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THE WESTERN CANADA
SERIES
\^ ^-^
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SCHOOL GEOMETRY
BY
H.
S.
HALL, M.A.
AND
F.
11.
STEVENS, M.A.
cAuthorized by the 'Departments of Education

for
^Manitoba, Saskatchewan, oAlberta and

British Columbia.
TORONTO
THE MACMILLAN COMPAN'Y OF CANADA, LIMITED
19 19
'y - S.
^îojo^ji^
I'opYRiGHT. Canada, 191S,
By
the MACMILLAN COMTANV OF CANADA, LIMITED.
CONTENTS
PART
......
..........
.......
t
PAGE
Postulates
Hypotiiktu'al Con.structions
i.n'troductory
Axioms.
Definitions.
Symbols and Abbreviations
Lines and Angles.
Theorem
1.
[Euc. I. 13.]
The adjacent angles which one
straight lino makes with another straight hne on one side of
it are together equal to two right angles.
two straight lines cut one another, the four

angles so formed are together equal to four right angles.
Cor. 2. When any number of straight lines meet at a
point, the sum of the consecutive angles so formed is equal to
Cor.
1.
four right angles.
Cor.
(ii)
3.
(i)
2.
Theorem
3.
11
11
Supplements of the same angle are equal.
Complements
Theorem
10
If
of the
same angle are
equal.
[Euc. I. 14.]
If, at a point in a straight line, two
other straight lines, on opposite sides of it, make the adjacent angles together equal to two right angles, then these
two straight lines are in one and the same straight line.
[Euc. I. 15.]
If two straight lines cut one another, the vertically opposite angles are equal.
12
14
Triangles.
Definitions
Ifl
The Comparison of Two Triangles

Theorem 4. [Euc. I. 4.] If two triangles have two
17
sides of
the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and the
angles included by those sides equal, then the triangles are
equal in all respects.
Theorem
.5.
dm.
1.
If
tl'.e
Cor.
2.
If
a triangle
(Euc. I.
triangle are equal.
5.]
The
angles at
tlio
18
base of an isosceles
20
equil sides of an isosceles triangle are produced, the exterior angles at the base are equal.
is
equilateral,
it is
also equiangular.
21
21
iii
CONTENTS
iv
Theorkm
If two angles of a triangle arc equal

6.
[Euc. I. 6.]
to one another, then the sides which are opposite to the equal
angles are equal to one another.
Theorem
If two triangles have the three sides

[Euc. I. 8.]
of the one equal to the three sides of the other, each to each,
they are equal in all respects.
Theorem
If one side of a triangle is pro[Euc. I. 1(5.]

duced, then the exterior angle is greater than either of the interior opposite angles.
than another, then the .side opposite to the greater angle is

greater than the side opposite to the less.
Theorem 11. [Euc. I. 20.] Any two .sides of a triangle arc
together greater than the third side.
12.
Of
all
straight lines
straight line the perpendicular
Cor.
If
1.
straight line
CoR.
2.
distances
Cor.
24
8.
Cor. 1. Any two angles of a triangle are together less than

two right angles.
Cor. 2. Every triangle must have at least two a(^te angles.
Only one perpendicular can be drawn to a straight
Coi{. .3.
hnc from a given point outside it.
Theorem 9. [Euc. I. 18.] If one side of a triangle is greater
than another, then the angle opposite to the greater side is
greater than the angle opposite to the less.
Theorem 10. [Euc. I. 19.] If one angle of a triangle is greater
Theorem
22
7.
OC
AB,
is
29
30
31
32
33
the least.
the shortest straight line from

then OC is perpendicular to AB.
is
Of two obliques OQ, OR,
greater distance from C

OR is greater than OQ.
29
29
from a given point to a given
Two obliques, OP, OQ, which cut AB

from C the foot of the perpendicular, are
3.
28
to the
33
at e()u
il
equal.
33
Ofi cuts .l/i at the

the foot of the perpendicular, then
if
33
Parallels.
Playfairs Axiom
35
If a straight line cuts two

[Euc. I. 27 and 28.]
other straight lines so as to make (i) the alternate angles
equal, or (ii) an exterior angle equal to the interior opposite
angle on the same side of the cutting line, or (iii) the interior
angles on the same side equal to two richt angles; then in
each case the two straight lines are parallel.
36
a straight line cuts two parallel

lines, it makes (i) the alternate angles equal to one another;
(ii) the exterior angle equil to the interior opposite angle on
fiii) the two interior angles
the same side of the cuttin<: line
on the same side together e(iu il to two right angles.
38
Theorem
Theorem
13.
14.
[Euc.
I.
29.]
If
CONTEXTS
V
PAGE
Parallels Illustrated by Rotation'
Theorem
39
Straight lines which are parallel to

[Euc. I. 30.]
straight line are parallel to one another.
15.
the same
Hypothetical Constrtjctiox
.......
40
40
Triangles continued.
Theorem
1G.
[Euc. I. 32.]
The three angles of a triangle are
together equal to two right angles.
42
All the interior angles of any rectilineal figure,

together with four right angles, are equal to twice as man}'
right angles as the figure has sides.
44
the sides of a rectilineal figure, which has no reentrant angle, are produced in order, then all the exterior
angles so formed are together equal to four right angles.
46
CoR.
CoR.
Theorem
1.
2.
If
(Euc. I. 26.]
If two triangles have two angles
of one equal to two angles of the other, each to each, and any
side of the first equal to the corresponding side of the other,
the triangles are equal in all respects.
17.
....
Ox the
Identical Equality of Triangles

Theorem 18. Two right-angled triangles which have their
hypotenuses equal, and one side of one equal to one side of
the other, are equal in
Theorem
all
48
50
51
respects.
[Euc. I. 24.]
If two triangles have two sides of
the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, but the
angle included by the two sides of one greater than the angle
included by the corresponding sides of the other
then the
base of that which has the greater angle is greater than the
base of the other.
19.
Converse of Theorem 19
.'
52
.53
Parallelograms.
Definitions
Theorem
20.
Theorem
21.
56
[Euc. I. 33.] The straight fines which join the

extremities of two equal and parallel straight lines towards
the same parts are themselves equal and parallel.
[Euc. I. .34.]
The opîbsite sides and angles of a
parallelogram are equal to one another, and each diagonal bisects the parallelogram.
Coft.
its
1.
If
one angle of a parallelogram
is
a right angle,
2.
CoR.
3.
All the sides of a .square are equal

angles are right angles.
other.
The
.58
all
CoR.
57
59
;
and
all its
59
diagonals of a parallelogram bisect one an-
59
CONTEXTS
Vi
Theorem
more iKirallel straifilit lines,

on any transversal are equal,
then the eorresponding intercepts on any other transversal
22.
If
there are tliree or
and the intereepts made by
tlieni
are also equal.
(52
In a triangle ABC, if a set of lines Pp, Qq, Rr,

.,
drawn parallel to the base, divide one side .4 B into equal parts,
they also divide the other side AC into e(jual parts.
Cor.
Diagonal Scales
Practical Geometry.
Problems.
....
Necessary Instruments
Problems on Lines and Angles.
Problem 1. To bisect a given angle.
Problem 2. To bi.sect a given .'straight line.
Problem 3. To draw a straight line perpendicular
Inthoductiox.
straight line at a given point in
Problem
4.
Problem
.5.
an
71
to a given
72
it.
To draw
At
a given point in a given straight line to

angle equal to a given angle.
6.
Through
a given point
to
draw
7.
To
74
make
7i)
a straight line
77
parallel to a given straight line.
Problem
69
70
a straight line perpendicular to a given

straight line from a given external jjoint.
Problem
03
66
divide a given straight line into any
number
78
of equal parts.
The Construction of
Problem
8.
Triangles.
To draw a triangle, having given the lengths of
SO
the three sides.
Problem
9.
Problem
10.
To
construct a triangle having given two sides

and an angle opposite to one of them.
To
83
the hypotenuse and one side.
The Construction of Quadril.\terals.

Problem 11. To construct a quadrilateral,
of the four sides,
Problem
12.
To
Proble.m
13.
To
82
construct a right-angled triangle having given
and one
given the lengths
angle.
construct a jiarallelogram having given two

adjacent sides and the included angle.
construct a square on a given side.
SO
87
88
Loci.
Problic.m 14.
To find the locus of a point P which moves so
that its distances from two fixed points A and B are always
equal to one another.
91
CONTEXTS
'Bo find the locus of a point P which moves so
perpendicular distances from two given straight lines
CD are equil to one another.
Problem
that
AB,
Vll
15.
its
Intersectiox of Loci
The Coxcurrence of Str.ught Lines in a Triaxgle.
L The perpendiculars drawn to the sides of a triangle from
90
their middle points are concurrent.

II.
11.'/.
III.
97
I'he bisectors of the angles of a triangle arc concurrent.

Tlie bisectors of an interior angle at one verte.x of a triangle
and of the exterior angles at the other vertices are concurrent.
The medians of a triangle are concurrent.

Cor. The three medians of a triangle cut one another
at a
point of trisection, the greater segment in eich being towards
the angular point.
IV.
The perpendiculars drawn from the
97
98
98
vertices of a triangle to
99
the opposite sides are concurrent.
PART
92
93
II
Areas.
Definitions
Theorem
Theorem
23.
101
Area of a Rectaxgle.
102
Parallelograms on the same base

and between the same parallels are equal in area.
24.
[Euc.
I.
35.]
.......
Area of a Parallelogram
Theorem 25. Area of a Triangle.
Theorem 26. [Euc. I. 37.] Triangles on
between the same
parallels (hence, of the
the same base and

same altitude) are
110
equal in area.
Theorem
two triangles are equal in area,

and stand on the same base and on the same side of it, they
are between the same parallels.
Theorem 28. Area of (i) A Trapezium.
(ii) Any Quadrilateral.
Area of any Rectilineal Figure
Theorem 29. [Euc. I. 47. Pythagoras's Theorem.] In a
right-angled triangle the square described on the hypotenuse
is equal to the sum of the squares described on the other two
27.
lOG
107
108
[Euc.
I.
39.]
If
sides.
Experimental Proofs of Pythagoras's Theorem
110
114
114
116
120
122
Theorem
30.
[Euc. I. 48.]
If the square described on one side
of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares described on
the other two sides, then the angle contained

sides is a right angle.
by these two
124
CONTENTS
Vlll
Problem
16.
To draw squares whose areas shall be
twice, three times, four times,
respectively
that of a given square.
Geometrical Illustration of Algebraic Identitias
Theorem
31.
Theorem
32.
Theore.m
33.
12G
128 9
[Euc. II. 12.]

In an obtuse-angled triangle, the
square on the side subtending the obtu.se angle is equ:d to the
sum of the squares on the .sides containing the obtu.>ê angle
together with twice the rectangle contained by one of those
sides and the projection of the other side upon it.
In every triangle the square on

the side subtending an acute angle is equal to the sum of the
squares on the sides containing that angle diminished by
twice the rectangle contained by one of those sides and the
projection of the other side upon it.
130
[Euc. II. 13.]
131
In any triangle the sum of the squares on two

sides is equal to twice the square on half the third side
together with twice the square on the median which bisects the
third side.
133
Problems on Areas.
Problem
To
17.
describe a parallelogram equal to a given
and having one of its angles equal to a given angle.

Problem 18. To draw a triangle equal in area to a given
triangle,
137
quadrilateral.
Problem
19.
To draw
rectilineal figure,
Proble.m 20.
and
a parallelogram equal in area to a given

having an angle equal to a given angle.
To draw
139
PART
Circle.
138
a square e(]ual in area to a given
rectangle.
The
135
Definitions
and
III
143
First Principles.
Symmetry. Symmetrical Properties of Circles

Properties of Equal Circles
14.')
147
Chords.
Theorem
34.
[Euc. III. 3.]
If a straight line drawn from
the centre of a circle bi-sects a chord which does not jiass
through the centre, it cuts the chord at right angles.
Conversely,
cuts the chord at right angles,
it.
148
straight line which bi.sects a chord at right

angles passes through the centre.
140
Cor.
1.
if it
it
bi.sects
The
Cor. 2. A straight line cannot meet a circle at more than

two points.
Cor. 3. A chord of a circle lies wholly within it.
1-19
149
CONTENTS
IX
PAGE
and only one. can p.iss through any

three points not in the same straight line.
Cou. 1. The size and position of a circle are fully determined if it is known to pass through three given points.
Cor. 2. Two circles cannot cut one another in more than
two points without coinciding entirely.
Hypothetical Construction
Theorem 36. [Euc. III. 9.] If from a point within a circle
more than two equal straight lines can be drawn to the cir-
Theorem
35.
One
circle,
cumference, that point
Theoreai
is
the centre of the
[Euc. III. 14.]

distant from the centre.
37.
circle.
150
151
151
151
152
Ecjual chords of a circle are equi-
Conversely, chords which are equidistant from the centre

154
are equal.
Theorem
that which
remote.
Of any two chords of a circle,

the centre is greater than one more
[Euc. III. 15.]
38.
is
nearer to
Conversely, the greater of two chords

centre than the
The
Cor.
is
nearer to the
156
less.
greatest chord in a circle
is
a diameter.
157
Angles in a Circle.
Theorem
the
same
Theorem
[Euc. III. 20.]
39.
The
angle at the centre of a
double of an angle at the circumference standing on
circle is
158
arc.
[Euc. III. 21.)

circle are equal.
40.
Angles in the same segment of a

162
Converse of Theorem 40. Equal angles standing on the

same base, and on the same side of it, have their vertices on
an arc
of a circle, of
which the given base
is
the chord.
The opposite angles of any

[Euc. III. 22.]
quadrilateral inscribed in a circle are together equal to two
right angles.
Converse OF Theorem 41. If a pair of opposite angles of
a quadrilateral are supplementary, its vertices are concyclic.
Theorem
1G3
41.
1C4
165
Tangency.
Definitions ant) First Principles
Theorem
42.
The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendrawn to the point of contact.

One and only one tangent can be drawn to a
dicular to the radius
Cor.
circle at
1.
a given point on the circumference.
168
170
170
CONTENTS
PAOB
Cor.
Tho pcrpcndicul
2.
contact passes through
to
the cenlro.
ir
:i
taimcnt at
its
point of
170
The
radius drawn perpendicular to the tangent

passes through the point of contact.
Cor.
3.
Two
Theorem
43.
external point.
Cor.
171
The two tangents
are equal,
and
to a circle from an external ])oint

subtend equal angles at the centre.
TiiKOREM
If two circles touch one another, t!ie centres

44.
the point of contact are in one straight line.
173
[Euc. III. 32.] The angles made by a tangent

to a circle with a chord drawn from the point of contact are
respectively equal to the angles in the alterna(e segments of
the circle.
........
Geometrical Ax.\lys!.s
Problem 21. Given a circle,
or an arc of a circle, to find
173
22.
23.
To bi.sect a given arc.

To draw a tangent to
175
177
its
178
178
centre.
a circle from a given ex-
179
ternal point.
Problem 24. To draw a common tangent to two circles.

The Construction of Circles
Problem 25. On a given straight line to describe a segment
180
183
of
a circle which shall contain an angle equal to a given angle.
185
To
cut off from a given circle a segment containing

a given angle, it is enough to draw a tangent to the circle,
and from the point of contact to draw a chord making with
the tangent an angle equal to the given angle.
Cor.
173
45.
Problems.
Problem
Problem
171
and
CoR. 1. If two circles touch externally, the distance between their centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
CoR. 2. If two circles touch internally, the distance between their centres is equal to the difference of their radii.
Theorem
170
tangents can be drawn to a circle from an
..........
18G
Circles in Relation to Rectilineal Figures.
Definitions
PuouLE.M 2G.
Problem
Problem
27.
28.
Puoble.m 29.
To circumscribe a circle about a given triangle.

To in.scribe a circle in a given triangle.
To draw an escrilx-d circle of a given triangle.
In a given circle to
angular to a given triangle.
in.scribe
a triangle
187
188
ISO
190
('(lui-
191
CONTENTS
XI
Problem
30.
About a given rirclc to circumscribe a triangle
equiangular to a given triangle.
Problem 31. To draw a regular polygon (i) in (ii) about a
given circle.
Problem 32. To draw a circle (i) in (ii) about a regular polygon.
Circumference and Area of a Circle
PART
192
195
19G
197
IV
Proportion.
Definitioxs .^xd First Prixciple.s
203
Introductory Theorems
205
I.-\T
Proportional Division of Straigiit Lines.
Theorem
46.
[Euc. VI.
2.]
straight line
one side of a triangle cuts the other two

produced proportionally.
Theorem
drawn
parallel to
sides, or those sides
210
If the vertical angle of a

[Euc. \l. 3 and A.]
triangle is bi.sected internally or externally, the bisector
divides the base internally or externally into segments which
have the same ratio as the other sides of the triangle.
47.
Conver.sely, if the base is divided internally or externally

into segments proportional to the other sides of the tiiangle,
the line joining the point of section to the vertex bisects the
vertical angle internally or externalh'.
212
Proportional Areas.
Theorem
48.
[Euc. VI. 1.]
The areas of triangles of equal
altitude are to one another as their bases.
216
Cor. The areas of parallelograms of equal altitude are to

one another as their bases.
217
Proportional Arcs and Angles.
Theorem
49.
[Euc. VI. 33.]
In equal circles, angles, whether
at the centres or circumferences^ " have the same ratio as the
arcs on which they stand.
Cor.
In equal
circles,
sectors
have the same
ratio
their angles.
Similar Figures.
218
as
Definitions
218
219
Similar Triangles.
Theore.m
50.
[Euc. VI. 4.]
If two triangles are equiangular
to one another, their corresponding sides are i)roportional.
220
CONTENTS
Xii
Theorem
51.
[Euc. VI. "i.]
If two triangles have their sides
f)roportional when tukeu iii order, the triangles are equianguar to one another, and those angles are equal which are
opposite to corresponding sides.
Theorem
52.
Theorem
53.
Theorem
54.
If two triangles have one angle

[Euc. VI. 6.]
of the one equal to one angle of the other, and the sides about
the equal angles proportionals, the triangles are similar.
If two triangles have one angle of
[Euc. VI. 7.)
the one equal to one angle of the other, and the sides about
another angle in one proportional to the corresijonding sides of
the other, then the third angles are either equal or supplementary; and in the former case the triangles are similar.
In a right-angled triangle, if a
perpendicular is drawn from the right angle to the hypotenuse, the triangles on each side of it are similar to the whole
triangle and to one another.
Theorem
55.
Theorem
56.
[Euc. VI.
221
224
225
8.]
The areas of similar triangles are

[Euc. VI. 19.]
proportional to the squares on corresponding sides.
[Euc. III. 35 and 36.]
If any two chords of a
circle cut one another internally or externally, the rectangle
contained by the segments of one is equal to the rectangle
contained by the segments of the other.
227
229
231
from an external point a secant and n tangent are

drawn to a circle, the rectangle contained by the whole se-
Cor.
If
cant and the part of

square on the tangent.
it
outside the circle
is
equal to the
232
Problems.
Problem
To
33.
find the fourth proportional to throe given
235
straight lines.
Problem
To
34.
find
the third
proportional to two given

2.''5
straight lines.
Problem 35. To divide a given straight lino internally and

externally in a given ratio.
To find the
36.
straight linos.
Pii( )HLi:.M
mean proportional between two
23(5
given
237
Similar Polygons.
Theorem
Similar jiolygons can bo divided into the .same

57.
of similar triangles
and the lines joining corre.sponding vertices in each figure are proportional.
number
Problem
37.
On
:i
side of given longlli to
to a given rectilineal liguro.
draw a
240
figure similar
242
CONTENTS
Theorem
58.
Any two
xiii
similar rectilineal figures
may be
so
placed that the lines joining corresponding vertices are con-
243
current.
The areas of similar polygons

[Euc. VI. 20.]
are proportional to the squares on corresponding sides.
Theorem
59.
24(3
Theorem
In a right-angled triangle, any

[Euc. VI. 31.]
60.
rectilineal figure described on the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the two similar and similarly described figures on the
sides containing the right angle.
Problem
249
To draw
a figure similar to a given rectilineal

figure, and equal to a given fraction of it in area.
38.
251
Miscellaneous Theorems.
Theorem
61.
If the vertical angle of a triangle is bisected by
a straight line which cuts the ba.sc, the rectangle contained by
the sides of the triangle is equal to the rectangle contained by
the segments of the ba.se, together with the .square on the
straight line which bisects the angle.
Theorem
62.
If
from the vertical angle of
253
a triitngle a straight
is drawn perpendicular to the base, the rectangle contained by the sides of the triangle is equal to the rectangle
contained by the perpendicular and the diameter of the circum-circle.
line
Theorem
[Ptolemy's Theorem.] The rectangle contained

bj^ the diagonals of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is
equal to the sum of the two rectangles contained by its
opposite sides.
Examples, Parts I-IV
Answers
to
254
63.
Numerical Exercises
255
257
261
GEOMETRY
PART
AXIOMS
All mathematical
founded on certain simple

which is so evident that they are
accepted without proof. These self-evident truths are called
Axioms.
For instance
rca^ôiiing is
principles, the truth of
Things which arc equal
same thing arc equal
to the
to
one
another.
The
of
following axioms, corresponding to the
among
Arithmetic, are
those most
first
four Rules
commonly used
in
geometrical reasoning.
Addition.
// equals are added
to equals, the
sums are
equal.
If equals are taken from equals, the remainders
Subtraction.
are equal.
Multiplication.
equals are equal
to
Things which ore
For instance: Doubles

Division.
equal
to
the
same midtiples of
one another.
of equals arc equal to one another.
Things which are
the
same parts of equals are
one another.
For instance
Halves of equals are equal
The above Axioms

complete
list,
of those
to
one another.
are given as instances,
which
will
1
be used.
and not as a
They
are said to
GEOMETRY
be general, because they applj^ equally to magnitudes of all

kinds.
Certain special axioms relating to geometrical magnitudes only will be stated from time to time as they are
required.
Definitions and First Principles
Every beginner knows in a general way what is meant by a

and a surface. But in geometry these terms
are used in a strict sense which needs some explanation.
point, a line,
1..
point has position, but
is
said to
have no magnitude.
This means that we are to attach to a point no idea of size either

as to length or breadth, but to think only where it is situated.
A dat
made wth a sharp pencil may be taken as roughly representing a
point but small as such a dot maj' be, it still has some length and
breadth, and is therefore not actually a geometrical point. The
smaller the dot however, the more nearly it represents a point.
;
2.
line
has length, but
is
said to
have no breadth.
out by a moving point.

If the point of a pencil is
moved over a sheet of paper, the trace left represents a line. But
such a trg,ce, however finely drawn, has some degree of breadth, and
is therefore not itself a true geometrical line.
The finer the trace
h^ft by the moving pencil-point, the more nearly will it represent a
line is traced
line.
Proceeding
3.
in
a similar manner from the idea of a line
to the idea of a surface,
A
And
we say that
surface has length and brcadtli, but no thickness.
finally,
solid has length, breadth,
Solids, surfaces, lines,

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
A
A
A
in points.
and thickness.
and points are thus related
to
bounded by surfaces.
bounded by lines and surfaces meet in lines,
bounded (or terminated) by points and lines meet
solid is
surface
line is
one another:
is
DEFINITIONS
4.
line
may
be straight or curved.
same direction from point to point

whole length.
line changes its direction continually from point
straight line has the
throughout
A curved
its
to point.
Axiom.
There can he only one straight line joining two
given points: that
Two
5.
plane
is
is,
straight lines cannot enclose
flat surface,
a space.
the test of flatness being that
two points are taken in the surface, the straight

between them lies wholly in that surface.
if
an}^
When two
G.
The
;
lines meet at a
form an angle.
straight
point, they are said to
angle
line
straight lines are called the
the point at which they meet
The magnitude
of the angle
arms
is its
may
of the
vertex.
be thus
explained
Suppose that the arm OA is fixed, and that OB turns about

(as shewn by the arrow).
Suppose also that OB
began its turning from the position OA
Then the size of the
angle AOB is measured by the amount of turning required to
bring the revolving arm from its first position OA into its
subsequent position OB.
the point
Observe that the

the length of
its
Angles which
of a
size of
arms.
lie
common arm
an angle docs not

_^
on either side
ai-e
said to be
adjacent.
For example, the angles AOB, BOC,

which have the common arm OB, are
adjacent.
in anj^
waA depend on
GEOMETRY
When two straight Hnes such asAB, CD
COA,
cross one another at 0, the angles
BOD
The
are said to be vertically opposite.
angles
AOD, COB
"O
are also vertically
opposite to one another.

7.
When
other so as to
one straight line stands on anmake the adjacent angles equal
to one another, each of the angles

right angle
and each
is
line is said to
called a
be per-
pendicular to the other.
Axioms, (i) // is a point in a straight line AB, then a line

OC, which turns about Ofrom the position OA to the position OB,
must pass through one position, and only one, in which it is
perpendicular
to
(ii)
AB.
All right angles are equal.
A right angle is divided into 00 equal parts called degrees ()

each degree into 60 equal parts called minutes (') each minute into
60 equal parts called seconds (")
;
In the above figure,
OA
position
if
OC
into the position
revolves about
OB,
it
from the
turns through two right
angles, or 180.
If OC makes a complete revolution about
OA and returning to its original position,
0, starting
it
four right angles, or 360.

8.
angle
An
is
That
9.
angle which
is less
than one right
said to be acute.
is,
an acute angle
An angle which
is
is less
than 00".
greater than
one right angle, but less than two

is said to be obtuse.
an obtuse angle lies between 90 and 180.
right angles,
That
is,
from
turns through
DEFINITIONS
10.
OB
one arm
If
an angle
of
makes a straight line with

the other arm OA, the angle so formed
turns until
is
it
called a straight angle.
straight angle
An
11.
than
iico
2 right angles
angle which
is
180""
greater
right angle?, but less than
four right angles,
is
said
to
be
reflex.
That is, a reflex angle lies between 180'' and 360.

Note. When two straight lines meet, two angles are formed, one
greater, and one less than two right angles.
The first arises by
Supposing OB to have revolved from the position OA the longer way
round, marked (i)
the other by supposing OB to have revolved the
shorter way round, marked (ii).
Unless the contrarj' is stated, the
angle between two straight linos will be considered to be that which
is less than two right angles.
;
Any
12.
more
portion of a plane surface bounded
lines is called
13.
circle is
bj'
one or
a plane figure.
a plane figure contained
by a line traced out by a point which

moves so that its distance from a certain
fixed point
is
alwaj^s the same.
Here the point P moves so that its distance

from the fixed point
is always the same.
The
is
fixed point
is
called the centre,
14.
radius of a circle
is
and the bounding
line
"^
called the circumference.
a straight line drawn from the
centre to the circumference.
It follows that all radii of a
circle are equal.
15.
diameter of a
circle is
a straight line drawn through
the centre, and terminated both ways by the circumference.
GEOMETRY
6
10.
An
17.
l)y
arc of a circle
semi-circle
a diameter of a
is
To
Axioms,
froin
it
to
//
(i)
off
means
bisect
anj^ part of the circumference.
the figure bounded
circle
the circumference cut

18.
is
and the part of

by the diameter.
to divide into
point
moves
along the straight line
must pass through
o}ie
two equal
parts.
-i-
AB,
position in which
it
divides
AB
into
two equal parts.
That
is to say
Every finite straight line has a point of bisection.
OP, revolving about O, turns

OB, it must pass through one
If a line
(ii)
from
OA
to
position in which
it
angle
divides the
AOB
into two equal parts.
That
is
to say
Every angle may be supposed
to
have a line of
bi.'ieeti<m.
Hypothetical Constructions
From
Axioms attached
follows that we may suppose
(i)
(iii)
to Definitions 7
and
straight line to be draivn perpoulieular to
Hue from any point
straight
(ii)
the
in
A finite straight line io

An angle to be bisected
18,
it
a given
it.
be bisected at a point.
by a
line.
Superposition and Equality
Axiom.
Magnitudes which can be made
to
coincide with one
another are equal.

tliat any line, anplr. or fipfurf^ may be takrn
and without chango in size or form, hiid down
This axiom implies
up from
its
position,
POSTULATES
upon a second line, angle, or figure, for the purpose of comparison,

and it states that two such magnitudes are equal when one can lie
exactly placed over the other without overlapping.
This process is called superposition, and the first magnitude
to
is
said
be applied to the other.
Postulates
In'
order to draw geometrical figures certain instruments
These
are required.
are, for
the purposes of this book,
(i)
a pair of compasses. The following Postulates (or requests) claim the use of these instruments, and
straight ruler,
(ii)
assume that with
may
Let
1.
any
their help the processes
mentioned below
be duly performed.
be granted
That a straight line
it
may
be
drawn from any one point
to
other point.
2.
That a finite
PRODUCED
{or
terminated)
{that is, prolonged) to
any
straight
line
may
he
length in that straigJit
line.
3.
That a
circle
may
he
drawn with any point as
centre
with a radius of any length.
Notes,
plies that
(i)
Postulate
stated above, imthe compasses to the
3, as
we may adjust
length of any straight line PQ, and ^vith a radius of this length draw a circle with any point
O as
may
centre.
That is to say, the compasses
be used to Iransfer distances from one part
of a diagram to another.
^
(ii)
Hence from AB,

we may cut
straight lines,
PQ
the greater of two
off a part equal to
the less.
For if with centre A, and radius equal

to PQ, we draw an arc of a circle cutting
AB Sit X, it is obvious that AZ is equal
to PQ.
~_
P
and
GEOMETRY
Introductory
Plane geometry deals with the properties of such
may be drawn on a plane surface.
1.
and
lines
figures as
The
2.
subject
is
divided into a
number
of separate dis-
cussions, called propositions.
Theorems and Problems.
Propositions are of two kinds,
A Theorem proposes to prove the truth of some geometrical

statement.
A Problem proposes
tion,
to perform
some geometrical construc-
such as to draw some particular
some required
3.
or to construct
Proposition consists of the following parts
The General Enunciation,

Construction,
(i)
line,
figure.
the Particular Enunciation,
tlie
and the Proof.
The General Enunciation
is
a preliminary statement,
describing in general terms the purpose of the proposition.

(ii)
The
Particular Enunciation rei)eats in special terms
the statement already made, and refers

enables the reader
(iii)
to.
The Construction then
straight lines
and
it
to a diagram,
follow the reasoning moi-e
circles as
directs the
may
lie
which
easilj'.
drawing of such
required to efTect the
purpose of a problem, or to prove the truth of a theorem.

(iv) The Proof shews that the object proposed in a problem has been accomplished, or that the property statetl in a
tlieorem
true.
The letters q.e.d. are appended to a theorem, and stand

Quod erat Demonstrandum, which ivas to he jrrorrd.
4.
iuv
is
INTRODUCTORY
A
is a statement the truth of which follows

it is therefore
an established proposition
as
an
inference
or deduction,
appended to the proposition
further
proof.
which usually requires no
5.
Corollary
readily from
6.
The
following symbols and abbreviations are used in
the text of this book
In Part
I.
GEOMETRY
10
ON LINES AND ANGLES

Theorem
The adjacent angles
[Euclid
1.
L3]
ivhich one straight line
on one side of
other straight line
I.
makes with an-
are together equal to two
it,
right angles.
B
Let the straight Hne
the adjacent
CO make
It is required to prove that the

to
with the straight Hne
AB
A AOC, COB.
A AOC, COB are together equal
two right angles.
Suppose
Proof.
OD
is
A AOD, DOB
together
=
the
BA.
Then the A AOC, COB together

= the three A AOC, COD, DOB.
Also the
:.
at right angles to
A AOC, COB
the three
together
= two
the
A AOC, COD, DOB.

A AOD, DOB
right angles.
Q.E.D.
PROOF BY ROTATION
Suppose a straight
OA
let
into the position
line revolving about O turns from the position

OC, and thence into tlie position Oli; that is,
the revolving line turn in succession through the
Now
in passing
from
its first
position
Oli, the revolving line turns through
two
OA
A(^C,
right angles, for
straight line.
Hence the A AOC, COli togcUier
-^
two
COB.
to its final position
right niiglts.
.'\()li is
AND ANGLES
LINES
Corollary
two
If
1.
straight
cut one another, the four angles so
11
lines
formed
are together equal to four right angles.
For example,
BOD +
DOA +
Corollary
AOC + Z COB =
When any number

a point, the sum
2.
straight lines meet at
the consecutive angles so

to
formed
4 righl angles.
of
of
is equal
four right angles.
For a straight line revolving about O, and turning in succession

through the A AOB, BOC, COD, DOE, EOA, will have made one
complete revolution, and therefore turned through four right angles.
DEFINITIONS
(i)
Two
sum
is
and each
is
angles whose
be supplementary
two right angles are said to

called the
supplement of the
other.
Thus
in the Fig. of Theor.
mentary.
(ii)
Again the angle 123
Two
angles whose
be complementary
AOC, COB are supplethe supplement of the angle 57.
the angles
is
sum
is oyie
right angle are said to
and each isâlled the complement
of the
other.
Thus
in the Fig. of Theor.
the angle
AOC.
Corollary
Again angles
3.
(i)
(ii)
the angle DOC is the complement of

of 34 and 56 are complementary.
Supplements of the same angle are equal.

Complements of the same angle are equal.
GEOMETRY
12
Theorem
//, at
a point in a
opposite sides of
14]
I.
straight line, two other straight lines,
make
it,
[Euclid
2.
on
the adjacent angles together equal to two
right angles, then these two straight lines are in one
and
the
same
straight line.
At
in the straight hnc CO let the two straight lines OA,
OB, on opposite sides of CO, make the adjacent A AOC,
COB together equal to two right angles (that is, let the
:
A AOC, COB
adjacent
be supplementary).
It is required to prove that
OB and OA
are in the
same straight
line.
Produce
that OA' and
Since
Proof.
.'.
beyond
OB
the
are the
to any point
same line.
AOX
by construction
X
is
it
will
be shewn
a straight
line,
COA is the supplement of the A CO A.
Theor.l
But, by hypothesis,
the
A COB
.:
is
the
the supplement of the
COX =
OX and OB are
construction, OX is in
.".
But, by
A COA.
A COB
the same line.
the
the same straight line with
OA;.
hence
OB
is
also in the
same
straight line with
OA
Q.E.D.
AND ANGLES
LINES
13
EXERCISES
1.
Write down the supplements of onc-halj of a right angle, Joura right angle also of 46, 149, 83, 101 15'.
thirds of
2.
Write down the complpmcnt of
and 41
also of 27, 38 16',

3.
one
is
If
two-fiflhs of
a right angle
29' 30".
two straight
known
to
lines intersect forming four angles of which

be a right angle, prove that the other tliree are also
right angles.
4.
In the triangle
BC
the side
so
formed are equal.
is
ABC
the angles
ABC, ACB
are given equal.
produced both ways, shew that the exterior angles
If
ABC
ACB
the angles ABC,

are given equal.
are produced beyond the base, shew that the e.xterior
aiugles so formed are equal.
5.
If
In the triangle
A B and AC
Definition.
adjacent angle
The lines which bisect an angle and the

made by producing one of its arms are called
the internal and external bisectors of the given angle.
Thus in the diagram, OX and OY are

the internal and external bisectors of the
angle AOB.
C
Prove that the bisectors of the adjacent angles which one
makes with another contain a right angle. That is to
say, the internal and external hisector&of an angle are at right angles
6.
straight line
to
one another.
7.
Shew that the angles
are complementary.
Shew
8.
and
that the angles
also that the angles
9.
If
AOX
the angle
AOB
AOY
is
and
COY
BOX
and
and
BOY
in the
COX
above diagram
are supplementary;
are supplementary.
35, find the angle
COY.
GEOMETRY
14
Theorem
3.
[Euclid
I.
15]
// two straight lines cut one another, the vertically opposite

angles are equal.
Let the straight hnes
AB, CD
cut one another at
tlie
point 0.
Proof.
.'.
(i)
the
(ii)
the
Because
the adjacent
that
is,
the
Z AOC =
Z COB =
AO
DOB
the
the
Z AOD.
meets the straight hne CD,
A AOC, AOD to^vthcr = two right angles

Z AOC is the supplement of the Z AOD.
Again, because
DO meets
the straight line
A B,
A DOB, AOD together = two right angles;

that is, the Z DOB is the supplement of the Z AOD.
Thus each of the A AOC, DOB is the supplement of the
Z AOD,
.: the Z AOC = the Z DOB.
.'.
the adjacent
Similarly, the
Z COB =
the
Z AOD.
Q.E.l).
PROOF BY ROTATION
Suppose the
line
COD
to revolve
about O until
OC
turns into the
Then at the same moment 01) must reach the

tion OB (for AOB and COD are slrnighl).
Thus the same amount of turning is required to elose the Z
as to close the Z DOH.
.: the Z AOC - the Z /;(7/i.
position ()A.
posi-
AOC
AND ANGLES
LINES
15
EXERCISES ON ANGLES
(
Numerical)
Through what angles does the minute-hand of a clock turn in

5 minutes, (ii) 21 minutes, (iii) 43^ minutes, (iv) 14 min. 10 sec?
And how long will it take to turn through (v) 66", (vi) 222?
1.
(i)
2.
A clock is started at noon through what angles will the hourhand have turned by (i) 3.45, (ii) 10 minutes past 5? And what
will be the time when it has turned through 1722?
The earth makes a complete revolution about its axis in 24
3.
hours.
Through what angle will it turn in 3 hrs. 20 min.?
4.
In the diagram of Theorem 3
(i) If the Z. AOC = 35, write down (without measurement) the
:
value of each of the A COB, BOD, DO A.

