the
world film industry. All filmmakers experienced hard times. The reason was largely due to
television. The advent of television posed a serious threat to cinemas popularity. Potential
filmgoers were increasingly choosing to stay at home and watch television, which led to a
full-scale falling down of box-office receipts.

14
In the same year that major Hollywood studios were making record profits, the
American film industry was involved in a legal battle called the Paramount Case. After
having survived 1948s Paramount Case, the affiliated circuits from film production to their
distribution branches in the U.S. were completely broken up. Film releases by independents
increased, while Hollywoods major studios were forced to make serious cutbacks.
Against this background of a generally ailing film industry and increasingly reluctant
audiences, filmmakers realized that they must develop strategies to tempt the public away
from their television sets into movie theatres. A campaign to win back a diminishing
audience started. Major film studios were thinking of new ways to re-shape their films. They
wanted to change their product to be something that could be sufficiently differentiated from
and competitive with television. One of the significant solutions they found was the film title
sequence, which they wished could become something sort of like an advertisement that
would complement the main feature to get the audiences interested before a film. Striking
and graphically sophisticated film title sequences flourished, and a greater number of
designers became involved. In order to acknowledge a growing number of all the members of
the crew, more spaces were needed for credits. It was in this circumstance that many
filmmakers extended their opening credits longer than a few frames, and even moved parts of
the sequence to the end of the film.

Saul Bass

It would be impossible to discuss this period of history without mentioning

the name Saul Bass (19201996), who is considered by many to be the father of modern film
title sequence design. He is regarded as the one who has the deepest and widest influence
over North American mainstream films. He is legendary for innovative title sequences,

15
Saul Bass film title graphics were a part of the films identity (Robbins, Drate & Salavetz,
2006, p.15-16). Taylor (2005) said in Title Designed by Bass, Bass impact in credits design
remains virtually unparalleled, even to this day. It was known that the credit designs of
many other title designers after Saul Bass were inspired by the phase pioneered by him. More
or less, their works reflect Basss design philosophy and methodology about title sequences.
Bass major contributions towards title sequence design can be summarized as
follows: First and most importantly, he moved titles beyond their pragmatic communication
function, the responsibility of displaying the movies title and the name of the director, into a
higher level narrative function setting the tone, establishing the mood and visual character
of the film. Bass stated that my initial thoughts about what a title can do was to set a mood
and the prime underlying core of the films story, to express the story in some metaphorical
way. I saw the title as a way of conditioning the audience, so that when the film actually
began, viewers would already have an emotional resonance with it (Haskin & Bass, 1996,
p.12-13).
Kirkham (1994) mentioned Basss works as he developed the credit sequence as a
prologue dealing with the time before the story begins. He not only brought a visual unity
to film advertising and promotion, but also radically altered the role of titles and credits,
making them an integral part of the film and using them to establish mood and audience
engagement from the opening frames (p. 16).
Another contribution by Bass was to design animated motion picture title sequences.
Initially a graphic designer, it was a natural step for Bass to create identities for production
firms. Bass designed the first animated film identity, a rose depicted within an animated

16
flame, for the movie Carmen Jones (1954) (see Figure 2.3.1). He continued to employ the
animation techniques in making title sequences for others of his films.

Figure 2.3.1. The rose and animated flame in the title sequence of Carmen Jones (1954).
Source: Carmen Jones (1954), Copyright Carlyle Productions.

Additionally, Bass turned title sequence design into an art form that was able to stand
on its own. Bass was trained in New York City under Gyorgy Kepes, who introduced him to
Bauhaus style and Russian Constructivism. With great influences of these modern design
styles, Bass's graphics reflected a unique characteristic of being distinct from realistic images
and relying on basic colors to create mood. His symbolic images and jagged typefaces were
seen early as he became attached to film as a commercial artist specializing in film
advertising. His work eventually captured the attention of Hollywoods film director Otto
Preminger, who asked him to design the title sequences for The Man with the Golden Arm
(1955), a film about overcoming drug addiction. This memorable title sequence did not show
the face of any leading actor of the movie, which was a very commonly seen way to
introduce a movie in the 1950s. It totally ignored the fact that famous names were always
close company with a films success. Instead, Bass employed an animated black paper cutout

17
of an addicts arm depicted in the German Expressionist style. This was a powerful image of
heroin addiction (see Figure 2.3.2). Martin Scorsese (director of Cape Fear) called this
image of the arm a malignant force reaching down into the world and the lives of the
characters (Boxer, 2000). Because of this distinctive visual expression, The Man with the
Golden Arm title sequences were regarded as a breakthrough in title design history.

Figure 2.3.2. Screen shot from the opening credits of The Man with the Golden Arm (1955).
Source: The Man with the Golden Arm (1955), Copyright Otto Preminger Films.

Bass credits include nearly sixty films, from Otto Premingers Carmen Jones (1954)
to Matin Scorseses Casino (1995). His wellknown titles and identities included Anatomy of
a Murder (1959) and Alfred Hitchcocks Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959) and
Psycho (1960) (for which Bass also created storyboards for the famous shower scene).

18
Pablo Ferro

Another unforgettable name in this period is Pablo Ferro (1935 ), one of

the most ingenious film title designers. He is mostly noted for his type treatment in motion:
both on the TV screen and for movie title sequences.
Ferro introduced the quick-cut method of editing, whereby static images including
engravings, photographs, and pen and ink drawing, are infused with speed, motion and sound.
In the movie Dr. Strangelove (1964), the key to Ferros eventual shift from TV to film, he
used the quick-cut technique employing as many as 125 separate images in a minute to
convey both the dark humor and the political immediacy of the film (Heller, 2004, p.20) (see
Figure 4.2.1.4).
Additionally, Ferro applied multi-screen effects for the first time in motion pictures,
defining the cinematic style of the late 1960s. He used the same technique in the film itself
by editing a key sequence as multiple screens in order to speed up the narrative.
Alongside Bass and Ferro, many other outstanding title designers, associations and
works emerged in this era. Putting their names on the screen became a motivation to the
designers. Some of these names included Friz Frelend and his opening cartoon for The Pink
Panther (1963), Maurice Binder and the 007 films (see Figure 2.3.3), Stephen Frankfurt,
Wayne Fitzgerald, Terry Gillian and Monty Python Group, and .R/GreenBerg Associates.

Figure 2.3.3. Screen shot from the opening sequence of the James Bond film series.
Source: Golden Eyes (1995), Copyright Eon Productions.

19

2.4 Contemporary Film Titles: 1970s-present

Computers brought a new life to the film industry in the 1970s and offered
filmmakers the opportunity to reconcile traditional and modern techniques. Two of the
richest possibilities that new technologies enabled were situating a point of view within an
illusion of space and imagery and the manipulation of typography to be dimensional and
move in ways that are physically impossible, McCort (2002) cited David Peters words,
referring to the title sequence of 1978s Superman as an early computer-assisted title
sequence, Besides being able to mix in the sound in real-time (it) also gave tremendous
control to the designers of a sequence.
During the 1980s, especially after the success of the original Macintosh in 1984,
further improvements relating to computer-based digitalization were made. The development
was a big help on the playground of territorial expansion for visual designers. Creative
experimentation increased immensely. Movies such as E.T. (1982), Max Dugan Returns
(1983) and The War of The Roses (1989) are good examples of this times best title sequence
design.
The advent of the personal computer brought up even a bigger wave of technical
revolution in the early 1990s. Curran (2000) said, Before the availability of desktop video
and animation packages, most title designers worked with animates and storyboards. The
final product was produced with technology available only at optical houses or computereffects companies at a cost that left little margin for changes and creative exploration (p.
129). Faster CPUs and advanced new software, such as Adobe After Effect released in 1993

20
and Macromedia Flash in 1997, made it very handy and easy for title designers to try (or
experiment with) special effects on the screen.
As early as the outset of the 80s, MTV, pop culture, and increased advertising altered
the landscape for motion graphics. The fast editing method and multi-screen techniques
pioneered by Pablo Ferro became the vogue for all motion graphics. The film title sequences
that were part of this fashion were increasingly edited at a faster pace. Speeding up title
sequences made credits hard to read. This suggested the diminishing importance of the
information. Designers therefore no longer concentrated on the text among other elements.
They paid much more attention to the overall effects that had been amplified. The Internet
resources, like www.IMDb.com, made the credits even less interesting to the viewers. If one
would really like to know who worked on a specific aspect of the film, she or he could
always easily find the needed information online. It is now very common to see opening title
sequences without a full list of credits, since most people do not have the patience to sit
through them. This, however, results in the development of closing sequences. Many
filmmakers eliminated the opening credits in favor of starting the action immediately and
continuing it without any interruptions and moved the majority of the credits as well as
putting strong visual graphics to the end of a movie. Batman Begins (2005) and The Mummy
Returns (2001) are examples that have elaborate closing sequences that one used to seeing at
the beginning of a film. Still, there are some other films that feature both opening and closing
credits, such as Van Helsing (2004) and Spider-Man (2002, 2004, 2005) (c.f., Inceer 2007,
p.18).
Contemporary film titles are not only honored by individuals but also by groups. One
of the worlds largest multidisciplinary entertainment and design agencies, Imaginary Forces,

21
founded in Los Angeles by Kyle Cooper, Chip Houghton, and Peter Frankfurt, has been
creating stunning amounts of works each year. Its award-winning works of film titles and
films include: The Mummy, Gattacam Clockstoppers, Spider-Man, Daredevil, Men in Black,
and Signs. Imaginary Forces also produced a lot of fabulous commercials on TV.
Additionally, Deborah Ross Film Design, Big Film Design, yU + co, The Picture Mill, and
Computer Caf all rank at the top of the list.

22

CHAPTER 3. TYPOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

3.1 A General Historic Review of Typography
To fully understand typography, one must take a look at typographys history. While
its not that easy to cover all the developments and movements of typography in a short space,
neither is it necessary in this study. This thesis adopted the four revolutions (Carter, Day &
Meggs, 1985, p. 67) as the separations in typographic history involving technology
developments.
3.1.1 From the origins of writing to Gutenberg: 3150 B.C. A.D. 1450
The first known type was written symbols on clay tables, which were used for recordkeeping in ancient times. Figure 3.1.1.1 shows the earliest written documents that are
impressed clay tablets from the cities of Sumer. The signs represent clay tokens, which were
used for record keeping before the invention of writing.

Figure 3.1.1.1. The earliest written clay tablets (c. 3150 B.C.).
Source: Typographic design: Form and communication, by Rob Carter,
Ben Day and Philip B. Meggs.

23
Rudiments of the serifed letters and unserifed capitals appeared with civilization
during this period. It is now widely accepted that the serifs originated as the Roman letter
outlines were first brushed onto stone, and the stone carvers followed the brush marks which
flared at stroke ends and corners, creating serifs. Figure 3.1.1.2 is a picture of Roman brushed
capitals (the word are Capitalis Rustica), the origin of serifs taken by Manuel Strehl.

Figure 3.1.1.2. Calligraphic writing in the ancient Roman font of the same name.
Photo by Manuel Strehl. From Wikipedia.

In regard to unserifs, Robert Bringhurst (1996), whose name is synonymous with The
Elements of Typographic Style, a reference book of typefaces, said, unserifed capitals
appeared in the earliest Greek inscriptions. They reappeared in Rome in the third and second
centuries BC (Bringhurst, 1996, p. 239). Serifs and unserifs divided typefaces into two very
basic categories. The typefaces we see today are most likely the offspring or subclasses of
these two typefaces (see Figure 3.1.1.3, inscriptional letter of Republican Rome, drawn by
John Soane in Rome in 1780, stored in Design for a British Senate House, Sir John Soanes
Museum, London).

Figure 3.1.1.3. The earliest known example of the Monoline Sans-serif.

Drawn by John Soane in Rome in 1780. Copyright Sir John Soanes Museum, London.

24

3.1.2 Typography from Gutenberg to the nineteenth century: A.D. 1450 1800
The development of typography from the invention of movable type by Gutenberg in
1450 to the nineteenth century is viewed as the second revolution. During this time period,
humanist philosophy flowered because of the Renaissance. A belief in human dignity and
worth, a spirit of individualism, and a shift from religious to secular had impacted every nook
and corner of human society. Humanism apparently inspired and encouraged typographers
and led to many varieties of typefaces being created in this era. For instance, decorated
initials at the head of each chapter showed an illustrative style combined flourished patterns
into a wholesome elegance (see Figure 3.1.2).

Figure 3.1.2. The capital P shows a decorative style.

Source: From p. 16, 18 of L. Lefaivres Leon Battista Albertis
Hypnerotomachia Poliphili. Copyright The MIT Press.
3.1.3 The industrial revolution and Modernism: A.D. 1800 1960s
The third period on the timeline is from the nineteenth century through the Industrial
Revolution. Technological innovations made another outpouring of new typographic forms.
The Industrial Revolution blew the horn for the incoming modern time.

25

3.1.4 Information Age: 1970 present

The fourth period on the timeline begins with the year 1970 and continues until the
present. Technical and scientific progress led to cultural movements and new trends of
thought at the turn of 19th century. The discovery of the Theory of Relativity in physics and
Atomic Theory in chemistry were extraordinarily subversive. They challenged the traditional
way of human beings thinking about several basic concepts of our world, including time,
space and particles. The nature of reality was thus questioned and restrictions that had been
in place around human activities were falling. Thus, in the art field, a flock of writers,
thinkers and artists made the break with traditional laws of organizing literature, painting and
music. It was in this climate that Modernism was born, which first showed its face in France
and was known as the avant-garde.
Form follows function, a phrase that states that the appearance of a design should
be determined solely by its intended functional purpose instead of by tradition or traditional
concepts of aesthetics, was a fundamental law of Modernism (see Figure 3.1.4.1). This
phrase originated in the field of architecture in the late 19th century. In the early 1900s, this
principle was adopted primarily for product design by the Bauhaus school. This new concept
of design soon spread into many other fields included typography, and the influences
extended throughout most of the 20th Century. Some feel that this discipline continues to
work into the 21st century.

26

Figure 3.1.4.1. Modernism typefaces in film titles, screen shot from the title sequence of
Come Live With Me (1941).
Source: Come Live With Me (1941), Copyright Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Together with form follows function, there was another law, ornament is a crime
that was proclaimed in 1908 by an Austrian architect Adolf Loos and later became a
fascination to modernists. The adoption of this principle was probably the manifestation of
Modernisms eager wish to be distinguished from traditions, since ornament was at that time
regarded as a synonym of tradition. Another Modernists belief was that there was an
absolute, universal truth that we could understand through rationalism and logic. Because of
this very wish of Modernism (to be distinguished from the past) and this very belief (there
was a universal truth), when Modernism reached its peak in the 1920s and 1930s, namely the
high Modernism era, a so-called International Style appeared. The International Style was
primarily applied in modernist architecture. It advocated the globalization trend in design. Its
sentiments were echoed in the New Typography movement and related theories. Many
designers influenced by the International Style wished to eradicate nationalistic

27
characteristics by creating typefaces that were straight and clean, free of historical and
cultural associations.
Even though the International Style had been celebrated, its problematic aspects were
easily to be spotted. First of all, could we ignore history when our whole civilization was
built upon it? The answer is definitely not. Borrow from George Santayanas famous warning:
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Second, how could the
design be free of cultural associations since the designers themselves cannot be free of their
cultural surroundings (or probably restrictions)? Third, if ornaments were thoroughly erased
from the design, the beauty of the design would also disappear (this point of view remains
controversial up to the present). After all these questionings, the design world received
postmodernism.
While Modernism carefully avoided everything looked traditional, historical or
cultural, postmodernism viewed from another standpoint: Why shouldnt we use the cultural
and historical heritages? In fact, historical referral was one of the major characteristics of
Postmodernists; although they did not simply go back to traditions and they were real antirealists, they always borrowed design elements from the past and recomposed them to create
a totally new modern look. Postmodernists also paid a great deal of attention to artistic
design, and they had a faith in beauty. That was why they called for a return of
ornament, except in an unconventional way. Taken in this sense, Postmodernism created a
bridge to connect the past and today, tradition and modernity.
As Modernism is known for its universal, rational and depth sort of design
(meaning, value, content, how things work, as opposed to surfaced design, which
emphasizes on appearances, the superficial, how we use thing), Postmodernism is known for

28
its playful, joyful and even mischievous styles with little or no regard of rationalism,
universal rules and depth (see Figure 3.1.4.2).

Figure 3.1.4.2. A spread from Raygun, a typical Postmodernism style magazine.

Source: rogerblack.com.

Postmodernism was also purpose-driven. However, its goal was not function but
play. Unlike Modernism, Postmodernism accepted all possibilities to achieve and serve for
its goal. In another words, it was postmodernism that prevented typography from being dull.
Postmodernism was another liberation in typography to a certain extent. Many of todays
typefaces profited from Postmodernism. Movie fonts, as mutants of ordinary typefaces, are
especially beneficiaries of Postmodernism. Without Postmodernism, we wouldnt see so
many expressive, dynamic, interesting or retro sorts of typefaces.
On the road to development of Modernism and Postmodernism, computers made
dramatic differences in modern typography. Computer innovation in the mid-20th century

29
(around 1940 1945) threw off the traditional hand-made design method. In 1995, the
Apple Macintosh computer was fast becoming a design fixture in most commercial art
departments, it had changed the way how projects produced from a standard of atoms, where
tactile things are used in the fast-up/mechanicals process, to bits, where these things could
be manipulated instantly on a computer, allowing greater precision and whole new vistas of
design approaches (Robbins, Drate & Salavetz, 2006, p.10). With this kind of technology,
digitalization was put on the designers agenda. The publication media were moved from
paper to the screen. Soon after even the very nature of typography was changed by adding
the possibility of putting it into motion. This change was contributed to by cinematography,
Internet and 3D technologies.

3.2 Typeface Conveys a Special Message

Typography is viewed by contemporary graphic designers as a way of
communication. The basic typographic communication-value regarding the delivery of
message content has been noticed since early times, when typography was mainly regarded
as a presenting tool, and legibility and readability direct designers concerns. More recent
studies since the early 20th century started to see typography as something that has greater
potential. Scholars proposed a view of the second-level typographic communication beyond
printed text content. This second-level communication refers to the communication of
information that can be expressed and extracted from the characters shapes. Semantic
quality is the term given by Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957, p. 270) to describe this
aspect.

30
3.2.1 The second level of communication
Particular to the interest of the present study is the multiple levels of information
conveyed by the typeface. According to Aernout de Beaufort Wijnholds (1997), the detection
of the semantic properties for type should give credit to John Starkweathers emphasis on the
two levels communication in speech: the first level refers to speech-content, and the second
level refers to that revealed by the sound of the speakers voice. In Starkweathers 1956
paper The communication-value of content-free speech, he pointed out that voice quality
(intonation) could be isolated from the spoken message content. Additional information, such
as a mood or attitude (friendly, hesitant or excited, for instance), could be provided by
stressing certain words or the change of the speakers voice. Starkweathers assumption
definitely won applauds from typographers and was adapted by designers and researchers for
type analyzing, for example, the use of different degrees of boldness for emphasis and the
use of slanted letters to suggest speed.
3.2.2 Typography aspects
In Wijnholds study in 1997, he attempted to sum up the different aspects of
typography and the connections between them. Figure 3.2.2.1 is an integrated chart showing
three groups of aspects of typography. Each of these groups relates to a particular kind of
property in typography: functional properties, semantic properties and textual organization.

31

Figure 3.2.2.1. Wijnholds Aspects of typography.

32
As can be seen in Figure 3.2.2.1, the functional properties determine different
physical appearances of letters, allowing them to be distinguished from each other. The
textual organization refers to the way types have been arranged. The semantic properties,
which are the focus of Wijnholds study, can be distinguished between two kinds of meaning,
namely, aesthetic meaning and meaning attributed by association. Meaning by association
implies that a connection is made, consciously or not, between the characters shape and the
readers feeling or emotion. The feeling or emotion can only be triggered when the reader has
had certain experiences to be able to link a typeface with some kind of associations, for
example, historical associations, cultural associations and/or association of typeface persona.
At the level of aesthetic meaning, beauty is the only thing that typography wants to achieve.
Since beholding beauty is already a satisfying and fulfilling emotional experience, the
connection with any other experience is not necessary.
Wijnholds theory attributed typeface personas to their physical characteristics,
especially the shape and weight of typefaces, which echoed with both previous and current
theories of Secrest (1947), Baylis (1955), Benson (1985), White (1988), Sassoon (1993),
Spiekermann, Erik and E. M. Ginger (1993), Parker (1997) and Kostelnick and Roberts
(1998).
It should be noted that these theories have limitations. Although Wijnhold mentioned
several aspects of spatial arrangement of word or textiles such as letter spacing and
wording spacing, he left out arrangement issues such as hierarchy, rhythm and scale of
typography.

33
3.2.3 Typeface persona in history
The idea that typefaces convey a special message actually is not new at all. It can be
traced back to the classical time, when rudiments of the serifed letters and unserifed capitals
both appeared (see 3.1.1 From The Origins of Writing to Gutenbergs Invention of Movable
Type: 3150 B.C. A.D. 1450). About this time, many typefaces were perceived to be imbued
with cultural characteristics. Bringhurst (1996) mentioned in his book The elements of
typographic style, At Athens and again at Rome, the modulated stroke and bilateral serif
were the scribal trademarks and symbols of the empire. Unserifed letters, with no modulation
or, at most, a subtle taper in the stroke, were emblems of the Republic (p. 239).
While printing method based on Gutenbergs printing press spread rapidly throughout
Europe, diversity in typefaces became more prominent. Many typefaces were region-based at
this time, and their characteristics were commonly associated with the country. As
Brumberger (2003, p.207) cited from Jadette Lalibertes words (1987): Fraktur for
Germany, Garamond for France, Bodoni for Italy, and Caslon for England.
The notion that typefaces delivered a visual message was continuously supported
by practitioners over the years into modern time. Modernism played a special role in the
theory of typeface persona. As mentioned before, the thought form follows function,
typified by the Bauhaus school of design, spread into many fields of applied art included
typography. This design law had a great influence on the New Typography movement in
the 1920s. By honestly applying form follows function, typographers and designers
worked hard to change typographys status from a decorative presentation tool with little
awareness of viewers to a way to communicate information between message senders and
receivers. Robin Kinross (1992) described the new typography in his article Modern

34
typography: The content and purpose of the text should dictate the design the form of a
document, and that form, including typography, should express the content just as the verbal
text itself expresses content (p. 3). Tschichold (1928 / 1995), one of the most influential of
the 20th century designers, similarly suggested in The New Typography: The New
Typography is distinguished from the old by the fact that its first objective is to develop its
visible form out of the functions of the text. It is essential to give pure and direct expression
to the contents of whatever is printed: just as in the works of technology and nature, form
must be created out of function. He said, The function of printed text is communication,
emphasis (word value), and the logical sequence of the contents (p. 66-67).
It was because the New Typography was shaped by Modernism and thus had a strong
rhetorical emphasis in the sense that it was usability-oriented and purpose-driven that not
only information layouts were carefully arranged but also typefaces at this time were
intentionally chosen to have different personas to meet various expression requirements for
the best communication. Tschichold (1958) stressed that different typefaces have distinct
personas and that the character of the type must match the character of the verbal text. Ovink
(1938) indicated that mismatched typefaces will not have done actual harm to the
transmission of the meaning of the text, but ... missed an opportunity to intensify the force of
impression of the text in a considerable degree (p. 23).

3.2.4 Semantic quality and differential scaling

Attempts at defining the feeling tone of typefaces in the outset of the 20th century is
regarded as the earliest research in this area. As mentioned earlier, the typeface feeling tone
was termed as atmosphere values in studies. Pioneers included Poffenberger and Franken

35
(1923) and Schiller (1935), whose works were initially with regard to typeface usage in
advertising. Poffenberger and Frankens analysis resulted in the identification of five
atmosphere qualities that typefaces imply: cheapness, dignity, economy, luxury, and strength.
Ovinks study in 1938 listed a collection of three general atmosphere quality groups; namely
luxury refinement, economy precision, and strength (Ovink, 1938).
In the 50s, a new term semantic quality was used to replace the traditional term
atmosphere value. The work of Osgood et al. (1957) served as the basis for research. Based
on Osgoods research, a data analysis/collection method known as the semantic differential
or semantic differential scaling was developed, which originally referred to a series of
paired opposite terms, for example, masculine feminine, strong weak, and quick
slow.
Rowe (1982) and Bartram (1982) were two scholars who were specifically interested
in the subject of the semantic quality of typefaces. They believed that the semantic properties
of a typeface modify the explicit message of the text (the actual words) and provide an
implicit context within which the message is understood (Bartram, 1982, p. 39).
More recently, Brumberger (2003) adopted a semantic differential scaling approach.
Brumberger (2003) explained: presenting participants with paired attributes is potentially
problematicfor examplemasculine and feminine may be neither opposite extremes
nor points along a uni-dimensional scale the absence of masculine characteristics does not
necessarily mean the presence of feminine characteristics, and it is not always clear what the
center point between masculine and feminine represents (p. 210). To avoid the complication,
Brumberger used rating scales with non-paired attributes, by analyzing each attribute and
typeface to determine whether there were correlations between any of the typefaces.

36

3.2.5 The practitioners lore

The increasing popularity of desktop publishing and availability of thousands of
typefaces in more recent years reinforce the need for practitioners to notice the unique signals
that a certain typeface may send to a reader. For instance, a flash web designer needs to
scrutinize and choose from a quite large number of typefaces to create a flash website with a
rigid or formal mood, a razzle-dazzle appearance, a classy or elegant look, a friendly look, or
a traditional or contemporary look. Because of many designers involvement, we see a large
scale of typefaces has been discussed and studied. Statements have been made by Kostelnick
(1990), Shushan and Wright (1994), and Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) regarding various
typefaces included Garamond (graceful and refined), the old standard Times New
Roman (bookish), Century Schoolbook (serious yet friendly), and Bodoni (dramatic
and sophisticated).
In short, after all these years, both scholars and practitioners generally concurred with
one stance: typefaces have distinct personas that convey a message to the reader/viewer
(Brumberger, 2003, p. 208). Letterforms have tone, timbre, character, just as words and
sentences do. (Bringhurst, 1996, p. 22)

37

CHAPTER 4. TYPOGRAPHY ON SCREEN

The previous chapter has reviewed the history of typographic development and
introduced the concept that different typefaces can convey messages beyond the printed text
content. The focus so far has been in the conventional formats of typography, in other words,
the static presentation of typefaces in printing. When applied to film title sequences,
typography embraces new features and variations. Particularly, typography in film title
sequences involves designs on the screen, in both space and time. This chapter discusses the
issues of typography on screen and its realizations through computer technologies.
Kinetic typography, also known as dynamic typography or time-based
typography, is the art that deals with types that move. Kinetic typography has been used
expressively in television and film ever since the 1960s, when designers were frequently
hired to create inventive title sequences (Rabinowitz, 2006, p.273). Today, kinetic type is
nearly a synonym for the type used in film, television and computer based advertising, which
has demonstrated the ability to add significant emotive content and appeal to expressive text,
allowing some of the qualities normally found in animation and the spoken word to be added
to static text.
Computer techniques, among all other techniques filming techniques like
rotoscoping (drawing onto film to combine illustrative and photographic elements);
traditional animation techniques such as line art animation (cartooning), and other
cinematographic techniques that support kinetic typography are the youngest and probably
the most influential member in the industry. As mentioned earlier in chapter 3.1.4 the
general historic look of typography, along with computer innovation in the mid-20th century

38
(around 1940 1945), digitalization was put on designers agenda. Digitalized is the basic
characteristic of computer-aid kinetic design. In the past, professional designers had to use
traditional drawing implements (rulers, compasses, mapping pen, etc.), and months at work
slumped over a desk, to create new typefaces. With computer technologies, the procedure is
dramatically shortened. Creating font becomes much easier. Not only professionals but also
amateurs and even letterform lovers can be a type maker. Therefore, an overwhelming
groundswell of innovative typefaces has been created.
As a product of digitalization, kinetic typography relies on-screen publication. This
fairly new publication medium predestines kinetic typography to go in a new way rather than
print on paper typography that follows the traditional design principles. For example, the
printing world operates on inks and full color (CMYK) mode while on-screen publication is
using lights rather than inks and is based upon RGB mode rather than CMYK mode.
Additionally, on-screen publication ensures the integration of animation in typography,
which is an impossible task for print media typography. The computer-aided animation
works in another way from traditional filmed animation (See later chapter).
The following chapter will introduce three dimensions, namely the basic design
issues, designing over space, and designing over the time of kinetic typography as an
animated art form. Also, supporting design elements such as sounds will be discussed. These
dimensions or elements interact with and support all others and aim to produce rich and
expressive results.