(ii) If the A COB, AOD together make up 250, find each of the
A CO A, BOD.
(iii) If the A AOC, COB, BOD together make up 274, find each
of the four angles at O.
{Theoretical)
If from O, a point in A B, two straight lines OC, OD are drawn
5.
on opposite sides of AB so as to make the angle COB equal to the
shew that OC and OD are in the same straight line.
angle AOD
'
CD cross at O. If OX is the bisector

XO produced bisects the angle AOC.
7.
Two straight lines AB, CD cross at 0. If the angle BOD is
bisected by OX, and AOC by OY, prove that OX, OY are in the
Two
straight lines
AB,
of the angle
BOD, prove
that
6.
same
8.
straight line.
If
OX
bisects
gram about the
How
would
(i)
(ii)
an angle AOB, shew
bisector,
OA
the Z
the
fall
OA may
be
with regard to OB,
AOX
Z .40X
that,
made
by folding the diawith OB.
to coincide
if
were greater than the Z

v/ere
lessân the Z
XOB
XOB?
AB and CD are straight lines intersecting at right angles at

shew by folding the figure about .4 B, that OC may be made to
9.
fall
along OD.
A straight line ^4 OB is drawn on paper, which is then folded

about 0, so as to make OA fall along OB shew that the crease left
in the paper is perpendicular to AB^
10.
GEOMETRY
16
ON TRIANGLES
1.
more
Any
portion of a plane surface bounded
by one or
lines is called a plane figure.
The sum of the bounding Unes is called the perimeter of the figure.
The amount of surface enclosed by the perimeter is called the area.
2.
those which are bounded by
Rectilineal figures are
straight lines.
3.
triangle
a plane figure bounded by three straight
is
lines.
4.
quadrilateral
is
a plane figure bounded
l)y
four
straight lines.
5.
polygon
more than four

0.
equiangular,
regular,
a plane figure bounded by
rectilineal figure is said to
equilateral,
7.
is
straight lines.
when
when
when
be
all its
sides are equal;
all its
angles are equal;
it is
both equilateral and equiangular.
Triangles are thus classified with regard to their sides

triangle
is
said to be
equilateral,
isosceles,
scalene,
Equilateral Triangle
when all its sides are equal

when two of its sides are equal;
when its sides are all unequal.
Isosceles Triangle
Scalene Triangle
In a triangle .1 BC, tlic letters .1, B, f often ilfnote l\w magnitude of the several angles (as measand the letters n, b, c the h-ngllm
ured in degrees)
of the opposite sides (as measured in inches, centimetres, or some other unit of length).
;
TRIANGLES
17
of the angular points of a triangle may be regarded as

vertex and the opposite side is then called the base.
In an isosceles triangle the term I'ertex is usually applied to the
point at which the equal sides intersect
and the vertical angle is
the angle included by them.
Any one
its
Triangles are thus classified with regard to their angles
8.
triangle
is
said to be
right-angled,
obtuse-angled,
acute-angled,
[It will
must have
when one of its angles is a right angle;

when one of its angles is obtuse;
when all three of its angles are acute.
be seen hereafter (Theorem

two acute angles.
8.
Cor.
1) that every triangle
at least
Right-angled Triangle
Obtuse-angled Triangle
Acute-angled Triangle
In a right-angled triangle the side opposite to the right angle
is
called the hypotenuse.
In any triangle the straight line joining a vertex to the

9.
middle point of the opposite side is called a median.
THE COMPARISON OF TWO TRIANGLES

(i)
The
three sides and three angles of a triangle are called
its six parts.
to
its
area.
(ii)
Two
may
triangle
also be considered with regard
triangles are said to be equal in
when one may be

coincide with
it
so placed
in
upon the other
all
respects,
as to exactly
which case each part of the
first
triangle
is
equal to the corresponding part (namely that with which
it
coincides) of the other
and the
triangles are equal in area.
In two such triangles corresponding sides are opposite

equal angles, and corresponding angles are opposite
Triangles which
may
thus be
made
to
to equal sides.
to coincide
by super-
position are said to be identically equal or congruent.
GEOMETRY
18
Theorem
4.
[Euclid
I.
4]
// two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of
the other, each to each,
and
the angles included
by those sides
equal, then the triatigles are equal in all respects.
Let
ABC,
DEF
be two triangles in which
AB = DE,
AC = DF,
= the included angle ED F.
BAC
and the included angle
that
the
A ABC = the A DEF in all
It is required to prove
respects.
Apply the
Proof.
A AfiC
so that the point
to the
falls
DEF,
on the point D,
side AB along the side DE.

Then because AB = DE,
the point B must coincide with the point E.
And because AB falls along DE,
and the Z BAC = Z EDF,
.: AC nnist fall along DF.
And because AC = DF,
the point C must coincide with the point F.
Then since B coincides with E, and C with
and the
.'.
.'.
.'.
the
!-ide
BC
must coincide with the
side
F,
EF.
Hence the A ABC coincides with the A DEF,

and is therefore equal to it in all respects.
y.E.D.
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
In this Theorem we must carefully observe what
Obs.
given
19
and what
is
Given that
j
[and the Z
From
is
proved.
these data
AB AC =
BAC =
we prove that the
DE,
DF,
the
Z EDF.
triangles coincide
on
superposition.
BC = EF,
Hence we conclude that
the
/.
ABC =
the
the
[and the Z ACjB
Z DEF,
Z D/î?;
also that the triangles are equal in area.
Notice that the angles which are proved equal in the two
triangles are opposite to sides which were given equal.
A
The adjoining: diagram shows
order to make two congruent
iJoTE.
that in
it may be necessar.y
turn over one of them
triangles coincide,
to reverse, that
is,
before superposition.
EXERCISES
1.
(i)
Shew
that the bisector of the vertical angle of
bisects the base,

2.
Let
perpendicular
be the
to
it.
(ii)
is
perpendicular
middle point of a straight line

If
is
an
isosceles triangle
to the base.
AB, and
any point in OC, prove
that
let
OC
PA =
be
PB.
Assuming that the four sides of a square A BCD are equal,

3.
and that its angles are all right aîgles, prove the diagonals AC,
îBD
equal.
A BCD is a square, and L, M, and A" are the middle points of

AB, BC, and CD: using a separate figure in each case, prove that
(i) LM^MN.
(ii) AM = DM.
(iii) AN = AM.
(iv) BN = DM.
4.
5.
ABC is an isosceles triangle: from the equal sides AB, AC
two equal parts .4 A', AY are cut off, and BY and CX are joined.
Prove that BY = CX.
GEOMETRY
20
The angles
Theorem
5.
at the base of
an
[Euclid
I.
5]
isosceles triangle are equal.
Let
ABC
the side
be an isosceles triangle, in which the side
AB =
AC.
Suppose that AD is the

let it meet BC in D.
1st Proof.
Then
line
in the
A BAD,
AD
is
common
and the included

:.
CAD,
the triangles are equal in

so that the
CA,
to both triangles,
BAD =
/.
Z ACB.
the
which bisects the Z BAC, and
BA =
because!
[
ABC =
the included
l CAD;
respects
Theor. 4.
all
ABD =
the
Z ACD.
Q.E.D.
2nd Proof.
Suppose the
Then
.'.
AB must
And
.'.
.'.
the
B
Z
must
fall
A ABC to
since the
since
Z
fall
it.
the
AD.
Z CAD,
along AC.
AB =
AC,
on C, and consequently
ABD will coincide with the
equal to
be folded about
BAD =
DB
on DC.
Z ACD, and
is
therefore
q.e.d.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
Corollary
// the equal sides
1.
21
AC
AB,
of an isosceles triangle are produced, the exterior
angles
EBC, FCB
are equal; for they are the
supplements of the equal angles at
the base.
E'
Corollary
// a
2.
triangle is equilateral,
it
\F
is also equi-
angular.
Definition. A figure is said to be symmetrical about a

on being folded about that line, the parts of the
figure on each side of it can be brought into coincidence.
The straight line is called an axis of symmetry.
line wlien,
That this may be possible, it is clear that the two parts of the
must have the same size and shape, and must be similarly
figure
placed with regard to the axis.
EXERCISES
/
1.
A BCD is
diagonal
\/
2.
BD
is
a four-sided figure whose sides are
(i)
the angle
(ii)
the angle
(iiij
the angle
ABC, DBC
ABD =
CBD =
ABC =
it
ABD
3.
base
ABC,
DBC
L,
the angle
ADB;
CDB;
the angle
ADC.
the angle
drawn on the same

prove (by means of Theorem 5)
the angle
ACD.
BC and on the same side of it
drawn on the same

employ Theorem 5 to prove that
ABD
the angle
ACD.
AC are the equal sides of an isosceles triangle ABC and

M, N are the middle points of AB, BC, and CA respectively:
4.
and the
are two isosceles triangles
the angle
I
equal,
are two isosceles triangles
base BC, but on opposite sides of

that
the angle
H
all
drawn: shew that
AB,
prove that
(i)
(iii)
LM
Ni\f.
the angle
ALM
(ii)
BN
the angle
= CL.
AXM.
GEOMETRY
22
Theorem
[Euclid
G.
// two angles of a tnangle are equal
G]
I.
to
one another, then the
sides which are opposite to the equal angles are equal to one
another.
Let
ABC
be a triangle in which
the
A5C =
the
It is required to prove that the side

If
Z ACB.
AC =
the side
AB.
AC and AB are not equal, suppose that AB is the greater.

From BA cut off BD equal to AC.
Join
Then
Proof.
DC.
in the
A DBC,
ACB,
DB = AC,
BC
because!
is
common
to both,
DBC = the included Z ACB

=
A DBC the A ACB in area, Theor. 4.
[and the included Z

.'.
the
the part equal to the whole

..
AB
is
which
not unequal to
that ifi,AB
AC
is
absurd.
= AC.
Q.E.D.
Corollary.
An
equiangular triangle
is also equilateral.
Theorem G we employ an indired method of proof frequently

used in geometry.
It consists in shewing that the theorem cannol he
untrue; since, if it were, we .should l)e led to some impossible conclusion.
This form of proof is known as Reductio ad Absurdum.
In
A THEOREM AND
ITS
CONVERSE
NOTE ON THEOREMS
AND
Theorems 5 and 6 may be verified experimentally by cutting out the given

ABC, and, after turning it over, fitting
it thus reversed into the vacant space left
in the paper.
^
/
\
'<
'
c.
1,
B
Suppose A'B'C to be the original position
let
ACB
represent the triangle
when
23
of the
C
B
ABC, and
reversed.
be found on applying A to A' that C may be

made to fall on B', and B on
In Theorem 6, on applying C to B' and B to C" we find that A
will fall on A'.
In either case the given triangle rercrscd will coincide ^\^th its
Theorem
In
5, it will
own
" trace," so that the side and angle on the

equal to the side and angle on the right.
NOTE ON A THEOREM AND
ITS
left
are respectively
CONVERSE
The enunciation of a theorem consists of two clauses. The first

what we are to assume, and is called the hypothesis;
the second tells us what it is required to prove, and is called the
clause tells us
conclusion.
For example, the enunciation of Theorem 5 assumes that

tain triangle
From
ACB:
this
it
ABC the side AB

is
the side
AC:
in
a cer-
this is the hypothesis.
required to prove that the angle
ABC
the angle
this is the conclusion.
If we interchange the hypothesis and conclusion of a theorem,

we enunciate a new theorem which is called the converse of the first.
For example, in Theorem 5
it is assumed that
AB = AC
it is required to prove that the angle ABC = the angle ACB.
Now in Theorem 6
it is assumed that the angle ABC = the angle ACB;
it is required to prove that
AB = AC.
Thus we see that Theorem 6 is the converse of Theorem o for
1
the hypothesis of each

It
is the
conclusion of the other.
must not however be supposed that
converse
is
necessarily true.
[See p. 25.]
if
a theorem
is
true, its
GEOMETRY
24
Theorem
7.
[Euclid
I.
8]
If two triangles have the three sides of the one equal
to the three
sides of the other, each to each, they are equal in all respects.
Let
ABC,
DEF
AB =
AC =
BC
DE,
DF,
= EF.
It is required to prove that the triangles are equal in all respects.
Apply the
Proof.
so that
so that
B
A
is
GEF
opposite to D.
must
fall
be the new position of the
ED =
EDG = the
Again, because
on F.
A ABC.
DO.
Because
the
DEF,
along EF, and
EF
BC = EF,C
Join
.'.
the
BC
on the side of
Then because
Let
A ABC to
on E, and
falls
EG,
Z EGD.
FD =
Theor.
5.
FG,
FDG - the Z FGD.

EDF = the whole Z A'GF
that
the Z EDF = the Z 5^C.
Then in the A B AC, EDF
BA = ED, and AC = DF,
and the included Z BAC = the included Z ^Df'
:.
the
Hence the whole Z

is,
because
.'.
all
respects.
Theor. 4.
Q.E.D.
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
25
In this Theorem
Obs.
given that
it is
AB = DE, BC = EF, CA = FD;

ZC = IF, ZA= ZD, ZC =
and we prove that
ZE.
Also the triangles are equal in area.

Notice that the angles which are proved equal in the two
triangles are opposite to sides which were given equal.
Note
1.
We
have taken the case
in
which
DG
falls
within the
A EDF, EGF.
Two
(i)
(ii)
other cases might arise

might fall outside the
:
DG
DG
A EDF, EGF [as in

FG [as in J'ig. 2.]
Fig.
1.]
might coincide with DF,
These cases will arise only when the given triangles are obtuseangled or right-angled and (as will be seen hereafter) not even then,
if we begin by choosing for superposition the greatest side of the
ABC, as in the diagram of page 24.
;
Two triangles are said to be equiangular to one another

2.
the angles of one are respectively equal to the angles of the
Note
when
other.
Hence
if
two triangles have the three sides of one severally equal to

equiangular to one another.
the three sides of the other, the triangles are
The student should
state the converse theorem,
diagram that the converse

*^,*
At
this stage
is
and shew by a
not necessarily true.
Problems 1-5 and 8
[see
page 70]
may
conveniently be taken, the proofs affording good illustrations of

the Identical Equality of
Two
Triangles.
GEOMETRY
26
EXERCISES
On the Identical Equality of Two Thiangles
Theorems 4 and
(Theoretical)
"^1.
Shew that the
straight line
isosceles triangle to the

(i)
bisects the vertical angle
A BCD
which joins
(lie
vertex of an
middle point of the base,

:
is
(ii)
perpendicular to the base.
a rhombus, that is, an equilateral foursidcd

figure; shew, by drawing the diagonals AC, BD, that
/-^
2.
If
ABC
the angle
(i)
AC
(ii)
the angle
ADC;
BAD, BCD.
bisects each of the angles
the diagonals bisect one another at right angles.
(iii)
.3.
is
If in
a quadrilateral
AB
AD
namely
the angle
= CD and
ABC.
A BCD
the opposite sides are equal,

=
that the angle
ADC
= CB; prove
4.
If ABC and DBC are two isosceles triangles drawn on the
same base BC, prove (by means of Theorem 7) that the angle A B
the angle
satne side of
ACD,
BC,
taking (i) the case where the triangles are on the

the case where they are on opposile sides of BC.
(ii)
ABC, DBC
are two isosceles triangles drawn on opposite

same base BC, and if A D be joined, prove that each of
the angles BAC, BDC will be divided into two equal parts.
Shew that the straight lines which join the extremities of the
6.
/\base of an isosceles triangle to the middle points of the opposite
-Lj^
o.
If
sides of the
sides are equal to
7.
Two
s^
8.
Shew
one another.
given points in the base of an isosceles triangle are equi/oTstant from the extremities of the base; shew that they are also
equidistant from th<^ vertex.
tliat
9.
ABC
is
the angles at
(i)
the triangle formed by joining the middle points
an equilateral triangle
of the sides of
is
also equilateral.
an isosceles triangle having
AB
equal to
are bisected by BO and CO

(ii)
.10 bisects the angle /?. IT.
B and C
BO = CO;
AC;
and/(
shew that
The equal sides BA, CA of an isosceles triangle HAC are

pro(hiced beyond the vertex A to the points K and F, so that .1 E is
equal to .1 /'' and FB, I'JC ant joined shew that FB is equal to EC.
10.
/
^^_v^
TRIANGLES
27
EXERCISES ON TRIANGLES
(
Draw
1.
= r3".
a triangle
Measure the
ABC, having
angles,
and
given
Draw
3.
ABC, a = 7o em., b
the perpendicular from
a triangle
ABC,
in
= 20",
2-1,"
find their sum.
= 70
In the triangle
2.
Draw and measure

C =
Numerical and Graphical)
which
B
a
era.,
G'5 em.
on CA.
7 cm.,
fe
= G
cm.,
65.
How would you prove theoretically
that any two triangles having
these parts are alike in size and shape?
Invent some e.xperimental
illustration.
2'o",
Draw a second triangle, using as data the values just found

C and measure b, c, A. What conclusion do you draw?
for a,
Draw
4.
A =
B,
57;
a triangle from the following data:

and measure a, B, and C.
2", c
5.
When
ft.)
the sun
is
42 alxtve the horizon, a vertical pole casts
Represent this on a diagram (scale 1" to 10

and find by measiu'ement the approximate height of the pole.
a -shadow 30
ft.
long.
From a point .4 a surveyor goes 150 yards due East to B

6.
then 300 yards due North to C finally 450 yards due West to D.
and find roughly how far D
Plot his course (scale 1" to 100 yards)
Measure the angle DAB, and say in what direction D
is from A.
bears from A.
;
B and C
are two points, knov.-n to be 260 yards apart, on a

A is a vessel at anchor. The angles CBA, BCA
Find graphically the
are observed to be 33 and 81 respectively.
approximate distance of the vessel from the points B and C, and
7.
straight shore.
from the nearest point on shore.

In surveying a park it is required to find the distance be8.
tween two points .4 and B but as a lake inter\'enes, a direct measurement cannot be made. The surveyor therefore takes a third
point C, from which both 4 and B are accessible, and he finds CA
= 245 yards, CB = 320 yards, and the angle ACB = 42. Ascertain from a plan the approximate distance between A and B.
;
GEOMETRY
28
Theorem
If one side of a triangle
[FAiclid I.
8.
16]
produced, then the exterior angle
is
is
greater than either of the interior opposite angles.
ABC be
Let
a triangle, and
let
BC
be produced to D.
Z ACD
A ABC, BAC.
It is required to prove that the exterior

either of the interior opposite
Join
BE
Then
in the
AEB, CEF,
AE =
EB
because
[and the Z
CE,
= EF,
AEB =
the vertically opposite

so that the
But the Z
the Z
that is, the Z
.'.
In the same way,

to
all
BAE =
BCG
is
CEF
Theor. 4.
Z ECF.
than the Z ECF
than the Z BAE
than the Z BAC.
ECD is greater
ECD is greater
ACD is greater
if AC is produced
greater than the
respects
the
be joined to the middle point of BC,
the
than
Suppose E to be the middle point of AC.

and produce it to F, making EF equal to BE.
Join FC.
Proof.
/.
is greater
to
it
(7,
by supposing A
may
be proved that
Z ABC.
But the Z BCG = the vertically opposite Z ACD.

q.e.d.
:. the Z ylCD is greater than the Z ABC.
TRIANGLES
Corollary
Any
1.
29
two angles of a triangle are together
less
than two right angles.
ABC
For the Z
is less
A
Proved.
ACB areleas than the^ ^CD, ACB,
therefore, less than
Corollary
ACD:
add the Z ACB.
to each
Then the A ABC,
than the Z
two right angles.
BCD
Every triangle must have at
2.
least
two acute
angles.
For
if
one angle
the other angles
is
obtuse or a right angle, then by Cor.

U'ss than a right angle.
Corollary
straight line
each of
must be
Only one perpendicular can

3.
from a given point outside it.
be
drawn
to
two perpendiculars could be drawn to .4 B from

P, we should have a triangle PQR in which each of
the A PQR, PRQ would be a right angle, wiiich is
If
impossible.
EXERCISES
1.
Prove Corollary
by joining the vertex A
to
any point
in the
base BC.
2.
ABC
is
a triangle and
any point within
BDC is greater than the

producing BD to meet AC.
are joined, the angle

(i)
(ii)
by
by joining
.4
D, and producing
angle
it
it.
If
BAC.
BD and CD
Prove
this
towards the base.
If any side of a triangle is produced both ways, the exterior

3.
angles so formed are together greater than two right angles.
4.
outside
5.
To a given
it
If
drawn from a point

same given length.
straight line there cannot be
more than two
straight lines of the
the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are produced, the

must be obtuse.
exterior angles
GEOMETRY
30
Theorem
// one side of a triangle
opposite
[Euclid
9.
is greater
18]
I.
than another, then the angle
than the angle opposite
to the greater side is greater
to
the less.
Let
ABC be a triangle, in which
the side
tlie
side
AC is greater than
AB.
Z
ABC
than the
is greater
Z ACB.
AC
From
AD
cut off
Join
Because
Proof.
But the
.:
Still
the
more then
A B = AD,
Z
Z DCB; that
exterior
interior opposite
AB.
Theor. 5.
ABD = the Z ADB.
ADB of the A BDC is greater than the
the
.:
equal to
BD.
ABD
is
the
is
is,
greater than the
greater than the
ABC
Z ACB.
Z ACB.
Z ACB.
greater tlian the
Q.E.D.
Ohs.
is
The mode
known
whieh one
of
domonstration used in the following Theorem
as the Proof by Exhaustion.

of eertain snpponitions
It is
applicable to eases in
must necessarily be true; and
consists in shewinfj; that each of these su[)positions

exception:
is
false
hence the truth of the remaining supposition
is
/////(
it
our
inferred.
INEQUALITIES
Theorem
10.
31
[Euclid
I.
19]
// one angle of a triangle is greater than another, then the side

opposite to the greater angle is greater than the side opposite to
the less.
Lot
the
ABC be a ti-ianglc,
in
which the Z
AC
It is required to prove that the side
side
greater than the
then the
must be
by hypothesis,
is,
not greater than
it is
if
AC
AC
is
it is
were
less
[For Exercises on
o.
Theor.d.
than AB,
the
ACB
not.
neither equa^to, nor less than

.'.
not.
Z A 5C would be less than
by hypothesis,
That
is
either equal to, or less than
Again,
then the
AC
AB,
AB.
AB,
Now if AC were equal to
Z ABC would be equal to the Z ACB Thcor.
If
it
but,
is
AB.
Proof.
but,
ABC is greater than
Z ACB.
AC
is
greater than
Theorems 9 and 10
AB.
AB.
see
page
q.e.d.
34.]
GEOMETRY
32
Theorem U.
A ny
[Euclid
20]
I.
two sides of a triangle arc together greater than the third
side.
Let
ABC
be a triangle.
any two
of
its
sides are together
greater than the third side.

It is
BA,
enough to shew that
AC
if
BC
are together greater than
BA
Produce
to D,
making
DC.
the greatest side, then
is
BC.
AD equal
to
AC.
Join
Because
Proof.
:.
But the Z
.: the Z
the
AD =
ACD =
BCD is greater than

BCD is greater than
that
Hence from the
BD
is
is,
AC,
Z ADC.
Theor. 5.
the
the
the
than the
Z ACD
Z ADC,
Z BDC.
BDC,
greater than BC.
Theor. 10.
But BD = BA and AC together

and AC are together greater than BC.
;
BA
/.
Q.E.D.
Note.
Tlieoreni
may
serve as an exorcise, but the truth of the

For to so from B to (' along the
elearly shorter lliaii to iô from li (o .1 and (hen
This proof
is
really self-evident.
straight line liC
is
Jn other words
from A to
The shortest distance between two points
joins them.
is the straight line
which
INEQUALITIES
Theorem
Of
lines draicn
all straight
33
12
from a given point
to
a given
straight line the perpendicular is the least.
Let OC be the perpendicular, and OP any oblique, drawn

from the given point
to the given straight line AB.
Proof.
In the
OC
is less
since the
than OP.
OCP
is
a right angle,
Z OPC is less than a right angle Theor. 8.

the Z OPC is less than the Z OCP.
the
.*.
that
OCP,
is,
:.
OC
is less
than OP.
Cor.
Theor. 10.
Q.E.D.
Corollary
Hence conversely, since there can be only

one perpendicular and one shortest line from
to AB,
to AB, then OC is
If OC is the shortest straight line from
1.
perpendicular
to
AB.
Two obliques OP, OQ, which cut AB at equal

from C, the foot of the perpendicular are equal.
The A OCP, OCQ may be shewn to be congruent by Theorem 4
Corollary 2.
distances
hence
OP
^=^0Q.
Of two obliques OQ, OR, if OR cuts AB

from C, the foot of the perpendicular, then
than OQ.
Corollary
3.
at the greater distance
OR is
greater
The Z OQC
is
.-.
the Z OQR is obtuse;

OQR is greater than the Z ORQ;
:. OR is greater than OQ.
acute,
the Z
.-.
GEOMETRY
34
\
EXERCISES OX INEQUALITIES IX A TRIAXGLE

The hypotenuse
Xl.
The
2.
k^^/ the
"^
a right-angled triangle.
is the greatest side of
greatest side of
any
triangle
makes acute angles with each
other sides.
from the ends of a side of a triangle, two straight lines are

a point within the triangle, then these straight lines are together
>^^y/c6s than the other two sides of the triangle.
If
3.
drawn
to
BC, the base of an isosceles triangle ABC, is produced to any

shew that A D is greater than either of the equal sides.
4.
point
>
If in a quadrilateral the greatest and least sides are opposite

5.
_.
tIo one another, then each of the angles adjacent to the least side is
greater than
its
opposite angle.
In a triangle
().
ABC,
if
AC
is
not greater than AB, shew that

A and terminated by the
any straight line drawn through the vertex

base BC, is less than AB.
,%v
^f^
ABC
7.
'ACB
'(_,
is
a triangle, in which OB,
respectively
'greater than
The
shew
that,
if
AB
is
DC
bisect the angles
greater than
AC, then
ABC,
OB
isH
OC.
difference of
any two
sides of
a triangle
than the f
is less
third side.
The sum
SlyJirS.-
of the distances of
points of a triangle
'
is
any point from the three angular
greater than half
its
perimeter.
S~
A BC is a triangle, and the vertical angle BAC is bisected by

which meets BC in A' shew that BA is greater than BX, and
Hence obtain a proof of Theorem 11.
greater than CX.
/n
^v
10.
- line
CA
11.
from
its
The sum
any point within a triangle

than the perimeter of the trianglo^
of the distances of
angular points
is less
The sum of the diagonals of a quadrilateral is not greater

tlian the sum of the four straight lines drawn from the angular points
to any given point.
In what case are these sums equal?
12.
13.
In a triangle any two sides are together greater than twice the
,'/.';
median which hiserls the remaining side.
[Produce the median, and complete the construction after the
'
manner
_jL 14.
iXcr.
of
Theorem
S.]
In any triangle
the
sum
of the
medians
is less
than, the perim^
ho
L
PARALLELS
35
PARALLELS
Definition.
i"-}-
Parallel straight lines are such as, being in
same plane, do not meet however

beyond both ends.
the
far they are
produced
Note. Parallel lines must be in the same plane. For instance,

two straight lines, one of which is drawn on a table and the other on
the floor, would never meet if produced
but they are not for that
;
reason necessarily parallel.
Axiom.
lel to
Two
intersecting straight lines cannot both be paral-
a third straight
In other words
line.
Through a given point
there
can be only one straight line
parallel to a given straight line.
This assumption
is
known
as Playfair's Axiom.
Definition. When two straight Hnes AB, CD are met by

a third straight hne EF, eight angles are formed, to which
for the sake of distinction particular
Thus
in the adjoining figure,
7,
8 are called exterior angles,
3, 4, 5,
6 are called interior angles,
1,
names
are given.
4 and 6 are said to be alternate angles

so also the angles 3 and 5 are alternate
to one another.
Of the angles 2 and
6,
is
referred
and 6 as the
interior opposite angle on the same side
of EF.
Such angles are also known as corresponding angles.
Similarly 7 and 3, 8 and 4, 1 and 5 are pairs of corresponding
to as the exterior angle,
angles.
GEOMETRY
36
Theorem
[Euclid
13.
27 and 28]
I.
If a straight line cuts two other straight lines so as

(i) the alternate angles equal,
or
(ii)
an
(iii)
make
exterior angle equal to the interior opposite angle
the
or
to
same
the interior angles
angles
on
side of the cutting Ihu,
on
the
same
side equal to two right
then in each case the two straight lines are parallel.
(i)
AB,
Let the straight
CD
G and H
at
GHD equal
line
EGHF
so as to
cut the two straight Hues
make
the alternate
AG II,
to one another.
AB
and
CD
are parallel.
AB
and CD are not parallel, they will meet, if

produced, either towards B and D, or towards A and C.
If possible, let AB and CD, when produced, meet towards B
and D, at the point K.
Then KGH is a triangle, of which one side KG is produced
Proof,
to^
.'.
li
Z AGH
greater than the interior opposite
GHK but, by hypothesis, it is not greater.
AB ixmX CD cannot meet when produced towards B an<l
the exterior
Z
.".
is
/>.
Similarly
may
it
and C
be shewn that tluy cannot meet towards
.'.
AB
and
CD
are parallel.
37
Let the
(ii)
exterior
EGB =
the
interior
opposite
Z GHD.
It is required to
prove that
AB and CD are parallel.

EGB = the Z GHD,
Because the Z
Proof.
EGB =
and the Z
.-.
the

.46'//
the
G'//D
and these are alternate angles

Z ^ Gi/
'
Tt*
.".
(iii)
to
two
Let the two interior
Because the
Proof.
angles
GHD be together equal
AB
CD
and
A BGH,
are parallel.
GHD together =
two
right
and because the adjacent A

angles
/.
A BGH,
right angles.
BGH, A GH together = two right
the
A BGH, AGH together = A BGH, GHD.

From these equals take the Z BGH
remaining Z AGH =~the remaining Z GHD
;
then the

Definition.
lines is called
straight line
drawn across a
q.e.d.
set of given
a transversal.
For instance,
the given Unes
.'.
in the abo^'e diagi-am the line
AB, CD,
is
a transversal.
jQ]
EGHF, which
crosses
GEUMKTllY
38
Theorem
[Euclid
14.
I.
7/ a straight line cuts two parallel lines,

(i)
(ii)
the
it
makes
one another
the alternate angles equal to
on
the exterior angle equal to the interior opposite angle
same
(iii)
29]
side of the cutting line
the two interior angles nn the
same
side together equal to
two right angles.

rE
CD
Let the straight hues AB,

straight line
EGHF
be parallel, and
let
the
cut them.

(i)
the
(ii)
the
(iii)
the
AGH =
the alternate
OHD
exterior Z EOB = the interior

two interior A BGH, GHD
opposite
together
(ilU)
two right
angles.
Proof,
If the
(i)
suppose the Z
AGH
then
PG
and
But, by hypothesis,
.'.
is
CD
.47?
Z GHD, and
are parallel.
and
the two intersecting straight lines

to
CD
:.
which
the
that
is,
is
AGH
CD
is
GHD
it
Theor. 13.
;
are both i)arallcl
Plaiifair\
not une(]ual to the
A AGH,
alternate to
are i)arallel
AG, PG
impossible.
the alternate
GHD,
not equal to the Z
equal to the
P(f'//
GHD
Axiom.
;
are equal.
39
E(W =
AGH =
and the Z
.'.
PARALLELS
Again, Ijccausc the
(ii)
Z -AGH
the exterior
Lastly, the
(iii)
JS'CrB
the alternate
Z GHD; Proved.
Z GHD.
the interior opposite
EGB =
the
add to each the
Z
Z
6'///)
Proved.
fif/H
A EGB, BGH together = the angles BGH, GHD.

But the adjacent A EGB, BGH together = two right
then the
angles
.*.
the two interior
A BGH,
GHD
together
= two
right
q.e.d.
angles.
PARALLELS ILLUSTRATED BY ROTATION

direction of a straight line is determined by the angle which
makes \vith some given line of reference.
Thus the direction of AB, relatively to the given lino Y'X, is given
by the angle A PX.
Now suppose that AB and CD in
The
it
adjoining diagram are paralthen we have learned that the

= the int. opp. Z CQX
ext. Z
that is,
and CD make equal
angles with the line of reference
the
lel
APX
AB
YX.
This brings us to the leading idea
connected with parallels
same direction, but differ in position.

be illustrated thus
to rotate about P through the Z APX, so as to
Parallel straight lines have the
The same
Suppose
idea
AB
may
take the position AT. Thence let itlfotate about Q the opposite way
through the equal Z XQC it will now take the position CD. Thus
A B may be brought into the position of CD by two rotations which,
being equal and opposite, involve no final change of direction.
:
Ohs.
If
^B is a straight line,
B, and from
of the line
AB.
towards
movements from
towards
are said to be in opposite senses
GEOMETRY
40
Theorem
[Euclid
15.
I.
Straight lines which are parallel to the
30]
same
straight line are
parallel to one another.
G/
HA
Q
K4'
Let the straight hnes AB,

line
CD be each parallel to the straight
PQ.
AB
and
CD
are parallel to one
another.
Draw a
straight line
EF
cutting
AB, CD, and PQ
in
the
are parallel, and
EF
points G, H, and K.
Proof.
Then because
AB
and
PQ
meets them,
AGK
the alternate Z GKQ.

And because CD and PQ are parallel, and EF meets them,
the exterior Z GHD = the interior opposite Z GKQ.
.: the Z AGH = the Z GHD
.-.
the
.'.

q.e.d.
.*.
Hypothetical Construction.
AB
be a fixed straight
In the diagram on
CQX =
the fixed
line,
a fixed point,
p.
39
CD
a straight
line turning about Q, and YQPX any transversal through Q.
Then as CD rotates, there nmst be one position in which the
let
Z APX.
Hence through any given point we may assume a

any given straight line.
parallel to
line to pass
PARALLELS
'
41
EXERCISES ON PARALLELS
1.
In the diagram of the previous page,
express in degrees each of the angles GHC,
_L_
2.
if
the angle
EGB
is
55,
HKQ, QKF.
Straight lines which are perpendicular to the
same
straight line
are parallel to one another.

3.
If a straight line meets two or more parallel straight lines, and is
perpendicular to one of them, it is also perpendicular to all the others.
_;_
Angles of which the arms are parallel, each

4.
ywttaZ or supplementary.
^>j
5.
Two
straight lines
AB,
that the straight lines joining

6.
7.
CD bisect one another at

AC and BD are parallel.
Any
triangle
drawn
to each,
straight line drawn parallel to the base

makes equal angles with, the sides.
If
from any point
parallel to either
in the bisector of
arm
of
are either
Shew
S"
0.
an
isosceles
an angle a straight line

formed
of the angle, the triangle thus
is
is
isosceles.
)^
From X,
a point in the base BC of an isosceles triangle ABC,

in J',
drawn at right angles to the base, cutting
7ând CA produced
straight line
9.
angle
If
is
is
AB
in Z:
shew the triangle
AYZ
is
-J
isosceles.
the straight line which bisects an exterior angle of a trito the opposite side, shew that the triangle is
parallel
Sv
isosceles.
10.
The straight lines drawn from any point in the bisector of
an angle parallel to the arms of the angle, and terminated by them,
are equal
and the resulting figure is a rhombus.
;
11.
AB and CD are two straight lines intersecting at D, and the
adjacent angles so formed are bisected if through any point A' in
DC a straight line fXZ is drawn parallel to AB and meeting the bisectors in Y and Z, shew that Z F is equal to XZ.
:
Two straight rods PA, QB revolve about pivots at P and Q,

making 12 complete revolutions a minute, and QB making 10.
they start patrallel and pointing the same way, how long wiU it be
12.
PA
If
before they are again paralfel,

ing the same way?
(i)
pointing opposite ways,
(ii)
point-
_J
'
GEOMETRY
42
Theorem
The
three angles of
[Euclid
16.
I.
32]
a triangle are together equal
two right
to
angles.
CD
B
Let
It is required to
together
ABC
be a triangle.
two right angles.
Produce BC to any point D

through C parallel to BA.
BA
Because
and suppose
line
Proof.
A ABC, BCA, CAB
prove that the three
CE
and
CE
to be the
are parallel and ^4^ meets
them,
.-.
the
Again, because
ACE =
BA
and
the alternate
CE
Z CAB.
are parallel, and
BD
meets
them,
the exterior
.*.
ECD =
opposite
the interior opposite
Z ACD =
A CAB, ABC.
the ivhole exterior
.'.
sum
the
Z ABC.
of the two interior
then
To each of these equals add the Z BCA
=
CAB,
ABC.
the A 5CA, A CD together
the three A BCA,
But the adjacent A BCA, ACD together = two right
;
angles.
.'.
the
A BCA, CAB, ABC
together
= two
right angles.
Q.E.D.
Ohs.
In the course of this proof the following most im-
portant property has been established.