39

4.1 Basic Design Issues

4.1.1 Choice of font
The film title is meant to establish the context and set the tone of the movie, where
typefaces could be a powerful assistant toward this goal due to their second-level
communication abilities and special expressive qualities. Type contains impassioned rhetoric;
the magic is hidden under the appearance of each typeface. Thus choosing a suitable font is
the primary task a designer needs to accomplish when assessing a project. However,
typography has about a five hundred year history in the West, which has left a forest of
typefaces; computer techniques have created even more of them. How to get to know each
typefaces individual identity? A typeface classification could be a shortcut. There have been
various classification systems to use. Each of them could be an essential tool to help a
designer in selecting appropriate typefaces that enhance the expressive message in
typography. It is always recommended for designers to spend some time taking a look at
certain kinds of classification before actually working on the design.

4.1.2 Image resolution

When film frames are stored digitally, the resolution of the image is measured in
thousands of pixels across the frame, or K. A horizontal resolution of 1K means 1024 pixels;
2K is 2048 and so forth.1K resolution is the lowest, yielding a result that is similar to video.
2K resolution is the most common because of reduced file size and less taxing throughput
requirements (data flow). 3K and 4K are also common, and they are the most aesthetically
desirable because the threshold of human vision is about 2500 x 2500 pixels when viewing

40
an average movie theatre screen (if the picture were square). Pixel height varies depending
on the aspect ratio. In Table 4.1.2, we can see the rule of correspondence between image
resolution and mass storage size request.

Table 4.1.2. Image resolution and mass storage size

Mass storage size required
Resolution
2K

1 frame
(MB)
9

1 sec.
(MB)
216

1 meter
(GB)
0.5

1 min.
(GB)
13

1 hour
(TB)
0.8

4K

36

864

1.9

52

3.1

6K

122

3000

6.4

176

10.5

16K

864

21000

40.8

1242

74.5

Understanding the image resolution is especially important when we are digitalizing

images for eventual film output; we can calculate what the appropriate scanning resolution
should be by dividing the film resolution that will be used by the horizontal dimensions of
our image in inches. For example, if the output resolution will be 2K, and our image
measures 10 inches horizontally, we would scan it at 200 dpi.
4.1.3 Color
As mentioned early, the printing world operates on inks and full color (CMYK) mode.
Traditional typographers deal with Cyan, Magenta and Yellow inks, which are known as
subtractive colors. If subtractive colors are printed overlapped in the same proportion on
white paper, they absorb the light shining on the page, and we perceive pure black. The
world of on-screen publication is built upon lights rather than inks. Designers use additive

41
colors, namely Red, Green, and Blue light. If all the three colored lights are put together on
the screen, we get white light, not black. Black can only be reached if there is no light
involved. RGB principles are those behind computer and TV monitors as well as the movie
screen (see Figure 4.1.3.1, CMYK mode; RGB mode).

Figure 4.1.3.1. RGB and CMYK color mode.

Source: Computer Desktop Encyclopedia, the Computer Language Co. Inc.

4.2 Designing Over Space

A designer needs to consider many fundamental elements in designing title
sequences. The following chapter will first briefly introduce some of the most basic concepts,
and then explain how these principles will affect the title sequence design.
4.2.1 Visual perceptions
Designers always wish for desired responses from audiences through the visual
expressions. Before talking about how to position visual elements within a frame (the

42
concept of frame will be explained later in the section on frame and aspect ratio), let us
take a look at how human beings perceive visual objects and environments. Since seeing is
not just an optical process but also a process of our thinking, the early research on the laws of
visual perceptions were pioneered by physiologists whose concerns were human mind and
brain.

Gestalt Theory

Gestalt theory is an attempt to state the laws of visual reconstruction.

Although computer-based design follows several new disciplines, it has not yet fully
exploited the Gestalt theory results. This section briefly reviews the basics of Gestalt theory
and explains how it can be used to render desired perceptions.
As a theory of mind and brain, Gestalt theory proposes that the operational principle
of the brain is holistic, parallel and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the whole
is different from the sum of its parts. Some of the key principles of Gestalt systems include 1)
the law of figure and ground, 2) the law of similarity or proximity, and 3) the law of closure.

Figure 4.2.1.1. An example of the law of figure and ground.

43
The law of figure and ground captures the idea that the visual field is normally
divided into two parts, figure and ground. Some elements are contrasted with other elements
to give the impression of a whole. In the following figure, a Dalmatian dog (figure) emerges
from the shade of a tree (ground).

The law of similarity dictates that the mind groups similar elements into collective
entities of totalities. Such similarity might depend on relationships of form, color, size or
brightness. In the following figure, the filled circles give the impression of three horizontal
lines.

Figure 4.2.1.2. An example of the law of similarity.

The law of closure applies when people see complete figures even when part of the
information is not provided. In the following figure, a complete three-dimensional sphere is
seen, where in fact no such thing is drawn.

44

Figure 4.2.1.3. An example of the law of closure.

Understanding how the human eye naturally seeks gestalt can help us use visual
devices such as figure-ground, direction, balance, negative space and scale to produce a
clearly articulated frame in which all elements are unified to create a sense of purpose and
completeness. Sometimes the designers might have been unaware of the exact Gestalt
theories, but we can observe many excellent design works manifesting these principles.
In the opening sequence of Dr. Strangelove (1964), we can observe an example of the
law of figure and ground. The title is mainly comprised of two text strings, DR. and
STRANGELOVE. Whereas they both convey text information, they can be interpreted
separately as the background (DR.) and the figure (STRANGE). Such distinction vividly
represented a contrast between the scientific doctrine and the unique personality; hence was
coined Dr. Strangelove as a nickname of the mad scientist.

45

Figure 4.2.1.4. Screen shot from the opening credits of Dr. Strangelove (1964).
Source: Dr. Strangelove (1964), Copyright Hawk Films.

An example of the law of similarity can be illustrated by a screen shot from the
opening title of Catch Me If You Can (2002) (see Figure 4.2.1.5). On the screen, two
different types of fonts are used to present two different kinds of information and characters
belonging to the same kind of information appear in the same font. The words DIRECTED
BY are presented in the font of Archive Antique Extended, a wide slab Serif, and Steven
Spielberg are presented in Coolvetica, a Sans serif font similar to the popular Helvetica.
The contrast between the Serif and Sans serif fonts can help the audience group the
information into two individual entities so that the comprehension can be achieved
effectively.

Figure 4.2.1.5. Screen shot from the opening credit of Catch Me If You Can (2002).
Source: Catch Me If You Can (2002), Copyright DreamWorks SKG.

46

The film title Alien vs. Predator (2004) illustrates an example of how the law of
closure applies when people see complete figures even when part of the information is not
provided. The horizontal bar in the letter A is missing, but the audience should not have
any difficulty in recognizing it. Interestingly, this design also represents some deeper
implications beyond simply applying individual Gestalt principles. Gestalt psychology
suggests that simple and harmonious designs are liked more than complex and disharmonious
designs (Henderson, Giese & Cote, 2004, p. 60). In this case, the incomplete letter A looks
like a reversed letter V. Together, three letters make up a simple yet complete and
harmonious image.

Figure 4.2.1.6. Screen shot from the opening credits of Alien vs. Predator (2004).
Source: Alien vs. Predator (2004), Copyright Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation.

Depth perception

Depth perception is our visual ability to perceive the world in three

dimensions. Trained artists are keenly aware of using various methods to create convex
forms that indicating spatial depth and take advantage of them to make their works appear
real.

47
There are many matters that can contribute to depth illusion. Kepes (1994) said, The
perception of physical reality cannot escape the quality of movement (p.170). The motion
parallax is one of the cues regarding depth perception. The motion parallax means that
moving objects in distance will seem to move much slower (or even seems stationary) than
nearby objects. This will in return suggest hints about relative distance of different objects to
the observer (see Figure 4.2.1.7).

Figure 4.2.1.7. Differential motion parallax. Adapted from Ware (2004).

The relative size can be another cue of depth perception, because our visual system
exploits the relative size of similar (or familiar) objects to judge distance. In the real world,
an object that is close to the observer looks larger than one that is far away. In animation, the
illusion of distance is determined by dynamically changing object size on a 2D surface.
Objects in smaller size appear to recede into the distance or move farther away, while the
ones that appear to be larger seem to be coming closer; this phenomenon contributes to a
special motion effect called Zooming In/Out that mimics the effect of camera movement
(see Figure 4.2.1.8).

48

Figure 4.2.1.8. Title sequences of Kung Fu Panda (2008).

Source: Kung Fu Panda (2008), Copyright DreamWorks Animation.

The linear perspective has been used for hundreds of years by artists to create depth
in their art works. Linear perspective is the use of lines and angles to project the threedimensional world onto a two-dimensional surface. The horizon, the visual rays, and the
vanishing point create the illusion of the three-dimensional (see Figure 4.2.1.9).

Figure 4.2.1.9. Linear perspective.

Source: Stiehler (1995).

49
One-point perspective (characterized by one single vanishing point on the horizon),
two-point perspective (allowing depth illusion to be established with two vanishing points in
the same horizontal line), and three-point perspective (dealing with a tall object where the
edges of the object recede to the two vanishing points or an upward recession to a vanishing
point) are three basic kinds of perspective (see Figures 4.2.1.10 to 4.2.1.12).

Figure 4.2.1.10. One-point perspective.

Source: Stiehler (1995).

Figure 4.2.1.11. Two-point perspective.

Source: Stiehler (1995).

50

Figure 4.2.1.12. Three-point perspective.

Source: Stiehler (1995).

The opening credits in Star Wars (1977) serve as a simple example of using the onepoint perspective illusion in films. The crawling Franklin Gothic shows a so-called
Perspective Projection effect.

Figure 4.2.1.13. Screen shot from the title sequence of Star Wars (1977).
Source: Star Wars (1977), Copyright Lucasfilm.

51

Perspectives are popular as an effective motion effect method in film title sequence
design, especially when 3D software is used in large scales (see Figure 4.2.1.14).

Figure 4.2.1.14. Screen shots from the title sequences of Hostage (2005).
Source: Hostage (2005), Copyright Miramax Films.

Using color vision is another trick of artists. They know well the fact that correct
interpretation of color, and especially lighting cues, allows the viewer to determine the shape
of objects and thus their arrangement in space. Artists also notice that the color of distant
objects is shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum. (e.g., distant mountains). Painters
employ warm pigments (red, yellow and orange) to bring features forwards the viewer, and
cool ones (blue, violet, and blue-green) to indicate the part of a form that curves away from
the picture plane.
Depth from focus is a law especially familiar for photographers. This law describes
that the lens of our eye can change its shape to bring objects at different distances into focus;
knowing at what distance the lens is focused when viewing an object means knowing the
approximate distance to that object.

52

4.2.2 Frame and aspect ratio

A frame is a single still image, the smallest component of a sequence. In a movie, all
actions take place within the borders of the screen or frame much as if it is a room. Thus
designers of kinetic type for a movie need to make decisions about the compositional
proximity of the text and objects to the edges of the screen/frame. The issue regarding the
dimension of the screen/frame is termed aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of an image is its
width divided by its height.
There have been a number of aspect ratio standards used in movies and videos. Here I
only list three of them, namely Academy Standard, Academy Flat and CinemaScope since
they are the most influential or common ones in movies in the past and today.

Academy Standard

The Academy Standard refers to the aspect ratio of 1.37:1, which

was used almost universally in 35 mm full-screen sound film images or 16 mm standard

professional formats between 1932 and 1953. This ratio means that the picture is 1.37 times
as wide as it is tall. (Note that1.37:1 standard is referred to as 1.33: 1 by Krasner, 2004, p.
316).
Recognized officially by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS)
in 1932, the 1.37: 1 aspect ratio eventually became known as Academy Standard or
Academy Ratio for movies. Classic films such as Gone With the Wind (1939), The Wizard
of Oz (1939) and Singin in the Rain (1952) appeared in this ratio according to the IMDb
database. This standard is still occasionally used.

53
Academy Flat

The so-called Academy Flat aspect ratio was developed in the

circumstances that film had to compete against the threat from television. One of the film
industrys weapons was wide-screen pictures. The development of wide-screen formats
aimed to create a more visually breathtaking experience that would give viewers an incentive
to attend the theatre rather than stay at home. (Krasner, 2004, p. 128) An aspect ratio of 1.85:
1 served this purpose. It was usually used for 35 mm US and UK widescreen theatrical films,
and was known as Academy Flat. In the US, 35 mm was usually projected at this widescreen ratio by cutting off the top and bottom of the frame. Films shot in this ratio can also
save on the cost of film stock.

CinemaScope

A less widely used wide-screen format is CinemaScope (also known as

letter-box or anamorphic) with an aspect ratio of 2.35:1. The anamorphic standard has
subtly changed since the 1970s. The anamorphic productions today are actually 2.39:1,
which is commonly labeled 2.40:1, e.g., in the American Society of Cinematographers'
American Cinematographer Manual, but often referred to as 2.35 anyway, due to old
convention (see Figure 4.2.2.1, Academy and wide-screen film formats).

Figure 4.2.2.1. A comparison of movie frame aspect ratios.

54
4.2.3 Design structure: pictorial composition
Pictorial composition refers to how design elements are arranged in space within one
single frame (the concept of frame will be discussed in design over the time). It is
important to recognize the distinction between pictorial composition and sequential
composition. The latter is characterized by the continuity and recurrence of elements between
frames. Since the sequential composition is basically a time-related issue, it will be discussed
in the later chapter of designing over the time.