// a side of a triangle is produced, the exterior angle is equal
the
sum
to
of the two interior opposite angles.
Namely, the
ext.
ACD =
the
CAB +
the
Z ABC.
THE ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE

6
INFERENCES FROM THEOREM
a
If A, B, and
1.
of
denote the
number
43
16
of degrees in the angles
triangle,
then
A + B +C =
180.
If two triangles have two angles of the one respectively
2.
two angles of the other, then the third angle of the one
equal
to
equal
to the third
hi any right-angled
3.
is
angle of the other.

triangle the two acute angles are
com-
plementary.
If one angle of a triangle
4.
is
equal
to the
sum
of the other
two, the triangle is right-angled.
The sum
5.
to
of the angles of
any quadrilateral figure
is
equal
four right angles.
EXERCISES ON THEOREM
16
1.
Each
2.
In a right-angled isosceles triangle the angles are 45, 45, 90.
angle of an equilateral triangle
is
60.
_^ 3. Two angles of a triangle are 36 and 123 respectively

âuce the third angle and verify your result by measurement.
4.
In a triangle ABC, the Z B = 111, the Z C = 42;
duce the Z A, and verify by measurement.
One
5.
BC
of
ACD
is
side
exterior angle
the remaining interior
B =
51, find the
ABC
is
and the angle

angles.
c
produced to D.
B AC is 42,
If
'
de-
the
find each of
-i.
In the figure of Theorem
6.
/.
a triangle
134,
de-
16,
if
the
ACD
118,
and the
A A and C and check your results by measure;
ment.
Prove that
7.
A+B+C=
180 by supposing a line drawn through^J
the vertex parallel to the base.
// two straight lines are perpendicular
8.
,
each
to
to
two other straight lines,
each, the acute angle betiveen the first pair is equal to the acute "-^
/^nîe between
the second pair.
GEOMETRY
44
Corollary
All the interior angles of any rectilineal
1.
figure, together with four right angles, are equal to twice as
many
right angles as the figure has sides.
ABODE
Let
be a rectilineal figure of n
sides.
angles
all the interior
Take any point
A =
rt.
27i rt.
within the figure, and join
to each of
its vertices.
Then the
And
Hence
But
all
figure
the
all
the
is
the three
divided into n triangles.

of each
of all the
of all the
A together = 2 rt. A
A together = 2n rt. A
make up
all
of the figure together with the angles at 0,

.:
all
the
int.
of the figure
rt.
^4
the interior angles
which
= 2n
rt.
rt.
Q.E.D.
Definition.
sides equal
Thus
if
and
regular polygon
all its
one which has
all its
denotes the number of tU>grces in each angle of
a regular polygon of n
thus
is
angles equal.
above
sides, the
result
may
be stated
nD +
300
180.
EXAMPLE
Find the number of degrees in each angle of a regular
decagon
(iii)
(i)
hexagon (6 sides)
(ii) octagon
(8 sides)
;
(10 sides).
THE ANGLES OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES

ABC
1.
16
Numerical and Graphical)
'*
45
a triangle in which the angles at B and C are reand treble of the angle at A find the number of
is
spectively double
degrees in each of these angles.
The base of a triangle
i)
produced both ways, and the exterior ^*

angles are found to be 94 and 126
deduce the vertical angle.
Construct such a triangle, and check your result by measurement.
2.
is
The sum
/' 3.
of the angles at the base of a triangle
their difference is 60
is
162,
and "K
find all the angles.
The
4.
(i)
angles at the base of a triangle are 84 and 62 deduce

(ii) the angle between the bisectors of the base
Check your results by construction and measurement.
;
the vertical angle,
angles.
""^f^
In a triangle A EC, the angles at B and C are 74 and 62 if

aAid AC are produced, deduce the angle between the bisectors of
5.
AB
Check your
the exterior angles.
result graphically.
6.
Three angles of a quadrilateral are respectively 1145,
and 755; find the fourth angle.
In a quadrilateral
7.
A BCD,
spectively equal to 2 A, 3 A,
8.
122,
the angles at B, C, and

find all the angles.
and 4 A
9.
are re-
Four angles of an irregular pentagon

and 135 find the fifth angle.
/ t'
^ '""''-'
50,
(5 sides) are 40, 78,
In any regular polygon of n 'sides, each angle contains

right angles.
\\^ 'X
Deduce
from the Enunciation of Corollary 1.

(ii) Prove it independently by joining one vertex A to each of
the others (except the two immediately adjacent to A), thus dividing the polygon into ii-2 triangles.
(i)
10.
angles
this result
How many
is (i)
108,
sides
(ii)
have the regular polygons each
156?
of whoSte/
11.
Shew that the only regular figures which may be fitted together so as to form a plane surface are (i) equilateral triangles, (ii)
squares, (iii) regular hexagons.
'^,
GEOMETRY
46
Corollary
2.
// the sides of a rectilineal figure, which has
no re-entrant angle, are produced in order, then

angles so formed are together equal
rt.
of the
int.
A.
But by Corollary
1,
the
the
sides.
at each vertex'
the interior
.'.
all the exterior
four right angles.
Suppose, as before, that the figure has n
1st Proof.
Now
to
sum
sum
.".
of the int.
the
sum
Z = 2
the exterior
rt.
+ the sum of the n ext. A =
-\-
of the ext.
rt.
Z =
^
4
rt.
2/i
rt.
2n
Q.E.D.
2nd Proof.
and suppose Oa, Ob, Oc, Od, and Oe are

marked A, B, C, D, E (and drawn
from
in the .sense in which those sides were produced).
Then the ext. Z between the sides A and B = the Z aOb.
Take any point
0,
lines parallel to the sides
The other ext. A = the respective A bOc, cOd, dOe,

the sum of the ext. A = the sum of the Z at
= 4 rt. A
.'.
eOa.
THE ANGLES OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES
47
EXERCISES
I.
2.
is produced, shew that tiie

equal to the interior angle of an equilateral triangle.
one side of a regular hexagon
If
exterior angle
is
Express in degrees the magnitude of each exterior angle of

(ii) a regular decagon.
Q (-
y(i)& regular octagon,

3.
is (i)
How many
30,
(ii)
''
sides has a regular
polygon
if
each exterior angle
i<
24?
a str3,ight line meets two parallel straight lines, and the two
interior angles on the same side are bisected, shew that the bisectors
4.
If
meet at right angles.

5.
to
the base of any triangle is produced both ways, shew that

two exterior angles mirius the vertical angle is equal
of the
two right angles.

6.
by
If
sum
the
In a triangle
ABC
the base angles at
BO and CO respectively. Shew that

7.
In the triangle
A BC,
exterior angles are bisected
BOC
8.
of
90
by
BO
are bisected
BOC =
90
+^
AB, AC are produced, and the

Shew that the angle
and CO.
2
the bisectors of two adjacent angles
equal to half the sum of the remaining angles.
The angle contained by

The
is
straight
hne joining the middle point
of a right-angled triangle to the right angle
is
of the
hypotenuse
equal to half the
hypotenuse.
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF THEOREM

[A + B + C = 180]
In the A ABC, AD is perp. to BC, the
AD is bisected at right
greatest side.
angles by
ZF
and YP, ZQ are
perps.
16
on
BC.
If
- A
a quadrilateral
9.
the sides
B and C
the angle
now
the
is
folded about the three
dotted lines, the A A, B, and C will coincide with the AZDY,ZDQ, YDP;
.:
their
sum
is
180.
i'i>
GEOMETRY
48
Theorem
[Euclid
17.
T.
26]
If two triangles have two angles of one equal

and any
to
two angles of
side of the first equal to the cor-
responding side of the other, the triangles are equal in
Let
ABC,
DEF
all respects.

I A = the Z D,
the
the
and the
Z 5 =
side
BC =
the
Z E,
the corresponding side
EF.
A ABC, DEF are equal in all
respects.
The
Proof.
and the
=
A A and B =
the Z C =
.-.
Apply the A ABC

and BC along EF.
the point A, which
the
the
the
to the
Then, because
BC
Because the
A B
And because the A C
.'.
A A,
sura of the
Theor. IG.
C = 2 rt. A
sum of the A D, E, and F
A D and E respectively,
Z F.
DEF, so that B falls on E,
B,
= EF, C must
=
=
falls
coincide with F.
Z E, BA must fall along ED.

the Z F, CA must fall along FD.
both on ED and on FD, must cointhe
cide with D, the point in which these lines intersect.

.-.
the
A ABC coincides
with the
DEF,
and is therefore equal to it in all respects.

So that AB = DE, and AC = DF;
and the A DBC = the A DEF in area.
q.e.d.
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
49
EXERCISES
On the Identical Equality of Triangles
Shew that the perpendiculars drawn from the extremities of
1.
the base of an isosceles triangle to the opposite sides are equal.
Any
2.
arms of
point on the bisecloi- of
from
the
the angle.
straight line
is
from
it
4.
''(
is equidistant
0, the middle point of a straight line AB, any

//
and
are droppedyk > >Vm}^
drawn, and perpendiculars
If
AX
A and B: shew
that
5.
If in
is
is
BY
equal to BY.
%^
is
at right
is isosceles.
If
manner
of
Theorem
8.]
The middle point
parallel straight lines,
from the
of
and
is
any straight
line
which meets two
terminated by them,
is
equidistant
parallels.
drawn between two parallels, and terminated

shew that any other straight line passing
through the middle point and terminated by the parallels is also
8.
straight line
by them,
is
bisected
bisected at that point.

9.
lines,
If
through a point equidistant from two parallel straight
two straight
lines are
drawn cutting the
parallels, the portions
of the latter thus intercepted are equal.
to ascertain the breadth of a river which he

Standing at a point A near the bank, he notes an object
B immediately opposite on the other bank. He lays down a line AC of
any length at right angles to AB, fixing a mark at 0, the middle point of
AC. From C he walks along a line perpendicular to AC until he
reaches a point D from which O and B are seen in the same direction.
He noio measures CD : prove that the result gives him the width of the
10.
/ A\*H
a"
the bisector of the vertical angle of a triangle also bisects

the base, the triangle is isosceles.
[Produce the bisector, and complete the construction after the
7.
*"
isosceles.
a triangle the perpendicular from the vertex on the base
bisects the base, then the triangle
AX
the bisector of the vertical angle of a triangle
angles to the base, the triangle
'
Through
3.
upon
an angle
e>.^0
surveyor wishes
'cannot cross.
river.
GEOMETRY
50
ON THE IDENTICAL EQUALITY OF TRIANGLES

Three cases of the congruence of triangles have been dealt
4, 7, 17, the results of which arc
with in Theorems
Two
triangles are equal in all respects
three parts in each are severally equal

1.
Two
2.
The
3.
Two
the included angle.
three sides.
angles
CORRESPONDING
Two
and
sides,
when the
and one
to that
following
side, the side given in
Theorem
4.
Theorem
7.
one triangle
Theorem
given in the other.
17.
triangles are not, however, necessarily equal in all
when any three parts of one are equal to the corresponding parts of the other.
respects
For example
(i)
When
the three angles of one are
equal to the three angles of the othei",

each to each, the adjoining diagram
shews that the triangles need not be

equal in
(ii)
all
respects.
When
two sides and one angle in one are equal to two
sides and one angle of the other, the given angles being opposite
to equal sides, the diagram below shews that the triangles
need not be equal
in all respects,
>^
For
ii
Z DEF,
AB
it
the triangle
Note.
p-
= DE, and AC = DF, and
F
the
ABC =
the
will be seen that the shorter of the given sides in
DEF may lie in either of the positions DF or DF'.
See also Theorem
IS, p. 51,
and Problem
0, p. 85.
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
51
TllEOKEM 18
Two right-angled
and one
triangles which have their hypotenuses equal,
side of one equal to one side of the other, are equal in all
respects.
Let
DEF be
ABC,
two right-angled
which
triangles, in
DEF are right angles,

the hypotenuse AC = the hypotenuse DF,
and AB = DE.
It is required to prove that the A ABC, DEF are equal in all
the
A ABC,
respects.
DEF, so that AB falls

Apply the A ABC to the
Proof.
on the equal line DE, and C on the side of DE opposite to F.
Let
be the point on which C falls.
Then
DEC
represents the
Since each of the
A DEF,
A ABC in its new position.

DEC a right angle,
is
EF and EC are in one straight line.

in the A CDF, because DF = DC
the Z DEC = the Z DCF.
Hence in the A DEF, DEC,
/.
And
{i.e.
.:
the
because] the
[
/.
that
Z DEC, being
Z DCE,
common.
Theor.
right angles
5.
Proved
A DEF, DEC are equal in respects Theor. 17.

the A DEF, ABC are equal in all respects.
the
is,
and
DEF = the
DFE = the
the side DE is
Z
Z
AC),
all
Q.E.D.
GEOMETRY
52
Theorem
//
livo triangles
[Euclid
19.
I.
24]
have two sides of the one equal
to
two sides of
the other, each to each, but the angle included
by the two sides of

one greater than the angle included by the corresponding sides
of the other ; then the base of that which has the greater angle is
greater than the base of the other.
KG
Let
It is
ABC,
DEF
be two triangles, in which
BA = ED, and AC = DF,

but the Z BAC is greater than the Z EDF.
required to prove that BC is greater than EF.
Proof.
on D, and
Apply the
A ABC to the A DEF,
AB
DE.
along
so that
falls
AB = DE, B must coincide with E.

GE represent AC, CB in their new position.
Then if EG passes through F (Fig. 1), EG is greater than
EF; that is, BC is greater than Ef.
But if EG does not pass througV^ (Fig. 2), suppose that
DK bisects the Z FDG, and meets EG in A'. Join FK.
Then because
Let DG,
becaus(> J
j^j^^j
Now
the
A FDK,
GDK,
common to both,
^^^ included Z FDK = the included Z GDK;
Thcor. 4.
.: FK = GK.
two sides E K, KF are greater than EF;
Then "in the
FD = GD,
that
is,
.:
EG
and
DK
EK, KG
(or
BC)
is
EF.
EF.
are greater than
is
greater than
q.e.d.
CONVERSE OF THEOREM
Conversely,
//
53
19
two triamjles have two sides of the one equal to
two sides of the other, each to each, but the base of one greater
than the base of the other; then the angle contained by the sides
of that which has the greater base is greater than the angle con-
tained by the corresponding sides of the other.
Let
but
ABC,
DEF
BA = ED,
and AC = DF,
the base EC is greater
than the base EF.
BAC
than the
is greater
/.EDF.
Proof.
If
the
must be
it
Now
if
the
BC
then the base

but,
BAC h
^
BAC
were equal to the
would be equal to the base
by hypothesis,
BC
is,
the
EDF
.-.
BAC
is
Theor. 4.
if the Z BAC
BC would be less than the base EF
by hypothesis, BC is not less than EF.
Again,
That
EF
not equal to EF.

were less than the Z EDF,
is
then the base

but,
Z EDF,
Z EDF.
Z EDF,
not greater than the
either equal to, or less than the
Theor. 19.
neither equal to, nor less than the
the
Z BACis
greater than the
Z EDF.
Q.E.D.
Theorems marked with an asterisk may
at the discretion of the teacher.
be omitted or
postponed
GEOMETRY
54
REVISION LESSON ON TRIANGLES
State the properties of a triangle relating to

the
the
(i)
(ii)
sum
sum
of its interior angles

of its exterior angles.
What
With
property corresponds to (i) in a polygon of n sides?

what other figures does a triangle share the property (ii) ?
Classify triangles with regard to their angles.
2.
any Theorem or Corollary assumed

Enunciate two Theorems
3.
sides a conclusion
is
drawn
in
Enunciate
in the classification.
which from data relating
to the
relating to the angles.

a = 3'6 cm., b = 28 cm., c
= 3-6 cm.,
In the triangle ABC, if
arrange the angles in order of their sizes (before measurement) and
prove that the triangle is acute-angled.
;
Enunciate two Theorems
4.
angles a conclusion
is
drawn
in
which from data relating
to the
relating to the sides.
In the triangle ABC, if

(i) A = 48 and B = 51, find the third angle, and
name
the
greatest side.
A = B 62 1 ,
(ii)
find the third angle,
and arrange the
sides
in order of their lengths.
From which of the conditions given below may we conclude

ABC, A'B'C are identically equal? Point out
where ambiguity arises and draw the triangle A BC in each case.
(^=^'=71.
fo=a'=4-2cm.
f^=yl'=3G.
(iii) \b = B' = 121.
(i)
B = B' =46.
(ii) \h=h' =24 cm.
a =a'. =3-7 cm.
C=C' =81.
C = r =23.
5.
that the triangles
(iv)
I
6.
erally
a=
b=
c
a'
6'
c'
=30 cm.
=5-2 cm.
=4"5 cm.
Summarise the
R = /?'=53.
(v)
results of the last question
by
stating gen-
under what conditions two triangles

(i)
(ii)
are necessarily congruent;

may or may not be congruent.*
7.
If two triangles have their angles equal, each to each, the triangles
are not necessarily equal in all respects, because the three data are not
independent.
Carefully explain this statement.
EXERCISES ON TRIANGLES
(Miscellaneous Examples)
The perpendicular is the shortest line

given straight line from a given point.
(ii) Obliques which make equal angles with
8.
(i)
that
can be drawn
to
the perpendicular are
equal.
Of two
(iii)
obliques the less is that which ynakcs the smaller angle
with the perpendicular.
'^"
// two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of
and have likewise the angles opposite to one pair
of equal sides equal, then the angles opposite to the other pair of equal
sides are either equal or supplementary,
and in
the
former case
the
triangles are equal in all respects.

10.
AT.
PQ is a perpendicular (4 em. in length) to a straight

Draw through P a series of obliques making with PQ
angles lo", 30, 45, G0, 75.
and tabulate the

11.
PAB
is
Measure the lengths
the
of these obliques,
results.
a triangle in which
lengths 4 cm. and 3 cm.
If
AB
in
and AP have constant

and AP rotates about A,
increases from 0 to 180.
AB
fixed,
PB, as the angle .4

by drawing a series of figures, increasing A
30.
Measure PB in each case, and tabulate the
trace the changes in
Answer
line
this question
by increments
of
results.
12.
From B, the foot of a flagstaff A B, a horizontal hne is drawn,
passing two points C and D which are 27 feet apart. The angles
BCA and
are 65 and 40 respectively.
Represent this on a
BDA
diagram (scale 1 cm. to 10 ft.), and find

proximate height of the flagstaff.
bj^
measurement the ap-
13.
From P, the top of a lighthouse PQ, two boats A and B are
seen at anchor in a line due south of the hghthouse.
It is known
that PQ = 126 ft., Z PAQ = 57^ Z PBQ = .33; hence draw a
plan in which 1" represents 100 ft., and find by measurement the
distance between A and B to the nearest foot.
14.
From a lighthouse L two ships A and B, which are 600
yards apart, are observed in directions S.W. and 15 East of South
respectively.
At the same time B is observed from A in a S.E.
direction.
Draw a plan (scale 1" to 200 yds.), and find by measurement the distance of the lighthouse from each ship.
GEOMETRY
56
PARALLELOGRAMS
DEFINITIONS
1.
by four
The
quadrilateral
is
straight line which joins opposite angular
points in a quadrilateral
2,
a plane figure bounded
straight lines.
parallelogram
whose opposite
is
is
called a diagonal.
a quadrilateral
sides are parallel.
be proved hereafter that the opposite

and that its
opposite angles are equal.]
[It will
sides of a parallelogram are equal,
3.
rectangle
has one of
its
a parallelogram whicli
is
angles a right angle.
[It will be proved hereafter that all the angles

a rectangle are right angles. See page 59.]
4.
square
is
of
a rectangle which has two
adjacent sides equal.

[
will
equal and
5.
has
be proved that
all its
all the sides of a square are

angles right angles. Sec page 59.
A rhombus
all
its
is
a quadrilateral which
sides equal, but its angles are
not right angles.
6.
ojie
trapezium
is
a quadrilateral which has
pair of parallel sides.
PARALLELOGRAMS
Theorem
The
[Euclid
20.
I.
57
33]
and
same parts are themselves
straight lines ivhich join the extremities of two equal
parallel straight lines towards the
equal and parallel.
AB and CD be equal and parallel straight lines and

them be joined towards the same parts by the straight
lines AC and BD.
Let
let
AC and BD
are equal
and
parallel.
Join BC.
Proof.
AB
Then because
CD
and
are parallel,
and
BC
meets them,
the
.-.
ZABC =
Now
in the
BC
is
common
I and the Z
.'.
A ABC,
AB =
because
the alternate
DCB,
DC,
to both
ABC =
Z DCB.
the
Z DCB
all
Proved.
respects
AC = DB,
ACB = Z DBC.
so that
and the Z
But
(i)
these are alternate angles
AC and BD are parallel

AC and BD are both equal and
..
That
is,
(ii)
parallel.
Q.E.D.
gf:ometiiy
58
Theorem
The opposite
sides
[Euclid
21.
and angles
of
34]
I.
a parallelogram are equal
to
one another, and each diagonal bisects the parallelogram.
D>
ABCD
Let
BD
be a parallelogram, of which
is
a diagonal.
AS =
(i)
CD, and
BAD =
ADC =
the
the
A CDB
and
DC
are parallel, and
(iii)
the
I
Z
(iv)
the
AABD
Because
AB
= CB,
the
Proof.
AD
Z DCB,
Z CBA,
(ii)
the
in area.
BD
meets
them,
the
.-.
Because
AD
and
ABD
BC
.4/)i}
Hence
in the
[the
because
the
[and
.'.
are
the
.-.
=
=
the alternate
jiarallel,
A ABD,
CDB,
Z CDB,
the Z CBD,
common to both
is
the
AB = CD, and AD = CB
the Z BAD = the Z DCB
the A ABD = the A CDB in
so that
and
and
meets them,
Z CBD.
triangles are equal in all respects
tlie
And
BD
and
the alternate
Z ABD =
Z A DB =
BD
Z CDB.
Proved.
;
Thcor. 17.
(i)
(ii)
because the Z i4D^ = the
CDB =
the
Z .4DC =
the
and the Z
.-.
the whole
area
(iv)
Proved.
Z CBD,
Z ABD,
(iii)
whole Z CBi4.
.
Q.E.D.
PARALLELS AKD PARALLELOGRAMS

CoRoi.LAUY
angle, all
// one angle of a parallelo(jram
1.
59
is
a right
its
In other words:
All the angles of a rectangle are right angles.
*.
if
For the sum of two consecutive A = 2 rt. ^*; (Theor. 14.)

one of these is a rt. angle, the other must be a rt. angle.
And
the opposite angles of the par"* are equal;

.'.
all the angles are right angles.
Corollary
its
All the sides of a square are equal; and
2.
all
Corollary
The diagonals of a 'parallelogram
3.
Let the diagonals AC,
A BCD
bisect
one
another.
BD
oi the par*^'
intersect at 0.
AG =
To prove
In the
OC, and
BO = OD.
A AOB, COD,
f
because
I
I
.:
OAB =
AOB =
and AB =
the Z
the Z
OA = OC;
^^-Ô
and
the
Z OCD,
opp. Z COD,
alt.
vert.
the opp. side
CD;
OB = OD.
Theor. 17.
EXERCISES
1.
// the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure is a
parallelogram.
2. If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure is a

parallelogram.
3. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the figure
parallelogram.
4.
The diagonals of a rhombus
5.
If the
bisect
one another
is
at right angles.
diagonals of a parallelogram are equal,
all its
angles
are right angles.

6. In a parallelogram which
unequal.
is
not rectangular the diagonals are
GEOMETRY
60
EXERCISES ON PARALLELS AND PARALLELOGRAMS

(Symmetry and Superposition)
1. Shew that by folding a rhombus about one of its diagonals
the triangles on opposite sides of the crease may be made to coincide.
That is to say, prove that a rhombus is symmetrical about either
diagonal.
2.
Name
Prove that the diagonals of a square aro axes of symmetry.

two other lines about which a square is symmetrical.
3. The diagonals of a rectangle divide the figure into two conis the diagonal, therefore, an a.xis of symmetry ?
gruent triangles
About what two lines is a rectangle symmetrical?
:
there
Is
4.
symmetrical ?
axis about which an oblique parallelogram

Give reasons for your answer.
any
In a quadrilateral
5.
the sides are not

of
a.xis
6.
all
ABCD, AB = AD and CB = CD;

Which
equal.
of the diagonals
(if
either)
is
but
is
an
symmetry?
Prove by the method
of superposition that
Tivo parallelograms are identically equal if two adjacent sides of
(i)
one are equal to two adjacent sides of the other, each to each, aiid one
angle of one equal to one angle of the other.
(ii)
Two rectangles are equal if two adjacent sides of one are equal
to two adjacent sides of the other, each to each.
Two
7.
quadrilaterals
ABCD, EFGH
have the sides AB, BC,
DA
equal respectively to the sides EF, FG, GH, HE, and have
equal to the angle FEII. Shew that the figures
also the angle
may be made to coincide with one another.
CD,
BAD
(Miscellaneous Theoretical Examples)

8.
Any
is
drawn through the middle point of a diagoand terminated by a pair of opposite sides,
straight line
nal of a parallelogram
bisected at that point.
9. In a parallelogram the perpendiculars drawn from one pair of

opposite angles to the diagonal which joins the other pair are equal.
10.
If
ABCD
is
a parallelogram, and
middle points of the sides

a parallelogram.
AD, BC
.V,
shew that the
respectively
figure
the
AY'CX
is
PARALLELS AND PARALLELOGRAJMS

11.
ABC
and
DEF
01
AB, BC are
DE, EF; shew that AC is
are two triangles such that
respectively equal to and parallel to
equal and parallel to DF.

12.
ABC D
is
a quadrilateral
in
which A B
is
parallel to
DC, and
shew that
equal but not parallel to BC
(i) the Z ^ + the Z C = 180 = the Z B + the Z D;
(ii) the diagonal AC = the diagonal BD;
(iii) the quadrilateral is symmetrical about the straight lino joining the middle points of AB and DC.
AD
13.
AP, BQ
are straight rods of equal length, turning at equal
rates (both cloekrwise) about

If
two
fixed pivots
A and B
respectively.
the rods start parallel but pointing in opposite senses, shew that
(i)
(ii)
they
will
always be parallel
PQ will always pass through a
the line joining
{Miscellaneous
N umerical
fi.xed
point.
and Graphical Examples)
yacht sailing due East changes her course successively by

63", by 78, by 119, and by 64, with a view to saiUng round an
island.
What further change must be made to set her once more
on an Easterly course?
14.
15. If the sum of the interior angles of a rectihneal figure is

equal to the sum of the exterior angles, how many sides has it, and
why?
in
16. Draw, using your protractor, any five-sided figure ABCDE,

which
Z C = 115, Z D = 93,
Z E = 152.
Z 5 = 110,
Verify by a construction with ruler and compasses that

parallel to
BC, and account theoretically
AE
is
for this fact.
17. A and B are two fixed points, and two straight lines AP,
BQ, unlimited towards P and Q, are pivoted at .4 and B. AP,
starting from the direction A B, turns about A clockwise at the uniform rate of 7^ a second and BQ, starting simultaneously from
the direction BA, turns about B counter-clockwise at the rate of
;
3| a second.
In how many seconds will .4 P and BQ be parallel ?

Find graphically and by calculation the angle between
and BQ twelve seconds from the start.
(iii) At what rate does this angle decrease?
(i)
(ii)
AP
GEOMETRY
62
THEOKEM 22
If there are three or more 'parallel straight lines, and the intermade by them on any transversal are equal, then the cor-
cepts
respondinq intercepts on any other transversal arc also equal.
P/
PARALLELS AND PAKALLELOGKÛIS

Corollary, hi a triangle ABC,
drawn parallel to the base,
Rr,
if
63
set of lines
equal parts, they also divide the other side
AC
Pp, Qq,
AB
divide one side
into
into equal parts.
may thus
Note. The lengths of the parallel.s /'/^ Qq, Rr,
be expressed in terms of the base BC.
Through p, q, and r let pi, q'2, r'S be drawn par' to AB.
Then, by Theorem 22, these par's divide BC into four equal parts,
of which Pp evidently contains one, Qq two, and Rr three.
.
In other words,
Pp =
Similarly
if
i-
Qq = I- BC;
the given par'^ divide
Pp = 1 BC,
.
BC;
Qq
71
*^* Problem
=-
BC,
^4
Rr =
Rr
n
7, p. 78,
BC.
into n equal parts,
=BC;
n
and
so on.
should now be worked.
DEFINITION
of a straight hne AB perpendiculars
BY are drawn to a straight hne PQ of indefinite length,
then X Y is said to be the orthogonal projection of AB on PQ.
If
from the extremities
AX,
"7-Q
TP^
GEOMETRY
64
EXERCISES OX PARALLELS AND PARALLELOGRAMS

The
1.
drawn through
straight line
triangle, parallel to the base, bisects the
[This
is
Theorem
an important particular case
of
22.
A A BC,
In the
AB, and
the middle point of a side of a

remaining side.
ZF
is
if
drawn
is
the middle point of
par' to
BC, we have
AY = YC.
Draw YX par' to AB, and
^ZAY, XYC congruent.]
to
prove that
then prove
tin-
2.
The straight line which joins the
middle points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side.
A ABC, if Z, Y are the middle

AB, AC, we have to prove Z}'
[In the
points of
BC.
Produce ZY to V, making IT equal
Z Y, and join C V. Prove the S^ A YZ, CY V congruent.)
par' to
to
The
3.
straight line
which joins the middle points of
of a
tivo sides
triangle is equal to half the third side.
Sheiv that the three straight lines which join the middle points
4.
of the sides of a triangle, divide
Any
5.
is bisected
it
into four congrtient triangles.
drawn from
the vertex of a triangle to the base

by the line which joins the middle points of the other sides.
straight line
BCD
is a parallelogram, and A',

6.
A
the opposite sides AD, BC shew that
:
}'
are the middle points of
BX
7.
// the middle points of adjacent sides of
joined, the figure thus formed is a parallelogram.
and
DY
trisect
AC.
any quadrilateral
are
Shew that the straight lines which join the middle points of
8.
opposite sides of a quadrilateral, bisect one another.
From, two points A and B, and from O the mid-point be9.
tween them, perpendifuilars A P, BQ, OX are drawn to a straight
line CD.
If AP, BQ measure respectively 42 cm. and 5-8 cm.,
deduce the length of OX, and verify your result by measurement.
UAP
OX =
+ BQ) or i(-l/^ - f^Q)' according as
are on the same side, or on opposite sides of CD.
Shew that
and
PARALLELS AND PARALLELOGRAMS

10.
When
transversals,
three parallel lines cut off equal intercepts from two

of the three parallel lengths between the two
shew that
transversals the middle one
IL
The
is
the Arithmetic
parallel sides of a trapezium are
timetres in length.
Mean
of the other two.
a centimetres and b cen-
Prove that the line joining the middle points of the
oblique sides is parallel to the parallel sides,
^(a
65
and
that
.its
length is
b) centimetres.
OX and OY
and along OA' five points

Through these points
Measure the
parallels are drawn in any direction to meet OY.
lengths of these parallels
take their average, and compare it with
Prove geometrically that the 3'"'*
the length of the third parallel.
12.
1, 2, 3, 4,
are two straight Unes,
5 are marked at equal distances.

:
parallel is the
mean
of all five.
State the corresponding theorem for any odd

of parallels so
13.
are
From
drawn
to
number
(2 n
1)
drawn.
the angular points of a parallelogram perpendiculars
any
shew that the sum
straight line which
is
outside the parallelogram
drawn from one pair of oppothe sum of those drawn from the
of the perpendiculars
angular points is equal to

other pair.
[Draw the diagonals, and from their point of intersection suppose
a perpendicular drawn to the given straight line.]
site
14.
The sum of the perpendiculars drawn from any point in the
base of an isosceles triangle to the equal sides is equal to the perpendicular drawn from either extremity of the base to the opposite side.
[It follows that the sum of the distances of any point in the base
of an isosceles triangle from the equal sides is constant, that is, the
same whatever point in the base is taken.]
How would this property be modified if the given point were taken
in the base produced?
15.
The sum of the perpendiculars drawn from any point within
an equilateral triangle to the three sides is equal to the perpendicular drawn from any one of the angular points to the opposite side,
and is therefore constant.
16.
Equal and
other straight hne.

F
parallel
Unes have equal projections on any
GEOMETRY
66
DIAGONAL SCALES
Diagonal scales form an iniportant application of Theorem
22.
We
shall illustrate their construction
scribing a Decimal Diagonal Scale
to
and use by de-
shew Inches, Tenths
and Hundredths.
straight line
points of division
OA
is
AB
is
subdivided into
numbered (from
divided (from
marked
0, 1, 2,
tenths, these
0) 1, 2, 3, ... 9.
inches and tenths of an inch.
.4) into inches,

.
The
and the
primarj^ division
secondary divisions being

read on AB
We may now
DIAGONAL SCALES
till
67
the other point reaches 4 in the subdivided inch

2-4 inches in the dividers.
A.
We
have
now
To
move the right-hand

reaches the 7^^ parallel.
Then extend the diA-iders till the left point reaches the diagonal 4
also on the 7^^ parallel.
We have now 2-47 inches in the dividers.
(ii)
point
get the remaining 7 hundredths,
up the perpendicular through 2
till it
REASON FOR THE ABOVE PROCESS

The
first
second
is
The reason
Theorem 22.
step needs no explanation.
found
in the Corollary of
of the
Joining the point 4 to the corresponding
we have a triwhich one side 4,4 is divided

into ten equal parts by lines parallel to 4,5.
point on the tenth parallel,
angle
4,4,5; of
Therefore the lengths of the parallels be-
tween
4,4,
and the diagonal

which is 1
... of the base,
Hence these lengths

1
are
4,5 are ^q, -f^,
-^q,
inch.
01, -02,
-03, ... of
*3
inch.
Thus, by means of the scale, the length of a straight

hne may be measured to the nearest hundredth of an inch.
Again, if one inch-division on the scale is taken to represent 10 feet, then 247 inches on the scale will represent 24-7
feet.
And if one inch-division on the scale represents 100
links, then 2-47 inches will represent 247 links.
Thus a
diagonal scale
is
of service in preparing plans of enclosures,
where it is necessary that every dimension of the actual object must be represented by a line
of proportional length on the plan.
buildings, or field-works,
NOTE
The
subdixision of a diagonal scale need not be decimal.

For instance we might construct a diagonal scale to read centimetres, millimetres, and qîarters of a millimetre
in which case we
;
should take /owr parallels to the hne
AB.
GEOMETRY
68
EXERCISES ON LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Draw straight lines whose lengths are
1.
1-25 inches, 2-72 inches,
3- 08 inches.
Draw a Une 2- 68 inches long, and measure its length in centi2.

metres and the nearest millimetre.
Draw a hne 5-7 cm. in length, and measure it in inches (to
3.
Check your result by calculation, given
the nearest hundredth).
that 1 cm. = 0-3937 inch.
Find by measurement the equivalent of 3- 15 inches in centi4.
metres and milUmetres. Hence calculate (correct to two decimal
places) the value of 1 cm. in inches.
Draw lines 2-9 cm. and 6-2 cm. in length, and measure them
5.
Use each equivalent to find the value of 1 inch in centiin inches.
metres and milUmetres, and take the average of your results.
6.
Draw
distance of 100 miles
is
represented on a map by 1 inch.

336 miles and 408 m.iles.
lines to represent distances of
If 1 inch on a map represents 1 kilometre, draw lines to rep7.

resent 850 metres, 2980 metres, and 1010 metres.
drawn to the scale of 1 inch to 100 links. Measure

and millimetres a line representing 417 Unks.
Find to the nearest hundredth of an inch the length of a line
9.
which will represent 42-500 kilometres in a map drawn to the scale
8.
plan
is
in centimetres
of
centimetre to 5 kilometres.
10.
The
55 miles.
distance from
If this
distance
London
is
to
Oxford
(in
a direct
map by 2-75
how many miles
represented on a
line) is
inches,
will be
map drawn ? That is,
represented by 1 inch? How many kilometres by 1 centimetre?
1 km. = f mile, nearly.]
[1 cm. = 0-3937 inch;
11.
On a map of France drawn to the scale 1 inch to 35 miles,
to
what
scale
is
the
Find
the distance from Paris to Calais is represented by 4-2 inches.
the distance accurately in miles, and approximately in kilometres,
and express the scale in metric measure. [1 km. = J mile, nearly.]
The distance from Exeter to Plymouth is 371 miles, and

12.
appears on a certain map to be 2\" and the distance from Lincoln
Cômto York is 88 km., and appears on another maj) to lx> 7 cm.
pare the scales of these maps in miles to the inch.
Draw a diagonal scale, 2 centimetres to represent 1 yard,
13.
shewing yards, feet, and inches.
;
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
69
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
PROBLEMS
The
of
any
and
measurement
following problems arc to be solved with ruler
No
compasses only.
line or angle
made without
step requires the actual
that
is
to say, the constructions are to be
using either a graduated scale of length, or a
protractor.
The problems
are not mereh' to be studied as propositions
but the construction
by the
in
every case
is
to be actuall}' performed
learner, great care being given to accuracy of drawing.
Each problem is followed by a theoretical proof but the

work should always be verified by measurement,
Accurate measurement is also
as a test of correct drawing.
;
results of the
required in applications of the problems.
In the diagrams of the problems lines which are inserted

only for purposes of proof are dotted, to distinguish them
from
lines necessary to the construction.
For practical applications
of the
problems the student
should be provided with the following instruments

1.
flat ruler,
one edge being graduated in centimetres
and millimetres, and the other iiTinches and tenths.