Grid system

Designers of all types (print, web, animation, etc.) are constantly facing

issues involving the structure of their designs or the pictorial order in a moving composition.
All those designers can get assistance from the grid system, which is a structure made up
of a series of intersecting vertical and horizontal lines used to divide the page into grid units
or modules. The lines of the grid themselves are not necessarily visible (although in some
designs they are).
Grids allow for the distribution of typographic elements in a clear, intelligible order.
(Carter, Day & Meggs, 1985, p.67). They work such that certain design elements occupy one
unit or module, while others can deviate and intrude into other units or modules. Design
elements can also align according to the grid. Once a general grid has been set up, the
designer can always deviate from it.
It is said that grids can help refine the approach to spatial organization, establish
consistency within the design, achieve balance, help organize complex information within a
rectangular space and allow the information to be communicated clearly and effectively.

55
Should a designer decide to use a grid, it is best to sketch it out on paper first and then
implement it in the application. Most animation programs provide guidelines that can be
adjusted and locked to position elements into vertical or horizontal alignment (Krasner, 2004,
p.117).

Design Principles

Wucius Wong wrote a book titled Principles of form and design,

which gives a detailed account of several aspects of design principles. In the book, he
introduced the concept of unit forms, which refers to smaller forms that are repeated, with
or without variations, to produce a larger form (Wong, 1993, p. 246). A unit form can be a
point, a line or a plane in any shape. The principles that determine the different compositions
of unit forms are named Repetition, Similarity, Gradation, Radiation, Anomaly,
Contrast and Concentration. (p. 51 117). Those principles have been recognized to be
applied to all types of traditional design. I dont see any exception in kinetic typography.
Laws of Repetition, Similarity and Anomaly, for example, can contribute to pictorial rhythm
and make the pictorial rhythm range from monotony to chaos, depending on the degree of
variation that is introduced (Krasner, 2004, p. 128). As can be seen in Figure 4.2.3.1, the
movie opening credits of Mimic (1997) repeat the movies title and produce a dynamic
rhythm.

56

Figure 4.2.3.1. Screen shot from the title sequence of Mimic (1997).
Source: Mimic (1997), Copyright Dimension Films.

4.3 Designing Over Time

4.3.1 Frames, shots, scenes and sequences
Any film is composed of frames, shots, scenes, and sequences. A frame is a single
still image, the smallest component of a sequence. A shot is a combination of frames that
contains a continuous action. Juxtaposition of groups of related shots composes a scene.
Finally, scenes can be assembled in a specific order to create a sequence that expresses a
narrative or a theme.
4.3.2 Computer animation
Animation with the aid of computer technique is called computer animation. The
most basic computer animation tools assist the process of traditional animation by
automatically generating some of the frames of animation. Traditionally, animators needed to

57
hand-draw illustrations and photocopied frame-by-frame onto cels (transparent acetate
sheets). The final art was photographed one-by-one onto motion picture film by a camera.
Computer animation works in a totally different way. For 3D animations, objects are
modeled and rendered with 3D and lighting software. Models are rigged with a virtual
skeleton, which contains many joints. The animator can make the model move by
dragging and controlling the skeleton and joints. For 2D figure animations, separate objects
(illustrations, graphics) and separate transparent layers are used, with or without a virtual
skeleton. To make the objects move, animators create the important frames of a sequence
called key frames, then let the software calculate and generate the in-between frames
(animations). Such technique is known as tweening or morphing.

4.3.3 Other types of animation

Other types of animation and traditional animation techniques include Full animation,
Rotoscoping, Stop-motion animation, Clay animation, Cutout animation, Graphic animation,
Model animation, Object animation and Puppet animation. Some of them are still mediagenic
today. For example, clay animation, which refers to using figures made of clay or a similar
malleable material to create stop-motion animation, can be seen in British animation films
Chicken Run (2000) and Wallace & Gromit (2005) (see Figure 4.3.3.1). Due to the limited
space of this paper, these animations or techniques wont be further discussed.

58

Figure 4.3.3.1. Screen shot from the clay animation Wallace & Gromit (2005).
Source: Wallace & Gromit (2005), Copyright Aardman Animations.

59

CHAPTER 5. METHODOLOGY: TYPOGRAPHY AND FILM TITLES

The purpose of this chapter is to systematically study the applications of kinetic
typography in film title sequences. Particularly, this chapter attempts to answer the following
questions: How do typefaces vary in film title sequences? What are the types of animation
effects that can be applied to different typefaces? Is there a corresponding relationship among
different typefaces, animation effects and different film genres? How can combinations of
these help set up the mood or tone of the movie?

5.1 Methodology
To answer the questions raised above, this chapter is divided into five sections. First,
films genres are grouped into five categories (Chapter 5.2). It is noted that film genres can be
classified into much more detailed categories by various criteria (Langford, 2005, p.1). A
simplification is necessary given the complexity of the present study, particularly due to the
multiple dimensions added by the variations of typefaces and animation effects. Relevant to
the present study, film genres are first grouped into four categories according to the mood
(Wikipedia, 2008): drama, humor or comedy, action or adventure, and suspense. Then, a
category documentary and others is added to cover the films that do not belong to any of
the four genre categories.
Second, based on the Chifflot / I.T.I. classification by Guillaume-Ulrich Chifflot
(2004), a new typeface classification system is proposed to identify typeface variations in
film title sequences (Chapter 5.3). The major reason for a new classification system is that

60
the existing systems do not consistently correspond to the typefaces appeared in film title
sequences. It is often that new typefaces have been created especially for a specific film.
There is no summation for these fonts as their families are growing too fast. A practicable
and effective method for this study is to analyze movie typefaces by groups with assistance
of a complete font categorization system. Making up for whats lacking in conventional
systems, the new categories correct misleading terms and explore what genres of type are
missing in previous classifications.
Third, the effect phenomenon is analyzed (Chapter 5.4). This section first
decomposes animation into two basic components, motion and transformation. Three-D
effects are particularly addressed because of its prominence in film titles. Similarly to the
treatment to film genres, a simplification is necessary considering the complexity of
animation effects. A tool-set driven approach is adopted to propose a classification system of
animation effects. This system samples from the most commonly used animation operations
(or tool-sets) from popular design applications such as Adobe After Effects, Flash and the
related Plug Ins, then, groups them into five basic categories: blurring, color / light, shapes,
path / arrangement, and adding other visual elements. In this way, any animation effect can
be categorized into one of these groups by examining what kind of operations have been
applied to produce such effect.
Fourth, the applications of typefaces and motion effects in real cases are documented
(Chapter 5.5). Forty-three films are sampled from two online resources, the
SubmarineChannel (submarinechannel.com) and Art of the Title (artofthetitle.com). Because
of their popularity among the online community, two more films (Casino Royal, 2006 and
Psycho, 1960) from YouTube (youtube.com) are specifically hand-picked. Together, forty-

61
five films are sampled. The film genres, major typefaces and animation effects that appeared
in the opening or closing credits are documented.
Fifth, using the categories generated in the previous three sections, namely, categories
of film genres (Chapter 5.2), typefaces (Chapter 5.3), and animation effects (Chapter 5.4), a
matrix is generated in Chapter 5.6 to classify the verbal documentations in Chapter 5.5. Then,
statistics of the matrix are summarized to show the connections among the categories
typefaces, motion effects and film genres.
The last section (Chapter 5.7) provides a case study of film title sequence designs in
detail. Issues from the previous sections are further explained with examples. The aim of this
section is to illustrate how design principles have been implemented in real cases and
whether we can draw guidelines from a good title sequence design. The opening sequence of
Catch Me If You Can (2002) is selected for three reasons. First, it has been widely noted by
reviewers and regarded as one of the most successful title sequence designs (see Allison,
2003, p. 2). Second, it utilizes the distinctive contrast between Serif and Sans serif typefaces,
which are the two fundamental categories in the typeface classification systems discussed in
Chapter 5.3. Third, it covers all five major categories of animation effects analyzed in
Chapter 5.4. As a comparison, the opening credit of Love Me Tonight (1932) is discussed to
illustrate a crowded usage of typefaces that may be partly due to the neglect of title sequence
designs in early films.

62

5.2 Film Genres

The basic concept of genre has been widely used in contemporary film culture, as a
visit to any video rental store readily illustrates. For scholars, genre provides a historically
grounded method of establishing family resemblances between films produced and
released under widely differing circumstances (Langford, 2005, p.1). For this particular
study, film genres enable us to understand the final combination of both the typefaces and the
motion effects.
The most popular and identifiable movie genres include: Action, Adventure,
Animation (Computer and Stop Animation), Comedy, Crime or Gangster, Disaster,
Epics/Historical, Family, Fantasy, Horror, Melodrama, Musical, Mystery, Sci-Fi, Short,
Sport, Thriller, Tragedy, Romance, War and Western movies. Some of these genres can be
further divided into subcategories. For example, comedy movies include romantic comedy
movies, action comedy movies, college comedy movies, black comedy movies, parody
comedy movies and so forth. Some genres listed above, on the other hand, could be viewed
as sub-types of a broader category. For example, Melodrama, Romance and Tragedy refer to
movies that highly depend on emotional themes. These three genres can be regarded as subtypes of Drama.
For our concern here, most movies can be categorized into four basic groups
according to mood. These are: Drama, which depends mostly on in-depth character
development, interaction and highly emotional themes; Humor or Comedy, movies intending
to provoke laughter and entertainment; Action or Adventure, generally involving violence,
physical force, danger, risk, and/or chance, often with a high degree of fantasy; and Suspense,
which includes Thriller and Horror movies.

63
There are also quite a few movies that have outstanding title sequences that are hard
to categorize by mood. These films are mainly documentaries, and they are placed into the
fifth category of Documentary and others in the final matrix.

5.3 Typeface Variations: A New Typographic Classification System

Typefaces for title sequences have been created especially for specific movies. There
is no summation for these fonts as their families are growing too fast. A practicable and
effective method for this study is analyzing movie typefaces by groups with assistance of a
complete font categorization system.
This study proposes a new typeface classification system (see Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2)
based upon the studies of old classes in these previous classifications. The gathering of
various typeface classes on the left on Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 will serve as references for the
matrix that will be discussed later in Chapter 5.6.1.

64

Figure 5.3.1. Classification of typefaces (Latin alphabets).

65

Figure 5.3.2. Classification of typefaces (graphics).

There are four major characteristics of this new classification system. First, the new
classes inherit essential components from previous studies, while they also represent the most
recent evolutions. For instance, the new system adopts the progressive structure of the
Chifflot / I.T.I. classification by Guillaume-Ulrich Chifflot (2004) (see Figure 5.3.3).
Chifflots structure suggests we can differentiate typefaces by level divisions, which allows
the classification system a very handy capacity to evolve. Any category can be subdivided
into more precise ones, and, for example, specialists can insert more subdivisions within the
Serif category to differentiate the various evolutions that occurred since the creation of the
Rockwell. This evolution allows people to make room for the future: Mixed Non-manuals
may evolve in further subdivisions tomorrow, and this classification will easily deal with
that.

66

Figure 5.3.3. Chifflot / I.T.I. font classification by Guillaume-Ulrich Chifflot (2004).

Source: Typeindex.org

67
The new classification also adopts the way of the Chifflots classification (2004) to
illustrate each category with examples, which allows people to view the typeface and the
category it belongs to quite easily through a simple process from left to right.
Many typefaces that are classified by Chifflots classification (2004) were not
cataloged in previous classifications or were hidden under the vague Fantasy category. These
typefaces include some handwriting faces, combined typefaces and mixed faces. They are all
recognized by the new system. For instance, mixed typefaces that were inspired by combined
types appeared in the mid-Nineties and were pushing the boundaries between Serifs and Sans
serifs. These faces belong to an emerging genre which had not yet gained recognition before
Chifflot and were viewed as wired Serifs or Sans serifs. Chifflot believes that these faces
can be considered as a real alternative to Serifs or Sans serifs and so represent a truly new
class of typeface. The new system agrees with this point of view and adopts this type genre
(see Figure 5.3.4).

Figure 5.3.4. Mixed fonts, the Suburban from migr.

Such adoption makes the new system the most easily applied one and one that can be
used for film type analysis. The Star Wars alien alphabets, for example, are reviving
typefaces from pre-historic writing forms. They are not qualified for traditional
classifications since they lose readability. But Chifflots system (as well as this new system)
believes that as long as a face is alphabetic (that is, using letters to write words) and is turned
into a typographic form, it has to be included in some of the subdivisions. Figure 5.3.5 shows

68
the font known as Aurabesh, Aurebesh,or Aurek-Besh, an English version of Star
Wars alphabet (an alien script used in the Star Wars movies on walls, in pod racers and in
other random places).

Figure 5.3.5. An English version of the Star Wars alphabet.

Source: erikstormtrooper.com

The second characteristic of the new system is that more meaningful, precise and
non-misleading terms are used. Terminology is always an issue arousing controversy. Being
made by different people at different periods of time, different meanings are often given to
the same words. For example, the term Gothic refers to both the broken medieval writings
and to some 20th Century Sans serifs. The German word Fraktur can either refer to a
specific sub-group of the same category of writings (the broken medieval writings category),
or, sometimes, it is applied to all the typefaces within this category. The new system
abandons the term Gothic, and neither does it use the term Fraktur since these words
cause confusion. Instead, the new system chooses the term Blackletter Script, which is
commonly used by many professionals and specifically refers to the broken medieval
writings category.
On the other hand, another problem in terms of terminology in previous studies is that
many different names are given to the same thing. For example, the term English in

69
Chifflots classification, The Scripts in Vox-ATypl classification and Swash in Adobe
Type Library all refer to a certain calligraphic face that contains special ornamental swashes
or flowing extensions to the character strokes. The new system does not use the term
English nor The Scripts for this category since they are too general to be a category
name. Instead, the term Swash is used because it precisely and vividly depicts typefaces
within this category.
The new system is also trying to correct some misunderstandings of some terms. For
example, the term Cursiva in Chifflots classification is mis-referred to a sub-division
under Manuscript. Cursiva actually refers to a variety of forms of Blackletter. It developed
in the fourteenth century as a simplified form of Textualis, with influence from the form of
Textualis as used for writing charters. Another example is the term Antiqua. It is misused
by Thibaudeau in Thibaudeau Classification to name the most modern category of
Blackletter. In reality, Antiqua refers to a common script (sometimes called Old English)
as opposite to Blackletter. The term Antiqua is used in the new system instead of the term
Manuscript in Chifflots classification for the category. With this change, the relationship
between the two categories, the Blackletter Script and the Antiqua (common) Script, are
much more clear.
The fourth characteristic of the new system is that many type genres have been regrouped and more levels of divisions have been added to maintain the logic of the new
system, and in return make it more handy for the users. For instance, the Manuscript
category in Chifflots classification (parallel to Antiqua (common) Script in the new
system) is sub-divided into three groups: Cursiva, Unicial and Caroline. Even without regard
to the misuse of the term Cursiva that was discussed earlier, this categorization is still

70
unconvincing. Two of the three sub-categories (the Unicial and Caroline) should be
grouped together since they both refer to certain types of Minuscule Roman Cursive
typefaces, while the third sub-category, the Cursiva, refers to Majuscule Roman Cursives.
Therefore, the new system re-groups these categories. First, the Antiqua (common) Script
is divided into two sub-categories (the Majuscules, represented by Herculanum, and the
Minuscules); and second, the Minuscules is sub-sub-categorized into the Merovingian,
represented by Uncial, and the Carolinglan, represented by Carolina.