2.
Two
set squar.es
one with angles of 45, and the
other with angles of 60 and 30.

,
3.
4.
5.
A
A
A
pair of pencil compasses.

pair of dividers, preferably with screw adjustment.
semi-circular protractor.
GEOMETRY
70
Problem
To
bisect
a given angle.
Let
BAC
be the given angle to be bisected.
With centre A, and any

cutting AB, AC aî P and Q.
Construction.
arc of a circle
With centres
P and Q,
and radius
at 0.
Join
Then
BAC
the
In the
!AP
PO =
and
AO
in
bisected
by
.40.
that
PQ
XoTF.
fontros
/'
the point O.
is,
lias
the
QO,
"
common
"
it is
equal
circles,
all
respects
Theor. 7.
PAO = the Z QAO

BAC is bisected by AO.
been lakcii as the radius of
and Q, and the
Ami
AQO,
being radii of a circle,

so that the
vided that
is
A APO,
= AQ,
tJiP
two arcs cutting
AO.
Join PO, QO.
Proof.
.".
PQ draw
draw an
radius,
\\\v
arcs
drawn from
determined
hv used instead of /*(.'. pro-
inttTst'clion of thoso arcs
radius, however,
may
great enough to secure the intersection of the arcs.
PROBLEMS ON LINES AND ANGLES
71
Problem 2
To
a given straight
bisect
A-
AB
Let
be the line to be bisected.
With centre A, and radius AB, draw two
Construction.
arcs,
AB.
BA, draw two
one on each side of
With
side oi
line.
centre B, and radius
AB,
cutting the
Join PQ,
AB
Then
Proof.
arcs,
one on each
P and Q.
cutting AB at 0.
first
is
arcs at
bisected at 0.
AP, AQ, BP, BQ.

the A APQ, BPQ,
= BP, being radii of
Join
!AP
AQ
In
equal
circles,
^ BQ, for the same reason,

and PQ is common
the Z ^PQ = the Z BPQ.
Theor. 7.
Again in the A APO, BPO,
AP = BP, and PO is common,
because
and the Z APO = the Z BPO
.: AO = OB
Theor. 4.
;
.-.
that
is,
AB
is
bisected at 0.
Note. From the congruence of the il^ APO, BPO

that the Z AOP = the Z BOP. As these are adjacent
follows that
PQ
bisects
AB
at right angles.
it
follows
angles,
it
GEOMETRY
72
Problem
To draw a
at
straight line perpendicular to a given straight line
a given point in
it.

Problem
Second Method
3.
Take any point
Construction.
With centre C, and radius
AB
circle cutting
A',
draw
to
meet
at D.
DC, and produce
Join
AB.
outside
73
it
the circumference of the circle at 0.
Join
Then
XO
is
XO.
AB.
perp. to
Because
and because
.:
CX.
Join
Proof.
CO = CX
CD = CX
Z
the whole
Z CXO = the Z COX

Z CXD = Z CDX.
= the Z XOD + the Z XDO
XO
Problem
the
.-.
DXO
/,
the
.'.
i of 180
perp. to
is
90.
AB.
Third Method
3.
With centre
Construction.
and any radius, draw the arc
CDE,
cutting
AB
at C.
Wîth centre C, and with the
same
the
radius,
first
draw an
arc, cutting
arc at D.
With centre D, and with the

same radius, draw an arc, cutting the
first
arc at E.
Bisect the
XO
is
Then
Proof.
Each
of the
and the Z
.:
That
DXE by XO.
perp. to
A CXD,
DXO
the
is,
is
XO
DXE is 60;
Z DXE
half of the
CXO
is
is
Prob.
AB.
90.
perp. to
AB.
1.
GEOMETRY
74
Problem 4
To draw a straight
from a given external
line perpendicular to
point.
a given straight line
-^
Let A' be the given external point from which a perpen(hcular
is
drawn to AB.
Take any point C on the
to be
Construction.
side oi
AB
re-
mote from A'.

With centre A", and radius XC, draw an arc to cut AB at
P and Q.
With centres P and Q, and radius PA', draw arcs cutting
at Y, on the side oi AB opposite to X.
Join
XY cutting AB at
XO
0.
AB.
Join PX, QX, PY, QY.
Then
Proof.
In the
iPX
PY
is
perp. to
APXY,QXY,
= QX,
= QY,
being radii of a
for the
same
circle,
reason^
Xy common
Z PXY = the Z QXY.
Again, in the A PXO, QXO,
and
.-.
is
because
and the Z
the Z
.-.
And
Theor.
the
PX = QX,
XO is common,
PXO = the Z QXO
AOP = the Z XOQ.
these being adjacent angles, each
that
is,
XO is
perp. to
is
Theor. 4.
a right angle,
AB.
7.
75
0&.<;.
When the point A' is nearly opposite one end of AB,
one or other of the alternative constructions given below
should be used.
Problem
Take any
Construction.
AB.
Join DA', and bisect
With centre
XO
is
in
at C.
AB
Join
Then
point
it
and radius CX, draw

at D and 0.
C,
a circle cutting
Second Method
4.
XO.
AB.
perp. to
For, as in Problem
3,
Second ^lethod, the Z
XOD
is
right angle.
Problem
Third Method
4.
Take any two points

and E in AB.
With centre D, and radius DA', draw
Construction.
an arc of a
circle,
on the side of
AB op-
posite to A'.
With
centre E, and radius
EX, draw
another arc cutting the former

Join
XY,
XO is
Then
(i)
Prove
equal in
all
cutting
the
AB
perp. to
at,
F.
at 0.
AB.
A XDE, YDE
respects
by Theorem 7,
Z XDE = the Z YDE.
so that the
(ii) Hence prove the A XDO, YDO equal in all respects

by Theorem 4, so that the adjacent ADOX, DOY are equal.
That is, XO is perp. to AB.
GEOMETRY
76
Problem
At a given point in a given
equal
to
line
make an angle
straight line to
a given angle.
D B
Let
BAG
and
IQ G
be the given angle, and
FG
the given straight
be the point at which an angle
let
is
to be
made
equal to the Z BAC.

With
Construction.
centre A, and with anj- radius, draw

and AC at D and E.
With centre 0, and with the same radius, draw an arc
an arc cutting
cutting
FG
AB
at Q.
centre Q, and with radius

former arc at P.
\\"\\\i
liie
.Join
TluMi
POQ
is
arc cutting
OP.
the required angle.
Join
Proof.
DE, draw an
ED, PQ.
A POQ, EAD,
= AE, being radii of equal circles,
OQ = AD, for the same reason,
PQ = ED, by construction
In the
10P
.'.

so that the
all
respects
Z POQ = the Z EAD,
Theor. 7.
77
Problem
Thrnugh a given point
to
given straight line.
Let
XY
draw a
straight line parallel to
yO
be the given straight hne, and
through which a straight hne
is
to be
the given point,
drawn
par' to
XY.
In A'}' take any point A, and join OA.

Using the construction of Problem 5, at the point
on
the Hne AO make the Z AOP equal to the Z OA Y and alterConstruction.
nate to
it.
Then
Proof.
makes the
*
*
is
parallel to
XY.
Because AO, meeting the straight

alternate
A POA OA Y
,
.-.
OP
equal
lines
OP, XY,
OPispar^toXy.
The constructions
of Problems 3, 4,
followed in practical applications.
and 6 are not usually

and perpendicu-
Parallels
may be more quickly drawn by the aid of set squares.

Lessons in Experimental Geometry, pp. 36, 42.)
lars
{See
GEOMETRY
78
Problem
To
Let
divide a given straight line into
any numJ>cr
nf equal parts.
AB be the given straight hne, and suppose it is required
to divide
into five equal parts.
it
From A draw AC, a straight hnc of unhmited length, making any angle with AB.
From AC mark oH five equal parts of any length, AP, PQ,
QR, RS, ST.
Join TB
and through P, Q, R, S draw i)ai'^ to TB, meetConstruction.
ing
AB
Then
in p, q, r,
s.
since the par'* Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss,
parts from
(Theorem
AT, they
TB
22.)
SECOND METHOD
From A draw AC at any angle with
AB, and on it mark o^ four equal parts
AP, PQ, QR, RS, of any length.
From B draw BD ))ar' to AC, and on
it mark off BS', S'R', R'Q', Q'P', each
equal to the parts marked on AC.
Join PP', QQ', RR', SS' meeting
in p, q,
r,
s.
Then
cut
off five
also cut off five equal parts
AB
is
AB
divided into
five equal parts at these points.
[Prove by Theorems 20 and
22.]
equal
from AB.
79
EXERCISES ON LINES AND ANGLES

{Graphical Exercises)
By
Construct (with ruler and compasses only) an angle of 60.

repeated bisection divide this angle into four equal parts.
2.
By means
1.
of Exercise 1, trisect a right angle; that
is,
divide
it
into three equal parts.
Bisect each part, and hence shew how to trisect an angle of 45.
[No construction is known for exactly trisecting any angle.]
Draw a line 6-7 em. long, and divide it into fire equal parts.
3.
Measure one of the parts in inches (to the nearest hundredth), and
verify your work by calculation.
[1 cm. = 0-3937 inch.]
From
4.
work by
3- 72" long, cut ofif one seventh.

Measure
and the nearest millimetre, and verify your
a straight line
the part in centimetres

calculation.
At a point A' in a straight line AB draw XP perpendicular

to AB, making XP 1-8" in length.
PYom P draw an oblique PQ,
3-0" long, to meet AB in Q. Measure XQ.
5.
(Problems.
State your construction,
and
give a theoretical proof)
AT
In a straight line
find a point whichis equidistantfrom
two given points A and B.
When is this impossible?
6.
In a straight line
7.
XY
find a point
which
is
equidistant from
two intersecting Unes AB, AC.
When
is
this impossible?
a given point P draw a straight line PQ, making vnih

a given straight Une AB a,ji angle of given magnitude.
From
8.
From two given
9.
line
with
A B, draw two
points
P and Q on
fines Avhich
meet
in
the same side of a straight

equal angles
A B and make
it.
[Construction.
From P draw PH perp. to AB, and produce PH

to PH.
Join P'Q cutting ^4 fi at A'. Join
PK, QK are the required lines.]
to P',
making HP' equal
PK.
Prove that
Through a given point P draw a straight Une such that the

perpendiculars drawn to it from two points A and B may be equal.
10.
Is this
always possible?
GEOMETRY
80
THE CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES

Problem 8
To draw a
Let
a, b, c
triangle having given the lengths of the three sides.
be the lengths to which the sides of the required
triangle are to be equal.
Draw
Construction.
from
a part
it
BC
anj^ straight line
equal to
BX, and
With centre B, and radius c, draw an arc of a

With centre C, and radius h, draw a second
the
first
Join
Obs.
:
circle.
arc cutting
at yl.
AB, AC.
Then ABC is the required

sides BC, CA, AB are equal
ways
cut off
a.
The
three data
a,
triangle, for
to a,
b,
b, c
may
by construction the
respectively.
be understood in two
either as three actual lines to which the sides of the
triangle are to be equal, or as three numbers expressing the
lengths of those lines in terms of inches, centimetres, or
some
other linear unit.

NoTE.s.
(i) In order that the construction may be possible it is
necessary that any two of the given sides should be together greater
than the third side (Theorem 11); for otherwise the arcs drawn from
the centres B and C would not cut.
(ii)
The
A would, if eontinued, cut again on the

Thus the construction gives two triangles on
ares which cut at
other side of BC.

opposite! sides of
a common base.
81
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES

been seen (page 50) that to prove two triangles
must be given equal to
the corresponding parts of the other (though any three parts
This amounts to
do not necessarily serve the purpose).
saying that to determine the shape and size of a triangle ice
It has
identically equal, three parts of one
must know three of
To
parts: or, in other words,
construct a triangle three independent data are required.
For example, we
(i)
its
When
may
fivo sides
construct a triangle
{h,
c)
and the included angle (A) are
given.
The method
(ii)
When
Here, since
f or
of eonstruetion in this case is obvious.
two angles (A, B) and one side (a) are given.
A and B are given, we

A + B + C = 180.
at once
Hence we have only to draw the base equal

to o, and at its ends make angles equal to
B and C for we know that the remaining
angle must necessarily be equal to A.
know C
^^-r^
'^^
'
(iii)
If the three angles
problem
is
A, B, C are given (and no
indeterminate, that
is,
the
number
side),
A
the
of solutions is
unlimited.
For if at the ends of any base we make angles equal to

and C, the third angle is equal-to A.
This construction
is
indeterminate, because the three data
are not independent, the third following necessarily from the
other two.
GEOMETRY
82
Problem
To
confitrnd a triangle having give?! two sides
opposite
to
and an angle
one of them.
C,
Let
b, c
be the given sides and
Take any
Construction.
Z XBY
From BY
the
With
the given angle.
straight line
BX, and
at
B make
equal to the given Z B.

cut off
BA
equal to
centre A, and radius
If this arc cuts
same
BX
in
c.
draw an
b,
arc of a circle.
two points Ci and d, both on the
side of B, both of the
AABCi,
ABd satisfy the
given
conditions.
This double solution

will
from
occur when h
.4
is
known
is
less
than
Ambiguous Case, and

but greater than the perp.
as the
on BX.
EXERCISE
Draw
figures to illustrato the nature
and number
of solutions in
the following eases

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
When
When
When
When
h is greater
than
h is equal to
c.
r.
h is equal to the perpendicular

b
is
less
from
than this perj)endicalar.
.1
on BX.
Problem
To
83
10
construct a right-angled triangle having given the hypot-
enuse and
Let
otie side.
AB
be the hypotenuse and
the given side.
and with centre 0, and

Bisect AB at
OA, draw a semicircle.
With centre A, and radius P, draw an arc to cut the semiConstruction.
radius
circle at C.
Join
Then
AC, BC.
ABC is
the required triangle.
Join OC.
Proof.
Because
:.
the
:.
the whole
the
Z OAC.
OB = OC;
the Z OCB = the Z OBC.
Z ^CB = the Z OAC + the Z OBC
And
.-.
OA = OC;
Z OCA =
because
=
=
i of 180
90.
Theor. 16.
GEOMETRY
84
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES

(Graphical Exercises)
Draw a triangle whose sides are 7-5 em., 6-2 cm., and 5-3 cm.
1.
Draw and measure the perpendiculars dropped on these sides
from the opposite
vertices.
a triangle, given a = 3- 00", b - 2- 50", c - 2-75".

MeasBisect the angle A by a line which meets the base at A'.
and hence
ure BX and XC (to the nearest hundredth of an inch)
2.
Draw
calculate the value of
R ^V to two places of decimals.
Compare your
C -\
result with the value of c/b.
Two sides of a triangidar field are 315 j'ards and 260 yards,
3.
and the included angle is known to be 39. Draw a plan (1 inch to
100 yards) and find by measurement the length of the remaining
side of the field.
4.
ABC is a triangular plot of ground, of which the base BC is
75 metres, and the angles at B and C are 47 and 68 respectivelj\
Draw a plan (scale 1 cm. to 10 metres). Write down without measurement the size of the angle A and by measuring the plan, obtain
also the
the approximate lengths of the other sides of the field
perpendicular drawn from A to BC.
5.
A yacht on leaving harbour steers N.E. sailing 9 knots an
hour. After 20 minutes she goes about, steering N.W. for 35 minutes
;
and maldng the same average speed as before. How far is she now
from the harbour, and what course (appro.ximately) must she set
Obtain your results from a chart of the whole
for the run home?
course, scale 2 em. to
knot.
right-angled triangle, given that the hypotenuse

Measure the third side b;
c = 10-6 cm. and one side a = 5-6 cm.
and find the value of Vo'^-o-'. Compare the two results.
7.
Construct a triangle, having given the following parts:
6.
B =
tions.
Draw a
34, b
=5-5
cm.,
=8-5 cm.
Measure the two values
of n,
Shew
and
two soluand shew that
that there are

also of C,
the latter are supplementary.

8.
In a triangle ABC, the angle A = 50, and ft = 6-5 cm.

by figures the cases which arise in constructing the triangle,
(iv) a = 4 cm.
(iii) a --= 5 cm.
(ii) u = 6 cm.
(i) a = 7 cm.
Illustrate
when
85
'9.
Two straight roads, which cross at right angles at A, are
The distance
carried over a straight canal by bridges at B and C.
between the bridges is 461 j'ards, and th? distance from the crossing
to the bridge
of
it
is
Draw a
261 yards.
ascertain the distance from
Stale your construction,
(Problems.
10.
Draw an
an altitude
of 6-2
plan,
and by measurement
to C.
.4
and
give a theoretical proof)
on a base of 4 cm., and having

Prove the two sides equal, and measure them
isosceles triangle
cm.
to the nearest milhmetre.

11.
Draw an
having
isosceles triangle
its
vertical angle equal to
a given angle, and the perpendicular from the vertex on the base
e<iual to a given straight line.
Hence draw an equilateral triangle in which the perpendicular
from one vertex on the opposite side is 6 cm. ^Measure the length
of a side to the nearest millimetre.
12.
on
Construct a triangle
BC
is
50
respectively.
.4
BC
in
which the perpendicular from

are 5-8 cm. and 90 cn^
AB, AC
cm., and the sides
Measure BC.
Construct a triangle ABC having the angles at B and

equal to two given angles L and .V, and the perpendicular from
on BC equal to a given line P.
13.
14.
two angles
15.
On
.4
and C and the
BC
side
C
.4
(without protractor) having given

b.
a given base construct an isosceles triangle having

a given angle L.
its
vertical angle equal to

16.
of the
Construct a right-angled triangle, ha\-ing given the length

hypotenuse c, and the sum of the remaining sides a and b.
If c =5-3 cm., and a +b =7-3 cm.,

and calculate the value of Va^ -i- b-.
17.
graphically;
+T=
ABC
+c =
a
6-5 em.,
Measure the lengths

19.
and
Construct a triangle, given the perimeter and the angles at

12 cm., B = 70, C = 80.
For example, a -\-b
the base.
18.
find a
of b
and
from the following data:

10 em., and B = 60.
c.
ABC from
a = 7 cm., c b = I cm.,
Measure the lengths of b and c.
the following data:
and
B =
55.
GEOMETRY
86
THE CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS

been shewn that the shape and size of a triangle are
completely determined when the lengths of its three sides are
A quadrilateral, however, is not completely detergiven.
It has
mined by the lengths
From what
of its four sides.
follows
it
will appear that jive independent data are required to con-
struct a quadrilateral.
Problem
To
aides,
Let
11
construct a quadrilateral, given
and one
a, h, c,
d be
given lengths of the sides, and
tlie
angle between the sides equal to a and
Take any
Construction.
from
i\
AB
four
the lengths of the
angle.
equal to
Make
the
From
.4
the
d.
straight line
AX, and
a.
cut off
,
Z BA Y equal to the Z A.
Y cut o^ AD equal to d.
With centre D, and radius

With centre /?, and radius
c,
h,
draw an aic of a circle.

draw another arc to cut the
former at C.
Join
Then A BCD
is
DC, BC.
the required quadrilateral; for by construc-
tion the sides are equal 1o a.

t.)
the given angle.
h, c, d,
and the Z
DAB
is
ocjual
CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS
Problem
87
12
To construct a parallelogram having given two adjacent

and the included angle.
Let
P and Q
be the two given sides, and
Construction
A5 equal to P
and make AD
1.
;
-1 llie
sides
given angle.
(With ruler and compasses.) Take a line

at A make the Z B.4D equal to the Z A
and
equal to Q.
With centre D, and radius P, draw an arc of a

With centre B, and radius Q, draw another arc
circle.
to cut the
former at C.
Then A BCD
is
the required par.
Join
Proof.
In the
because
[
.-.
the
DB.
A DCB, BAD,
{DC^BA,
CB = AD,
and
CDB =
DB
common
is
the
and these are alternate

Also
DA
and
BC
2.
Theor.
7.
are also equal

.-.
Construction
angles,
DC is pai-' to AB.
DC ^ AB
/.
.'.
ABD
ABCD
is
and
parallel.
Theor. 20.
par"*.
{JVith set squares.)
Draw
AB and AD as
DC par^ to
then with set squares through D draw

AB, and through B draw BC par' to AD.
before
By construction ABCD is
a pai having the required parts.
GEOMETRY
88
Problem
To
Let
AB
13
construct a square on a given side.
be the given side.
1.
{With ruler and compasses.) At A draw
Â" perp. to AB, and cut off from it AD equal to AB.
With B and D as centres, and with radius AB, draw two
Construction
arcs cutting at C.
Join BC,
Then A BCD
Proof.
pai-".
As
And
rectangle.
ill
Problem
Also,
Construction
DC.
the required square.
ABCD may
12,
Z BA D
since the
is
2.
A BCD
{With
is
cut off from
Through
D draw DC par' to AB,
pai-*
to
AD
meeting
DC
equal to
At
A draw
.4 A'
perp.
AB.
and through
B draw BC
in C.
Then, by construction, ABCD is a rectangle.

[Def.
page 56.]
Also it has the two adjacent sides AB, AD eciual.
.'.
a square.
set squares.)
AD
is
sides arc equal.
all its
AB, and
it
be shown (o be a
a right angle, the figure
by construction
.'.
to
is
it is
a square.
3,
CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS
89
EXERCISES
Ox THE Construction of Quadrilaterals
Draw a rhombus
each of whose sides is equal to a given

also to be one diagonal of the figure.
Ascertain (without measurement) the number of degrees in each
angle, giving a reason for your answer.
1.
straight Hue FQ, which
is
2.
Draw a square on a side of 2-5 inches. Pro^-e theoretically
that its diagonals are equal and by measuring the diagonals to the
nearest hundredth of an inch test the correctness of your dâ^ving.
;
Construct a square on a diagonal of 30", and measure the

sidjo.
Obtain the average of your results.
3.
length of each
Draw
4.
AB
a parallelogram A BCD, having given that one side

and the diagonals AC, BD are 8 cm., and 6 cm.,
5-5 em.,
Measure AD.
The diagonals of a certain
respectively.
quadrilateral are equal (each 6-0

cm.), and they bisect one another at an angle of 60.
Shew thatyife
5.
independent data are here given.

Construct the quadrilateral. Name its species; and give a
If the angle
formal proof of your answer. Measure the perimeter.
between the diagonals were increased to 90, by how much per cent
would the perimeter be increased?
In a quadrilateral A BCD,
6.
AB = 5-6 cm., BC = 2-5 cm., CD = 40 cm., and DA = 3-3 cm.
Shew that the shape of the quadrilateral is not settled by these data.
Draw the quadrilateral when (i) A = 30, (ii) A = 60. Why

does the construction fail when A = 100?
Determine gi-aphically the least value of A for which the construction
fails.
Shew how
to construct a quadrilateral, ha^-ing given the

lengths of the four sides and of one diagonal.
What conditions mtist
hold among the data in order thatÎie problem may be possible?
7.
Illustrate
your method by constructing a quadrilateral
ABCD,
when
(i)
AB = 30", BC = 1-7", CD = 2-5", DA = 2-8", and the

BD = 2-6". Measure AC.
AB = 3-6 cm., BC = 7-7 cm., CD = 6-8 cm., DA =5-1
and the diagonal AC = 8-5 cm. Measure the angles at B
diagonal
(ii)
cm.,
and D.
GEOMETRY
90
LOCI
The locus of a point is the path traced out
moves in accordance with some given law.
Definition.
by
when
it
it
Suppose the point P to move so

1.
distance from a fixed point
is constant
Example
that
(say
its
1
centimetre).
Then
the locus of
is
evidently the circum-
ference of a circle whose centre

1
is
and radius
cm.
Example 2.
Suppose the point P
moves at a constant distance (say 1 cm.)
from a fixed straight
Then
line
.4
B.
one or other of
two straight lines parallel to AB, on
either side, and at a distance of 1 cm.
from it.
the locus of
Thus the
dition,
is
locus of a point,
moving under some given con-
consists of the line or lines to
thereby restricted
which the point
provided that the condition
is
is
satisfied
by every point on such line or lines, and by no other.

When we find a series of points which .satisfy the given
law, and tln-ough which therefore the moving point must pass
we
are said to plot the locus of the point.
LOCI
91
Problem
To find
the locus of
from two fixed points
Here the point
14
a point
P which
P moves
and
moves so
that its distances
are always equal to one another.
through
all
positions in which
PA =
PB;
.'.
one position of the moving point
is
the middle point
at
olAB.
P to be amj
PA = PB.
Suppose
that
is,
let
other position of the moving point
Join OP.
Then
in the
POA, POB,
PO is common,
because
OA = OB,
and PA = PB, bj' hypothesis
the Z POA = the Z POB.
Hence PO is perpendicular to AB.
.-.
Theor.
7.
That
on
is,
every point
which
the straight line bisecting
Likewise
it
may
dicular through
This
is equidistant
AB
from
and
lies
at right angles.
be proved that every point on the perpenis
equidistant from
and B.
line is therefore the required locus.
GEOMETRY
92
Problem
To find
the locus of
a point
15
P which moves
dicular distances from two given straight lines

to
so that its perpen-
AB, CD
are equal
one another.
Let
be any point such that the perp.
PM
the perp.
PN.
Join
the
because
in the
A PMO, PXO
side
if
P lies within
tor of that angle
and,
if
are right angles,
OP
PM
is

so that the
Hence,
A PMO,
the hypotenuse
and one
.'.
is
AB, CD.
PNO,
to 0, the intersection of
Then
POM
the
common,
one side
all
the
Z BOD,
it
PN
respects
Thcor. 18.
Z PON.
must he on the
bisec-
within the Z
AOD,
it
must be on the
bisector of
that angle.
It follows that the required locus is the pair of lines
bisect the angles between
AB
and CD.
which
LOCI
93
INTERSECTION OF LOCI
The method
point which
is
of Loci
may
be used to find the position of a
subject to two conditions.
For correspond-
ing to each condition there will be a locus on which the re-
quired point must

to these
two
Hence
lie.
that
loci,
loci, will satisfy both
is, all
all
points which are
common
the points of intersection of the
the given conditions.
Example 1. To find a point equidistant from

A, D, C which are not in the same straight line.
(i) The locus
of points equidistant
three given points
from A and R is the straight line PQ,

which bisects AB a,t right angles.
(ii)
Similarly, the locus of points equi-
B and C is the straight hne

RS, which bisects BC at right angles.
Hence the point common to PQ and
RS must satisfy both conditions that is
distant from
X the
to say,
and RS
point of intersection of PQ
will be equidistant from A, B, and C.
Example
altitude,
Let
and
AB
2.
To
construct a triangle, having given the base, the
the length of the
median which
P and
bisects the base.
be the given base, and
the lengths of the altitude and median
respectively.
Then the triangle is known if its
vertex is
known.
(i) Draw a straight hue CD parallel to
AB, and at a distance from it equal to P
then the required vertex must lie on CD.
(ii) Again, from

the middle point of ^ 5 as centre, with radius
equal to Q, describe a circle
theii the required vertex must lie on this circle.
Hence any points which are common
to
CD
and the
circle satisfy
both the given conditions that is to say, if CD intersect the circle

in E, F, each of the points of intersection might be the vertex of the
required triangle. This supposes the length of the median Q to be
greater than the altitude.
:
GEOMETRY
94
It
may happen
that the data of the problem are so related to one

loci do not intersect.
In this case the
impossible.
another that the resulting
problem
is
In examples on the Intersection of Loci the student
Obs.
make
among
should
a point of investigating the relations which must
may be
he
must
observe
that
if
certain
relations
possible
and
under
two solutions are possible, and under other relations no soluexist
the data, in order that the problem
tion exists, there will always be
some
under which the two solutions combine
intermediate relation
in
a single solution.
EXAMPLES ON LOCI
Find the locus of a point which moves so that its distance
1.
(measured radially) from the circumference of a given circle is
constant.
2.
in
which
3.
P moves along a straight line RQ

equidistant from two given points
point
it is
A and B
4.
which
5.
B.
find points
How many
on
such
point P moves along a straight line RQ; find the position

equidistant from two given straight lines
and CD.
AB
it is
A and B
method
find the position
A and
are two fixed points within a circle
the circumference equidistant from A and B.

points are there?
in
of loci
cm. apart. Find by the

two points which are 4 cm. distant from A, and 5 cm.
are two fixed points
from B.
6.
AB
and
CD are
two given straight

4 cm. from CD.
lines.
Find points 3 cm.
How many
solutions are
straight rod of given length slides between
two straight
distant from
AB, and
there?
7.
rulers placed at right angles to
one another.
Plot the locus of its middle point

and shew that this locus is the
[See Problem 10.)
fourth part of the circumference of a circle.
;
8.
On
described.
a given bas(> as hypotenuse right-angled triangles are

Find the locus of thi'ir vertices.
EXAMPLES ON LOCI
A
9.
is
fixed point,
BC.
line
and the point
95
X moves on a fixed straight
'
AX; and
Plol the locus of P, the middle point of
to be a straight line parallel to
prove the locus
BC.
A is a fixed point, and the point -Y moves on the circumfer10.

ence of a given circle.
and prove that this
Plol the locus of P, the middle point of
[See Ex. 3, p. 64.]
locus is a circle.
AX
11.
AB
is
drawn from A
given straight
a.
to
any
AX
and
line,
is
the perpendicular
straight line jiassing through B.
If
BX
re-
AX.
volve about B, find the locus of the middle point of
12.
Two straight Hnes OX, OY cut at right angles, and from P,
are drawn
a point within the angle XOY, perpendiculars PM,
PN
to
OX,
OY
(i)
(ii)
And
in
Plot the locus of
respectively.
PM + PN
PM P N
is
is
constant
constant
(
(
P when
= 6
= 3
cm., say)
cm., say).
each case give a theoretical proof of the result you arrive at
experimentallJ^
13.
Two
straight lines
and from a movable point

OX, OY.
OX,
OY
intersect at right angles at
perpendiculars
Plot (without proof) the locus of P,

(i)
(ii)
PM
PM
=
=
2
3
PM, P N
are
drawn
0;
to
when
PN;
P iV.
Find a point which is at a given distance from a given point

and is equidistant from two given parallel straight lines.
When does this problem admit of two solutions, when of one
only, and when of none?
14.
S is a fixed point 2 inches distant from a given straight line

Find two points which are 2| inches distant from S, and also
2| inches distant from MX.
15.
MX.
16.
Find a
a given straight
all
from a given point <S' and

a curve freehand passing thi'ough
series of points equidistant

line
MX.
Draw
the points so found.

17.
On a
given base construct a triangle of given altitude, hav-
ing its vertex on a given straight line.

18.
Find a point equidistant from the three
sides of
a triangle.
;; ;
GEOMETRY
96
Two
19.
straight lines
OX
points in
and
OY
OY
cut at right angles and Q and

Plot the locus of the middle
;
when
point of QR,
(i)
(ii)
S and
20.
OX,
respectivelj'.
S' are
OQ + OR =
OQ OR =
two
constant;
constant.
Find a
fixed points.
series of points
such that
(i)
(ii)
In each case
SP +
SP
S'P = constant
S'P = constant
(say 3-5 inches)
(say 1-5 inches).
draw a curve freehand passing through
all
the points
so found.
ON THE CONCURRENCE OF STRAIGHT LINES IN A

TRIANGLE
I.
The perpendiculars drawn
middle points are concurrent.
Let
AfiCbea A, and X, Y,Z
points of
to the sides
of a triangle
from
their
the middle
its sides.
From Z and Y draw perps.

Join OX.
to
^4
B,
A C,
meeting at 0.
required
It is
to
to
prove that
OX
is pcrp.
BC.
Join
YO bisects AC at right angles,

the locus of points equidistant from A and
Becau.se
Proof.
.'.
OA, OB, OC.
it is
.:
it is
OC.
AB
ZO bisects
Rt right angles,
the locus of points equidistant from .1 and
Again, because
.'.
OA =
.: OA = OB.
Hence OB = OC.
.'.
is
on the locus of points equidistant from

that is, OX is pcrp. to BC.
Hence the perpendiculars from

at O.
tlu;
B and C
mid-points of the sides meet
CONCURRENCE OF LINES
The
II.
Let
BCA
IN A TRIANGLE
bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
ABC
he a A.
by straight
Bisect the
lines
A ABC,
which meet at 0.
'
J 0171 AO.
It
required
is
97
to
prove that
AO
bisects
Z BAC.
From
draw OP, OQ,
sides of the A.
OR
perp. to the
Because
BO
bisects the
the
Proof.
.'.
it is
OP =
:.
Similarly
CO
is
OP =
OR =
Hence
is
BA
and
BC
OR.
the locus of points equidistant from

.-.
.".
Z A BC,
the locus of points equidistant from
BC and CA
OQ.
OQ.
on the locus of points equidistant from AB and AC;

that is, OA is the bisector of the Z BAC.
Hence the bisectors of the angles meet at 0.
q.e.d.
The bisectors of an interior argê.at one vertex of a

11a
and of the exterior angles nt the other vertices are concurrent.
Let ABC be a A, and let AB be produced to D and AC be produced to E.
Bisect the
A CBD, BCE by
triangle
straight lines
which meet at 0.
Join AO.
It
is
required
to
prove that
Z BAC.
From draw OP, OQ, OR
AE, AD.
AO
bisects
the
Proof.
As
perp. to
BC,
in Exercise II prove that
OP = OR,
OP = OQ,
OR = OQ;
and hence that the bisectors
at 0.
of the angles
BAC, CBD, BCE, meet

Q.E.D.
GEOMETRY
98
III.
The medians of a triangle are concurrent
Let ABC he a A.
and CZ be two of its medians, and
let them intersect at O.
Join AG,
and produce it to meet BC in A'.
Let
BY
It is required to
shew
AX
that
is the
remain-
k.
ing median of the A-
Through C draw
CK
parallel to
produce ^.V to moct

Join
Proof.
}' is
A AKC,
the middle point of
.'.
that
are the middle points of
.4
in the
parallel to
CK,
Theor. 22.
A ABK,
B,
A K,
ZO is parallel to BK,
is, OC is parallel to BK,
BKCO is
the figure
.'.
is
K.
Again
Z and O
AC, and YO
the middle point of
.1
is
:.
since
BY
at K.
BK.
In the
because
CK
But the diagonals
a par.
par bisect one another

A' is the middle point of BC.
That is, .4 A' is a median of the AHence the three medians meel at the ])()int O.
of a
.'.
Dep'initiox.
The point of intersection of the medians
the centroid of the triangle.
q.e.d.
is
called
Corollary. The three 7nedians of a triangle cxt onr another at n

point of trisection, the greater segment in each being towards the angular
point.
For
above
in the
figure
it
has been proved that
= OK,
.40
OX is half of OK
OX is half of 0.4
also that
.-.
that
is.
Similarly
O.V
is
OY
and OZ
one third of .4 X.
one third of BY,
one third of CZ.
is
is
Q.E.O.
CONCURRENCE OF LINES IN A TRIANGLE

*
The perpendiculars drawn from
IV.
the vertices e/
99
c triangle
to
the opposite sides are concurrent.
ABC be a
Let
From A,
A.
C draw AD, BE,

and CF perp. respectively to BC,
CA, and AB.
B, and
It is required to prove that AD,

BE, and CF are concurrent.
Through A draw C'B' parallel to
BC.
Through B and C draw CA' and
A'B' parallel respectively to
BNp
N.
\-
CA
and AB.
AC parallel to 5C,
BC is parallel to AC,
Because
Proof.
and
.*.
is
ACBC is a parallelogram.
.-.
AC
= BC.
that AB' = BC.

.-.
A is the middle point of C'B'.
= a right Z,
Because the Z
and the line B'C is parallel to BC,
.-.
is perpendicular to B'C.
we may prove
Similarly
ADC
AD
Theor. 14,
AD is perpendicular to B'C at its middle point.
Hence
Similarly,
BE
and CF are perpendicular
to
CA' and
(1).
A'B' at
their middle points.

..
AD, BE, and CF
are concurrent.
Page 96,
I.
Q.E.D.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
(
1.
draw a
2.
theoretical proof is to be given in each case. )
a given point, and J5C a given straight line. From A

make with BC an angle equal to a given angle.
many such lines can be drawn?
is
straight line to
How
tex
Draw
in
the bisector of an angle
AOB, without
using the ver-
your construction.
3.
P is a given point within the angle AOB. Draw through
a straight line terminated by OA and OB, and bisected at P.
GEOMETRY
100
OA, OB, OC
4.
Draw
are three straight lines meeting at 0.
transversal terminated
hy
OA
and OC, and bisected by OB.
Through a given point A draw a straight line so that the part

5.
intercepted between two given parallels may be of given length.
When does this problem admit of two solutions? When of only
And when
one?
of
none?
In a triangle A BC inscribe a rhombus having one of

coinciding with the angle A.
6.
Use the properties
7.
of
an equilateral triangle
its
to trisect
angles
a given
straight Une.
In any triangle the shorter median bisects the greater
8.
side.
{Construction of Triangles)
9.
(i)
(ii)
Construct a triangle, having given
The middle points

The lengths of two
of the three sides,

sides
and
of the
median which
bisects the
third side,
(iii)
The lengths
of
one side and the medians which bisect the
other two sides,

(iv)
The
lengths of the three medians.
AREAS
PART
101
II
ON AREAS
Definitions
1.
The
altitude (or height) of a parallelogram with refer-
ence to a given side as base,
is
the perpendicular distance
between the base and the opposite

2.
The
side.
altitude (or height) of a triangle with reference to
a given side as base,
is
the perpendicular distance of the
opposite vertex from the base.
Note. It is clear that parallelograms or triangles which are between the same parallels have the same altitude.
For
let
A P and DQ be the alti^ ABC, DEF, which
tudes of the
are between the
same
GH.
Then the
APQD is evidently
fig.
parallels
BF,
a rectangle
:.
3.
The area
within
4.
AP
its
of a figure
bounding
on
is
the
amount
of surface contained
lines.
square inch
drawn
square
= DQ.
is
the
a side
area of a
one
inch in
length.
5.
Similarly a square centimetre is the area of
a square drawn on a side one centimetre in length.
The terms square yard, square

stood in the same sense.
6.
Thus the
of unit length.
unit of area
foot, square metre are to
is
Sq.
era.
be under-
the area of a square on a side
GEOMETRY
102
Theorem 23
Area of a rectangle. // the number of units in the length of
a rectangle is multiplied by the number of units in its breadth
the product gives the number of square units in the area.
C
D
L.-j-.-.v.
i
I-
T--i---:-
Let
feet,
A BCD
represent a rectangle whose length
and whose breadth
Divide
AB
is
rectangle
AB
is
feet.
and BC into 4 equal parts,

draw parallels to the sides.
into 5 equal parts,
and through the points
The
AD
of division
A BCD
is
now
divided into compartment^-,
each of which represents one square foot.

Now there are 4 rows, each containing 5 squares,
.*.
the rectangle contains
Similarly,
if
the length
5X4 square feet.
a linear units, and the breadth
b linear units,
the rectangle contains
And
if
each side of a square
ab
U7iits of area.
a linear units,
the square contains a^ units of area.
These statements
may
be thus abridged
the area of a rectangle

the area of
a square
=
=
length
(sidey
breadth
(i),
(ii).
Q.E.D.
CoROLLAiiiES.
(i)
Rectangles which have equal lengths and
equal breadths have equal areas.

(ii)
Rectangles which have equal areas and equal lengths have
also equal breadths.
AREA OF A RECTANGLE
103
NOTATION
The
ABCD
rectangle
is
said to be contained
for these adjacent sides fix its size
AD
by AB,
A rectangle whose adjacent sides are A^B, AD is denoted

rect.
and shape.
b}'
by AB, AD.
square drawn on the side AB h denoted by sq. on AB, or
AB, AD,
or
by AB^.
EXERCISES
(On Tables of Length and Area)
1.
Draw
a figure to shew why

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
2.
Draw
1 sq.
yard
1 sq. foot
1 sq.
figrure to
cm.
=
=
=
.sq.
feet.
12- sq. inches,
10- sq.
mm.
shew that the square on a straight
four times the square on half the

3.
3-
Use squared paper
to
line is
line.
shew that the square on 1" =
10- times
the square on 0-1".

4.
If
1" represents 5
miles,
what does an area
of 6 square inches
represent ?
EXTENSION OF THEOREM
23
The proof of Theorem 23 here given supposes that the length and
breadth of the given rectangle are expressed by lohole numbers ; but
the formula holds good when the length and breadth are fractional.
This
may
be illustrated thus
Suppose the length and breadth are 3-2 cm. and 2-4 cm.; we
shall shew that the area is (3-2 X 2-4) sq. cm.
For
=3-2 cm. = 32 mm.

=2-4 cm. = 24 mm.
^ '^'^ sq. cm.
X 24) sq. mm. =
length
breadth
area
(32
''^^
10-
(3-2
2-4) sq.
cm.
GEOMETRY
104
EXERCISES
{On
Area
the
of a Rectangle)
Draw on squared paper
the rectangles of which the length (a)

and breadth (6) are given below. Calculate the areas, and verify by
the actual counting of squares.
I.
3.
=
=
0-8", b
5.
2-2", b
2", b
2.
3-5".
4.
=
=
2-5", b
1-5".
6.
1-6", b
3".
=
=
=
=
=
1-5", b
4".
1-4".
2-1".
Calculate the areas of the rectangles in which

7.
18 metres, 6
9.
2-5 km.,
8.
10.
\ mile, 6
11 metres.
6=4 metres.
ft.,
= 72 in.
= 1 inch.
II.
The area of a rectangle is 30 sq. cm., and its length is 6 em.
Find the breadth. Draw the rectangle on squared paper
and
verify your work by counting the squares.
12.
Find the length of a rectangle whose area is 3-9 sq. in., and
breadth 1-5". Draw the rectangle on squared paper; and verify
your work by counting the squares.
13.
(i) When you treble the length of a rectangle without altering its breadth, how many times do you multiply the area?
(ii) When you treble both length and breadth, how many times
do you multiply the area?
Draw a figure to illustrate your answers and state a general rule.
14.
In a plan of a rectangular garden the length and breadth
Find the area
are 3-6" and 2-5", one inch standing for 10 yards.
;
of the garden.
If the area is increased by 300 sq.
same, what will the new length be?
resent it on your plan?
15.
(scale 1
16.
The area
plan drawn
of this,
is
And how many
Find the area of a rectangular enclosure of which a plan

cm. to 20 metres) measures 6-5 cm. by 4-5 cm.
of
a rectangle
is
sides of the rectangle are 3-2 cm.
17.
the breadth remaining the

inches will rep-
j'ds.,
1440
sq. yds.
If in
and 4-5 cm., on what
a plan the
is the
scale
The area
drawn
of a rectangular field
to the scale of
the breadth?
" to 100
ft.
is
,
52,000 sq.
the length
ft.
is 3-
On a plan
What
25".
EXERCISES ON RECTANGLES
105
Calculate the areas of the enclosures of which plans are given

below. All the angles are right angles, and the dimensions are
marked
18.
in feet.
19.
I
-iff--
GEOMETRY
106
Theorem
24.
[Euclid
I.
35]
Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels

are equal in area.
ED
Let the par"" ABCD, EBCF be on the same base BC, and
between the same par^ BC, A F.
ABCD = the par"" EBCF in area.

In the A FDC, EAB,
Theor. 21.
DC = the opp. side AB
the ext. Z FDC = the int. opp. Z EAB Theor. 14.
the int. ZDFC = the ext. ZAEB
Theor. 17.
the A FDC = the A EAB.
from the whole fig. ABCF the A FDC is taken,
the par""
Proof.
because
|
I
Now,
if
.-.
the remainder
is
the par
ABCD.
from the whole fig. ABCF the

remainder is the par" EBCF.
And
if
.'.
that
is,
A EAB
these remainders are equal
the par
ABCD =
the par
is
taken, the
EBCF.
q.e.d.
EXERCISE
In the above diagram the sides AD, EF overlap. Draw dain which (i) these sides do not overlap; (ii) the ends E and
grams
coincide.
Go
through the proof with these diagrams, and ascertain

them without change.
applies to
if
it
AREAS
107
The Area of a Parallelogram
ABCD be a parallelogram,
and ABEF the rectangle on the
same base AB and of the same altiLet
Then by Theorem
tude BE.
24,
base
altitude.
Since the area of a parallelogram depends
Corollary.
base and altitude,
its
ABCD = area of rect. ABEF

= AB X BE
area of par"'
only on
it
follows that
Parallelograms on equal bases and of equal altitudes are equal

in area.
EXERCISES
(Numerical and Graphical)
Find the area
1.
which
and the height = 4 cm.
of parallelograms in
(i)
the base
(ii)
the base
=
=
5-5 cm.,
2-4",
and the height =
1-5".
a parallelogram ABCD having given AB = 2\", AD

and the Z. A = 65. Draw and measure the perpendicular
from D on AB, and hence calculate the approximate area. Why
Draw
2.
1^",
approximate
Again calculate the area from the length of AD and the i>erpendicular on it from B.
Obtain the average of the two results.
Two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 30 metres and 25

3.
metres, and the included angle is 50.
Draw a plan, 1 cm. representing 5 metres
and by measuring each altitude, make two inde;
pendent calculations
4.
A 5 is
5.
The
Each
side of a
culate an altitude.
its
of the area.
area of a parallelogram
2-8".
Find the height.
If
acute angles.
Give the average
result.
ABCD is 4-2 sq. in., and the base

AD =2", draw the parallelogram.
rhombus is 2", and its area is 3- 86 sq. in. CalHence draw the rhombus, and measure one of
GEOMETRY
108
Theorem 25
The Area
The area
of a Triangle.
of a triangle is half the
area of the rectangle on the same base and having the same
altitude.
F
Fig.
Let
base
ABC
Fig.
I.
BDEC a rectangle on the same
be a triangle, and
BC and
with the same altitude
It is required to
2.
prove that the
A F.
A ABC
is
half the rectangle
BDEC.
Since
Proof.
EF
is
AF
is
perp. to
AB
Because the diagonal

.'.
the
Similarly,
.'.
BC, each
of the figures
DF,
a rectangle.
bisects the rectangle
DF,
A ABF half the rectangle DF.

half the rectangle FE.
the A AFC
is
is
adding these results in Fig.
1,
and taking the difference
in
Fig. 2,
the
A ABC
is
half the rectangle
BDEC.
^^
Corollary. A triangle is half any 'parallelogram on

same base and between the same parallels.
For tho
A ABC
is
half
the rect.
BCED.
And
the rect.
BCED
= any par
BCIIG on the same base and between

the same par's.
/.
the
.IfiCishalf theparm BCIIG.
G_
H D
the
A E
:;
AREAS
109
THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

If
BC
AF
and
respectively contain a units and p units of
length, the rectangle

.'.
BDEC contains ap units of area.

A ABC = | ap units of area.
the area of the
may
This result
Area
be stated thus
of a Triangle
| base
altitude.
EXERCISES ON THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

1.
Calculate the areas of the triangles in which

the height = 15 ft.
(i) the base = 24 ft.,
the height = 3-5".
(ii) the base = 4-8",
(iii) the base = 160 metres, the height = 125 metres.
2.
Draw triangles from the following data. In each case draw
and measure the altitude with reference to a given side as base
hence calculate the approximate area.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
8-4 cm., b
6=50 cm.,
a
6-5 cm.,
=
=
B =
4-0 cm.
6-8 cm.,
6-8 cm.,
A =
65.
52,
C =
76.
A BC is a triangle right-angled at C shew that its area =

h BC X CA.
Given a = 6 cm., & = 5 cm., calculate the area.
Draw the triangle and measure the hypotenuse c; draw and
measure the perpendicular from C on the hypotenuse hence cal3.
culate the approximate area.
Note the error in your approximate result, and express

centage of the true value.
it
as a per-
4.
Repeat the whole process of the last question for a rightangled triangle ABC, in which a = 2-8^ and b = 4-5" C being the
right angle as before.
;
5.
(i)
(ii)
In a triangle, given
Area = 80 sq. in., base = 1 ft. 8 in. calculate the altitude,
Area = 10-4 sq. em., altitude = 1-6 em. calculate the base.
;
given a = 30", b = 2-8",

c = 2-6".
Draw and measure the perpendicular from A on BC
hence calculate the approximate area.
6.
ABC, having
no
GEOMETRY
Theorem
26.
[Euclid
I.
37]
Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels
same
{hence, of the
Let
altitude) are equal in area.
A ABC, GBC
the
be on the
and between the same
BC
par^BCAG.
same base
A ABC
the
Proof.
If
the
BCED
between the same

the
is
A GBC in area.
the rectangle on the base BC, and
parallels as the given triangles,
AABCh half the rect. BCED
also the
:.
Thcor. 25.
A GBC half the rect. BCED

the A ABC = the A GBC.
is
Similarly, triangles on equal bases
and of equal
q.e.d.
altitudes are
equal in area.
Theorem
[Euclid
27.
I.
39]
If two triangles are equal in area, and stand on the same base
and on the same side of it, they are between the same parallels.
A ABC,
Let the
GBC, standing on
the same base BC, be equal in area
and
let
AF
GH
and
BC
be their altitudes.
AG
and
are par*.
The
Proof.
A ABC half
A GBC
is
and AF and the

by BC and GH
;
is
the rectangle contained by
BC
half the rectangle contained
AF = the rect. BC, GH

AF = GH.
Theor. 23, Cor. 2.
Also A F and GH are paH
hence AG and FH, that is BC, are par'.
q.e.d.
/.
the rect. BC,
.:
AREAS
111

(
ABC
Theoretical)
ZF
X
A XBC = the A YBC;
A BXY = A CXY;
A ABY = the A ACX.
1.
is a triangle and
is drawn parallel to the base BC,
cutting the other sides at
and Y. Join B Y and CX and shew that
(ii)
the
the
(iii)
the
(i)
If
B Y and CX
cut at K, shew that

the
(iv)
2.
Shew
j5A'X= the
A CKY.
that a median of a triangle divides
it
into
two parts
of
equal area.
How would you di^-ide a triangle into three equal parts by straight
lines
3.
drawn from
vertex?
its
Prove that a parallelogram
is
divided by
its
diagonals into
four triangles of equal area.

4.
A BC
any point
is
a triangle whose base
in the
the
ABCD
BC
is
bisected at
A''.
If
is
median AX, shew that
A ABY
the
A ACY in
area.
a parallelogram, and BP, DQ are the perpendiculars from B and D on the diagonal AC, then BP = DQ.
Also if X is any point in AC, or AC produced,
5.
6.
If
The
is
(i)
the
(ii)
the
A ADX
A CDX
The
sides of a
8.
A ABX;
A CBX.
the
the
straight line joining the middle points of tivo sides of a
triangle is parallel to the third side.

7.
=
=
straight line
trapezium
ABCD
of the sides
is
is
(Use Theorems 26 and 27.)
joins the
middle points of the oblique
parallel to each of the parallel sides.
a parallelogram, and-^X,
AD, BC
shew that the
which
triangle
if
any point
is
AZB
is
Y
in
are the middle points

or
produced,
XY,
XY
one quarter of the parallelogram
ABCD.
ABCD is a parallelogram,
and X, Y any points in DC and

AXB, BYC are equal in area.
10.
If ABCD is a parallelogram, and P is any point within it,
the sum of the triangles PAB, PCDis equal to half the parallelogram.
9.
AD
If
respectively, the triangles
GEOMETRY
112

The
1.
a triangular field are 370 yds., 200 yds., and 190

plan (scale 1" to 100 yards). Draw and measure an
calculate the approximate area of the field in square yards.
sides of
Draw a
yds.
altitude
Two
sides of a triangular enclosure are 124 metres and 144

metres respectively, and the included angle is observed to be 45.
Draw a plan (scale 1 cm. to 20 metres). Make any necessary measurement, and calculate the approximate area.
2.
If in a triangle ABC, the area = 6-6 sq. cm., and the base
5-5 cm., find the altitude. Hence determine the locus of A.
3.
BC =
If also,
BA =2-6
cm.,
draw the
triangle; iind
measure CA.
In a triangle ABC, given area = 3-06 sq. in., and a - 30".

Find the altitude, and the locus of A. Given C = 68, construct
the triangle and measure 6.
4.
ABC, BC, BA have constant lengths 6 cm. and

BC is fixed, and BA revolves about B. Trace the changes
5 cm.
in the area of the triangle as the angle B increases from 0 to 180.
Answer by drawing a series of triangles, increasing B by increments of 30. Find their areas and tabulate the results.
In a triangle
5.
{Theoretical)
have two sides of one respectively equal to

two sides of the other, and the angles contained by those sides supCan such
plementary, shew that the triangles are equal in area.
If
6.
two
triangles
triangles ever be identically equal?
Shew how
7.
draw on the base
to
of
a given triangle an isosceles
triangle of equal area.

If
8.
in order,
the middle points of the sides of a quadrilateral are joined

prove that the parallelogram so formed [see Ex. 7, p. G4] is
half the quadrilateral.
ABC
Q the middle points of the sides

that if BQ and C li intersect in A', the triangle
equal to the quadrilateral AQXR.
9.
A
is
B,
is
a triangle, and R,
BXC
AC; shew
10.
Two
on the same base but on

shew that the straight line joining their verbisected by the base, or by the base produced.
triangles of equal area stand
opposite sides of
tices is
it
THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
113
[The method given below may be omitted from a fii-st course.

In any case it must be postponed till Theorem 29 has been read.]
The Area
Given the three sides of a triangle,
of a Triangle.
to calculate the area.
Example.
Find
whose sides measure 21 m.,
the area of a triangle
17 m., and 10 m.
represent the given
Let
ABC
triangle.
AD
AD by
Draw
denote
We
of
p.
shall first find the length
BD.
BD
Let
perp. to BC, and
21
X metres
then
DC
X metres.
From the right-angled
,4D2 = AB-'
A ADB,
we have by Theorem 29
- BD^ = 102 _ a.2.

the right-angled A A DC,
AD^ = AC- - DC^ = 172 - (21 = 172 - (21 - .t)2
102 100 - a;2 = 289 - 441 + 42 x -
And from
.-.
or,
x)2;
a;2
a;2
= Q.
AD^ = AB^ - BD"-;
p2 = 102 - 62 = 64
p = 8.
triangle = | base X altitude
whence
Again,
or
.-.
Now
Area
of
(I
21
8) sq.
m. = 84
sq.
m.
EXERCISES
Find the area of the
triangles,
1.
20
3.
21 m., 20 m., 13 m.
5.
37
7.
(i)
If
ft.,
ft.,
13
ft.,
30
ft.,
11
13
ft.
the given sides are
r-
whose
ft.
a, b,
sides are as follows
2.
15 yds., 14 yds., 13 yds.
4.
30 cm., 25 cm., 11 cm.
6.
51 m., 37 m., 20 m.
and
c units in length, prove
(ii)
p"-
b"-
c-
a"-
(iii)
=
I
i </{a
c-
b"-
2a
2a
-|-
c)(- a
-f-
c){a
c)(o
-f-
b-
c)
GEOMETRY
114
THE AREA OF QUADRILATERALS

Theorem 28
To find
the area of
a trapezium.
(i)
(ii)
Let
(i)
A BCD
ing the sides
any quadrilateral
be a trapezium, hav-
AB,
CD
parallel.
Join
BD, and from C and D draw perpendiculars CF, DE to AB.
^
Let the parallel sides A B, CD measure a and b units of length, and let the height
CF
contain h
units.
Then the area
That
ABCD = A ABD
=
A DBC
IABDE + ^DCCF
-\-
<*^
height
{the
^'^
""
2^" ~^
^)-
is,
a trapezium
the area of
sides)
Draw
sum
of the parallel
AC.
Let ABCD be any quadrilateral.

and from B
a diagonal AC
(ii)
and
of
draw perpendiculars BX, DY to

These perpendiculars are called
offsets.
If
AC contains d
BX,
DY p and
units of length,
the area of the quad'
That
is
and
q units respectively,
ABCD = A ABC + A ADC

=
=
ÂCBX
\ dia^gonal
^ dp
-\-
-{-
i dq
ÂCDY
-=
^ dip
-\-
q).
to say,
the area of
a quadrilateral
{sum of
offsets).
EXERCISES ON QUADRILATERALS
115
EXERCISES
{Numerical and Graphical)
Find the area of the trapezium in which the two parallel

and 3-3", and the height 1-5".
2.
In a quadrilateral A BCD, the diagonal AC = 17 feet; and
Find the area.
the offsets from it to B and D are 11 feet and 9 feet.
1.
sides are 4-7"
BCD
of a quadrilateral enclosure, the diagonal

A
cm., and the offsets from it to B and D are 3-4 cm.
and 2-6 cm. respectively. If 1 em. in the plan represents 5 metres,
find the area of the enclosure.
3.
In a plan
AC measures 8-2
Draw a quadrilateral A BCD from the

4.
adjoining rough plan, the dimensions being
given in inches.
Draw and measure the offsets to A and C
from the diagonal BD; and hence calculate
the area of the quadrilateral.
a quadrilateral A BCD from the
The
in the adjoining plan.
dimensions are to be in centimetres.
Make any necessary measurements of
5.
Draw
details given
your
figure,
and calculate
its area.
7^7
6.
Draw
a trapezium
A BCD
AB and
AD
AB
=4";
= BC = 2"; the Z
are the parallel sides.
the Z B = 60.
Make any necessary measurements, and calculate the area.
CD
=
from the following data
7.
Draw
a trapezium
parallel sides;
cm.
Make any
8.
shew
From
that,
if
and
AB
A BCD
9 cm.,
in
which
CD =
^
AB
and
3 cm., and
CD
AD
are the
= BC =
necessary measurement, and calculate the area.

the formula area of quadK = 5 diag.
the diagonals are at right angles,
area = | (product of diagonals)
(sum of
offsets)
Given the lengths, of the diagonals of a quadiilateral, and the

9.
angle between them, prove that the area is the same wherever they
intersect.
GEOMETRY
116
THE AREA OF ANY RECTILINEAL FIGURE

1st
A rectilineal figure
Method.
may
be divided into triangles whose

areas can be separatel}^ calculated
from suitable measurements. The
sum
of these areas will
be the area
of the given figure.
Example.
The
measurements
re-
quired to find the area of the figure

are AC, AD, and the offsets
ABCDE
BX, DY, EZ.

2d Method. The area of a rectilineal figure is also found
by taking a base-line (AD in the diagram below) and offsets
from it. These divide the figure into right-angled triangles

and right-angled trapeziums, whose areas may be found after
measuring the offsets and the various sections of the base-line.
Example. Find the area of the enclosure
plan and measurements tabulated below.
Yahds.
12
YB =
20
AV
= 50
AZ =40
ZE =
18
^ F = 18
AX = 10
XF =
15
The measurements
are
CiT^
ylD = 5G
VC =
ABCDEF
made from
along the base-line to the points

from which the offsets spring.
from the
EXERCISES ON RECTILINEAL FIGURES
117
EXERCISES
Calculate the areas of the figures
(in ems.) given below.
1.
(i)
and
(ii)
from the plans
and dimensions
(i)
AC = 6cm., AD = 5cm.
Lengths of offsets figured
in diagram.
2.
Draw
given below
AB = BD = DA = 6cm.
EY = CZ = lcm.
DX = 5-2cm.
the figures whose plans and dimensions are

and calculate the area in each case.
full size
;
(i)
The
fig. is
equilateral
each side to be
2J".
AX = ir, XY =
YB = li"
3.
Find the area of the figure ABCDEF from the following
measurements and draw a plan in which 1 em. represents 20 metres.
The Plan.
GEOMETRY
118
EXERCISES ON QUADRILATERALS
(
Theoretical)
A BCD is a rectangle, and PQRS the figure formed by joining
1.
in order the middle points of the sides.
Prove
PQRS
that
(i)
a rhombus
is
that the area of PQRS is half that of A BCD.

shew that the area of a rhombus is half the product of
(ii)
Hence
its
diagonals.
any quadrilateral whose diagonals cut at right

your answer by a diagram.
Prove that a parallelogram is bisected by any straight line
Is this true of
angles?
2.
Illustrate
which passes through the middle point of one of its diagonals.

Hence shew how a parallelogram ABCD may be bisected by a
straight line
drawn
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
through a given point P

perpendicular to the side AB;
parallel to a given line QR.
;
In the trapezium ABCD, AB is parallel to DC; and X is the

middle point of BC. Through X draw PQ parallel to A D to meet
AB and DC produced at P and Q. Then prove
(i) trapezium ABCD = TparÂPQD.
(ii) trapezium ABCD = twice the A AXD.
3.
(Graphical)
4.
The diagonals
of a quadrilateral
ABCD
cut at right angles,
and measure 30" and 2-2" respectively. Find the area.

Shew by a figure that the area is the same wherever the diagonals
cut, so long as they are at right angles.
5.
In the parallelogram
ABCD, A B = 80 cm., ^D =
and the perpendicular distance between
Draw
BC
6.
the parallelogram.
and check your
One
AB
and
Calculate the distance between
result
3-2 cm.,
DC =30
cm.
A D and
by measurement.
side of a parallelogram is 2-5",
and
its
diagonals are 3-4"
Construct the parallelogram; and, after making any

necessary measurement, calculate the area.
and 2-4".
7.
ABCD
stant area.
is
a parallelogram on a fixed base
Find the locus
AB
and
of con-
of the intersection of its diagonals.
EXPERIMENTAL EXERCISES
119
EXERCISES LEADING TO THEOREM

In the adjoining diagram, ABC is a triangle
C and squares are drawTi on the
three sides.
Let us compare the area of the
square on the hypotenuse AB Avith the sum of
the squares on the sides AC, CB which contain
right-angled at
29
the right angle.
Draw
1.
and
the square on
sum
of the squares
Now measure AB
and compare the
AC = 3 cm., BC = 4 cm.
AC = 3-, or 9 sq. cm.
BC = 4-, or 16 sq. cm.
BC =
25 sq. cm.
making
the area of the square on
the
.'.
the above diagram,
Then
on AC,
hence calculate the area of the square on

sum already obtained.
Repeat the above process, making
2.
A B,
result with the
AC =
BC =
10",
2-4".
15, 6
8, c
17, shew arithmetically that c- =a--\-l^.
draw on squared paper a triangle ABC, whose sides a, b,
are 15, 8, and 17 units of length and measure the angle ACB.
If a
3.
Now
and
Take any
4.
triangle
ABC,
right-
angled at C; and draw squares on AC,
CB, and on the hypotenuse AB.

Through the mid-point of the square
on CB {i.e. the intersection of the diagonals) draw lines parallel and perpen-
A/
dicular to the hypotenuse, thus dividing
the square into four congruent quadrithe

laterals.
together with
These,
square on AC, will be found exactly to
^--.
AB, inThe way
fit
into the square on
indicated
/ 4
/'
^^-^
by corresponding numbers.
These experiments point to the conclusion that

In am' right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse
:
equal
to the
sum
is
of the squares on the other two sides.
formal proof of this theorem
is
given on the next page.
GEOMETRY
120
Theorem
In a right-angled
nuse
is
equal
to
29.
Let
Z.
sum
sum
on
the hypotenuse
Si
AB =
AC, CB.
describe the sq.
ADEB
ACGF, CBKH.
Through C draw CL
Join
pai-*
and on AC,
to
AD
or
CB
describe
BE.
CD, FB.
Because each of the
Proof.
ACB
be a right-angled A, having the angle
of the squares on
the sqq.
on the hypoteon the other
ABC
OnAB
47]
of the squares described
It is required to prove that the square
the
I.
triangle the square described
the
two sides.
rt.
[Euclid
A ACB, ACG
is
rt.
BC and CG are in the same st. line.

Now the rt. Z BAD = the rt. Z FAC
add to each the Z CAB
then the whole Z CAD = the whole Z FAB.
..
Then
because
[
in the
CAD, FAB,
CA = FA,
AD = AB,
and the includ(Ml ZCAD = the included ZFAB
Thcor. 4.
the A CAD = the A FAB.
;
.-.
THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
Now
AL
the rect.
is
CAD, being on the

AD, CL.
FAB, being on the same
double of the
same base AD, and between the same
And
GA
the sq.
double of the
is
FA, and between the same
base
Similarly
by
CE, AK,
joining
BL =
the rect.
that
AE =
the whole sq.
:.
par"^
AL =
the rect.
:.
the
it
par*^
FA, GB.
the sq.
GA.
can be shewn that
the sq.
sum
HB.
of the sqq.
the square on the hypotenuse
is,
squares on the two sides
121
AB =
GA,
the
HB
sum
of the
AC, CB.
Q.E.D.
This
Ohs.
is
known
result established
may
Theorem of Pythagoras.
be stated as follows
as the
AB""
That
is, if
and
Hence
If
a-
1.
The
c^
the proof that

the sq.
that is, AC"^
GA=
Note
2.
+ CA\
=
sq. HB =
is, BC- =
It
if c
h-
denotes the hypotenuse,
and
6^
c-
a-.
following important results should be noticed.

intersect in 0, it has been shewn in the course of
CL and AB
Also the
that
= BC-
a and h denote the lengths of the sides containing
the right angle
Note
the rect. AL
the rect. contained hy
AB,
AO
(i)
the rect. BL
the rect. contained by
BA,
BO
(ii)
can be proved by superposition that squares stand-
ing on equal sides are equal in area.
Also
The
we can prove
conversely,
// two squares are equal in area they stand on equal sides.
GEOMETRY
122
EXPERIMENTAL PROOFS OF PYTHAGORAS'S
THEOREM
I.
Here
rt.-angled
ABC is
A; and
the given
ABED
is
the square on the hypotenuse
AB.
By drawing lines par' to

sides
BC,
that
the
into
Cyl, it
sq.
the
easily seen
is
BD
is
rt.-angled
identically equal to
divided
each
^,
A BC,
to-
gether with a central square.
Hence
sq.
c = 4 rt. Z'Â
the central square
on hypotenuse
= 4-hab
{a
a^
= 2ab
a^
b-.
-by
+
2ab
b'
123
EXERCISES
Draw
1.
a triangle
(i)
(ii)
ABC, right-angled at C, having

= 3 cm., 6=4 em.
= 2-5 em., b = 60 cm.
= 1-2",
b = 3-5".
a
In each case calculate the length of the hypotenuse
your result by measurement.
(iii)
given
c,
and verify
Draw
a triangle A BC, right-angled at C, having given

a = 30"; [See Problem 10]
c = 3-4",
(ii) c = 5-3 cm., b = 4-5 cm.
2.
(i)
In each case calculate the remaining side, and verify j'our result
by measurement.
{T he following examples are to be solved by calculation ; bul in each
drawn on some suitable scale, and the calculated
case a plan should be

result verified by
measurement.)
ladder whose foot is 9 feet from the front of a house

reaches to a window-sill 40 feet above the ground. What is the
length of the ladder?
3.
4.
How
far
5.
tively
ship sails 33 miles due South,

is it
then from
its
Two
ships are observed
N.E.
60
km.
and then 56 miles due West.
starting point?
distant,
from a signal station to bear respecand N.W. 11 km. distant. How far
are they apart?
A ladder 65 feet long reaches to a point in the face of a house

6.
63 feet above the ground. How far is the foot from the house?
B
due East of A, but at an unknown distance. C is due

and distant 55 metres. If AC is 73 metres, find AB.
8.
A man travels 27 miles due South then 24 miles due West
finally 20 miles due North.
How far is he from his starting point ?
9.
From A go West 25 metres, then North 60 metres, then East
80 metres, finally South 12 metres. How far are you then from A ?
10.
A ladder 50 feet long is placed so as to reach a window 48
feet high
and on turning the ladder over to the other side of the
street, it reaches a point 14 feet high.
Find the breadth of the
7.
South
is
of B,
street.
GEOMETRY
124
Theorem
[Euclid
30.
48]
I.
// the square described on one side of a triangle is equal to the

of the squares described on the other two sides, then the angle
sum
contained by these two sides
is
a right angle.
Let
ABC
be a triangle in which
the sq. on
AB =
the
Make EF
perp. to
the sq. on
:.
And
because
the sq. on
.'.
on BC, CA.
is a right angle.
equal to BC.
EF, and make

Join ED.
Because
Proof,
of the sqq.
ACB
Draw FD
sum
FD
equal to CA.
EF
EF
FD
FD
= BC,
= the sq. on BC.
= CA,
= the sq. on CA.
on EF, FD = the sum
Hence the sum of the sqq.

of the
BC, CA.
But since EFD is a rt. Z
the sum of the sqq. on EF, FD = the sq. on DE: Theor. 29.
And, by hypothesis, the sqq. on BC, CA = the sq. on AB.
sqq. on
.'.
.'.
.:
DE =
DE =
in
the
the sq. on
Then
AB.
AB.
ACB, DFE,
the sq. on
AC = DF,CB = FE, and AB = DE

the Z ACB = the Z DFE.
Theor. 7.
But, by construction, DFE is a right angle
/. the Z ACB is a right angle.
q.e.d.
because
.'.
THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS AND
ITS
EXERCISES ON THEOREMS
(
CONVERSE 125
29,
30
Theoretical)
1.
Shew that the square on the diagonal of a given square
double of the given square.
AD is drawn
If
2.
In the
ABC,
the side c is greater than
3.
If
b,
from any point
is
perpendicular to the base BC.
shew that
c-
within a triangle
b- = BD^ DC^.
ABC, perpendiculars
OX, OY, OZ are drawn to BC, CA, AB respectively: shew that

AZ^ + BX'- + CY^ = AY^ + CX^ + BZK
4.
ABC is a triangle right-angled at A and the sides AB, AC
;
are intersected by a straight hne PQ, and BQ,

Prove that
5Q2
PC2 = BC^ + PQ-.
PC
are joined.
In a right-angled triangle four times the sum of the squares

on the medians drawn from the acute angles is equal to five times
the square on the hypotenuse.
sum
two given squares.
6.
Describe a square equal to the
7-
Describe a square equal to the difference between two given
of
squares.
8.
Divide a straight line into two parts so that the square on
one part may be twice the square on the other.
9.
Divide a straight hne into two parts such that the sum of
a given square.
their squares shall be equal to

10.
Determine which
(i)
(ii)
a
a
(iii)
11.
A BC is
= 14
= 40
= 20
an
of the following triangles are right-angled
cm., 6
cm.,
cm., 6
= 48
= 10
= 99
em., c
em.,
cm.,
= 50 cm.
= 41 cm.
= 101 em.
isosceles triangle right-angled at
deduce from
AB"" = 2AC'-.
Illustrate this result graphically by drawing both diagonals of
the square on AB, and one diagonal of the square on AC.
If AC = BC = 2", find
to the nearest hundredth of an inch,
and verify your calculation by actual construction and measurement.
Theorem 29 that
AB
12.
Draw a square on a diagonal of 6 cm. Calculate, and also
measure, the length of a side. Find the area.
GEOMETRY
1267^
Problem
To draw
16
squares whose areas shall he respectively twice, three
times, four times,
that of
a given square.
Hence find graphically approximate values of V2, Vs, V4,

VB,....
OF at right
Take OX,
angles
and from them

OP, each one unit
to one another,
mark
off
OA
Join
of length.
P^.
Then PA- = OP/.
From
OX
PA
OA= V2.
=1 +
2.
mark off OB equal to PA, and join PB

PB- = OP- + 05'^ = 1 + 2 = 3.
.-. PB = V3.
then
From
OX mark off OC
then PC^
.-.
PB, and j(iin PC

+ OCj = 1 + 3 = 4.
= V4.
equal to
= 0P2
PC
PA, PB, PC may now be found 6y measureThe

continuing
the process we may find Vs, Vc,
ment ; and by
V7, .-...
lengths of
EXERCISES ON THEOREMS
13.
29,
30 {Coniinued)
Prove the following formula

Diagonal of square
side
V2.
Henr^p find to the nearest centimetre the diagonal of a square on

a side of 50 metres.
Draw a plan (scale 1 cm. to 10 metres) and obtain the result as
nearly as you can by measurement.
14.
units,
127
ABC is an equilateral triangle of which each side = 2m

and the perpendicular from any vertex to the opposite side = p.
Prove that p = mVS.
Test this result graphically, when each side

15.
If in
= m-
a triangle a
algebraically that
c-
a-
n", b
8 cm.
= m-
2vin, c
Ji-
prove
b-.
Hence by giving various numerical value to / and rt, find sets of

numbers representing the sides of right-angled triangles.
16.
In a triangle ABC, AD is drawn perpendicular to BC. Let
p denote the length of AD.
(i) If a = 25 cm., p = 12 cm.,
If b
(ii)
And prove
17.
41",
BD = 9 cm. find b and

BD = 30"; find p and a.
p^ = a.
_ p2 ^
ABC, AD is drawn perpendicular to
that Vh^
In the triangle
c2
If a
Thence
51 cm., 6
c.
-y/c-
Prove that
50",
- BD^ =
= 20
cm., c
find p, the length of
b'-
BC.
CD'-.
= 37 cm.
AD, and
find
BD.
the area of the triangle
ABC.
18.
Find by the method of the

whose sides are as follows
last
example the areas
of the
triangles
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
a
a
a
a
= 17",
= 25 ft.,
= 41 cm.,
= 40 yd.,
b
&
b
6
= 10",
= 17 ft.,
= 28 cm.,
= 37 yd.,
c
c
c
=
=
=
=
9".
12
ft.
15 cm.
13 yd.
A straight rod PQ slides between two straight rulers OX,

placed at right angles to one another. In one position of the
If in another position OP =
rod OP =5-6 cm., and OQ =3-3 cm.
test the acciiracy of your drawing
40 cm., find OQ graphically and ~^
19.
OY
by
calculation.
ABC
a triangle right-angled at C, and p is the length of

C on AB. By expressing the area of the
triangle in two ways, shew that
20.
is
the perpendicular from
Hence deduce
pc
nb.
+ ti-
p2
a-
b-
GEOMETRY
128
1.
rectangle
A BCD
is
said to be
contained by two adjacent sides
AD
for these
AB,
and
sides fix its size
shape.
A rectangle whose adjacent sides are A B, AD is denoted by

AB, AD;
the red.
or
by AB, AD.
Similarly a square
the sq.
drawn on the
AB
side
is
denoted by
on AB, or AB^.
Geometrical illustration of algebraic identities.

A.
Geometrical
Let
ST =
TV =
a units of length,
and
PS =
k units of length.
illustration of {a
-{-
6c
PL =
b)
Th. 23.
Th. 23.
kb
Th. 23.
+ 6)
(c
b units of length.
units of length.
units of length
Then Area
SP, PQ
LP, PR
of
Area of
Area of MR,
Area of SL,
Area of TM,
hk.
ka
a units of length.
And LS = d
(a
A-
:.
ak
v
k{a
bd.
ST =
TV =
Let
Let
Let
b units of length,
Geometrical illustratioti of (o
B.
Then Area of SP, PQ =

Area of SP, PR =
Area of TR, RQ =
(a + 6) = ak + bk.
.-.
b)
b){c
-\-
d)
RQ
LM
MN
=
ac
be -h
ad
-\-
bd.
+ d) =
ac
ad
ILLUSTRATION OF ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES
129
GEOMETRY
130
Theorem
In an obtuse-angled
[Euclid II. 12]
31.
triangle, the square
sum
the obtuse angle is equal to the
on
the side subtending
of the squares
containing the obtuse angle together with
on
the sides
tivice the rectangle
contained by one of those sides and the projection of the other

side
upon it
Let
drawn
ABC
be a triangle obtuse-angled at C; and
perp. to
the side
CA
BC
on BC.
produced, so that
CD
is
let
AD be
the projection of
[See Def. p. 63.]
AB^ = BC^
Proof,
Because
BD
is
the
CA2
sum
+ 2BC- CD.
of the lines
BC, CD,
BD^ = BC + CD'~ + 2BC CD.. Page 129, C.