5.3.1 Manual
The Manual category includes all the letterforms that are NOT mechanical and
originated before the printing revolution. The three main sub-categories, including Antiqua
script, Blackletter script and Calligraphic script, are organized in an historical order.

5.3.1.1 Antiqua (common) script

Antiqua is a mix of typefaces of the Romans and those that appeared in Christian
manuscripts, which usually refer to Merovingian and Carolingian types.

Majuscule

The first form of todays capitals is known as Majuscule Roman cursive.

They were developed in the Roman Empire as early as the 7th Century B.C., featuring the 23
letters (J, U and W were added later). Those Roman capitals were found in inscriptions on
monuments, used to glorify the Empire among all the occupied countries.

71
Minuscule

As the Romans evolved over the centuries, the lowercases, the Minuscule

Roman cursives, appeared, first as Uncials. Uncial scripts were commonly used from the
3rd to 8th Centuries. The Uncials were written on parchment and vellum surfaces. Usually
the letters had broad and simple round strokes.
Uncials developed into various national forms over time. Those forms included
Italian, French, English and so forth. Each form had slightly different styles in use. It is worth
noting that the French Uncials were also known as Merovingian, which then developed
into Carolingian. The Merovingian (used in the Merovingian dynasty) and the Carolingian
(used in the Carolingian dynasty) were official writings for the entire Christian world. Both
Merovingian and Carolingian were deeply influenced by the use of the pen. Uncials (or
Merovingians) and Carolingians were the basis for what were to become lowercases.

5.3.1.2 Blackletter script

Blackletter, also known as Gothic script or Fraktur, was used throughout Western
Europe from approximately the 12th Century to the 16th Century and continued to be used in
Germany until the 20th Century. Blackletter is a descendant of Carolingian minuscule;
however, it has a unique visual look that is much different from the Antiquas. As the name
Fraktur suggests (German Fraktur comes from the Latin Frangere [to break] and
Fractus [broken]), Blackletter features fractured or block types, i.e., lines or strokes are
not necessarily connected with each other, especially in curved letters.
There are various forms of Blackletter known as Textualis, Rotunda, Schwabacher
and Cursiva.

72
Textualis

Textualis was mainly used in France, England and Germany. Those types

feature a high degree of breaking, that is, all curves of a letter are broken. With straight
strokes and sharp ending finials, Textualis gives us a very tight feeling.
Rotunda

Rotunda was nearly a synonym for the Italian Blackletter. Compared to

Textualis and all other Blackletters, Rotunda letters have much more smoothed strokes only
a few letters such as d have broken bows.
Schwabacher

Schwabacher was a Blackletter form that dominated in German from

about 1480 to 1530 and continued to be used until the 20th Century. Schwabacher is
characterized by round and open letters, with broad and sweeping effects.
Cursiva

Cursiva was used in France, England, Italy and Germany. It refers to a

simplified Blackletter variation, which represents calligraphic forms.

The following figure shows distinctive letters in each of these Blackletter categories.

Figure 5.3.1.1. Different Blackletter scripts

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5.3.1.3 Calligraphic script
Western calligraphy is written in an organic manner, and it is, in a sense, not just a
written language but also an art. The Swash and the Hands are two major classes under this
category.
Swash

Swash refers to those typefaces that have extended glyphs. Sometimes they

look like exaggerated and stylized serifs (see Figure 5.3.1.2). Those flowing extensions to the
character strokes add grace and beauty to Swash letterforms.

Figure 5.3.1.2. Swash typeface

Source: Wikipedia.com
The hands

The hands are those typefaces created by various handwriting instruments

and handcrafts brush, pen, or even painting spray. Like Swash letters, the hands also have a
rhythm and regularity.

5.3.2 Non-manual
The invention of printing and the invention of mechanized writing (the movable
metallic casts) were great leaps in typography. In this classification, while the Manual
category contains all letters from before the invention letters were drawn, hand-made, or
made to look like they were the Non-manual category gathers the others: the vast majority
of types that are used today. Unlike the Manual letters that had to be drawn time and time
again, mechanical types were only drawn once, then duplicated and reproduced. That means
each Non-manual letter is literally the same, while the Manual letter is different (even if the

74
difference is slight). The Non-manual category can be further divided into three subcategories: Serif, Sans serif, and the mixed.

5.3.2.1 Serif
As its name implies, the Serif typefaces have short lines (serifs) at the end of the main
strokes of each character. Serifs are thought to have originated with the Romans. The various
genres of Serifs can be differentiated according to a historical guideline: Classic/Elegant to
Modern/Common/Impersonal, i.e., Old style Serifs (the Glyphic, Venetian and Garalde),
Transitional serifs, and Modern slab serifs (The Monotype and Didone).
Old style

Old style serifs include Glyphic, Venetian and Garalde. The Glyphic was

those types inspired by Roman inscriptional or carved writings. Thus they look very similar
to Majuscules and Minuscules, except the Glyphic types are mechanized. Venetian was
named after the typefaces that appeared in Venice around the 15th Century. Those typefaces
were designed to imitate the handwriting of Italian renaissance scholars. The Garalde
typefaces include some of the most popular Roman styles in use today. One of the major
differences between the Venetian and the Garalde is that the former has inclined horizontal
strokes while the latter is more vertical and has less inclined strokes (see Figure 5.3.2.1).
Another difference is that the contrast between downstrokes and upstrokes of Garaldes is
stronger than Venetians.

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Figure 5.3.2.1. Different Serifs

Transitional Transitional serifs have a nearly vertical and horizontal axis of the round
characters. They also have fine proportions, and heavy thickness variations between hairlines
and main strokes. The serifs are thin, flat and bracketed.
Modern style Slab serifs are commonly known as Modern style serifs, for they were born
out of the Industrial Revolution. The serif terminals of those modern types are either blunt or
angular, with minimal bracket connecting. The Monotype and the Didone are two major
classes under this category. The Monotype refers to typefaces such that all of the characters
have the same width. The Didone types indicate strong contrast between thick and thin
strokes and serifs with no brackets.

5.3.2.2 Sans serif

The Sans serif is the opposite of the Serif (see Figure 5.3.2.2), typefaces that have no
small decorative lines (serifs) at the end of letterforms. In the Sans serif category, the same
classes with a slight evolution of the names are used: the Humanist, the Transitional and the
Geometric. The Humanist refers to classical and old style Sans serifs, which is visually

76
featured by strong thickness variations between vertical and horizontal strokes. The
Transitional San serifs have light thickness variations compared to the Humanists. The
modern Sans serif the Geometric has nearly no thickness variations.

Figure 5.3.2.2. Serifs and Sans serifs

Source: Wikipedia.com
5.3.2.3 Mixed
Mixed refers to those typefaces inspired by combined types that appeared in the midNineties. Types under this category were pushing the boundaries between Serifs and Sans
serifs. These faces belong to an emerging genre, which had not gained recognition before,
and were at the time viewed as wired Serifs or Sans serifs.

How to use this system to identify a typeface in a movie title sequence? Given the
credits in City Slickers (1991) (see Figure 5.3.2.3) as an example, we can narrow down its
types on one specific class by going through the hierarchy levels in Figure 5.3.1 (from the
left to the right).

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Figure 5.3.2.3. Film title of City Slickers (1991).

Source: City Slickers (1991), Copyright Castle Rock Entertainment.

First, we see these types are alphabets rather than graphics go directly to the
category of Alphabetics. It is also clear to see that these types are using Latin (English)
letters go to the Latin Alphabets. Since the character outlines are smooth and sharp, instead
of being corroded, roughened, neither stepped nor jagged, these types can be identified as
Non-manuals. Since the strokes have serifs, San serif classes are thus excluded. So, are they
Old Styles? Transitional or sort of Modern Style? Obviously they are NOT those modern
looking Slab serifs such as Monotypes or Didones, for the strokes of these faces have spiked
ends combined with small triangles rather than those of modern Slab serifs that feature slab
endings. From the letter M, we clearly see sloping verticals, which indicates these types do

78
NOT belong to a Transitional typeface category (Transitional serifs feature nearly vertical
and horizontal strokes). Does the type have elements of Venetian or Garalde? Garalde should
be the answer since the contrast between these downstrokes and upstokes are strong, but the
Venetian has low contrast between the strokes. Essentially the City Slickers credits are
identified as a Garalde. Similar characteristics of City Slickers types are also reflected by
their revival-Old-style-serif relatives, such as Windsor, designed by Eleisha Pechey in 2000,
and Sphinx, designed by Steve Jackaman in 2002.

5.4 The Effect Phenomenon

Besides the diversity of typefaces, special animation effects add another dimension to
the variations of typography in the title sequence design. The following sections first describe
two essential components of animation: motion and transformation. Then, because of its
ubiquitous presence in film titles, the 3-D effect is discussed. Considering the fact that most
of the animation effects are achieved with the aids of computer technologies, a tool-set
driven classification system is proposed.

5.4.1 Motion and transformation

Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images in order to create an illusion
of changes due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision. In effect, on a computer screen,
all animations are achieved by changing the color and opacity values of the corresponding
pixels. Here we only discuss animation at a higher level, that is, animation conducted to an
object, which is composed of collections of pixels.

79
Essentially, animation is consisted of two components, motion and transformation.
Motion is the change of locations producing the effect that a rigid object moves from one
place to another. Transformation is the change of the object itself (color, shape, etc.) without
changing its locations. In many cases, the animation is a combination of both motion and
transformation. Figure 5.4.1.1 demonstrates a simple animation of a bouncing ball. The ball
changes its location relative to the floor and it transforms into a different shape as if it is
squeezed by gravity and the counterforce from the floor.

Figure 5.4.1.1. Frames of a bouncing ball animation.

Motion of a rigid object falls into four general categories, namely, uniform motion,
accelerated motion, periodic motion and chaotic (or random) motion. In the uniform motion,
an object travels at a constant speed in a single direction. In the accelerated motion, an object
either changes its speed or its direction or both. A motion that repeats and always returns to
its original starting position is known as the periodic motion. For instance, the motion of a
clock pendulum is a combination of accelerated motion and periodic motion. A situation
where the speed or the direction is unpredictable is regarded as the chaotic motion, for
example, flame particles dispersed into the air.
Transformation can be much more complicated than motion. In terms of manipulating
pixels, the motion of an object is achieved by changing the composing pixels as a whole, and

80
transformation is achieved by changing only certain portions of the pixels or their relative
positions. Here we only consider two basic transformations, changes of color or opacity, and
changes of geometric shapes.
An objects color tone can be altered via the change of the hue, the saturation and the
lightness/darkness. The change of opacity, on the other hand, always suggests an objects
visibility to a certain degree. A fading in or fading out effect is a representation of the
objects opacity change. This is very common in kinetic design and allows smooth transitions
to take place.
Transformation of geometric shapes refers to a shapes structure change, e.g., the size,
angle and other geometric changes. Changing a shapes structure can be a partial change or a
complete change. For example, changing perspective, distorting and changing the shapes
texture are all partial changes. A partial change can also be made if a letter A is broken
apart into pieces while maintaining an approximate contour of letter A. A complete change
is defined when a letter A is changed geometrically to a letter B.
All these motions and transformations can be used conjunctively or separately leading
to millions of varieties. For example, a combination of random motions, shape, opacity and
structure changes created an eerie feeling in the opening title of Seven (1995).

Figure 5.4.1.2. Screen shots from the opening title of Seven (1995)
Source: Seven (1995), Copyright New Line Cinema.

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5.4.2 Three-D effects

Human beings perceive the world in two dimensions and three dimensions. It is very
common to see animated title sequences in a 2-D presentation, for example, the opening
credits of A Fistful of Dollars (1964) only use fonts and animations in a 2-D format (see
Figure 5.4.2.1).

Figure 5.4.2.1. Screen shots from the title sequence of A Fistful of Dollars (1964).
Source: A Fistful of Dollars (1964), Copyright Constantin Film Produktion.

However, many title sequences integrate the graphic elements and types to create an
illusion of the third dimension on the flat 2-D screen. The addition of 3-D effects can help
immerse the audience in the atmospheres of the movie and induce a feeling of reality. (The
commonly known 3-D film requiring special devices is in a different class and will not be
discussed in this paper.)

82
The 3-D effects on title sequences can be created in different ways. Some movie titles
use 3-D fonts directly. Such movies include Crash (1996), xXx: State of the Union (2005),
and 3:19 (2008). For each character in these 3-D fonts, lights, shadows and special textures
(metal, ice, stone, wood, etc.) are used in combination to create a perception of depth. Figure
5.4.2.2 shows the 3-D fonts used in the opening title of Crash (1996).

Figure 5.4.2.2. Screen shot from the title sequence of Crash (1996).
Source: Crash (1996), Copyright Alliance Communications.

Sometimes the 3-D effect can be created with 2-D fonts combined with graphic
elements that provide cues of depth. For example, in the titles of The Dreamers (2003), the
falling-down type that passes through the steelwork induces a 3D feeling (see Figure 5.4.2.3).

83

Figure 5.4.2.3. Screen shots from the title sequence of The Dreamers (2003).
Source: The Dreamers (2003), Copyright Recorded Picture Company.