To each of these equals add DA-.
Then BD^ -\- DA- = BC'^ -\- {CD^ + DA^-) + 2BCCD.
But BD^ + DA'' = ABfor the Z D is a rt. Z
:.
and CD'-
Hence
DA'-
CA^~
AB'-
BC'-
CA'~
-\-2BC CD.
Q.E.D.
SQUARES AND RECTANGLES
Theorem
In
32.
131
[Euclid II. 13]
every triangle the square on the side subtending
angle is equal
that angle
to the
sum
diminished by twice
of those sides
and
the rectangle contained
the projection of the other side
Fig.
ABC be a triangle
an acute
of the squares on the sides containing
upon
by one
it.
2.
and let
which the Z C is acute
BC produced so that CD is
the projection of the side CA on BC.
Let
AD
he drawn
perp. to
in
BC, or
AB'Proof.
lines
= BC^
CA-
Since in both figures
- 2BC CD.
BD
is
the difference of the
BC, CD,
Page 129, D
BD^ = BC' -\rCD'- -2BC CD.
To each of these equals add DA-.
(i)
Then BD^ + DA'- = BC^ + (CDt-\- DA'-) - 2 BC CD
But BD'- + DA- = AB'-\
for the Z D is a rt. Z
and CD-' -\- DA' = CA'
.-.
Hence AB' =
BC +
CA'
-2BC
CD.
Q.E.D.
GEOMETRY
132
Summary of Theorems
29, 31,
C(D)
ACB
the
If
32.
(i)
and
is
obtuse,
= BC' + CA^ -{-2BC CD.

If the Z ACB is a right angle,
AB^ = BC^ + CA2.
AB'~
(ii)
(iii)
the
ACB
AB-"
BC +
If
Observe that in
(i)
CA-
or
-2BC
(ii), if
CD
sum
than the
BC CD =
on
CA)
90,
by those sides
AD
vanishes
0.
one enunciation
to,
or
the other sides, according as

is obtuse,
a right angle, or
the difference in cases of inequality being
rectangle contained by one of the two sides

it
becomes
side of a triangle is greater than, equal
of the squares
the angle contained

aciite
ZACB
the
Theor. 32.
results maj'' be collected in
The square on a
less
CD.
(the projection of
hence, in this case, 2
Thus the three
Theor. 29.
is acute,
AC, and
coincides with
Theor. 31.
and
twice the
the projection
on
of the other.
EXERCISES
1.
liow
In a triangld ABC, a = 21 cm., h 17 cm., r

square centimetres does c- fall short of a'
many
or other\viso calculate the projection of
is
2.
ABC
3.
In the
AC
10 cm.
h"-?
on BC.
an isosceles triangle in which AB AC; and

drawn perpendicular to AC. Shew th:it BC- = 2ACCE.
is
A BC. shew
(i)
if
the
(ii)
if
the
C =Z C =
Z.
that
then
G0,
c"^
120, then c^
=
=
B3'
Henco
a""
-\-
irh""
ah
ab.
BE
SQUARES AND RECTANGLES

Theorem
In any
triangle the
sum
133
33.
on two sides
of the squares
is
equal to
twice the square on half the third side together with twice the
square on the median which bisects the third side.
D
Let
ABC
he
and
triangle,
:i
.'lA'
the nieeliau which bisects
the base BC.

AB^ + AC2 = 2 J5X2 _^ 2 AX\

AD perp. to BC and consider the
AB and AC are unequal, and AD falls within
Draw
Then
acute.
of the
A AXB, AXC,
Z
Let the
AB'~
And from
the
the triangle.
obtuse, and the other
be obtuse.
= BX'
+ AX~ + 2 BX
XD.
Theor.
3L
A AXC,
AC^ = XC^
Adding these
we have
is
A AXB,
Then from the
AXB
one
case in which
results,
AB-'
AX^~
XC XD.
and remembering that
+ AC =
BX-
Theor. 32.
XC =
+ 2 AX\
BX,
q.e.d.
Note. The proof may easily be adapted to the case in which

the perpendicular
falls outside the triangle.
AD
EXERCISE
In any triangle
the difference of the squares
twice the rectangle contained by the base
and
on two sides
is
equal
to
the intercept between the
middle point of the base and the foot of the perpendicular drawn from
the vertical angle to the base.
GEOMETRY
134
THEOREMS
EXEHC1SP]S ON
31-33
AB
is a straight line 8 cm. in length, and from its middle

as centre with radius 5 cm. a circle is drawn
if P is any
1.
point
point on the circumference, shew that
AP'^
2.
= 82
BP'-
sq.
cm.
In a triangle ABC, the base BC is bisected at A'.

If a = 17
= 15 cm., and c = 8 cm., calculate the length of the median
and deduce the Z A.
cm., 6
AX,
3.
The base of a triangle = 10 cm., and the sum of the squares
on the other sides = 122 sq. cm. find the locus of the vertex.
;
4.
Prove that the sum of the squares on the; sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares on its diagonals.
The sides of a rhombus and its shorter diagonal each measure
3"; find the longer diagonal to within -01".

5.
In any quadrilateral the squares on the diagonals are together equal to twice the sum of the squares on the straight lines
joining the middle points of oi)posite sides.
[See Ex. 7, p. M.]
ABCD
6.
If
.1/^
O any point within it

OA- + OC- = OB^ + 0D\
= 60", BC = 2-5", and OA^- + OC"- = 2l|
is
a rectangle, and
from the intersection
the distance of
7.
The sum
greater than the
shew that
sq. in., find
of the diagonals.
on the sides of a quadrilateral is

on its diagonals by four times
which joins the middle points of tho
of the squares
sum
of the squares
the square on the straight line

diagonals.
8.
CF
are
In a triangle A B(\ tho angles at
drawn
BC'-
is
B and C
are acute;
AB respectively,
AB BF + AC CE.
AC,
i)CTj)ondicuIar to
if
BE,
ijrove that
9.
Three times the sura of tho squares on the sides of a triangle
equal to four times the sum of the squares on the medians.
10.
medians
ABC
:
is
a triangl(\ and
the point of intersection of
sln>w that
A/i*
BC^
C\'P
= 3(0,1 2
UB'-
OC-').
its
PROBLEMS ON AREAS
135j
PROBLEMS ON AREAS
Problem
To
a given
describe a parallelogram equal to
having one of
Let
17
angles equal
its
ABC be
the given triangle, and
having one of
its
angles equal
Construction.
the given ang.e.
a parallelogram equal
It is required to describe
Bisect
to
to
ABC, and
D.
BC at
E.
CE, make the Z CEF equal to

through A draw A FG par' to BC
and through C draw CG par* to EF.
At
and
triangle,
a given angle.
to
in
Then
FECG
the required par.
Join
Proof.
Xow
is
AE.
A ABE, A EC are on
the
the same altitude

.-.
/.
the
equal bases BE, EC, and of
the
AABE
A ABC
is
tlie
A A EC.
A A EC.
double, of the
But FECG is a pai- by construction

and it is double of the A A EC,
being on the same base EC, and between the same
EO and AG.
.:
and one
the par'^
of its angles,
FECG =
the
namely CEF,
A ABC
=
par'**
the given
Z D.
GEOMETRY
13G
EXERCISES
(Graphical)
1.
Draw a
square on a side of 5 cm., and make a parallelogram

on the same base, and having an angle of 45.
by calculation, (ii) by measurement the length of an
of equal area
Find
(i)
oblique side of the parallelogram.
Draw any
2.
AD
2"
parallelogram
and on the base
AB
A BCD
in
which
draw a rhombus
AB
2\" and
of equal area.
Definition. In a parallelogram
if through any point
in the
A BCD,
diagonal
drawn
AC
parallels
EF,
HG
are
to the sides, then the figures
EH, GF are called parallelograms

about AC, and the figures EG, HF
are said to be their complements.
In the diagram of the preceding definition shew hij Theorem 21

complements EG, HF are equal in area.
Hence, given a parallelogram EG, and a straight line IIK, deduce a construction for drawing on H K as one side a iârallelogram
equal and equiangular to the parallelogram EG.
3.
that the
Construct a rectangle equal in area to a given rectangle

side equal to a given line AB.
U AB =6 cm., CD = 8 cm., CF = 3 cm., find by measurement
the remaining side of the constructed rectangle.
4.
CDEF, and having one
Given a parallelogram A BCD, in which AB = 2-4". AD =

and the Z A = 5.').
Construct a i)arallelogram of equal
area and equiangular with A BCD, the greater side measuring 2-7".
Measure the shorter side.
Repeat the process, giving to A any other value, and compare
your results. What conclusion do you draw?
5.
1-8",
G.
Draw
a r(<ctangle on a side of 5 cm. equal in area to an
equilateral triangle on a side of G cm.
Measure the remaining side of

approximate! area.
tlie
rectangle,
and
calculate
its
PROBLEMS ON ARKAS
Problem
To
137
18
draio a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral.
Let
ABCD
be the given quadrilateral.
a triangle equal
Construction.
Join
CX
Through C draw
in X.
ABCD in
DB.
DB, meeting
par' to
Join
to
AB
Proof.
produced
DX.
DAX the required triangle.

Now the A XDB, CDB are on the same
Then
area.
is
base
DB
and between the same par^ DB, CX;

.'.
the
To each
A XDB
the
of these equals
A DAX
then the
A CDB in area.
A ADB;
add the
the
fig.
ABCD.
Corollary. In the same way it is always possible to

draw a rectilineal figure equal to a given rectihneal figure, and
and thus
having fewer sides by one than the given figure
step by step, any rectilineal figure may be reduced to a
;
triangle of equal area.
For example,
gram the
in
five-sided
the adjoining diafig.
EDCBA
in area to the four-sided
The
fig.
EDXA may
to an equal
DXY.
fig.
is
equal
EDXA.
now be reduced
GEOMETRY
138
Problem
19
To draw a parallelogram equal in area in

figure, and having an angle equal to a given,
a given rectilineal
angle.
W
Let
ABCD
be the given
Jt is required to
draw a
and
rectil. fig.,
the given angle.
ABCD
par"" equal to
and having an
angle equal to E.
DB.
Join
Construction.
Through C dvaw
CF pai-' to DB,
and meeting
AB
produced
in F.
DF.
Join
Then the
Draw
the
the par
ZKAG equal
Then the
ADAF
AGHK
to the
par""
the
it
it
has the
Prob. 17.
K(! = the
A ADF
ihohir.
ZKAG equal
Note. If tho given reftilinoal

must first be redueed, step by
equivalent triangle.
Prob. 18.
ABCD.
A ADF, and having
ZE.
=
and
fig.
equal to the
ABCD;
to the
ZE.
figure has mor<> than four sides,

stc^p,
until
it
is
replaeed by an
PROBLEMS UN AREAS
139
Problem 20
To draw a square equal
in area to a given rectangle.
X
Let
A BCD
be the given rectangle.
Construction.
BC.
On
AE
Produce
draw a
AB
making BE equal to
and produce CB to meet
to E,
semi-circle
the circumference at F.
Then 5/^
Proof.
is
a side of the required square.
Let A^ be the mid-point of AE, and
the semi-circle.
Then the
rect.
Join
AC
XF.
= AB
=^
=
Corollary.
To
(;
r~
the radius of
BE
XB){r
- XB)
- XS-
FB'-,
from the
(p. 129,
rt.
angled
describe a square equal in area to
E)
FBX.
any given
rectilineal figure.
Reduce the given figure to a triangle of equal area. Prob.
Draw
Apply
a rectangle equivalent to this triangle.
18.
Prob. 17.
to the rectangle the construction given above.
GEOMETRY
140
EXERCISES
{Reduction of a Reclilineal Figure
1.
AB
to
an Equivalent Triangle)
Draw a quadrilateral ABCD from the following data:

= BC = 5-5 cm. CD = DA = 4-5 em. the Z A = 75'.
;
Reduce the quadrilateral to a triangle of equal area. Measure

the base and altitude of the triangle, and hence calculate the approximate area of the given
2.
AB
Draw
a quadrilateral
2-8",
BC =
BD
3-2",
figure.
A iSCD
CD =
having given
3-3",
DA
3-6",
and the diagonal
= 30".
Construct an equivalent triangle
mate area
On
and hence
find the approxi-
of the quadrilateral.
AB, 4 cm. in length, describe an equilateral penhaving each of the angles at A and B 108.
Reduce the figure to a triangle of equal area; and by measuring its base and altitude, calculate the approximate area of the
3.
tagon (5
a base
sides),
pentagon.
A quadrilateral field A BCD has the following measurements

metres, BC = 380 m., CD = 330 m., AD = 390 m., and
diagonal AC = 660 m.
4.
AB =450
the
Draw a plan (scale 1 cm. to 50 metres). Reduce your plan to an

equivalent triangle, and measure its base and altitude. Hence
estimate the area of the field.
{Problems.
5.
give a theorctic(d proof.)
the base of a given triangle construct a second triangle

area to the first and hstving its vertex in a given lino.
Iloduee a triangle A BC to a triangle of equal area having

(D lies in BC, or BC produced.)
oi given length;
base
6.
its
and
On
eqiial in
State your construction,
BD
7.
Construct a triangle equal
having a given .altitude.
8.
ABC
is
in area to
a given triangle, and
A'
ABC, ha\dng
its
triangle equal in area to
in the sam(> straight lino as
BC.
a given triangle, and
a given point.
vertex at A', and
Draw
its
base
PROBLEMS ON AREAS
141
Construct a triangle equal in area to the quadrilateral

having its vertex at a given point X in DC, and its base in
the same straight Hne as AB.
9.
ABCD,
10.
Construct a triangle equal in area to a quadrilateral ABCD

of its sides equal respectively to the diagonals of the
and having two

quadrilateral.
11.
Shew how a triangle may be divided into n equal

drawn through one of its angular points.
parts
by
straight lines
Bisect a triangle by a straight line
12.
in one of
[Let
drawn through a given point
its sides.
ABC be the given A, and P the

given point in the side AB.
Bisect AB at Z and join CZ, CP.
;
Through Z draw ZQ
parallel to
CP.
Join PQ.
Then PQ
bisects the A.]
Trisect a triangle by straight lines
13.
in one of
[Let
drawn from a given point
its sides.
ABC be the given A, and A' the

given point in the side BC.
Trisect BC at the points P, Q.
Prob. 7.
Join AX, and through P and Q draw PH
and Q
parallel to .LY.
Join
XH, XK.
These straight lines trisect the A

may be shewn by joining AP, AQ.]
as
It
Cut off from a given triangle a fourth, fifth, sixth, or any

part required by a straight line drawn from a given point in one of
its sides.
15.
--
Bisect a qundrilntcral by a straight line
drawn through an
angular point.
[Reduce the quadrilateral to a triangle of equal area, and join

the vertex to the middle point of the base.]
16.
Cut
off
from a given quadrilateral a third, a fourth, a fifth,

by a straight line drawn through a given angu-
or anj' part required,

lar point.
GEOMETRY
142
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
AB and AC are unequal sides of a triangle ABC AX is the

1.
median through A, AP bisects the angle BAC, and AD is the perpendicular from A to BC. Prove that AF is intermediate in position and magnitude to AX and AD.
;
2.
In a triangle if a perpendicular is drawn from one extremity
the base to the bisector of the vertical angle, (i) it will make with
either of the sides containing the vertical angle an angle equal to
half the sum of the angles at the base
(ii) it will make with the
base an angle equal to half the difference of the angles at the base.
(jf
In any triangle the angle contained by the bisector of the

and the perpendicular from the vertex to the base is
equal to half the difference of the angles at the base.
3.
vertical angle
Construct a right-angled triangle, having given the hypote4.

nuse and the difference of the other sides.
5.
Construct a triangle, having given the base, the difference of
the angles at the base, and
maining
6.
(i)
the difference,
(ii)
the sum, of the re-
sides.
Construct an isosceles triangle, having given the Imse and

of one of the equal sides and the perpendicular from the
sum
the
vertex to the base.

7.
Shew how
on one part
may
A BCD
to divide a given straight line so that the square

be double the square on the other.
is any point without the

a parallelogram, and
opposite vertical angle; shew that (he triangle
OAC is equal to the sum of the triangles GAD, GAB.
If G is within the angle BA D or its opposite vertical angle, shew
that the triangle GAC is equal to the difference of the triangles
8.
angle
BAD
is
or
its
GAD, GAB.
0.
Find the locus of the intersection of the medians of triangles
described on a given base and of given area.
On
10.
((lual in
the base of a given triangle construct a second tîangl(^

area to the first, and having its vertex in a given straight
line.
11.
If
AB
BC D
is fixed,
is
a parallelogram nuide of rods connected by hinges.

middle point of CD.
find the locus of the
PART
III
THE CIRCLE
1.
circle is
a plane figure contained by a
by a point which moves so that

fixed point is always the same.
The
is
fixed point
is
its
line traced
out
distance from a certain
called the centre,
and the bounding
line
called the circumference.
XoTE.
this definition the term circle strictly apcontained by the circumference it is often used,
however, for the circumference itself when no confusion is likely to
According to
plies to the figure
arise.
2.
radius of a circle
is
a straight
centre to the circumference.
line
drawn from the
It follows that all radii of
circle are equal.

3.
diameter of a
circle is
a straight line drawn through
the centra and terminated both

4.
semi-circle
is
ways by the circumference.
the figure-bounded by a diameter of
a circle and the part of the circumference cut off
by the
diameter.
It will be proved on page 146 that a diameter di^^des a
two identically equal parts.
5.
Circles that
circle into
have the same centre are said to be con-
centric.
143
GEOMETRY
144
From
(i)
is
these definitions
circle is
by a
crossed
wc draw the
following inferences
a closed curve; so that

straight line, this line
if
if
the circumference
produced
will cross
the circumference at a second point.

(ii)
is
The
distance of a point from the centre of a circle
greater or less than the radius according as the point
is
without or within the circumference.

(iii)
point
outside or inside a circle according as
is
distance from the centre

(iv)
its
greater or less than the radius.
is
Circles of equal radii are identically equal.
For by
superposition of one centre on the other the circumferences
must coincide
(v)
at every point.
Concentric
unequal
circles of
radii
cannot intersect, for
the distance from the centre of every point on the smaller

circle is less
(vi)
than the radius of the
larger.
the circumferences of two circles have a
If
common
point they cannot have the same centre, unless they coincide
altogether.
C.
An
7.
arc of a circle
chord of a
is
any part
circle is
of the circumference.
a straight
line,
joining
any two
points on the circumference.
Note. From these definitions it may be seen

that a chord of a circle, which does not pass
through the centre, divides the (arcumferenco
into two unequal arcs; of these, the greater is
called the major arc, and the h'ss th' minor arc.
Thus the major

less
arc
is
greater,
and the minor arc
than the semi-circumference.
The major and minor arcs, into wliicli a <'ircumferenee is divided by a chord, are said to be conjugate to one
another.
SYMMETRY OF A CIRCLE
145
Symmetry
Some elementary
given previously
is
by
For convenience the definition
properties of circles are easily proved
considerations of symmetry.
here repeated.
Definition 1. A figure is said to be symmetrical about a

when, on being folded about that line, the parts of the
figure on each side of it can be brought into coincidence.
The straight line is called an axis of symmetry.
line
That this may be possible, it is clear that the two parts of the
must have the same size and shape, and must be similarly
figure
placed with regard to the axis.
Definition
outside
2.
AB
Let
he a straight line and
a point
it.
PM perp. to AB, and produce
From P draw
ing
MQ
equal to
it
to Q,
mak-
PM.
Then if the figure is folded about AB, the point P may be

made to coincide with Q, for^ the Z AAIP = the Z AAIQ
and
MP
The
= MQ.
points
and
are said to be symmetrically opposite
with regard to the axis
image
AB, and each
point
is
said to be the
of the other in the axis.
Note. A point and

on the axis. See Prob.
L
its
14,
image are equidistant from every point

page 91.
GEOMETRY
146
symmetncal about any diameter.
circle is
APBQ
Let
be a
circle of
which
the centre, and
is
AB
any diameter.
It is required to prove that the circle is
symmetrical about
AB.
OP and OQ be two radii making any equal

on opposite sides of OA.
Let
Proof.
A AOP, AOQ
Then
fall
if
the figure
is
folded about
AOP
along OQ, since the Z
And
thus
point in the arc
the circle
Corollary.
that
is,
is
AB
If
PQ
is
diawn cutting
folding the figure about A/:?, since
coincide with
MQ,
.'.
and the Z
.'.
.'.
regard to
P and Q
also
gard
to
AB
falls
M,
at
on Q,
then on
MP
will
= MQ;
coincide with the

rt.
OMQ;
;
are symmetrically opposite with
AB.
Hence, conversely,
it
MP
OMP will
these angles, being adjacent, are
the points
OQ.
must coincide with some

parts of the circumtwo
the
can be made to coincide.

symmetrical about the diameter AB.
ference on each side of

.'.
OP =
to
arc APB
in the
AQB;
AB, OP may be made

the Z AOQ.
with Q, since
will coincide
Thus every point
pa.s.sr.s
//
circle
passes through a given point P,
through the symmetrically opposite point with re-
any diameter.
EQUAL CIRCLES
147
SOME PROPERTIES OF EQUAL CIRCLES

The student should prove
ties of
equal
circles.
by superposition, while C
In equal
A.
for himself the following proper-
E may readily be proven

a simple exercise on Theorem 7.
A, B, D, and
is
circles angles at the centre lohich
stand on equal
arcs are equal.
In equal
B.
circles arcs
which subtend equal angles at
the
centre are equal.
In equal
C.
circles arcs ivhich are cut off
are equal, the major arc
to the
major and
the
by equal chords
minor arc
to the
minor.
A
(a)
Prove Z
Z EGF,
(b)
BOC =
Th.
7.
Hence arc BC =
arc EF, Th. 2.
D.
In equal
circles chords
E.
hi equal
circles sectors (see
which cut off equal arcs are equal.
Def. p. 161) which have equal
angles are equal.
Note.
State and prove these properties for the same circle.
GEOMETRY
148
ON CHORDS
""^
Theorem
// a straight line
[Euclid III.
34.
drawn from
3]
the centre of
chord which does not pass through the
ceyitre, it
circle bisects
cuts the chord at
right angles.
Conversely, if
cuts the chord at rigid angles,
it
it
bisects
it.
Let ABC be a circle whose centre is 0; and let OD bisect

a chord AB which does not pass through the centre.
OD
is
perp.
to
AB.
JoinO^, OB.
Then
Proof.
[
because
OD
<
is
OA = OB,
and
.-.
A ADO, BDO,
BD, by hypothesis,
common,
in the
AD =
the
being radii of the
ADO =
the
circle
Z BDO,
Theor. 7.
and these are adjacent angles;
OD is perp. to AB.
OD be perp. to the chord AB.
prove that OD bisects AB.
.'
Conversely.
It is required to
Proof.
the
because
In the A ODA, ODB,

A ODA, ODB are right angles,
the hypotenuse
and
OD
is
.'.
that
is,
q.e.d.
Let
OD
OA =
the hypotenuse OB,
common
DA = DB;
bisects
AB
at D.
Theor. 18.
q.e.d.
CHORD PROPERTIES
Corollary
The
1.
l49
which
straight line
bisects
a chord at
right angles passes through the centre.
Corollary
2.
more
straight line cannot meet a circle at
than two points.
For suppose a
whose centre
and B.
st.
Draw OC
Then
Now
would
if
line
meets
per p. to
^C =
also be equal to
3.
AB.
A
C5.
the circle were to cut
Corollary
at the points
is
circle
AB
CD, which
in a third point
is
chord of a circle
^;
D,
AC
impossible.
lies
wholly mthin
it.
EXERCISES
1.
In the figure of Theorem
cm., find
ment,
Draw
OB.
v3
- 4."i
34:,
ii
AB
= S
cm., and
the figure, and verify your result
OD =
by measure-
Calculate the length of a chord which stands at a distance

G" from the centre of a circle whose radius is 13".
In a circle of 1" radius draw two chords 1-6" and 1-2" in
3.
2.
Calculate and measure the distance of each from the centre.

circle whdse diameter is 8-0 cm. and place in it a
chord 6-0 cm. in length. Calculate to the nearest millimetre the
distance of the chord from the centre; and verify ypur result by
length.
4.
Draw a
measurement.
Find the distance from the centre to a chord 5 ft. 10 in. in
5.
length in a circle whose diameter is 2 yds. 2 in. Verify the result
graphically by drawing a figure in which 1 cm. represents 10".
and
6.
^fi is a chord 2-4" long in a circle whose centre is
whose radius is 1-3"; find the area of the triangle OAB in square
inches.
Two points P and Q are 3" apart. Draw a circle with radius
7.
1-7" to pass through P and Q.
Calculate the distance of its centre
from the chord PQ, and venfy by measiiroment.
GEOMETRY
150
2>
One
circle, arid
not in the
Let A,
same
B,C
Theorem 35
only one, can pass through atiy three points
straight line.
be three points not in the same straight Hne.
one
circle,
and only
one, can poffs
through A, B, and C.
Join
AB
Let
and
BC
be bisected at right angles by the Hnes
DF, EG.
Then since AB and BC
EG
AB, BC.
are not in the
same
st.
hne,
DF and
are not par*.
DF and EG meet in 0.
Proof.
Because DF bisects AB at right angles,
evej-y point on DF is equidistant from A and
Let
.*.
B.
Proh. 14.
Similarly every point on
EG
is
equidistant from
and C.
(), the only point connnon to DF and EG, is equidistant

from A, B, and C;
and there is no other point equidistant from A, B, and C.
.'.
.-.
a circle having
through
B and
its
centre at
C; and this
through the three given
is
O and
radius
OA
will ]iass
the only circle which will pass
i)oints.
q.e.d.
CHORD PROPERTIES
Corollary
determined
The
1.
if three
tion of the centre
Corollary
2.
of
size
its
and position
points are
151
of a circle are fully
known;
for then the posi-
and length
of the radius can be found.
Two
cannot cut one another in more
circles
than two points without coinciding entirely ; for

three points they would have the
Hypothetical Construction.
pears that we
may suppose a
points not in the
Thus, one
circle passes
Definition.
a triangle
The
same
is
The
they cut at
radius.
From Theorem 35
circle to be
it
drawn through any
ap-
three
straight line.
through the vertices of any triangle.

circle
passing through the vertices of
said to be circumscribed
circle, its centre,
if
same centre and
and
its
about the triangle.
radius are called the circum-
circle,the circum-centre,and the circum-radius of the triangle.
EXERCISES OX THEOREMS
(
The
1.
ferences of
34
AND
35
Theoretical)
parts of a straight line intercepted .between the circum-
two concentric
Two
circles are equal.
A and B, intersect at C\
is the middle point of the common chord.
and
Shew that
A
and BM are in the same straight line.
Hence prove that the line of centres bisects the common chord at right
2.
circles,
whose centres are at
angles.
AB,
3.
.straight line
4.
Find
AC are two equal chords of a circle; shew that the

which bisects the angle 5,4 C passes through the centre.
the locus of the centres of all circles
which pass through
tiro
given points.
5.
hare
its
Describe a circle that shall pass through two given points and
centre in a given straight line.
When
6.
is
this impossible?
Describe a circle of given radius
When
is this
impossible?
to
pass through two given points.
GEOMETRY
152
3S
//
lines
*Theorem
[Euclid III. 9]
36.
from a point within a circle more than two equal straight

can he drawn to the circumference, that point is the centre
of the circle.
Let
ABC
be a
and
circle,
more than two equal
a point within
are
st. lines
drawn
it
from which
to the O**,
namely
OA,OB,OC.
Join
Let
and
is the
centre of the circle
ABC.
AB, BC.
be the middle points o(
AB
and
BC
re-
spectively.
Join OD, OE.
In the
Proof.
ODA, ODB,
DA = DB,
DO is common,
[and OA = OB, by hypothesis;
Thcor.
the Z ODA = the Z ODB;
r
because
.-.
..'.
Hence
these angles, being adjacent, are
DO bisects the
chord
it
may
AB at right angles,
7.
and there-
Theor. 34, Cor.
fore passes through the centre.
Similarly
rt.
be shewn that
EO
1.
passes through the
centre.
.".
O, whicli
be the centre.
is
the only point
common
to
DO and
EO, must
q.e.d.
CHORD PROPERTIES
153
EXERCISES OX CHORDS
AB
and
BC
are lines at right angles, and their lengths are

1-6" and 3-0" respectively. Draw the circle through the points A,
find the length of its radius, and verify your result by
B, and C
1.
measurement.
2.
Draw
a circle in which a chord G em. in length stands at a
distance of 3 cm. from the centre.
Calculate (to the nearest millimetre) the length of the radius,
and verify your

3.
Draw a
4.
Two
result
by measurement.
of 8 cm., and place in it a chord

equal to the radius.
Calculate (to the nearest millimetre) the distance of the chord
from the centre, and verify bj' measurement.
circle
circles,
inches, intersect at
on a diameter
whose radii are respectively 26 inches and 2.5

two points which are 4 feet apart. Find the
distance between their centres.
Draw
the figure (scale
cm. to 10"), and verify your result by
measurement.
5.
Two
parallel chords of
spectively 5"
them
6.
is
and 12"
either 8-5" or
Two
3-
whose diameter is 13" are reshew that the distance between
circle
in length;
5".
on the same side of the centre

and the perpendicular
Calculate and measure the radius.
parallel chords of a circle
and 8 cm. in length

distance between them is 1 cm.
are 6 cm.
respectively,
(Theoretical)
7.
The
middle points of two parallel chords of a

through the centre.
line joining the
circle passes
8.
Fijid the locus of the middle points of parallel chords in a circle.
9.
Two
unless each
intersecting chords of a circle cannot bisect each other

is
a diameter.
a parallelogram can be inscribed in a circle, the point of

intersection of its diagonals must be at the centre of the circle.
10.
If
11.
Shew that rectangles are the onlj^ parallelograms that can
be inscribed in a circle.
GEOMETRY
154
^^
Theorem
Equal chords of a
[Euclid III. 14]
37.
from
circle are equidistant
Conversely, chords which are equidistant
the centre.
from
the centre are
equal.
Let
OF,
AB, CD be chords
OG
of a circle
whose centre
0,
is
and
let
be perpendiculars on them from 0.

Let
First.
AB = CD.
AB and CD are equidistajif from 0.
Join 0.4, OC.
Because
Proof.
OF is perp. to the
OF bisects .4/?;
chord AB,
Theor. 34.
.:
.-.
.4
Similarly
is
CO
half of
is
.:
Now
I
because
the
.'.
the
in the
is,
A OFA,
OCC,
'
trian}2;les
AB
CD.
CD,
Ca.
AB =
AF =
A OFA, OGC are right amjles,

hypotenuse OA = the hypotenuse OC,
:uu\ AF = CO;'
are ecjual in
so that
that
B.
half of
But, by hypothesis,
the
.4
and
CD
all
OF = 00
;ire
respects;
Thcor. 18.
e(iuidistant
from O.
Q.E.D.
CHORD PROPERTIES
OF =
Let
Conversely.
AB =
li is required to prove that
Proof.
As before
and Cti half of CD.
may
it
Then
[
because
the
in the
the hypotenuse
and
.:
.'.
OC.
CD.
be shewn that
A OFA,
A OFAy,OGC
155
AF
is
half of
AB,
OGC,
are right angles,
OA = the hypotenuse OC,

OF = 00;
AF = CO;
Theor.
18.
the doubles of these are equal

that
is,
AB =
CD.
q.e.d.
EXERCISES
(
Find
Theoretical)
middle points of equal chords of a circle.

2.
If two chords of a circle cut one another, and make equal
angles with the straight line which joins their point of intersection
to the centre, they are equal.

1.
3.
ments
If
the locus of the
of a circle intersect, shew that the segone are equal respectively to the segments of the other.
two equal chords
of the
4.
In a given circle draw a chord which shall be equal to one
given straight line (not greater than the diameter) and parallel to
another.
5.
PQ is a fixed chord
that the
on
PQ
sum
is
in
circle,
and
AB is any diameter
or difference of the perpendiculars let
the same for
all
positions of
AB.
fall
shew
from A and
:
[See Ex. 9, p. 64.]
{Graphical)
cm. any number of chords are drawn

each 1-8 cm. in length. Shew that the middle points of these chords
all lie on a circle.
Calculate and measure the length of its radius,
6.
In a^circle of radius
and draw the
4- 1
circle.
two circles are 4" apart, their common chord

2-4" in length, and the radius of the larger circle is 3-7". Give a
construction for finding the points of intersection of the two circles,
and find the radius of the smaller circle.
7.
is
The
centres of
GEOMETRY
156
v3
Theorem
Of any two chords
[Euclid III. 15]
38.
of a circle, that which is nearer to the cetitre
than one more remote.
is greater
Conversely, the greater of two chords is nearer to the centre
than the
less.
.A
CD be chords of a circle whose centre

be perpentliculars on them from 0.
Let AB,
OF,
OG
is
0,
and

(i)
if
OF
is less
(ii)
if
AB
is greater
than OG, then
than CD, then

Join
Proof.
Because
AB is
OF
is
OF
greater than
is less
CD
than OG.
OA, OC.
perp. to the chord
AB,
OF bisects A B;
AFmhaUoiAB.
Similarly CG is half of CD.
Now OA =- OC;
the sq. on OA = the sq. on OC.
But since the Z OFA is a rt. angle,
.:
.-.
.'.
/.
the sq. on
OA =
the sqq. on OF,
on
OC =
FA =
the sqq. on OG, GC.
Siniihirly the sq.

.:
the sqq. on
OF,
FA.
the sqq. on OG, GC.
let
CHORD PROPERTIES
OF is given less than OG,
OF is less than the sq. on OG.
on FA is greater than the sq. on GO;
:. FA is greater than GC
Hence
(i)
157
if
the sq. on
the sq.
.'.
..
(ii)
then the
CD.
if
is, if
sq.
the sq.
.".
greater than
A 5 is given greater than CD,

FA is greater than GC;
on FA is greater than the sq. on GC.
on OF is less than the sq. on OG;
OF is less than OG.
q.e.d.
But
that
AB is
.-.
Corollary.
The
greatest chord in
circle is
a diameter.
EXERCISES
(
Miscellaneous )
Through a given point within a
1.
circle
draw the
least possible
chord.
Draw a
2.
triangle
Through the ends

side
Calculate and measure the radius.
c.
Draw
3.
2-8",
^fiC in which a = 3-5", b = 1-2", c = 3-7".

draw a circle with its centre on the
of the side a
the circum-eircle of a triangle whose sides are 2-6",
and 3-0".
4.
AB
having
its
Measure
its radius.
XY
is a fixed chord of a circle, and

any other chord
middle point Z on AB; what is the greatest, and what
the least length that
may have?
Shew that
increases, as Z approaches the middle point of
XY
XY
AB.
5.
as
Describe the change of direction of the chord
XY
Z moves from one end of AB to its middle point.

6.
What direction docs XY take when Z reaches
point of
7.
AB
Ex. 4)
the middle
Consider the position of
Note.
(in
X F when Z gets very near to
For exercises on Theorems 34-38, see page 160.
A.
GEOMETRY
158
ON ANGLES IN SEGMENTS, AND ANGLES AT

THE CENTRES AND CIRCUMFERENCES
OF CIRCLES
s
Theorem
The angle
[Euclid IIL 20]
39.
at the centre of
circle is
douhle of an angle at the
circumference standing on the same arc.
Fig.
Let
BOC
O*'^
ABC
be a
Fig.
I.
circle, of
which
is
be the angle at the centre, and
2.
the centre
BAC
an angle
and
let
al
the
standing on the same arc BC.
Z BOC
AO, and produce it
Join
In the
Proof.
.'.
.'.
the
sum
But the
ext.
.'.
the
Similarly the
A OAB,
the
because
Z OAB =
the
is
twice the
Z BAC.
to D.
OB = OA,
Z OB A.
A OAB, OBA = twice the Z OAB.

Z BOD = the sum of the A OAB, OBA;
Z BOD = twice the Z OAB.
of the
DOC =
twice the
Z OAC.
adding these results in Fig. 1 and taking the difference

in Fig. 2, it follows in each case that
.:
the
Z BOC =
twice the
Z B,\C.
q.e.d.
159
Fig. 4.
Fig. 3.
Obs.
If the arc EEC, on wliicli the angles stand, is a semichcumference, as in Fig. 3, the Z BOC at the centre is a
straight angle ; and if the arc BEC is greater than a semi-
circumference, as in Fig. 4, the
BOC at
the centre
is reficx.
appHes without change to both these

cases, shewing that whether the given arc is greater, than,
equal to, or less than a semi-circumference,
But the proof
the
for Fig.
Z BOC =
Z BAC, on
twice the
the
same arc BEC.
DEFINITIONS
segment
of a circle
by a chord and one
the figure bounded
is
of the
two
arcs into
which
the chord divides the circumference.
Note.
The chord
of a
segment
is
sometimes
called its base.
An
angle in a segment
straight lines
of the
We
is
one formed by two
drawn from any point
in the arc
segment to the extremities of its chord.

have seen in Theorem^ that a circle may be drawn
through any three points not in a straight line. But it is

only under certain conditions that a circle can be drawn
through more than three points.
Definition. If four or more points are so placed that a
circle may be drawn through them, they ar^ said to be
concyclic.
GEOMETRY
160
EXERCISES
(Miscellaneous)
All circles which pass through a fixed point, and have their
centres on a given straight line, pass also through a second fixed point.
1.
2.
If
two
parallel to the
which intersect are cut by a straight lino

chord, shew that the parts of it intercepted""'
circles
common
between the circumferences are equal.

3.
If two circles cut one another, any two parallel straight lines
drawn through the points of intersection to cut the circles are equal.
4.
If two circles cut one another, any two straight lines drawn
through a point of section, making equal angles with the common
chord, and terminated by the circumferences, are equal.
5.
Two circles of
chord 2 feet in length

6.
find the distance
between
common
their centres.
Draw two circles of radii 10" and
2-1" apart.
of the
diameters 74 and 40 inches have a
Find
common
bj'^
1- 7", and with their centres

and by measurement, the length
distance from the two centres.
calculation,
chord, and
its
Find the greatest and least straight linos which have one extremity on each of two given non-intersecting circles.
7.
8.
If
lines are
from any point on the circumference
drawn
of
circle straight
to the circumference, the greatest
is
that which
and of anj'^ two such lines the greater

passes through the centre
is that which subtends the greater angle at the centre.
;
9.
Of all straight lines drawn through a point of intersection of
two circles and terminated by the circumferences, the greatest is that
which is parallel to the line of centres.
^"'
\
\^
10.
drawn
j^jj*
.
// froin any internal point, not the centre, straight lines arc
circumference of a circle, then the greatest is that which
to the
passes through the centre,
and
the least is the
remaining part of that

is that which
diameter; and of any other two such lines the greater

subtends the greater angle at the centre.
11.
If
from any external point
straight lines are
drawn
to
the
which passes through the

centre, and the least is that which when produced passes through the
centre; and of any other two such lines, the greater is that which subcircumference of a
circle, the greatest is that
tends the greater angle at the centre.
ANGLE PROPERTIES
161
39
Prove thai the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
1.
The angle
2.
an acute angle.
in,
a segmeid of a
The angle in a segment of a
3.
circle greater
circle less
than a semi-circle is
than a semi-circle
is
an
obtuse angle.
4.
on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
circle described
as diameter, passes through the opposite angular point.

5.
eters
Two circles intersect at A and B and through A two diamA P, AQ are drawn, one in each circle shew that the points
P, B,
6.
are coUinear.
circle is
described on one of the equal sides of an isosceles

Shew that it passes through the middle point
triangle as diameter.
of the base.
7.
Circles described
on the third
intersect
8.
on any two sides of a triangle as diameters
side, or the third side
produced.
straight rod of given length slides between
rulers placed at right angles to
one another
two straight
find the locus of its
middle point.
9.
Fi7id the locus of the middle points of chords of a circle
drawn
Distinguish between the cases when the given

within, on, or without the circumference.
through a fixed point.

point is
10.
If two chords intersect within a circle, they
to that at the centre,
11.
subtended by half the
sum
form an angle equal
of the arcs they cut
If two chords intersect without a circle, they form
to that at the
off.
an angle equal
centre subtended by half the difference of the arcs they cut
off.
12.
The sum of the arcs cut off by two chords of a circle at right
angles to one another is equal to the semi-circumference.
Definition.
])Oiinded
by two
between them.
sector of a circle
radii
is
a figure
and the arc intercepted
GEOMETRY
162
A 9
Theorem
Angles in
the
[Euclid III. 21]
40.
same segment of a
circle arc eqiicCl.
Pig.i.
Let
BAC,
circle,
BDC
Fig. 2.
be angles in
whose centre
is
tiie
same segment
BADC
of a
0.
BAC =
the
L BDC.
Join BO, OC.

Proof.
BAC
Because the
BOC
at
is
at the O"^, standing on the
the centre, and the
same
the
Z BOC -
twice the
Similarly the
Z BOC =
Z BAC =
twice the
.-.
.:
Note.
The
the
p:ivon s<>fr"icn(
the
may
arc
BC,
Z BAC.
Z BDC.
Z BDC.
Thcor. 39.
q.e.d.
he frroater than a .semi-circlo as
or less than a senn-circle as in Fig. 2 in the latter ease the

angle BOC will be reflex.
But by virtue of the e.xtension of Theorem
."^9
given on page 159, the above proof applies equally to both
in Fig.
figures.
1,
ANGLE PROPERTIES
163
CONVERSE OF THEOREM
Equal angles standing on
same
the
have their vertices on an arc of a
base,
circle, of
40
and on the same side of it,

which the given base is the
chord.
Let BAC, BDC be two equal angles standing:

on the same base Bd, and on the same side of it.
It is
required
to
of a circle having
ABC
Let
prove that
BC
be the
as
circle
the three points A, B,
BD
or
BD
A and D
lie
on an arc
chord.
its
which passes through

and suppose it cuts
produced at the point E.

Join EC.
Then
Proof.
the Z
BAC
Z BEC in the same segment.

A BAC = the ^ BDC;
Z BEC = the Z BDC;
=
the
But, by hypothesis, the

the
:.
which
.'.
is
impossible unless
the circle through B, A,
coincides with
C must
pass through D.
Corollary. The locus of the vertices of triangles drawn on the

same side of a given base, and ivith equal vertical angles, is an arc of a
circle.
In Fig. 1, if the angle BDC
in each of the angles BAC, BOC,
1.
2.
40.
angle
3.
4.
74, find the
40
number
of degrees
OBC.
BD and CA intersect at A'. If the angle DXC

XCD = 25, #nd the number of degrees in the
In Fig. 2, let
and the angle
BAC
and
In Fig.
82, find the
angle
is
Shew
BAC
in the reflex
1. if
angle
the angles
number
BOC.
CBD, BCD
that in Fig. 2 the angle
by a
are respectively
of degrees in the angles
OBC
is
4.3
always
less
than the
right angle.
[For further Exercises on
Theorem 40
and
BAC, OBD, OCD.
see
page
166.]
GEOMETRY
164
Theorem
41.
[Euclid III. 22]
The opposite angles of any quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle
are together equal to two right angles.
A BCD
Let
O ABC.
be a quadrilateral inscribed in the

(i)
the
(ii)
the
Suppose
is
A ADC,
A BAD,
ABC together =
BCD together =
the centre of the
two
rt.
angles.
two
rt.
angles.
circle.
JoinOA, OC.
Proof.
Since the
ADC
and the Z
ABC
centre, standing
.-.
the
A ^DC,
at the
O" =
.-.
the
Similarly the
A5C together =
Note.
compared.
ment
are
uj:)
4 ADC, ABC
A BAD, BCD
half the
ABC
half the reflex
on the same arc
and the reflex Z AOC.

But the latter angles make
at the O'*'
on the same arc
at the centre, standing
ADC
sum
four
angles.
rt.
togethcM-
AOC
at the
half the
together
AOC
of the
= two
= two
AOC
rt.
angles.
rt.
angles.
Q.E.D.
Tho results of Thoorems 40 and 41 .shoiild bo carpfully

From Theoroni 40 we learn that anples in the .sainc segequal.
From Theorem 41 we learn that anples in conju-
gate s(>{jment.s are .fupplcmentnri/.
Definition.
(luadrilateral
can be drawn through
its
is
called cyclic \\\\cn a ciicle
four vertices.
ANGLE PROPERTIES
CONVERSE OF THEOREM
lG-5
41
// a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary

are concyclic.
its vertices
Let
A BCD
be a quadrilateral in which the
B and D
opposite angles at
required
It is
to
are supplementary-.
prove that the points A, B, C,
are concyclic.
ABC
be the circle which passes through

Let
and suppose it cuts
the three points A, B, C
or
produced in the point E.
Join EC.
;
AD
AD
Then since ABCE is a cyclic quadrilateral,

Z AEC is the supplement of the Z ABC.
But, by hypothesis, the Z ^DCis the supplement of the Z ABC;
Proof.
/.
the
the Z. AEC = the Z ADC;

impossible unless E coincides with D.
:.
which
.'.
is
the circle which passes through A, B,
that
is.
A, B, C,
C must
pass through D;
are concyclic.
EXERCISES ON THEOREISI
q.e.d.
41
In a circle of 1-6" radius inscribe a quadrilateral A BCD,

1.
equal to 126. Measure the remaining
making the angle
angles, and hence verify in this case that opposite angles are supplementary.
ABC
Prove Theorem 41 by the aid
2.
first
of
Theorems 40 and
16, after
joining the opposite vertices of Uie quadrilateral.
.3.
If a circle can be described
parallelogram must be rectangular.
4.
ABC is an isosceles
5.
and XY is drawn parallel to the

and Y; shew that the four points
triangle,
base BC cutting the sides in

B, C, X, Y lie on a circle.
angle
about a parallelogram, the
// one side of a cyclic quadrilateral is produced, the exterior

equal to the opposite interior angle of the quadrilateral.
is
GEOMETRY
166
EXERCISES OX ANGLES IN A CIRCLE

P
is
any point on the are
sum
chord; shew that the
PQ and RS
2.
Two
4.
PQ
Two
RXQ are equiangular
PAQ
is
is
AB
is tlio
constant.
to
one another.
and through A any

at .1 and B
drawn terminated by the circumferences;
;
subtends a constant angle at B.
circles intersect at
straight lines
of whicli
PAB, PBA
circles intersect
straight line
"-^T&^shew that
segment
are two cliords of a circle intersecting at A'
prove that the triangles PXS,

3.
of a
of the angles
XAY
PAQ,
are
A and B and through .4 any two

drawn terminated by the circumfer-
ences; shew that the arcs PA',
QY
subtend equal angles at B.
5.
P is any point on the arc of a segment whose chord is .1 B
and the angles PAB, PBA are bisected by straight lines which
Find the locus of the point 0.
intersect at 0.
;
AB
is a fixed chord oj a circle and P any point on one of the

6.
If
arcs cut off by it, then the bisector of the angle A P B cuts the conjugate
arc in the same point for all positions of P.
7.
AB, AC are any two chords of a circle; and P,
middle points of the minor arcs cut off by them; if PQ
cutting AB in A and AC in 1', shew that .lA = AY.
8.
triangle
ABC
is
inscribed in a circle,
the angles meet the circumference at A,

are respectively
of the triangle
1',
and the
Shew
Z.
are the
is
joined,
bisectors of
that the angles
XYZ
90"-
0.
90-^.
circles intersect at A and B; and through these points

drawn from any point P on the circumference of one of the
shew that when produced they intercept on the other cir-
cumference an arc which

10.
90-^,
Two
lines are
circles;
is
constant for
all
positions of
/'.
Tlic straight lines which join the e.Ntri-mities of parallel
chords in a circle
parts, arc equal.
(i)
towards the same parts,
(ii)
towards opposite
EXERCISES ON ANGLKS IN A CIRCLE

Through A, a point
11.
PAQ,
straight lines
XAY
1G7
ot' two equal circles, two

drawn; shew that the chord PA' is
of intersoetion
are
QY
equal to the chord
Through the points of intersection of two circles two parallel

drawn terminated by the circumferences shew
that the straight lines which join their extremities towards the same
12.
straight lines are
jjarts are equal.
BP =
that
14.
equal circles intersect at A and B and through

terminated by the circumferences
Two
13.
straight line
ABC
isosceles triangle inscribed in a circle, and the

base angles meet the circumference at
and Y.
that the figure
YC must have four of its sides equal.
is
an
BXA
What
ABC, in
relation
must
subsist
order that the figm-e
ABC D
among
BXAYC
the angles of the triangle
may
be equilateral?
a cyclic quadrilateral, and the opposite sides AB,

meet at P, and CB, DA to meet at Q; if the
circumscribed about the triangles PBC, QAB intersect at R,
15.
DC
BQ.
l)isectors of the
Shew
any
shew
.1
PAQ is drawn
is
are produced to
circles
shew that the points P, R, Q are

P, Q,
IG.
is the foot of the
side;
shew
[See
are the middle points of the sides of a triangle,
perpendicular
that the
let
fall
Use
17.
on
from one
four points P, Q, R,
page 64, Ex. 2; also Prob.
and
vertex
on
and
the opposite
are concyclic.
10, p. 83.]
the preceding exercise to
sides of a triangle
vertices
collinear.
shew
that the
middle points
the feet of the perpendiculars
let
fall
oftlie
from
the
the opposite sides, are concyclic.
a series of triangles are ^Kt-wn standing on a fixed base

vertical angle, shew that the bisectors of th(>
vertical angles all pass through a fixed point.
18.
If
and having a given
ABC
19.
is a triangle inscribed in a circle, and E the middle
point of the are subtended by BC on the side remote from A
if
;
through
a diameter
ED
is
drawn, shew that the angle
half the difference of the angles at
B and
C.
DEA
is
GEOMETRY
168
TANGENCY
1.
secant of a circle
is
a straight line of indefinite
length which cuts the circumference at two points.

If a secant moves in such a wa}' that the two points
which it cuts the circle continually approach one another,
then in the ultimate position when these two points become
one, the secant becomes a tangent to the circle, and is said to
touch it at the point at which the two intersections coincide.
2.
in
This point
is
called the point of contact.
For instance
(i)
Let a secant cut the circle at the points
and Q, and suppose it to recede from the centre,

moving so as to be always parallel to its original
then the two points P and Q will
position
clearly approach one another and finally coinIn the ultimate position when P and
cide.
Q become one point, the straight line b(^
comes a tangent to the circle at that point.
;
Let a secant cut the circle at the points

Q, and suppose it to be turned about
the point P so that while P remains fixed, Q
moves on the circumference nearer and nearer
Then the line PQ in its ultimate
to P.
position, when Q coincides with P, is a tangent at the point P.
(ii)
P and
Since a secant can cut a circle at two points only,
it is
clear
that a tangent can have only one point in common with the
circumference, namely the point of contact, at which two
Hence we maj' define a tangent
points of section coincide.
as follows
3.
tangent to a circle
is
a straight line which meets
the circumference at one point only
and though produced
indefinitely does not cut the circumference.
Fig.
Fig. I.
Fig.3-
2.
Let two circles intersect (as in Fig. 1) in the points

and Q, and let one of the circles turn about the point P,
which remains fixed, in such a way that Q continually ap4.
Then
proaches P.
with
(as in Figs.
in the ultimate position,
2 and
when Q
coincides
3), the circles are said to touch one
another at P.
Since two circles cannot intersect in more than two points,
two
circles
which touch one another cannot have more than

common, namely the point of contact at which
one point in
the two points of section coincide.
touch one another
Hence
circles are said to
when they meet, but do not cut one
another.
Note.
When
each of the
circles wliich
meet
is
outside the other,
as in Fig. 2, they are said to touch one another externally, or to have

external contact; when one of the circles is within the other, as in
Fig. 3, the first is said to touch the other internally, or to
ternal contact with
have
in-
it.
Inference from Definitions 2 and 4

If in Fig.
of
which
is
1,
TQP
made
is
common
chord of two
to turn about P, then
into coincidence with P, the line
when Q
TP passes through two coin-
cident points on each circle, as in Figs. 2 and
becomes a tangent to each
Two
circles
circle.
3,
and therefore
Hence
which touch one another have a
their point of coritact.
one
brought
circles
is
common
tangent at
^-
Fo-o-v^r^.,^ "
5~t-
O,
GEOMETRY
170
Theorem 42 H
any point
T/ie tangent at
radius drawn
Let
to the
of a circle
perpend icnlar
is
to the
point of contact.
PT be a tangent at
the point
to a circle
whose centre
isO.
PT
is
perpendicular
to the
radius
OP.
Take any point Q
Proof.
Then
P J"
since
outside the
in
PT, and
join
OQ.
is
Theor. 12, Cor.
1.
a tangent, every point in
it
except
circle.
'.
And
.'.
is
OP
OQ
is
greater than the radius
this
is
true for everj^ point
is
OP.
in
the shortest distance from
Hence
OP
is
perp. to
PT.
PT
to
PT.
y.E.D.
Corollary
to
OP
can he drawn
to
Corollary
to
PT
Since there can be only one jêrpendiculnr
1.
at the point P,
2.
its
and only one tangent
Since there can be only one perpendicular
at the point P,
tangent at
follows that one
it
a circle at a given point on the circumjeretice.
it
follows that the perpend icular
to
point of contact pa,sses throiu/h the centre.
Corollary
3.
from
to the line
dicular
to the
Since there can be only one perpendicular
PT,
it
follows that the radius
drawn perpen-
tangent passoi through the point of contact.
TANGENCY
171
Theorem 43
Twu
tangents can he
drawn
to
circle
from an external
paint.
be an
jp
PQR
Let
be a
whose centre
circle
is
0,
and
let
external point.
can be two tangents drawn
It is required to prove that there
the circle
Join OT, and
This
to
from T.
let
TSO
circle will cut
without, and
is
be the
circle
O PQR in
the O PQR.
the
within,
on OT as diameter.
two points, since T is
Let P and Q be these
points.
Join TP,
Xow
Proof.
circle, is
.'.
TP,
rt.
each of the
angle
TQ
.!
TQ
OP, OQ.
A TPO, TQO,
are perp. to the radii
TQ
TP,
being in a semi-
OQ
OP,
are tangents at
respectively.
and Q.
Theor. 42.
Q.E.D.
Corollary.
The two tangents
to
circle
from an
external
point are equal, and suhteml equal angles at the centre.
For
in the
TPO, TQO,
A TPO, TQO are right angles,

because the hj-potenuse TO is common,
and OP = OQ, being radii
TP = TQ,
Theor.
and the Z TOP = the Z TOQ.
[
the
<
.-.
18.
GEOMETRY
172
EXERCISES ON THE TANGENT

Draw two concentric circles with radii 5-0 cm. and

1.
Draw a series of chords of the former to touch the latter.
in
Calcu-
and account for their being equal.

In a circle of radius 1-0" draw a number of chords each 1-6"
2.
Shew that they all touch a concentric circle, and find
length.
and measure
late
its
3-0 cm.
their lengths,
radius.
circle of
to the nearest millimetre the length of any chord of a

radius 5-0 cm., which touches a concentric circle of radius
2-5 cm.,
and check your work by measurement.
Find
3.
In the figure of Theorem 43, if OF = 5", TO = 13", find the

length of TP and TQ. Draw the figure (scale 2 cm. to 5"), and measure to the nearest degree the angles subtended at O by the tangents.
The tangents from T to a circle whose radius is 0-7" are each
5.
4.
2-4" in length. Find the distance of T from the centre of the

Draw the figure and check your result graphically.
(
6.
lines
The centre of
must lie on the
7.
AB
8.
angle
and
AO
shew that
PQ
If
PTQ
is
AC
any
circle.
Theoretical)
circle
which touches two intersecting straight
bisector of the angle between them.
are two tangents to a circle whose centre is

BC at right angles.
();
bisects the chord of contact

is
joined in
tlu^
figure of
Theorem 43 shew
that the
double the angle OPQ.
9.
Two parallel tangents to a circle intercept on .any third tangent a segment which subtends a right angle at the centre.
10.
The diameter of a
circle bisects all
chords which are parallel
to the tangent at either extremity.

11.
Find the locus of the centres of nil circles which touch (i) n
given straight line at a given point, (ii) each of two parallel straight
lines, (iii) each of
12.
two intersecting straight lines.
In any quadrilateral circumscribed about a
circle, the
sum
of
one pair of opposite sides is equal to the su7n of the other pair.
State and prove the converse theorem.
13.
If
is described about a circle, the angles subany two opposite sides are supplementary.
a quadrilateral
tended at the centre
ljy
THE CONTACT OF CIRCLES
Theorem
^H
173
If two circles touch one another, the centres
ami
the point of
contact are in one straight line.
and Q touch
Let two circles whose centres arc
at the
point P.
It is required to
prove that 0, P, ami
Q are in one straight line.
Join OP, QP.

Since the given circles touch at P, they have a
Proof.
common
Suppose
Then
Page 169.
tangent at that point.
OP
since
PT to
and
QP
circles at P.
touch both
are radii
drawn
to the point of
contact,
.-.
OP and QP are both perp. to PT

OP and QP are in one st. line.
Theor. 2.
.-.
That
is,
the points 0, P, and
Q^re
in
one
st. line,
q.e.d.
Corollaries, (i) If two circles touch externally thedistance

between their centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
(ii)
If two
circles touch internally, the distance
centres is equal to the difference of their radii.
between their
GEOMETRY
174
EXERCISES ON THE CONTACT OF CIRCLES

From centres 2-6" apart draw two circles Avitli radii 1-7"
1.
and 0-9" respectively. Why and where do these circles touch?
If circles of the above radii are drawn from centres 0-8" apart,
prove that they touch. Plow and why does the contact differ from
that in the former case?
6=7
Draw a triangle ABC in which a = 8 em.,

cm., and
6 cm. From A, B, and C as centres draw circles of radii 2-5
cm., 3-5 cm., and 4-5 cm. respectively; and shew that these circles
2.
touch in pau's.
In the triangle ABC, right-angled at C, o =8 cm. and 6=6
and from centre A with radius 7 cm. a circle is drawn. Find
the radius of a circle drawn from centre B to touch the first circle.
4.
A and B are the centres of two fixed circles which touch inIf P is the centre of any circle Avhich touches the larger
ternalh\
circle internally and the smaller externally, prove that AP + BP
3.
cm.
is
constant.
If
the fixed circles have radii
verify the general result
^ J5
5.
AC,
is
oO
by taldng
a line 4" in length, and
CB semi-circles are described.
in the space enclosed
6.
straight
liîe
is
cm. respectively,
is its
middle point. On .4 B,
if a circle is inscribed
Shew that
by the three semi-circles

(
30
cm. and
different positions for P.
its
radius must be |".
Theoretical)
drawti through the point of contact of two
whose centres are A and B, cutting the circumferences

respectively; shew that the radii AP and BQ are parallel.
circles
Two
at
P and
(j
touch externally, and through the point of conis drawn terminated by the circumferences
shew that the tangents at its extremities are parallel.
8.
Find the locus of the centres of all circles which touch a
7.
circles
tact a straight line
given circle
(i)
at a given point
(ii)
and are
of
a given radius.
to touch a
From a given point as centre describe a circle

given circle. ITow many solutions will there be?
0.
10.
Describe a circle of radius a to touch a
b at a given point.
How many
gi\
en circle of radius
solutions will there be?
THE COXTArT OF CIRCLES

t-l/'ÎKuclid III.
'i'iiK(jHi;.\i
175
;}2]
The angles made by a tangent to a circle with a chord drawn

from the point of contact are respectively equal to the angles in
the alternate
segments of the
circle.
Let
EF
O ABC
touch the
drawn from B, the point
and
at B,
BD
let
be a chord
of contact.
FBD =
EBD =
segment
BAD
the angle in the alternate segment
BCD.
(i)
the
(ii)
the
Z
Z
Let
BA
be the diameter through B, and
the angle in the alternate
C any
point in the
arc of the segment which does not contain A.
Join
..
But
the
since
A DBA,
EBF
.*.
.-.
AD, DC, CB.
ADB in a semi-circle is a rt.

BAD together = a rt. angle.
Because the Z
Proof.
the
is
the
a tangent, and
Z FBA =
FBA
the
is
BA
angle,
a diameter,
angle.
rt.
BAD
A DBA,
together.
Take away the common Z DBA,

then the Z FBD = the Z BATT, in the alternate segment.
ABCD
BCD = the
Again because
/.
the
=
=
.*.
the
EBD =
the
is
a cyclic quadrilateral,
supplement of the Z
the supplement of the Z
Z
Z BCD,
the
EBD
in
BAD
FBD
the alternate segment.

Q.E.D.
GEOMETRY
76
1.
down
2.
In the figure of Theorem 45, if the

the values of the A BAD, BCD, EBD.
Use
this
45
FBD
theorem to shew that tangents to a
= 72^
circle
write
from an
external point are equal.
Through A, the point of contact of two circles, chords APQ,

shew that PA' and QY are parallel.
Prove this (i) for internal, (ii) for external contact.
4.
ylB is the common chord of two circles, one of which passes
3.
AXY
are drawn;
through 0, the centre of the other; prove that OA bisects the angle
between the common chord and the tangent to the first circle at A.
5.
Two
A and B and through

P AC, FBD are drawn to
on one of them, straight

at C and D; shew that
from the point
lines
CD
is
P, any point
cut the other
parallel to the tangent at P.
;
chord
drawn, the perpendiculars dropped on the tangent and chord
from the middle point of either arc cut off by the chord are equal.
0.
If
of contact of a tangent to a circle a
is
7.
bisects
8.
9.
Deduce Theorem 44 from the property that

common chord at right angles.
Deduce Theorem 45 from Ex. 5, page 165.
Deduce Theorem 42 from Theorem 39.
the line of cc7ilres
PROBLEMS ON CIRCLES
177
PROBLEMS
Geometrical Analysis
Hitherto the Propositions of this text-])ook havo boon
arranged Synthetically, that

results in order to
by building up knouii
to say,
is
obtain a new result.
But this arrangement, though convincing as an argument,

most cases affords httle clue as to the way in which the
construction or proof was discovered. We therefore draw the
in
student's attention to the following hints.
In attempting to solve a problem begin
bj^ assuming the

then by working backwards, trace the consequences of the assumption, and try to ascertain its depend-
required result
ence on some condition or
known theorem which
necessary construction.
If this
steps of the
reverse order,
attempt
is
suggests the
successful, the
argument may in general be re-arranged in

and the construction and proof presented in a
synthetic form.
This unravelling of the conditions of a proposition in order

to trace it
is
back to some
earlier principle
called geometrical analysis
it is
on which
the natural
ing the harder types of exercises^ and
it is
it
depends
way of attack-
especially useful in
solving problems.
Although the above directions do not amount to a method,

they often furnish a very effective mode of searching for a
suggestion.
some
The approach by
analysis will be illustrated in
of the follov\îng problems.
[See
Problems
24, 29, 30.]
GEOMETRY
178
Given a
Let
centre
circle, or
an
arc of a circle, to find
ABC
is
be an arc of a
to be found.
circlo
its centre.
whose
Take two chords .45,

and bisect them at riglit angles by
the Unes DE, FG, meeting at 0.
Construction.
BC
Proh.
Then
is
2.
the required centre.
Every point
tant from A and B.
Proof.
And every
in
DE is equidisProh. 14.
FG
point in
is
equidistant from
:.
is
equidistant from A, B, and
.'.
is
the centre of the circle
B and
C.
('.
ABC.
Theor. 36.
Problem 22
To
Let
ADB be the given arc
Construction.
right angles
by
a given
bisect
arc.
to be bisected.
AB, and bisect it at

meeting the arc at D.
Join
CD
Proh.
Then
the arc
Proof.
is
Join
2.
bisected at D.
DA, DB.
CD
Then every point on
is
equidistant from
and
Proh. 14.
DA = DB
DBA = the
.-.
.:
..
the
DAB;
the arcs, which subtend these angles at the
that
is,
the arc
DA =
the arc
DH.
Theor.
O*"",
are
(i.
('(iuai
TANGENTS
Problem
To draw n tangent
Let
PQR
to
be the given
circle
circle,
179
Q.^
from a given external point.
with
its
he the point from which a tangent

Join TO, and on
Construction.
is
it
centre at
and
let
to be drawn.
describe a semi-circle
TPO to cut the circle at P.

Join TP.
Then TP
since the
.'.
TP
.:
Z TPO, being
is
in a semi-circle, is a rt. angle,
at right angles to the radius
TP
is
a tangent at P.
OP.
Theor. 42.
may be described on either side

TQ can be drawn from T, as shewn
Since the semi-circle
TO, a second tangent

the figure.
the required tangent.
Join OP.
Proof.
Then
is
of
in
GEOMETRY
180
Problem 2|
To draw a common
tangent
to
two
circles.
D
E
Let
and
let
be the centre of the greater
Analysis.
Then
circle,
be the centre of the smaller
and a its radius

and h its radius.
DE to touch the circles

BE being perp. to DE, are
Suppose
the radii
AD,
Now if BC were drawn pai-' to DE, then the

be a rectangle, so that CD = BE = b.
And
circle,
AD, BE are
AC = a
at
and E.
parallel.
fig.
DB would
the same side of AB,

and the Z ACB is a rt. angle.
These hints enable us to draw BC first, and thus lead to the
ii
then
on
h,
following construction.
Construction.
With centre A, and
radius. equal to the
difference of the radii of the given circles, describe a circle
and draw
BC
to touch
it.
AC, and produce it to meet the circle (4) at D.

Through B draw the radius BE par' to AD and in the same
sense.
Join DE.
Then DE is a common tangent to the given circles.
Join
Obs.
Since two tangents, such as BC, can in general be
drawn from B to the circle of construction, this method will
These
furnish two common tangents to the given circles.
are called the direct
common
tangents.
COMMON TANGENTS
Pkoblem
Again,
fiides
of
may
tangents
and
one another two more
to
be drawn.
may
In this case we
Analysis.
circles at
(Continued)
24.
the circles are external
if
common
181
suppose
so that the radii
DE
AD, BE
to touch the
fall
on opposite
AB.
Then BC, drawn pai-' to the supposed common tangent

and we should now
DE, would meet AD produced at C
;
have
AC = AD
-{-
DC =
-\-
and the Z
ACB
is
rt.
angle.
Hence the following construction.

Construction.
With centre A, and radius equal
of the radii of the given circles, describe a circle,
BC
to touch
Ohs.
as in the first case, but
before,
transverse
common
[We leave
BE in the sense
two tangents may be drawn from B to

hence two common tangents may
the given circles. These are called the
the circle of construction
be thus drawn to
draw
AD.
As
mm
and draw
it.
Then proceed
opposite to
to the
tangents.
as an exercise to the student the arrangement of the
prof)f in synthetic- form.]
GEOMETRY
182
EXERCISES ON
COMMON TANGENTS
(Nutnerical and Graphical)

1.
How many common tangents can be drawn
circles intersect;
(ii)
when they have
(i)
when
external contact;
the given
(iii)
when
they have internal contact?
your answer by drawing two circles of radii 1-4" and

(ii) witli
(i) with 1-0" between the centres;
2 -4" between the centres; (iii) w-ithO-4" between the centres;
(iv) Avith 3-0" between the centres.
Draw the common tangents in each case, and note where the
Illustrate
1-0"
respectively,
general construction
2.
Draw two
fails,
circles
or
is
modified.
with radii
20" and OS",
placing their
Draw the common tangents, and find their

centres 2-0" apart.
lengths between the points of contact, l)Olh by calculation and l)y
measurement.
Draw all the common tangents to two circles whose centres

1-8" apart and whose radii are 0-0" and 1-2" respectively.
Calculate and measure the length of the direct common tangents.
3.
are
4.
Two
circles of radii 1-7"
and 1-0" have
their centres 2-1"
common tangents and find their lengths. Also

Produce the common chord
find the length of the common chord.
and shew by measurement that it bisects the common tangents.
Draw two circles with radii 1-6" and 0-8" and with their
Draw all their common tangents.
centres 30" apart.
Draw the direct common tangents to two equal cinles.
6.
apart.
Draw
their
.5.
Theoretical)
two transverse, common tangents

the parts of the tangents intercepted between the points of contact are equal.
7.
are
If
the two
drawn
to
two
direct, or the
circles,
common
tangents are drawn to two circles external

shew that the two direct, and also the two transverse, tangents intersect on the line of centres.
Two given circles have external contact at A, and a direct
9.
common tangent is drawn to touch them at P and Q; shew that PQ
8.
If
four
to one another,
.subtends a right angle at the point
.1.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCLES
183
On the Construction of Circles

In order to draw a
the centre,
(i)
To
(ii)
circle
we must know
(i)
the position of
the length of the radius.
find the position of the centre,
two conditions are
needed, each giving a locus on which the centre must

that the one or
more points
in
which the two
lie
so
loci intersect
are possible positions of the required centre, as explained
on
page 93.
(ii)
is
The
position of the centre being thus fixed, the radius
determined
if
we know
(or
can find) any point on the
circumference.
Hence to draw a circle three independent data are required.

For example, we may draw a circle if we are given (i) three
points on the circumference
or
(ii)
three
tangent lines or (iii) one

its point of contact.
;
point on the circumference, one tangent, and

It will
drawn
however often happen that more than one
circle
can be
satisfying three given conditions.
Before attempting the constructions of the next Exercise

the student should
make
himself familiar with the following
loci.
(i)
The locus of
the centres of circles iphich pass through two
given points.
(ii)
The locus
straight line at
of the centres of circles which touch a given
a given point.
The locus of the centres of circles which tauch a

^
a given point.
(iv) The locus of the centres of circles which touch a
straight line, and have a given radius.
(v) The locus of the centres of circles which touch a
circle, and have a given radius.
(vi) The locus of the centres of circles v:hich touch two
(iii)
given
circle at
straight lines.
given
given
given
GEOMETRY
184
EXERCISES
1.
Draw
a circle to pass through three given points.
a circle touches a given line PQ at a point A, on what line

must its centre lie?
If a circle passes through two given points A and B, on what line
2.
If
must its centre he?

Hence draw a circle to touch a straight line PQ at the point A,
and to pass through another given point B.
If a circle touches a given circle whose centre is C at the point
on what line must its centre lie?
Draw a circle to touch the given circle (C) at the point A, and
to pass through a given point B.
3.
-1,
4.
two
point
is
4-5 em. distant from a straight line
circles of radius 3- 2
Given two
5.
cm. to pass through
P and
AB.
to touch
Draw
A B.
em. and 2-0 cm. respectively,

cm. apart; draw a circle of radius 3-5 cm.
circles of radius 3-0
their centres being
60
to touch each of the given circles externally.
How many
solutions will there be?
What
is
the radius of the
smallest circle that touches each of the given circles externally?

If
6.
must
its
a circle touches two straight lines AO, OB, on what lino

centre lie?
Draw OA, OB, making an angle of 76, and describe a circle of

radius 1-2" to touch both lines.
7.
Given a circle of radius 3- 5 cm., ^vith its centre ")0 cm. from
a given straight line AB; draw two circles of radius 2-5 cm. to
touch the given circle and the line AB.
Devise a construction for drawing a circle to touch each of

and a transversal.
Shew that two such circles can be drawn, and lluit tluy are equal.
8.
two
parallel straight lines
9.
Describe a circle to touch a given
given straight line at a given point.
circle,
and
10.
Describe a circle to touch a given straight
a given circle at a given point.
11.
Shew how
How
line,
draw a circle to touch each

two are paralh^l.
manv such circles can be drawn?
to
straight lines of which no
also to touch a
and
to
touch
of three given
PROBLEMS
Problem,^
On
a given straight line
shall contain
Let
AB
to describe
an angle equal
be the given
an angle equal
Construction.
to
At
^H
a segment of a
circle
which
a given angle.
st. line,
and C the given
angle.
AB a segment of a circle contain-
on
ing
to
185
C.
BA, make
in
the
BAD equal to the
C.
From A chaw
Bisect
AB at rt.
angles
AD.
by FG, meeting AG'
Prob.
in G.
2.
Join GB.
Proof.
Now
.46"perp. to
every point in
FG
is
equidistant from
and
Prob. 14.
.-.
With
GA =
centre G, and radius
pass through B, and touch
GB.
GA, draw a
circle,
which must
AD^ A.
Then the segment AHB, alternate to the Z

an angle equal to C.
BAD,
contains
Theor. 45.
Note. In the particular case when the given angle is a rt. angle,
the segment required will be the semi-circle on
as diameter.
AB
[Theorem
39.]
GEOMETRY
18G
To
Corollary.
cut off from a given circle a segment con-
it is enough to draw a tangent to the circle,

and from the point of contact to draw a chord making with the
tangent an angle equal to the given angle.
It was proved on page 163 that
The locus of the vertices of triangles which stand on the same base
and have a given vertical angle, is the arc of the segment standing
on this base, and containing an angle equal to the given angle.
The following Problems are derived from this result by the
taining a given angle,
Method
of Intersection of Loci [page 93].
EXERCISES
1.
Describe a triangle on a given base having a given vertical angle
and having
2.
its
(i)
(ii)
3.
vertex
on a given straight
line.
Construct a triangle having given the base, the vertical angle, and
one other side.

the altitude.
median which bisects the base.

from the vertex to the
(iii)
the length of the
(iv)
the foot of the perpendicular
base.
which the base

be the base,
by the bisector of the vertical angle.

given point in it, and A' the given
angle.
On
describe a .segment of a cirele containing an angle
Bisect
Jiy drawing the arc APB.
equal to A'; complete the
the arc
join PA', and produce it to meet the O*^* at ('.
at P
Then ABC is the required triangle.]
the point at
AB
[Let
is cut
A' the
AB
APB
4.
the
sum
(Let
of the
remaining
sides.
AB be the given
base, A' the given angle, and // a line equal

describe a segment containing an
of the sides.
On
to the sum
angle equal to
half the Z K.
AB
A',
segment containing an angle equal to

//, describe a circle cutsegment at X and }'. Join .1 A' (or .1 }')
also another
With centre A, and radius
ting the arc of the latter

cutting the arc of the first segmcMit at
Then
.1
BC is
(he required
triangle.)
5.
Construct a triangle having given the base, the vertical nugic, and
the difference of the
remaining
sides.
CIRCLES AND POLY(J()XS
187
CIRCLES IX RELATION TO RECTILINEAL

FIGURES
Definitions
Polygon
is
a rectilineal
fig;ure
bounded by more than
four sides.
A Polygon of
A Poh'gon of
A Polygon of
A
A
A
Polygon
Poh'gon
Polygon
Polygon
Polygon
2.
all its
called a
is
seveii sides is called
eight sides is called
ten sides is called
of fifteen sides is
is
Regular when
Hexagon,
Heptagon,
Octagon,
an
a
called a
called a
of
twelve sides is
Pentagon,
all its
Decagon,
Dodecagon,
Quindecagon.
sides are equal,
angles are equal.
3.
rectilineal
scribed in a
are
six sides
of
of
five sides is called
circle,
figure
when
on the circumference
is
said
be
to
in-
angular points
all its
of \hv circle
and
be circumscribed about a rectifigure, when the circumference of the

passes through all the angular points of
circle is said to
lineal
circle
the figure.
4.
circle
rectilineal
the circle
and a
said
to be
inscribed in a
when the circumference of

touched by each side of the figure
is
rectilineal figure is said to
be circum-
when each
side of the
scribed about a
figure
is
figure,
is
circle,
a tangent to the
circle.
and
GEOMETRY
188
Problem 2G
To circumscribe a
circle
about a given triangle.
Let ABC be the triangle, about which a

drawn.
Construction.
Bisect
AB
and
AC
at
rt.
angles
by
ES, meeting at S.
Then S
Proof.
and
Now
DS
and
Prob.
2.
equidistant from
is^thc centre of the required circle.
every point in
'
DS
is
Prob. 14.
and every point

..
With
bo
circle is to
*S is
in
ESîs equidistant from
centre S, and radius
pass through
and C
equidistant from A, B, and C.
and
C,
and
is,
SA
describe a circle;
this will
therefore, the required circum-
circle.
It will
06.S.
be found that
if
the given triangle
angled, the centre of the circum-circle

is
within
is
it
acute:
if it
on the hypotenuse
an obtuse-angled triangle, the centre falls without the
a right-angled triangle, the centre
if it is
falls
falls
triangle.
Note. From page 01 it is seen that if S is joined to tlie middle

point of BC, then the joining line is perpendicular to BC.
Hence the perpendiculars drawn to the sides of a triangle from their
middle points are concurrent,' the point of intersection being the centre
of the circle circumsrrihcd about the Irinnijh.
PROBLEMS ON TRIANGLES AND CIRCLES

Proble]\I'::3?^
To
189
c?
inscribe a circle in a given triangle.
A
/-
C
Let
ABC
be the triangle, in which a
circle is to
be
in-
scribed.
Construction.
Bisect the A
BI, CI, which intersect at /.
Then I
ABC, ACB by
st.
lines
Prob.
the centre of the required
is
the
1.
circle.
Proof.
From I draw ID, IE, IF perp. to BC, CA, AB.
Then every point in BI is equidistant from BC, BA Prob. 15.
:
.-.
And every
point in
CI
ID =
is
IF.
equidistant from CB,
ID =. IE.
.: ID, IE, IF are all equal.
With centre / and radius ID draw a
CA
.-.
circle
through the points E and F.