It is noted that the 3-D illusion does not automatically occur with the inclusion of
depth cues provided by the background objects. For example, credits in the title sequences of
Donnie Brasco (1997) are viewed as 2-D, even though the background scenes provide cues
of depth,for example, further objects appear smaller on the screen (see Figure 5.4.2.4).
Different from Figure 5.4.2.3, the credit types here do not interact with the background
images they are like leaves that are floating on the surface of the scenes. In this manner, the
dimensional worlds of the credits and the scenes are separated in our minds, so that we
perceive a 2-D presentation of title sequences despite the depth cues in the background.

84

Figure 5.4.2.4. Screen shots from the title sequences of Donnie Brasco (1997).
Source: Donnie Brasco (1997), Copyright TriStar Pictures.

Sometimes changing the angles of 2-D types can result in perspective illusions and
suggest a feeling of three-dimensionality. Such examples are shown in the opening sequences
of Sky Fighters (2005) and the closing credits of Iron Man (2008). The typographic illusion
that uses monocular cues of depth perception fools our eyes (see Figures 5.4.2.5 and 5.4.2.6).

85

Figure 5.4.2.5. Screen shots from the title sequence of Sky Fighters (2005)
Source: Sky Fighters (2005), Copyright Mandarin Films.

Figure 5.4.2.6. Screen shots from the title sequence of Iron Man (2008)
Source: Iron Man (2008), Copyright Paramount Pictures.

The opening credit of Panic Room (2002) is a fairly extreme example that combines
both of 3-D fonts and depth cues provided by the background images. In the scene, each
credit appears as a set of austere stone letters suspending above New York streets. The fonts

86
are no longer viewed as 2-D but as three dimensional, aligned with other 3-D buildings on
the screen (see Figure 5.4.2.7).

Figure 5.4.2.7. Screen shots from the title sequences of Panic Room (2002).
Source: Panic Room (2002), Copyright Columbia Pictures Corporation.

87
5.4.3 A tool-set driven classification system of animation effects
The animation effects in each film can be very unique. In addition, many film titles
use combinations of multiple effects. It is impossible to exhaust all of the variations case by
case. To counter such complexity, this thesis adopts a tool-set driven approach to create a
classification system for animation effects. By tool-set driven, it means that the system
categorizes the animation effects into groups of operations that are used to render the effects.
By starting from the operations rather than from the final products, the tool-set driven
approach reduces the complexity of the problem. Another advantage of such a system is that
it is not limited to the effects that have already been created and remains open to the
possibility of new creations.
The sampling is based upon the most commonly used animation operations from
popular design applications such as Adobe After Effects, Flash and the related Plug Ins.
Some of them are single operations and some of them are presets provided by the
manufacturers. In Table 5.4.3, the animation effects are grouped into five major categories,
blurring, color / light, shapes, path / arrangement, and adding other visual elements. The
subsets of these categories and some of the examples of the effects are included.

88

Table 5.4.3. Typographic animation effects

Major Categories
Subsets
Examples of Effects
Blurring
Focusing In / Out
Motion Blurring
Fading In / Out
Dithering
Noise Dithering
Square Dithering
Color / Light

Painting
Rainbow
Lightening

Reflection
Wiping

Shapes
(size / geometry)

Scaling

Simple Distortion

Organic Distortion

Transformation
Breaking

Filling in color
Charging / Sparkling
Flashing / Flickering
Glowing / Neon
Scanning
Windmill
On mirror or water
Color Wiping / Light
Wiping
Sliding Light
Splitting Light
Simple Scaling
(expanding or shrinking)
Zooming (mimicking the
effect of camera
movement)
Stretching
Squeezing
Perspective Distortion /
Perspective Projection
Burning
Ripples / Bubbles
Growing (e.g., into a
plant)
Bending
Text A to B
Explosion
Scattering

89

Table 5.4.3 (continued)

Major Categories
Subsets
Path /
Straight (horizontal, vertical, diagonal)
Arrangement

Arc

Perspective Projection
Random
Drawing / Writing / Type Writing
Bouncing / Jumping
Jittering / Trembling / Shaking
Clustering / Collision
Flying / Hovering / Floating
Unfolding
Adding Other
Visual Elements

Examples
Scrolling
Transitional Motion
(mimicking the effect of
camera movement)
Dropping / Falling /
Leaning
Rotation / Spiral /
Looping / Rolling
Tide / Wave / Worm
Pendulum / Swinging
Sea-sick/ Drunk Walks

Dots / Lines / Planes

Old Film

Objects

Surrounded with cloud /

fog
Filling text with still or
animated images
Text attaches to an object,
text maneuvered by a
character

Masking
Interaction

As the table shows, similar styles of animated effects have been grouped, while
keeping the essential differentiations. For example, Organic Distortion and Breaking are
separately identified because the former refers to a partial change and the latter refers to a
complete change (the Breaking effect means the original shape is fully broken and no
longer exists). Since both of them are operations on shapes, they are put under the same

90
category Shape. Blurring is a special group of effects achieved by operating on both
color, light and shape, so that it is listed as a separate category.
Considering the discussions in the previous two sections, the animation of motion can
be created by mainly operating on path and arrangement, and the animation of transformation
can be created by operating on color, light, or shape, or their combinations. In addition, 3-D
effects can be created by operating on color, light, shape, or adding other visual elements.
Essentially, any animation effect can be created by one or more operations from the five
basic categories listed in Table 5.4.3.
A simple example is demonstrated in Figure 5.4.3.1. In the title sequences of Catch
Me If You Can (2002), a Blowing Away effect is applied to the word me in the scene. This
effect is a product of a 2-D font, and a combination of transformations, include geometric
transformation (the word is distorted), the opacity transformation (opacity changing from
100% until the word totally disappears from the screen) and a roughly uniform motion (the
word flying from the left to the right edge at a constant speed and in the same direction).

Figure 5.4.3.1. Screen shot from the opening credits for Catch Me If You Can (2002).
Source: Catch Me If You Can (2002), Copyright DreamWorks SKG.

91

The movie sequence for Dangerous Parking (2007) is a much more complicated case
(see Figure 5.4.4.2). The identifiable visual effects include Blurring, Stretching, Scattering,
Fill In Color, Drunk Walks and Ripples. These effects are contributing to a mixed use of all
types of transformations in between frames and/or within a frame, and a certain type of
motion chaotic motion since the objects (the typefaces) in the title sequences keep
changing at an unpredictable speed and in unpredictable directions.

Figure 5.4.3.2. Screen shots from the title sequence of Dangerous Parking (2007).
Source: Dangerous Parking (2007), Copyright Flaming Pie Films.

More visual examples of the animation effects are provided in the case study at the
end of this chapter.

5.5 Typefaces and Animation Effects in Title Sequences

The movie titles for this study are from three online resources: the SubmarineChannel
(www.submarinechannel.com), an initiative of the Amsterdam-based production company
Submarine, who gathers the most stylish, offbeat, original and arresting title design works;

92
YouTube (www.youtube.com), a video sharing website; and Art of the Title
(www.artofthetitle.com), a site that collects many film titles.
To be included here, the selected films must meet two requirements. First, the
selected movie should include highly praised and influential title sequences. Second, such
selections should cover characteristic typefaces that appeared in title sequence design history.
For example, the title sequence of Se7en (1995) (see Figure 5.4.5.1) contains a degraded and
scratchy type that appears to be carelessly handwritten and strategically placed in and out of
focus by playing with camera angles. It is representative of Kyle Coopers sensitivity to
typography as an expressive visual language, and this use of type was also characteristic of
MTV and non-mainstream magazines such as David Carsons Raygun. For this purpose,
SubmarineChannel can be a very good starting point, from which the first batch of 37 films
are selected. To get a wider coverage, 6 more films are selected from Art of the Title.
Because of their popularity among the online community, 2 more films from YouTube are
specifically hand-picked (Casino Royal, 2006 and Psycho, 1960). Together, 45 films are
selected. The sources of these selections are noted in Figure 5.5.

93

Figure 5.4.5.1. Screen shots from the title sequences of Se7en (1995).
Source: artoftitle.com.

The following table shows the applications of typefaces and animation effects in real
cases of different movie titles (the information of film genre is from www.IMDb.com, an
Internet Movie Database, then grouped into one of the five categories listed in Chapter 5.2,
and the title designers names are mainly from SubmarineChannel and Art of the Title).
The recording process follows five basic rules: First, if different typefaces or
animation effects are applied, typeface(s) for the film title and typeface(s) for the credits are
separated by a table line with film title typeface(s) coming first. All typefaces that belong to
the film title, or all the ones belonging to film credits, are separated by commas. Closing
sequences usually do not include film title, and they are specially noted.
Second, typefaces and animation effects are sorted in the same order as they appeared
in the movie sequences, except all the film title typefaces and effects are automatically in
order before all the typefaces and effects for the credits (see rule number one).

94
Third, the record is trying to establish correspondence between one font and one
typeface category; if a font cannot be identified as belong to a certain typeface category,
which means the font might be a combination of two or more typefaces, those typefaces are
all recorded and are connected by multiplication signs.
Fourth, the same typeface that appeared more than once in different parts of the
credits can only be counted once, regardless of any font variations. Type families must be
sorted into the typeface category; they themselves are not counted in this record.
Fifth, any animation effect must be documented in detail. However, if several effects
are grouped in the table of Animation Effects, only the group is going to be counted.

95

Figure 5.5. Screen shots from selected film title sequences.

*: from Art of Titles; **: from YouTube; All others are from SubmarineChannel.

96

Figure 5.5. (continued)

97

Figure 5.5. (continued)

Table 5.5. (continued)

Table 5.5. Typefaces and effects in title sequences
Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

A Fistful of Dollars

Action / Adventure

Iginio Lardani

Majuscule

Zooming, Breaking

Humanist San serif

Falling / Dropping, Flashing

Deubal (a French

Swash x Glyphic

Interaction

creative agency)

Geometric

Fading In/Out, Interaction

Swash x Glyphic

Burning, Scattering, Interaction

Bob Kurtz (founder

Geometric

Rotation, Falling / Dropping, Interaction,

of Kurtz & Friends

Geometric

Fading In / Out, Tide / Wave, Collision, Simple

(1964)
Aprs Vous...(2003)

Are We Done Yet?

Comedy

Humor / Comedy

(2007)

a Burbank-based

Scaling, Rotation / Looping, Random Path, Bouncing,

animation studio

Squeezing, Bending, Flashing, Charging, Focusing In /

Blade II (2002)

Action / Adventure,

Imaginary Forces

Modern Blackletter

Rotation, Clustering, Lightening, Zooming

Serif / San serif Mixed

Focusing In / Out, Wiping

Howard Nourmand

Humanist

Jittering, Interaction, Breaking, Straight Path, Rotation

(the creative director

Geometric

Fading In / Out, Rotation, Zooming, Focusing Out,

Suspense
Bottoms Up (2006)

Humor / Comedy

of Grand Jet a
creative production

Interaction, Clustering, Straight Path, Motion Blurring

The Hands

Zooming, Breaking, Interaction, Fading In / Out,

company based in

Writing, Wiping, Simple Scaling, Flashing, Straight

L.A.)

Path
Humanist

Falling / Dropping, Zooming

Textualis

Interaction, Zooming, Straight Path

98

Out, Scrolling, Trembling, Flying, Scattering

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

a Se Soigne? (2008)

Humor / Comedy

Deubal

Venetian

Fading In / Out, Tide / Wave, Interaction

Venetian

Fading In / Out, Type Writing, Interaction, Wiping,

Flickering, Straight Path, Scattering

Casino Royal (2006)

Catch Me If You Can

Action / Adventure

Drama, Comedy

(2002)

Daniel Kleinman

Kuntzel + Deygas at

Geometric

Fading In / Out

Geometric

Fading In /Out

Transitional

Wiping, Interaction, Organic Distortion, Flying,

Nexus Productions

Blurring
Transitional, Slab

Interaction, Wiping, Fading Out, Straight Path,

Zooming, Glowing, Motion Blurring

Humor / Comedy,

Legend of Curlys Gold

Action / Adventure

Bob Kurtz

Garaldes

Unfolding, Interaction, Flashing, Rotation, Scattering,

Falling / Dropping);

(1994)

Garaldes (Fading In / Out, Interaction, Jittering,

Wiping, Glooming, Flashing, Transformation,
Rotation, Straight Path

Crash (1996)

Suspense

Geometric

Fading In / Out, Wiping, Straight Path, Transformation

John Furniotis (a

Humanist

Wiping, Zooming

designer for Film

Humanist

Wiping, Zooming, Perspective Projection, Blurring

The Hands x Geometric

Growing, Unfolding, Masking, Tide / Wave, Zooming,

Effects Inc.)
Crustacs et
Coquillages (2005)

Drama

Deubal (a French
creative agency)

Interaction
The Hands, Geometric

Fading In / Out, Floating, Tide / Wave, Masking,

99

City Slickers II: The

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects
Straight Path, Wiping, Interaction, Jittering

Devils Diary (2007)

Devils Drug (2006)

Suspense

Documentary

Krista Lomax

Blackletter

Zooming, Wiping, Fading Out

Blackletter

Windmill, Zooming, Simple Scaling, Fading Out

Joost Korngold (a

Geometric

Interaction, 3D Looping

Dutch freelance

Geometric

Perspective Distortion, Jittering, Masking, Dithering,

designer)
Dutch Touch (2006)

Documentary

Hotel (Amsterdam-

3D Looping
Transitional Sans serif

based design

Perspective Distortion, Zooming, Jittering, Motion

Blurring, Flashing

collective)
Transitional Sans serif

Perspective Distortion, Zooming, Jittering, Motion

Elephant Tales (2006)

Action / Adventure

Grant Lovering (the

The Hands

Wiping, Interaction, Fading Out

creative director of

The Hands

Straight Path, Zooming

Geometric

Simple Scaling, Motion Blurring, Jittering, Straight

Resin a visual
effects and postproduction company
based in Stepney,
Australia)
Extreme More (2008)

Humor / Comedy

Colin Gill (a designer

Path

of The Nova Project,

a creative collective
in Venice, California)

Geometric

Rotation, Straight Path, Arc Path, Zooming, Simple

Scaling, Motion Blurring, Jittering, Interaction,
Unfolding, Focusing Out, Wiping

100

Blurring, Flashing, Interaction, Wiping, Straight Path

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

Gruesome School Trip

Suspense, Action /

Balder Westein (the

Swash, Transitional

Straight Path, Zooming, Rotation / Rolling, Breaking,

(2005)

Adventure

founder, director and

Serif

Interaction, Jittering, Floating, Fading Out

Deubal (a French

Slab Serifs x The

Fading In / Out, Straight Path, Interaction, Wiping

creative agency)

Hands

Kyle Cooper

Geometric

(main-on-end credits)

animator of
ThreeDoubleYou, a
one-man animation
company)

Hors de Prix (2006)

Iron Man (2008)

Humor / Comedy

Action / Adventure

Rolling, Old Film, Jittering, Interaction, Floating

Kiss Kiss Bang Bang

Action / Adventure,

Danny Yount (the

(2005)

Suspense

director of Prologue
Films a Kyle

Slab Serif

Type Writing, Straight Path, Interaction

Geometric

Straight Path, Interaction, Color Changing, Scattering,

Cooper's studio)

Fading In / Out, Scrolling, Rotation / Rolling,

Zooming, Wiping, Noise Dithering, Jittering

Lemony Snickets A

Action / Adventure,

Series of Unfortunate

Humor / Comedy

Jamie Caliri

Geometric, Venetian

Wiping

Venetian

Interaction, Straight Path, Rotation, Fading In / Out,

Events (2004)

Zooming, Wiping, Scrolling

101

(closing credits)

Neon, Zooming, Perspective Distortion, Rotation /

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

Love In the Time of

Drama

Paul Donnellon (the

Swash

Drawing, Growing, Glowing, Flickering, Wiping,

Cholera (2007)

Interaction

founder and director

of VooDooDog a

Veretian, Glyphic

Fading In / Out

Slab

Fading In / Out, Old Film, Flickering

Geometric, The Hands,

Clustering, Type Writing, Straight Path, Motion

Glyphic, Humanist,

Blurring, Wiping, Interaction, Flashing / Flickering,

Transitional San serif

Coloring Changing, Rolling, Winging, Zooming,

London-based motion
graphics company)
Lucio (2007)

Documentary

Unai Guerra (an

artist-animator for
Irusoin)

Mimic (1997)

Suspense

Imaginary Forces

Slab

Blurring, Jittering, Old Film, Flickering, Interaction

Slab

Flickering, Old Film, Fading Out, Blurring, Jittering,

Rotation, Interaction

Mission Impossible

Action / Adventure

Kyle Cooper

Slab

(1996)

Motion Blurring, Transformation, Zooming, Masking,

Flashing, Windmill

Slab

Motion Blurring, Flashing, Straight Path, Zooming,

Sparkling

Moog (2004)

Documentary

Fizzy Eye & Nexus

Geometric

Fading In / Out

Productions (UK)

Geometric

Fading In / Out

102

Scattering

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

Mr. Magoriums

Humor / Comedy,

Danny Delpurgatorio

Geometric, Humanist

Wiping, Rotation, Interaction, Straight Path, Color

Wonder Emporium

Action / Adventure

(the director of Reel

(2007)

FX Creative Studios

Changing
Geometric

based in the US)

Straight Path, Wiping, Rotation, Motion Blurring,

Zooming, Interaction, Unfolding, Simple Scaling

The Hands

Straight Path, Writing, Interaction, Zooming

Humanist

Simple Scaling, Straight Path, Zooming, Flying,

Interaction
Straight Path, Zooming, Interaction

Swash

Straight Path, Interaction, Zooming

Glyphic

Straight Path, Simple Scaling, Worm, Wiping, Simple

Scaling

Slab

Wiping

Transitional San Serif

Rotation, Wiping, Simple Scaling, Bouncing, Straight

Path, Interaction

My Big Fat

Humor / Comedy

Evan Mather (an

Independent Movie

independent film

(2004)

maker and animator

Transitional Sans serif

Old Film, Rotation, Jittering, Interaction, Fading Out

The Hands

Old Film, Simple Scaling, Interaction, Zooming,

Wiping

based in Los
Angeles)

Transitional Serif

Zooming

Transitional Sans serif

Old Film, Fading Out, Straight Path, Zooming

103

Transitional Serif

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

Nanny McPhee (2005)

Humor / Comedy

Paul Donnellon

Transitional serif

Wiping, Sparkling, Straight Path, Interaction, Jittering,

(closing credits)

Distortion, Zooming, Scattering, Flying, Clustering,

Simple Scaling, Stretching, Winging, Falling /
Dropping, Fading In / Out

Panic Room (2002)

Suspense

The Picture Mill (a

Glyphic

Hovering, Transitional Motion

Hollywood-based

Glyphic

Hovering, Transitional Motion, Perspective Distortion

Garaldes

Fading In/Out, Stretching, Falling / Dropping

company),
ComputerCafe (also
based in California)
Humor / Comedy

(2004)

Balder Westein (the

director / animator of
ThreeDoubleYou)

Princess Raccoon

Drama

(N/A)

Non-Latin Japan

(N/A)

Suspense

Saul Bass

Geometric

Adding Lines, Clustering, Breaking

Geometric

Straight Path, Adding Lines, Clustering, Breaking

Geometric

Rotation, Zooming, Lightening, Breaking

Transitional San Serif

Wiping

(2005)
Psycho (1960)

Ricochet (1991)

Action / Adventure,

Bruce Schlute (a

Suspense, Drama

designer for Pacific

Art & Title Studios
a title design
company)

104

Pluk van de Petteflet

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

Se7en (1995)

Suspense

Kyle Cooper

The Hands

Simple Scaling, Flashing, Jittering, Motion Blurring,

Old Film

Geometric x The Hands

Jittering, Flashing / Flickering, Motion Blurring, Old

Film

Sky Fighters (2005)

Action / Adventure

Laurent Brett

Geometric

Zooming, Interaction, Rotation

Geometric

Wiping, Blurring, Perspective Distortion, Floating,

Rotation, Interaction

Spider-Man (2004)

Kyle Cooper

Action /Adventure

1983, 1997)
Straight Talk (1992)

Thank You for

Humor / Comedy

Bob Kurtz

Comedy

Smoking (2005)

The Golden Compass

(2008)

Action / Adventure

Richard Morrisson

Serif San serif Mixed

Rotation, Windmill, Glowing, Zooming

Serif San serif Mixed

Scattering, Interaction, Wiping, Zooming, Breaking

Humanist

Perspective Projection

Humanist

Perspective Projection

Geometric

Zooming

Geometric

N/A

Geometric

Interaction, Straight Path, Zooming

Geometric, The Hands,

Interaction, Straight Path, Rotation, Zooming, Wiping,

Slab, Transitional Serif,

Perspective Distortion)

Glyphic, Swash,

Designer: Shadowplay Studio (a LA based motion

Humanist

graphics / visual effects studio

Glyphic

Sparkling, Fading In / Out, 3D Pixel Storm

Glyphic

Wiping, Fading In / Out

105

Star Wars (1977, 1980,

Action / Adventure

Table 5.5. (continued)

Film (year)

Genres

Designer

Typefaces

Effects

The Mummy: Tomb of

Action / Adventure

Karin Fong and Steve

Glyphic, Non-Latin

Wiping, Fading Out

the Dragon Emperor

Fuller (Imaginary

Chinese, Graphics

(2008)

Forces)

(closing credits)
The Pink Panther

Comedy

Bob Kurtz

(2006)

Glyphic

Zooming, Interaction, Straight Path

Geometric

Fading In / Out, Scattering, Interaction, Filling in color,

Jittering, Burning, Falling / Dropping

The Poker Club (2008)

Suspense

Dan Savage (a

Geometric

Wiping, Zooming, Rotation, Interaction

freelance motion

Geometric

Zooming, Straight Path, Interaction, Fading In / Out,

xXx: State of the Union

(2005)

Action / Adventure

Bruce Schluter

Rotation, Wiping
Glyphic

Masking

(designer for Pacific

Title and Art)

Perspective Distortion, Wiping, Ripples, Zooming,

Glyphic

Zooming, Scattering, Clustering, Rotation, Wiping,

Flashing / Flickering, Perspective Distortion, Floating,
Straight Path, Ripples, Breaking

106

designer)

107

5.6 Statistics of Typeface Usage in Film Titles

In this section, a matrix of statistics is generated regarding the usages of typefaces,
combined with animation effects, in different film genres based on the verbal descriptions of
title sequences presented in the previous section. The purpose of such a matrix is to provide a
quantitative measurement of the relations between the combinations of typefaces, motion
effects and movie genres.

5.6.1 The matrix

Among the 45 films collected, many belong to more than one genre. To show the
effect of typeface design by film genres rather than by individual films, such films were
counted more than once according to their genres, respectively. For example, if a film
belongs to both comedy and action, it will be counted as one comedy film and one action
film. Therefore, there are 54 films different genres recorded for the 45 films. Among them,
there are 18 action films (33%), 16 comedy films (30%), 5 drama films (9%), 11 suspense
films (20%) and 4 documentary films (7%).
Table 5.6.1 is a matrix recording the number of usages of different animation effects
combined with different typefaces, in which the 5 major categories of animation effects
(blurring, color / light, shapes, path / arrangements, and adding other elements) and 14 major
categories of typefaces were used. Note that there are two particular categories of typefaces.
Mixed refers to the mixture of Serif and San Serif. Combinations refers to mixtures of
any other typefaces other than Serif. The numbers in the matrix cells represent how many
times a unique combination of typeface and animation effect was used in a particular film

108
genre. Since there are multiple typefaces and multiple animation effects in a single film, an
individual film could contribute counts to multiple cells, adding one count to each of those
cells. Table 5.6.2 is a summary of Table 5.6.1, counting the usage of typefaces across all
animation effects combined, in a descending order in terms of the popularity of the typefaces.

Table 5.6.1. Usage of typefaces and animation effects in opening / ending credits
Blurring
A

Non-Latin Alphabets

Color / Light
S

Shapes
O

Blackletter Script
Calligraphic Script
Swash
Calligraphic Script
The Hands

1
1

Serif Old Style

Serif Transitional

1
1

Sans serif Transitional

Graphics
Combinations
(Two typefaces)

Sub-Total

14

1
1

Sans serif Geometric

Mixed
(Serif + Sans Serif)

1
1

1
1

1
8

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1
17

1
4
54

10

1
9

26

26

1
6
76

11

1
7

22

35

4
80

1
12

1
7

23

34

1
6
83

1
13

18

32

72

Note: A Action and Adventure; C Comedy and Humor; D Drama; S Suspense; O Documentary and other genres.

109

Sans serif Humanist

Total

Antiqua Script

Serif Modern Style

Adding Other Visual

Elements

Path / Arrangement

110

Table 5.6.2. Usage of typefaces in opening / ending credits

Film genres
Typefaces
Sans serif
Geometric

Total

Percentage

27

41

16

10

102

28%

Serif Old Style

Calligraphic Script
The Hands

22

27

57

16%

15

37

10%

Sans serif Humanist

15

33

9%

Serif Modern Style

Sans serif
Transitional
Calligraphic Script
Swash

10

32

9%

10

25

7%

21

6%

Serif Transitional

13

20

5%

13

4%

12

3%

2%

Combinations

Blackletter Script

Mixed

Non-Latin Alphabets

1%

Graphics

1%

Antiqua Script

0%

Total
Percentage
(out of 365)

103

144

25

55

38

28%

39%

7%

15%

10%

365

Note: A Action and Adventure; C Comedy and Humor; D Drama; S Suspense; O

Documentary and other genres.

There are many interesting findings from the matrix (Table 5.6.1) and its summary
table (Table 5.6.2). First of all, it can be seen that the 5 different types of animation effects

111
were applied almost evenly. Among all 365 counted combinations, blurring was applied 54
times (15%), Color / Light 76 times (21%), Shapes 80 times (22%), Path /
Arrangement 83 times (23%), and Adding Other Elements 72 times (20%). This indicates
that designers, either consciously or unconsciously, would apply all kinds of animation
effects equally, in order to produce more different combinations. Second, Comedy films
and Action films are much more likely to use different typefaces and animation effects
than other genres in title sequences. In particular, whereas the comedy films take 30% in all
of the films recorded, they take 39% (144 out of 365 times) in all of the combinations of
typefaces and animation effects, more frequently than any other film genres (statistically
significant). It fits common sense that, when designing the title sequences in Action and
Comedy films, designers are more likely to grab the audiences attention by utilizing multiple
typefaces and animation effects.
Third, perhaps the most significant finding was that, among the major categories of
typefaces, three of them were used most often (statistically significant). Sans serif
Geometric ranked the first (28%, 102 of 365 times), Serif Old Style ranked the second
(16%, 57 out of 365 times) and Calligraphic Script The Hands ranked the third (10%, 37
out of 365 times). Figure 5.6.1.1 shows the percentages of typeface usage across all film
genres combined, in which only the top 10 type classifications are listed, and the remaining 3
type classifications (each with a percentage less than 3%) are listed as others collectively.

112

Others, 4%
Blackletter Script ,
3%
Combinations, 4%
Sans serif
Geometric, 28%

Serif Transitional,
5%
Calligraphic Script
Swash, 6%

Sans serif
Transitional, 7%

Serif Modern Style,

9%
Sans serif
Humanist, 9%

Serif Old Style,

16%
Calligraphic Script
The Hands, 10%

Figure 5.6.1.1. Percentage of typeface usage.

The popularity of Sans serif Geometric is undisputable. It ranked the top not only
over all film genres combined, but also within each film genre. One simple reason could be
that the Sans serif Geometric is most designers favorite in designing title sequences.
Nevertheless, we might be able to attribute this typefaces popularity to its readability and its
plainness since a basic character of Sans serif Geometric is its evenness in stroke
thickness. For example, Gump (2001) found that most of his subjects perceive Arial (a subtype of Sans serif Geometric) as the most readable typeface. On the other hand, while
evaluating the subsequent mood or emotion created in the reader, Gumps subjects rated
Arial on the top of the list as the most plain typeface rather than friendly or elegant.

113
On a larger scale, the overall usage of Sans serif typefaces (44%, combining
subcategories of geometric, humanist, and transitional) appears to be more popular than that
of Serif typefaces (30%, combining subcategories of old style, modern style, and
transitional). Searfoss (1993) stated that the Sans serif typefaces tend to take on a blocky
appearance, leading to monotonous viewing and type boredom (p. 41 -42). It makes perfect
sense to use the most readable typeface in the title sequence since the designer wants to
convey the information quickly. But why the most plain typeface? The reason might be due
to the introduction of animation effects. Technically, a plain typeface should be more suitable
to provide a starting platform for animation effects. It is certainly not necessary to start with a
very complex typeface since the first image will disappear immediately as the animation
sequence starts. Emotionally or aesthetically, when animation effects are applied, it might be
more effective in setting up the audiences mood in the film when they watch something
dramatic evolving out of commonness and plainness. Furthermore, some researchers have
noted that fewer affective characteristics are generally attributed to sans serif typefaces, but
these typefaces still are seen as having distinct personas (see Brumberger, 2003, p. 208).
Such distinct personas would enable the designers to choose a specific typeface and tailor
it to the taste of a specific film. An interesting study in the future could be regarding the subtypefaces of sans serif. For example, Futura is described as no-nonsense, cool, and
restrained, whereas AvantGarde is modern without being formal. Combined with
different animation effects, the directions for future studies can be countless yet very fruitful.

114

5.7 A Case Study of Title Sequence Design

The opening title of Catch Me If You Can (2002, Copyright DreamWorks SKG)
has been widely noted by reviewers and regarded as one of the most successful title sequence
designs (Allison, 2003, p. 2). The movie showcases the jet-setting new prosperity of the midlate 1960s and the plot evolves around a young con artist Frank Abagnale Jr. (Leonardo
DiCaprio)s life and his pursuit by an FBI agent Carl Hanratty (Tom Hanks). The 2 minute
and 40 seconds title sequence was designed by London-based Nexus Productions. It is a
brightly colored animation of geometrically stylized figures chasing one another through
geometrically stylized scenery, setting up a tone of playfulness and a sense that is
simultaneously retro and contemporary (Burlingame, 2003, p. E-1). Figure 5.7.1 shows
nine screen shots of the sequence in the order of time, in which the film title Catch me if
you can appears in the 4th screen shot.

Figure 5.7.1. Opening title of Catch Me If You Can (2002).

Source: artoftitle.com.

115
5.7.1 Typefaces
The typefaces used in the sequence can be identified as variations that are close to
Coolvetica (used in the film title, actors and actress names, directors names and etc.) and
Archive Antique Extended (used in functional phrases such as presents, directed by).
Examples of these typefaces can be found at MyFonts.com. Figure 5.7.1.1 shows these two
typefaces and sample texts, as a comparison to the screen shots from the title sequence.

Figure 5.7.1.1. Typefaces used in Catch Me If You Can (2002).

Source: Catch Me If You Can (2002), Copyright DreamWorks SKG.

116
The typeface of Coolvetica was created by Ray Larabie, the creator of retro favorites
such as the font in the timeless logo for the TV show The Price is Right. The most
significant features of Coolvetica typeface is its outward appearance and utmost simplicity.
Coolvetica is very similar to Helvetica, which is among the most widely used Sans serif
typefaces and a popular choice for commercial word-marks such as those for 3M, the former
AT&T, Lufthansa and Microsoft (see Figure 5.7.1.2 for a comparison between the two). Yet
Coolvetica differs from Helvetica in several places. Most noticeably, the letters t and y in
Coolvetica have more curved glyphs. This feature gives the typeface a groovy humanist
touch thus combining fashion and utility harmoniously. Furthermore, the letter spacing in
Coolvetica is tighter than that of Helvetica. This feature becomes important in animation
when there are multiple elements on the screen and the tight letter spacing makes the text
better organized and more distinguishable from other elements.

Figure 5.7.1.2. Comparison between Helvetica and Coolvetica

Since Coolvetica is the major typeface used in the title sequence (particularly in
animation), the discussion on Archive Antique Extended is limited here. Nevertheless, it is
necessary to point out the contrast between the two typefaces. While Coolvetica belongs to
the family of Sans serif, the Archive Antique Extended is a wide slab Serif. In traditional
printing, Sans serif fonts are more often used in headlines, headings, and shorter pieces of
text. Serif fonts are used for body text because they are considered easier to read than Sans

117
serif fonts, probably because serifs in the letters have a function to distinguish between lines
in tight spaces. In addition, a wide Serif, such as Archive Antique Extended, is ideal for
filling the space and can be very loud to get viewers attention. The contrast between these
two typefaces is effectively utilized to perform different functions in the title sequence of
Catch Me If You Can. In the last picture of Figure 5.7.1.1, it can be seen that the two strings
of texts DIRECTED BY and Steven Spielberg can be easily distinguished from each
other. The name Steven Spielberg is in the same typeface of the movie title and appears in
a larger font, thus grabbing more attention. In the meantime, the wide slab serif feature
stretches the text DIRECTED BY to match the space and the serifs provides a guideline for
a saccadic reading, so that the audience would have no difficulties recognizing Steven
Spielbergs duty in the film.

5.7.2 Animation effects

The outward appearance and utmost simplicity of the typeface make Coolvetica a
very suitable candidate for animation. Interestingly, the title sequence of Catch Me If You
Can covers all five major categories of animation effects listed in the previous section,
blurring, color / light, shapes, path / arrangement, and adding other visual elements. The
following figures illustrate four segments of the sequence containing these effects in the
order of time when they appear in the opening title.

Figure 5.7.2.1 shows the starting frames during the emergence of the film title Catch
me if you can. A black bar rises from the ground then grows into the vertical stroke of the

118
letter f before other letters emerge. The relentless and fedora-wearing FBI agent,
silhouetted in black, is blocked away from the young con artist who just fled the scene
moments ago.

Figure 5.7.2.1. Shape effect: stretching and growing.

Figure 5.7.2.2 shows the effects of text blurring text interacting with other graphic
elements. A geometric figure of an airplane flies passing the word me in a white font, then
the word distorts and blurs into the background, mimicking the effect of real clouds disturbed
by an airplane. Once again, the elusive con artist, who impersonates a pilot at one time,
vanishes into thin air.

Figure 5.7.2.2. Blurring, shape distortion, interacting with other elements.

In Figure 5.7.2.3, actress and actors names are interwoven with parallel vertical
lines. The vertical strokes of the letters become a part of elevator cables (see the enlarged
portion of the second screen shot). The animation is mainly the downward motion of the
letters relative to the elevator figure, producing an impression of the retracting cables and the
rising car. Similar to Figure 5.7.2.1, in this scene, a Sans serif typeface is the obvious choice

119
to interact with the vertical lines. Also, the simple composition of the typeface matches up
naturally to the other elements on the screen, which are made up of simple geometric shapes
(the elevator is merely a greenish rectangle box).

Figure 5.7.2.3. Path and arrangement effect: motion in straight path.

Figure 5.7.2.4 shows the glowing effect. When the three pendant lights on the left
side of the screen are turned on one by one, the co-executive producers name Daniel Lupi
glows, acting as the electric filament inside a huge incandescent light bulb (see the enlarged
portion of the second screen shot). Again, the San serif feature makes it plausible to extend
the vertical strokes of the letters l and L as if they are the support wires of the filament.

Figure 5.7.2.4. Color effect: glowing

120
With only two typefaces, combined with different animation effects, the title
sequence in Catch Me If You Can produces a style of startling modernity with a retro cool
that powerfully recalls the light comedies of the 1960s. It offers a well-known point of
reference that invokes the sprightly crime films so characteristic of that era and sets the
tone perfectly for the tale that follows (Allison, 2003, p. 3).

5.7.3 An example of misuses of typefaces

Comparing to the elegant usage of only two typefaces in the opening title of Catch
Me If You Can, sometimes a film may use more typefaces than it should. Partly due to the
neglect of the opening titles, and partly due to the technological limitations or the aesthetic
values of the era, the typefaces in the opening titles from many early classical films do not
seem to be carefully choreographed .
Figure 5.7.3.1 shows the screen shots taken from the opening credit of Love Me
Tonight (1932), a romantic and musical comedy. It can been seen there are multiple typeface
categories (for example, calligraphic scripts, Serif and San serif), and multiple variations of
the same type used on the same screen. While it may add to the diversity, over-crowded fonts
on the screen may appear very loud and intrusive. Furthermore, the messages are only plainly
arranged in a parallel array. In the first screen shot, the leading roles names, the producers
name and the film title are in the similar fonts with little contrast (except for the letter
spacing and some italic and cursive letters). The competition among different pieces of
information makes it very difficult for the audience to comprehend in a short time. Last but
not least, the style in this opening credit design does not necessarily match to the mood of the

121
film. The theme of the film is mainly about a love story, but the selection of the fonts and the
text arrangement do not appear to be very romantic.

Figure 5.7.3.1. Screen shots from the opening credit of Love Me Tonight (1932).
Source: Love Me Tonight (1932), Copyright Paramount Pictures.

122

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION
The present study sets off to study the typography in film title sequence design.
Particularly, this paper has examined the two major aspects in film sequence design, the
choice of typefaces and the choice of animation effects, and how these two aspects are
affected by the development of typography, the development of computer technology, the
theories in psychology and different film genres (see Figure 6.1).
A large portion of the paper strives to provide a historical account of film title design
development and connects it to the history of typography through illustrated examples.
Throughout the paper, we can see that the history of title sequence development, the history
of modern typography and the typography development in a digital environment each has a
unique path, but they are intricately interwoven. The history of title sequence design is rather
short yet full of fast progress and rapidly-emerging techniques. Initially lagging greatly
behind the development of filming technology itself (such as montage, trick photography),
there were no title sequences at all in the earliest days of cinema until hand-written title cards
starting to surface in the 1920s, which were only meant to serve a pragmatic communication
function. Around the 1930s, title sequences started transferring from their initial function of
purely introductory to narrative. The idea of getting the viewer ready for the comingattraction film started to occupy the marketplace. Then, designers with great skills in
typography started working on title sequences (such as Saul Bass and Pablo Ferro), the
development of film typography accelerated, and striking and graphically sophisticated film
title sequences flourished.

123

Figure 6.1. Aspects in film title sequence design

124
Although the history of typography is much longer than the history of film title
sequences and can be traced back to the written symbols on clay tablets in ancient times, we
can see that different eras in typography have a concentrated and sometimes recursive
manifestation in the history of film title sequences. The Serifs and Sans serifs divided
typefaces into two very basic categories before the third and second centuries BC. The
humanist philosophy in the Renaissance created heavily decorated typefaces. Modernism
after the industrial revolution boasts that form follows function and ornament is a crime.
The purpose-driven postmodernism produced playful, joyful and even mischievous styles
and prevented typography from being dull. Movie fonts, as mutants of ordinary typefaces, are
especially the beneficiaries of postmodernism.
On the road of development of typography and film title sequences, the introduction
of modern computer technology brought revolutionary progress to both sides and further
strengthened the link between them. Computers have been used not only in creating newer
typefaces (such as in the modernist and postmodernist development in typography) but also
in producing special animation effects that added other dimensions to the variety of film title
sequence designs. Furthermore, computer technologies have greatly facilitated the group
works and corporations among individual designers, thus making complex and timeconsuming designs feasible.
The application of psychological theories is another indispensible force in film title
sequence design, affecting both the choice of typefaces and animation effects. This paper
devoted a large portion to examining the connections between how people perceive typefaces
and how kinetic effects can enhance the expressional ability of typefaces to match the
relevant theme of a film. From the perspective of psychology, the typeface conveys multiple

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levels of communication, and it is shown that different typefaces may generate different
impressions. Principles from psychology and cognitive sciences can provide guidance for
artists in choosing an appropriate typeface and animation effects. For instance, Gestalt
principles suggest that simple and harmonious typefaces might be preferred to the complex
and disharmonious ones. Theories in depth perception, aided by computer technology, can be
used to produce 3D effects in film title sequences.
Besides drawing connections in historical reviews and theories, the present study
provided tangible examples throughout the paper to illustrate how different designs were
actually realized in film title sequences. Finally, this study also provided statistical accounts
for such applications and added quantitative measures in connecting the different aspects in
film title sequence design. For example, it has been shown that action and comedy films tend
to use more animation effects, and Sans serif is more popular than Serif on the screen.
Nevertheless, the present study is not intended to produce a set of formulas or
prescriptive rules for designing film title sequences. Rather, it is to set up an initiative, gather
a database of relevant information, and draw a few guidelines for future inquiry. Due to
limited space and time, the present study has many limitations and can be refined and further
pursued. First of all, only a limited number of aspects of typography in the film title sequence
design have been covered: specifically, the choice of typefaces and the animation effects.
There are many other issues in typography, such as hierarchy, rhythm, color and scale, which
have been mostly omitted. Second, because of the scarce and non-unified literature
specifically targeted on typography for screen, a large portion of the source literature in the
present study is from diversified fields of linguistics, psychology and film critics. Future
studies will benefit greatly if the literature on conventional typography for print can be more

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tightly incorporated in. Third, one area that can be greatly expanded upon from the present
study is the classifications of typefaces and animation effects. Existing systems (for example,
classifications in the conventional typography literature) should be more carefully compared,
so that the newly emerged typefaces in films can be traced back to their family roots and
more carefully examined. The comparison between Coolvetica and Helvetica in Chapter 5 is
a first attempt in this direction. Another example is that the type classification Sans serif
Geometric has been shown to be favored by designers. Such classification could be broken
down into finer sub-categories to provide a more detailed explanation on more specific
typefaces. Last but not least, there were only forty-five films analyzed in the present paper.
To provide a more accurate picture, future studies should include a larger sample with a more
consistent sampling method, so that vigorous statistical analyses can be conducted.
To conclude, the art of title sequence design not only benefits from but also boosts the
development of typography, modern computer technology and psychological and cognitive
sciences. Fueled with designers artistic imaginations, the combining forces created a myriad
of complex and colorful products that grabbed audiences attention beyond the films
themselves. We can expect to see more and more great products in film title sequence
designs. The present study can serve as a starting point for future studies for a broader
understanding of the interactions of the typefaces and animation effects in other real-life
applications beyond film title sequence designs.

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