Also the cii'cle will touch the sides BC, CA, AB,
because the angles at D, E, F are right angles.
this will pass
.-.
Note.
O DEF
the
From
II., p.
is
inscribed in the
97 and Problem 27
it
A ABC.
follows that
The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent, the point of

intersection being the centre of the inscribed circle.
Definition.
circle
and the other two

of the triangle.
which touches one side of a triangle

produced is called an escribed circle
sides
GEOMETRY
90
^T
Problem 2S
To draw an
Let
ABC
escfiihed circle of
cjiven triangle.
be the given triangle of which the sides
are produced to
Construction.
AB,
AC
and E.
a
Bisect the
touching
circle
BC, and BD, CE.
A CBD, BCE
b}-
the
st.
hnes
BIu CIi which intersect at /i.

Then 7i is the centre of the required cii-cle.
Proof.
From /i draw I.F, 1,0, 1,H pcrp. to AD, BC, AE.
Tlion ever}' point in BIi is equicHstant from BD, BC] Proh. 15.
.-.
Simihirly
LF,
/,F
LG =
7,(7.
I^H.
IJI are all equal.

With centre 7i and radius JiF descri])e a circle
this will pass through the points (/ and //.
.'.
liG,
Also the circle will touch
AD, BC, and AE,
l)ecause the angles at F, G, II are
the
.*.
FGII
is
an escribed
rt.
circle of the
angles.
A ABC.
Note 1. It i.s clear that every triangle has three escribed

Their centres are known as the Ex-centres.
Note
The
2.
From
II a,
page 97 and Problem 28
bisectors of two exterior angles of
it
<'irclt>s.
follows that
a triangle and of the third
angle are concurrent, the point of intersection being an ex-centre.
PROBLEMS ON CIRCLES AND TRLINGLES
191
Problem 29
In a given
circle to inscribe
a triangle equiangular
iu
a given
triangle.
J3
Let
ABC
be the given
circle,
A triangle ABC,
Analysis.
inscribed in the circle,
if
and
DEF
the given triangle.
equiangular to the
from any point
.4
A DEF,
on the
O*^^
is
two
choirs AB.AC pan be so placed that, on joining BC, the

Z E, anct th^ Zt^=' tlte Z F; for then the Z A = the
Z B =
the
Now
the
Z D.
Z B,
Theor. IG.
segment ABC, suggests the equal

angle between the chord AC and the tangent at its extremitj'{Theor. 49)
so that, if at A we draw the tangent GAH,
in the
and
then the Z
HAC =
the
GAB =
the
similarly, the
Z
Z
F.
Reversing these steps, we have the following construction.

Construction. At any point A on the O"^ of the O ABC
Proh. 23.
draw the tangent GAH.
At A make the Z GAB equal to the Z F,
and make the Z HAC equal to the Z E.
Join BC.
Then
A5C
is
the required triangle.
Note. In drawing the fig-ure on a larger scale the student should

shew the construetion lines for the tangent GAH and for the angles
GAB, HAC. A similar remark applico to the next Problem.
GEOMETRY
192
Problem 30
About a given
a given
a triangle equiangular
circle to circumscribe
to
triangle.
M
Let
ABC
be the given
Suppose
Analysis.
which the Z
quently, the
circle,
and
DEF
the given triangle.
LMN to be a circumscribed triangle in
= the ^ E,
Z L = Z D.
iV/
the Z
A'
the
F,
and conse-
KA, KB, KC, drawn to the

LM, MN,
knew
the
relative
positions
of KA,
drawn
if
we
could
be
NL
KB, KC, that is, if we knew the A BKA, BKC.
Now from the quad' BKAM, since the A B and A are
rt
A
the Z BKA = 180 - M = 180 - E
similarly
the A B KC = 180 - A^ = 180 - F.
Let us consider the radii
points of contact of the sides; for the tangents
Hence we have the following construction.

Construction.
Produce
Find
EF
G and H.
ABC,
both ways to
the centre of the
and draw any radius KB.
BKA equal to the Z DEO

BKC equal to the Z DFH.
LM, MN,NL pcM p. to AM KH,
At A' make the Z

and make the Z
Through A B, C draw
Then LMN is
,
[The student should
th(> retpiired triangle.
uow arrange
the i)roof syntljetically.I
KC.
PROBLEMS ON CIRCLES AND TRIANGLES
193
EXERCISES
On Circles and Triangles
(Inscriptions and Circumscriptions)
In a circle of radius 5 cm. inscribe an equilateral triangle;
1.
and about the same circle circumscribe a second equilateral

In each case- state and justify your construction.
Draw an
2.
calculation
equilateral triangle on a side of 8 cm.,
and measurement
and escribed circles.

and treble of the
are the latter radii double
Draw
3.
triangles
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
=
=
a
a
a
from the following data
B = 66,
B=72,
B = 41,
2-5",
2-o",
2-5",
and
find l\v
(to the nearest millimetre) the radii
of the inscribed, circumscribed,
Why
triangle.
first?
C =50;
C = 44
C = 23.
about each triangle, and measure the radii

hundredth of an inch. Account for the results being
the same, by comparing the vertical angles.
Circumscribe a
circle
to the nearest
4.
In a circle of radius 4 cm. inscribe an equilateral triangle.
Calculate and measure its side to the nearest millimetre.
Find the area of the inscribed equilateral triangle, and shew that
one quarter of the circumscribed equilateral triangle.
it is
5.
In the triangle ABC, if I is the centre, and r the length of the
radius of the in-circle, shew that
AlBC^âr;
Hence prove that
6.
AlCA=^br; AlAB = ^cr.

A ABC ^ ^{a + b + c)r.
If ?i is
the radius of the ex-circle opposite to A, prove that
5 em.,
6=4
A ABC
If
sults of Ex.
in
cm.,
= Ub
a)ri.
3 em., verify
by measurement
the re-
5 and of this exercise.
7.
Find by measurement the circum-radius of the triangle ABC
which a = 6-3 cm., b = 3-0 cm., and c = 5-1 cm.
Draw and measure the perpendiculars from A, B, C to the oppo-
site sides.
If their
lengths are represented
by pu
following statement
circum-radius
= ^L = S ^
2pi
2p2
11^
2p3
p2, pz,
verify the
GEOMETRY
194
EXERCISES
On Circles and Squares
{I nscriplious
1.
Draw
and Circumscriptions)
a circle of radius lo", and find a construction for
scribing a square in
in-
it.
Calculate the length of the side to the nearest hundredth of an
and verify by measurement.

Find the area of the inscribed square.
inch,
2.
Circumscribe a square about a
all lines of
circle of radius 1-5",
Prove that the area of the square circumscribed about a

double that of the inscribed square^
3.
shewing
construction.
Draw a
circle is
square on a side of 7-5 cm., and state a construction
for inscribing a circle in
it.
Justify your construction by considerations of symmetry.

4.
Circumscribe a
cix'cle
Measure the diameter

drawing by calculation.
about a square whose side
to the nearest millimetre,
is
and
6 cm.
test
your
In a circle of radius 1-8" inscribe a rectangle of which one

measures 3-0". Find the approximate length of the oth(>r side.
Of all rectangles inscribed in the circle shew that the square has
5.
side
the greatest area.

6.
If n
A square and
and
7.
the arc
.1
an equilateral triangle are inscribed in a circle.

denote the lengths of their sides, shew that 3a'' = 26-.
BCD is a square inscribed
AD:
shew that the
side
times as great as that subtended at
{Prohlemi<.
in
AD
P
Stale your construction,
a circle, and P is any point on

subtends at P an angle three
by any one of the other sides.
mid
give a theoretical proof.)
S.
Circumscribe a rhombus about a given
0.
Inscribe a square in a given square
angular points shall be at a given jmint
circle.
A BCD,
-Y in
so that one of its
AB.
10.
In a given square inscribe the square of mininniin area.
11.
Describe
12.
Inscribe
(i)
(i)
circle,
circle,
(ii)
a square about a given rectangle.
(ii)
a square in a gi\en quadrant.
PROBLEMS OX CIRCLES AND POLYGONS
195
OX CIRCLES AXD REGULAR POLYGONS

To draw a
regular polygon
AB, BC, CD,
Let
(i)
in
(ii)
about a given
be consecutive
^-^^^^ n
y^^
sides of a regular polygon inscribed in
a circle whose centre
is
/V5vw
0.
Then AOB, BOC, COD,
are con-
gruent isosceles triangles.

And
polygon has n sides, each of the

'-'
A AOB,
Thus
(i)
draw
BOC, COD,
- =
circle.
the
if
o/-.----
\
\
\
/360
/-"--",
a''^^^
n sides in a given circle,

an angle AOB of this size. This gives
AB; and chords equal to ^15 may now
to inscribe a polygon of
at the centre
the length of a side
round the circumference. The resulting figure

be equilateral and equiangular.
(ii) To circumscribe a polygon of n sides about the circle,
the points A, B, C, D,
must be determined as before, and
be set
off
will clearly
tangents drawn to the circle at these points.
may
figure
Note.
when
readily be proved equilateral
The
resulting
and equiangular.
This method gives a strict geometrical construction only

AOB can be drawn Avith ruler and compasses.
the angle
EXERCISES
1.
By
regular
(i)
a circle (radius 4 cm.) a

dodecagon.
strict constructions inscribe in
hexagoa
(ii)
octagon
(iii)
2. About a circle of radius 1-5" circumscribe a regular (i)

hexagon (ii) octagon.
Test the constructions by measurement,
and justify them by proof.
;
3. Compare the sides and also the areas of an equilateral

angle and a regular hexagon inscribed in any circle.
4.
tri-
Using a protractor inscribe a regular heptagon in a circle

Calculate and measure one angle measure a side.
radius 2".
of
GEOMETRY
196
Problem J^
To draw a
about a regular pohjgon.
circle (i) in (ii)
AB, BC, CD, DE,-- be
Let
eon-
A ABC, BCD by BO,
Bisect the
\\
^11
meeting at 0.
Then
Outline of Proof.
OCB, OCD, shew
o'^^^^t^^Q
OD and from the congruent

OD bisects the Z CDE and that
Join
that
Wo
^^>:
\X^/^^ Ix^//
\///
^^>C
the centre both of the
is
inscribed and circumscribed circle.
^"a\
//
sides.
CO
-^
//^
seeutive sides of a regular polygon of
All the bisectors of the angles of the polygon meet at 0.

(i)
Prove that
OB = OC = OD =
Hence
is
Draw OP, OQ, OR, perp.

Prove that OP = OQ = OR =
(ii)
AOBP,OBQ,
from Theorem
0.
the circum-centre.
to
AB, BC, CD,

;
from the congruent
Hence
is
the in-centre.
EXERCISES
Draw
a regular hexagon on a side of 20''. Draw llie inand eircumserilied circles. Calculate and measure l!u>ii'
diameters to the nearest hundredth of an inch.
1.
scribed
2.
is
Shew that the area
of
a regular hexagon inscribed
in
circle
three-fourths of that of the circumscribed hexagon.
Find these to the nearest tenth of a
AliC
sq.
cm. (radius 10 cm.).
an isosceles triangle inscribed in a circle, having

each of the angles B and C double of the angle .1
sIuav that liC is
a side of a regular pentagon insc-ribed in the (-ircle.
3.
If
is
4.
(i)
On a
hexagon
firca of
cm. construct (without i^rotractor) a ri'gul;;r

octagon and in e?ioh case find the approximate
side of 4
;
(ii)
the figure.
CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREA OF A CIRCLE
197
THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCLE

By experiment and measurement it is found
of the circumference of a circle
of its diameter:
that
is
is
to say
circumference
-
it
3f nearly;
diameter
and
that the length
roughly 3y times the length
can be proved that this is the same for all circles.

correct value of this ratio is found by theory to be
A more
3 1416
while correct to 7 places of decimals
it is
3 1415926.
Thus the value Z\ (or 3 14^5) is correct to 2 places only.

The ratio which the circumference of an}" circle bears to
diameter is denoted by the Greek letter tt; so that
circumference
where
diameter
tt
tt
Trr
denotes the radius of the circle and where to

'
are to give one of the values
its
tt
we
3-1416, or 3-1415926, ac-
3-|-,
cording to the degree of accuracy required in the final result
Note. The theoretical methods by which tt is evaluated to any

required degree of accuracy cannot be explained at this stage, but
its value may be easily verified by experiment to two decimal places.
For example round a cylinder vnâp a strip of paper so that the
ends overlap. At any point in the overlapping area prick a pin
through both folds. Unwarp and straighten the strip, then measure the distance between the pin holes
this gives the circumference.
Measure the diameter, and di\ade the first result by the second.
:
Ex. 1.
From these
data find and record the
value of TT.
Find the mean
Circumference.
of the
three results.
Ex. 2. A fine thread is wound evenly round a cylinder, and it is

found that the length required for 20 complete turns is 75-4". The
diameter of the cylinder is 1-2" find roughly the value of x.
:
Ex.
3.
bicycle wheel, 28" in diameter,
iu tra\'elliug over
977 vards.
makes 400 revolutions

Hence estimate the value of tt.
GEOMETRY
l'J8
THE AREA OF A CIRCLE

_^Let
AB
he
side of a
a,
polygon of
circumscribed about a
sides
circle
and radius r. Then

whose centre is
Area of polygon = n-A AOB
XOD
= n-\AB
=
and
this
is
the polj'^gon
Now
= \-nAB X
\ {'perimeter of polygon)
true however
may
the
if
many
sides
A D B
have.
number
of sides
is
increased without limit, the
perimeter and area of the polygon
may be made
to differ
from
the circumference and area of the circle by quantities smaller
than any that can be named; hence ultimately
Area of
circle
h circumference
X r
h-2Trr
X r=
tt?-.
ALTERXATIVE METHOD
Suppose the circle divided into iinj- oven luiiiilx-r of sectors having equal central angles denote the number of sectors l)^' /;.
Let the sectors lie placed side by side as in the diagram then
the area of the cin^le = the area of llu^ fig. A BCD.
Now if the number of sectors be increased, (>ach arc is decreased
:
the outlines AB, CD tend to become straight, and

(ii) the angles at D and B tend to become rt. angles.
ultiThus when n is increased without limit, the fig. A
mately becomes a rcrtanylc, whose length is the seini-circiimfcrcncc of
so that
(i)
BCD
and whose breadth is its radius.

Area of circle = ] circumference X radius
the circle,
.'.
i-2n-/-
'"
jrr^
CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREA OF A CIRCLE
199
THE AREA OF A SECTOR
If
two
(i)
and
(ii)
.'.
(i)
radii of a circle make an angle of 1, they cut off

an arc whose length = 3^ of the circumference
a sector whose area = -^^ of the circle
if
the angle
the arc
AOB
AB
contains
=-
degrees, then
0/ the circumference
360
(ii)
^
the sector
AOB =
of the area of the circle
360
=
360
of ^(h circumference
'
radius)
'
= \arcAB X
radius.
THE AREA OF A SEGMENT

The area
of a
minor segment Js found by subtracting from
the corresponding sector the area of the triangle formed by

the chord and the radii.
Area
of segment
The area
of a
Thus
ABC =
AC B
sector
major segment
is
triangle
AOB.
most simply found by
subtracting the area of the corresponding minor segment from
the area of the
circle.
GEOMETRY
200
EXERCISES
[In each case choose the value of
it
so as to giue a result of the assigned
degree of nccuracij.]
to the nearest millimetre the circumferences of the
I-'ind
1.
circles
whose
radii are
4-5 cm.
(i)
(ii)
100 cm.
Find to the neai*est hundredth of a square inch the areas

whose radii are (i) 2-3". (ii) 10-()".
2.
of
llio circles
Find to two places of decimals the circumference and area

whose side is 3-G cm.
3.
of a circle inscribed in a square
4.
In a circle of radius 7-0 cm. a square is described find to the
nearest square centimetre the difference between the areas of the
circle and the square.
:
Find to the nearest hundredth of a square inch the area of

5.
the circular ring formed by two concentric circles whose radii are
5-7" and 4-3".
Shew
6.
of
is
that the area of a ring I.ying between the circumferences
two concentric
circles is equal to the area of a circle whose radius

the length of a tangent to the inner circle from any point on the
outer,
7.
A rectangle whose sides are 8-0 cm. and 6-0 cm. is inscribed
a circle. Calculate to the nearest tenth of a square centimetre
the total area of the four segirtents outside the rectangle.
in
Find to the nearest tenth of an inch the side of a square
8.
wlioso area
9.
is
equal to that of a circle of radius 5".
circular ring
centric circles.
width
two
is
1-0";
is
formed by the circumference of two conof the ring is 22 square inches, and its
as V- ^"'1 approximately the radii of the
The area
taking
tr
circles.
Find to the nearest Imndredth of a square inch the difference

and inscrib(>d circles of an
equilateral triangle each of whose sides is 4".
10.
b(itw(ên the areas of the circumscribed
CIRCLES ASSOCIATED WITH A TRIANGLE
201
EXERCISES
(
Theoretical)
Describe a circle to touch two parallel straight lines and a

Shew that two such circles
third straight line which meets them.
can be drawn, and that they are equal.
1.
Triangles which have equal bases and equal vertical angles have
2.
equal circumscribed circles.

3.
If, in a triangle, ABC, I, S, the centres of the inscribed and
= AC.
circumscribed circles, and A are collinear, then
AB
The sum
4.
of the diameters of the inscribed
a right-angled triangle
containing the right angle.
circles of
If
5.
is
and circumscribed
equal to the
the circle inscribed in the triangle
ABC
sum
of the sides
touches the sides
shew that the angles of the triangle DEF are respecthe complements of the halves of the angles A, B, C.
at D, E, F;
tively
If
6.
is
the centre of the inscribed circle and

ABC, then /, B, h,
the escribed circle of the triangle
h the
C
centre of
are concycUc.
In any triangle the difference of two sides is equal to the

which the third side is di\'ided at the
point of contact of the inscribed circle.
7.
difference of the segments into
In the triangle
8.
ABC,
I and
are the centres of the inscribed
then 75 subtends at A an angle equal

to half the difference of the angles at the base of the triangle.
Also a
is perpendicular to BC, A I bisects the Z DAS.
and circumscribed
circles
AD
ABCD
The
shew
diagonals of a quadrilateral
intersect at
that the centres of the circles circumscribed about the four triangles
9.
AOB, BOC, COD, DO A

In any triangle
10.
and
circle,
is
if
A7
is
are the vertices of a parallelogi'am.
ABC,
/4s the centre
if
of the inscribed
produced to meet the circumscribed
circle at O,
the centre of the circum-circle of the triangle BIC.
11.
circle
Given the base, altitude, and the radius of the circumscribed

construct the triangle.
12.
Thi-ee circles whose centres are A, B, C touch one another
externally two by two at D, E, F
shew that the inscribed circle of
the triangle
is the circumscribed circle of the triangle DEF.
:
ABC
GEOMETRY
202
EXERCISES
(Loci)
1.
Given the base
BC
and the
vertical angU^
of a triangle;
find the locus of the ex-centre opposite A.

2.
Find the locus of the intersection of the bisectors of the angles

if A, B are fixed and PA, BQ are constantly parallel.
PAB, QBA
3.
Find the locus of the middle points of chords of a circle
which pass through a fixed point (i) within, (ii) on, (iii) without the
circumference.
4.
Find the locus of the points of contact of tangents drawn
from a fixed point to a system of concentric circles.
Find the locus of the intersection of straight lines which pass

5.
through two fixed points on a circle and intercept on its circumference an arc of constant length.
6.
A and B are two
and PQ
7.
is
fixed points
any diameter;
on the circumference
PA,QB
if
BAC is any triangle described on
ing a constant vertical angle and BA

is equal to AC; find the locus of P.
;
8.
AB
is
of
circle,
cut in X, find the locus of X.
is
BC and Iuiaproduced to P, so thai .1 /'
the fixed base
a fixed chord of a circle, and AC is a movable chord

A if the parallelogram CB is completed, find llio
passing through
locus of the intersection of its diagonals.

9.
A straight rod PQ slides between two rul(>rs placed at right
angles to one another, and from its extremities PX, QX an^ drawn
perpendicular to the rulers; find the locus of A'.
10.
Two
circle at
and
1',
A and
B, and /' is any point on tlie

the lines PA, PB cut the oilier
find the locus of the intersection of .1 Y and BX.
circumference of one of them.
If
A and B HAK is a fixed straight

drawn through A and terminated by the circumferences, and
P AQ is any other straight line similarly drawn; find the locus of
11.
Two
line
the intersection of
IW
and QK.
PART
IV
ON PROPORTION
The
1.
is
ratio of
one magnitude to another of the same kind

first bears to the second in regard to
measured by the fraction which the first is
the relation which the
quantity
this is
of the second.
Thus
if
two such magnitudes contain a and
the ratio of the
first to
the second
is
b units respectively
expressed by the fraction -

b
The
is
ratio of a to 6
is
called the antecedent
generally denoted thus, a ib
and
b the
consequent of the
The two magnitudes compared in a ratio must be of

for example, both must be lines, or both angles,
kind;
areas.
line
ratio.
the
same
or both
compare the length of a straight

a magnitude of a different kind, such as the area of a
Moreover, a ratio is an abstract fraction. Thus the ratio
6 cm. long to a line 8 cm. long is | or f (not f cm.).
It is clearly impossible to
wth
triangle.
of
and a
a line
Note.
same kind
not always possible to express two quantities of the

terms of a common unit. For instance, if the side of
a square is 1 inch, the diagonal is V2 inches. But since the numerical value of V2 cannot be exactly determined (though it can
be found to any number of decimal figures), the side and diagonal
cannot be expressed in terms of the same unit. Two such quantities are said to be incommensurable.
But by choosing a sufficiently small quantity as unit, two incommensurables, such as V2
inches and 1 inch, may be expressed to any reqmred degree of
accuracy. Thus, remembering that V2 = 1- 41421-
it follows
that V2 inches and 1 inch may be represented by
It is
in
1414 and 1000, roughly, taking x^" as unit;

14142 and 10000, more nearly, taldng roiffi?" as unit
203
and
so on.
GEOMETRY
204
then
a point
If
2.
straight line
is
AB,
taken in a
is
AB produced,
divide AB into the
or in
said to
two segments AX,
XB;
A^
'.
Fig.i.
the segments
being in either case the distances of

the dim ding point
from the extremi-
ties of the
3.
given line
is
*^*&2.
AB.
said to divide
AB
In the
tcrnall}" in Fig. 2.
internally in Fig.
first
case
AB
is
the second the difference, of the segments

cither case the ratio in
segments
of the
4.
divides
ex-
AX, XB.
AB
is
In
the ratio
AX, XB.
Four magnitudes
when the
portion,
which
and
1,
the sum, and in
y are proportionals or in prois equal to
a, h, x,
ratio of the first to the second
the ratio of the third to the fourth.
This
is
expressed by saying
the proportion
is
''
is to h
as x is
to
^'
;
and
written
a_x
y
or
-.h
y.
Here a and y are called the extremes, and

cud x the
and y is said to be a fourth proportional to n, b, and x.
}>
means
In a proportion, terms which are both antecedents or both
consequents of the ratios arc said to be corresponding terms.

Note.
compared
nitudes of
the first.
a:b = x /, the niasniludes

same land, though the magthe second ratio need not be of the same kind as those of
For instance, a and b may denote areas, and x and y lines;
In a proportion sucli as
in each ratio
must bo
of the
which case the proportion asserts that the ratio of the areas
the same as the ratio of tlio lines.
in
is
DEFINITIONS AND
5.
Three magnitudes
portionals,
when the
I'ÎRST
PRINCIPLES
same kmd are
of the
205
said to be pro-
ratio of the first to the second
is
equal to
that of the second to the third.
Thus
a, b, c
are proportionals
a: b
Here
and
mean
h is called a
c is called
if
b:
c.
proportional between a
a third proportional to a and
and
b.
Introductory Theorems
I.
If four magnitudes are proportionals, they are also pro-
portionals
That
when taken
inversely.
For,
=
^
a :b
is, if
then
by hypothesis,
=by
or
ij
y,
X.
=ax
hence -
X.
If four magnitudes of the same kind are proportionals,

they are also proportionals when taken alternately.
II.
That
a :b
is, if
then
For,
=
=
.6
y,
b :y.
-=-
bv hypothesis,
multiplying both sides
b}' -'
we have
a b
_._
X
,
that
is,
or
Note.
_._
= x^
y
^
X
= ^,
y
b
y.
theorem the hypothesis and conclusion taken

together require that a, b, x and y shall be of the same kind.
In
this
GEOMETRY
200
If Jour numbers arc proportional, the product of the
III.
extremes
That
is
equal
product of the means.
to the
is, if
then
ad
d,
be.
For, by hypothesis,
d'
multiplying each side of this equation by bd,
ad
Corollary.
If a, b,
e,
we have
be.
d denote the lengths of four straight
lines in proportion, the rectangle contained by the extremes is
equal
to the
This
is
rectangle contained by the ineans.
illustrated
by the following diagram
(be)
radj
Similarly
that
if
three lines
a, b, c
a :b
is, if
then
ac
=
=
arc proportionals,
b-.
Or, the rectangle contained by the extremes is equal in area

the
to
square on the mean.
IV.
If there are four mag7iitudcs in proportion, the sum

and second is to the second as the
{or difference) of the first
sum
{or difference) of the third
That
then
is, if
-.b
-.b
(i)
-\-
(ii)
b :b
=
=
=
and fourth
x
-.y
-{-
y :y
y.
is to the fourth.
INTRODUCTORY THEOREMS
For by hvpolhcsis,
.-.
that
by
=-
a -r
is,
This inference
Similarly
v
b
'',
by
b:b = X
-{-
by subtracting
^^
or
1,
sometimes referred
is
207
y: y
(i)
componendo.
to as
from the equal ratios -,
obtain
a
that
is,
This inference
Corollary.
then
This
-,
we
^
b
.T
b:b = X
sometimes referred
a:b = x:
If
a
is
is
-{-
b =^ X
y :y
(ii)
to as dividendo.
y,
-\-
obtained by dividing the result of
y.
(i)
by that
of
(ii).
V. In a series of equal ratios {the magnitudes being all of the

same kind), as any antecedent is to its consequent so is the sum
of the antecedents to the
sum
of the consequents.
Let each of the equal ratios
-,-,-,
X
Thei
or.
be equal to
k.
GEOMETRY
208
VI.
.1
giren straight line can he divided iniernalhj in a given
and only
ratio at one,
one, point
and
externally at one,
and
only one, point.
m+
ft-
A?).
y._
Fig.2.
Fig. I.
Let
AB be the p;iven line,

than
gi-eater
Internal Division,
then
XB
is,
(i)
Divide
AB
ni
AX AB
:
if
and
such parts
AB
and
then
(ii)
is,
AB
And
])eing
AX
coincide
in
XB
it
may
(i)
AB
-\-
n.
n,
= AP.
;
that
is,
.Y
the onl^y point
is
:
n.
Divide AB (Fig. 2) into m n

to contain m
produced make
AX
must contain
ni
n.
;
A' in
the given ratio.
he siiewn, as above, that
AB
-\-
X in the given ratio,

\
divided externally at
point which divides
to con-
internally' in the ratio
is
AX
AX XB
Hence
that
///
into
1)
AB in the given ratio m

AP AB = 7n ni + n.
AX ÂP,
" AB AB'
External Division,
equal parts
(Fig.
divides
.:
wliich divides
m m
Hence
AB
divided internally at
is
Similarly,
n the given ratio,
and of these parts make

7]
must contain n.
Again,
(ii)
AX XB
Hence
that
and
n.
equal parts [Proh.

tain
X- --->(?)
m-'n
externally in the ratio
///
is
:
the only
n.
EXERCISES ON RATIO AND PROPORTION
209
EXERCISES
Insert the missing terms in the following proportions:
1.
7
2-5:
(i).
(ii)
(iii)
15
)=
ac^
10:32;
be:
2.
Correct the following statement

65 78 ft. = 25
3.
If
ratio 5
4.
30
ft.
9-6" in length, is divided internally in the

calculate the lengths of the segments.
a straight
7,
If
6c.'
Line,
a straight line 4-5 cm. in length
is
divided externally in the
ratio 11:8, calculate the lengths of the segments.
AB is straight line, 6-4 cm. in length, divided internally at

5.
X and externally at Y in the ratio 5:3; calculate the lengths of the
a,
segments, and shew that they satisfy the formula
AB
If
the ratio
6.
sti'aight line, a
:
n,
7.
If
m:
di\dded internally in
a inches.
a straight line, a units in length, is divided externally in the

shew that the lengths of the segments are respectively
10.
m +
is
segments are respectively
of the
a inches,
?i
'
9.
inches in length,
n,
711
8.
AY
shew that the lengths
m +
ratio
AX
It
If
a:h = x:
a 6
:
a units,
y,
and
y,
shew that a
If a, b, c are tlu'ee
h: c
a units.
'
n
y
-\-
z,
prove that a:
h: a
proportionals,
-\-
y:
z.
x.
shew that a:
a"^: b^.
two straight lines AB, CD are di\'ided internally

11.
same ratio at X and Y respectively, shew that
If
(i)
(ii)
in the
AB: XB = CD: YD;

AB: AX = CD: CY.
12.
If a, b, c, d are four straight lines such that the rectangle
contained by a and d is equal to that contained by b and c, prove that
a:b =
p
c: d.
GEOMETRY
210
PROPORTIONAL DIVISION OF STRAIGHT LINES

Theorem
straight line
drawn
VL
[Euclid
46.
2]
parallel to one side of
a triangle cuts
the
other two sides, or those sides produced, proportionally.
In the
AB,
A ABC,
AC at X and
let
XY, drawn
par' to the side
Y, internally in Fig.
1,
BC, cut
externally in Fig. 2.
It is required to prove in both cases that
AX XB AY YC.
X divides ^Z? in the
=^
Proof.*
is,
suppose
so that,
if -4
Suppose
AX :XB
is
divided into
= m n
m equal
:
ratio
mm;
that
parts, then
XB may be
divided into n such equal parts.
Through the points of division in AX, XB let parallels be

drawn to BC.
Then these parallels divide the segments AY, YC into
parts which are
and
all
equal
Thcor. 22.
A Y contains m,
and YC contains n
A Y YC = m n.
:. AX .XB = AY
YC.
of these equal parts
hence
q.e.d.
Tho proof pivon
aro commensurable.
applies only to fho casf^ in wliioli
The same
is
true of
AX
aiul
Theorems 48 and
41).
XB

Conversely,
//
211
a line cuts two sides of a triangle proportion-^
ally, it is parallel to the third side.
XT
Conversely, let
AB,
cut the sides
AC
proportionalh', so
that
AX XB = AY YC.
parallel to BC.
It is required to prove that XY
:
is
Let
XP
be drawn through A' par' to BC, to meet
AP :PC ^ AX XB
Then
but,
by hypothesis,
Thus
AC
2, in the
Hence
same
AY YC
is cut, internall}' in
ratio at
and
AX
Fig.
1,
AC
in
P.
XB.
and externalh'
in Fig.
5'.
coincides with Y, and consequently
XP with A" Y.
Theor. VI, p. 208.
That
AFispar' to5C.
is,
Q.E.D.
Corollary.
BC
If A"}' is parallel to
AX
For, taking Fig.
1, it
-.AB
AY
then
-.AC.
maj^ be shewn that
AX AB
:
and hence, by Theorem
= m m
:
22, that
AY -.AC = m m + n.
AX \AB = AY .AC.
AX AB = AY AC,
as above that AF is par'
:
.'.
Conversely,
it
may
Ije
if
pi'oved
to
BC.
GEOMETRY
212
Theorem
[Euclid VI. 3 and
47.
If the vertical angle of a triangle
4]
is bisected internally or exter-
nally, the bisector divides the base iriternally or externally into
segments which have the same ratio as the other sides of the
triangle.
Conversely, if the base is divided internally or externally into
segments proportional
to the other sides of the triangle, the line
joining the point of section
to the vertex bisects the vertical
angle
internally or externally.
A ABC,
In the
Fig.
AX
let
let
and externally
1,
AX
bisect the exterior
Z BAC,
bisect the
in Fig. 2
that
is,
internallj^ in
in the latter case,
Z B'AC.
CE
Let
duced,
if
Proof.
.-.
in
BX :XC = BA .AC.
C par' to XA to meet BA
be drawn through
necessar3') at E.
In Fig.
1 let
B' be taken in
Because XA and CE are par',

both Figs., the Z B'AX = the int. opp. Z
Z B'AX = Z
the
Also,
.:
(pro-
AB.
AEC.
XAC
the
= the alt. Z ACE.

=
the Z ACE.
Z AEC
AC = AE.
.'.
Again, because
.:
in
that
both
is,
Figs.,
XA
is
par* to
CE, a
side of the
BX :XC = BAAE
BX :XC = BA :AC.
BCE,
q.e.d.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL DIVISION

Conversely, let
BC
be divided internally (Fig.
BX AT
nally (Fig. 2) at A', so that
For, with the
Proof.
because AÂ
.:
BA
Z B'AX =
CE, a
:
or exter-
Z XAC.
the
before,
side of the
BX XC = BA
1)
.AC.
same construction as
par* to
is
=^
213
BCE,
-.AE.
BX XC = BA AC
BA AC = BA AE
AC = AE.
the Z AEC = the Z ACE
But, by hypothesis,
.:
.-.
.:
And
in
both
the
alt.
Z XAC.
Z B'AX =
Z B'AX =
the
int.
opp.
Figs.,
the ext.
:.
the
the
AEC
Z XAC.
Q.E.D.
Definition
When
finite straight line is
divided internally and exter-
nally into segments which have the
same
ratio, it is said to
be
cut harmonically.
Hence the following Corollary to Theorem
47.
The base of a triangle is dividedrfiarmonicaUy by the internal

and external bisectors of the vertical angle;
for in
each case the segments of the base are in the ratio of
the other sides of the triangle.
GEOMETRY
214
40
(N umcrical and Graphical)
On
1.
from
AB
a base
cut off
AB, 3-5"
AX
draw any triangle

Through X draw AT
in length,
2 1" long.
meet ^C at Y.
Measure A Y, YC and hence compare the
BC
CAB
and
i)arall(l
to
to
AK, AX.
(i)
XB
^'
(H)
A^, AC,
AX AY
and AT is drawn
VC
ABC
is a triangle,
2.
the other sides at A' and )'.
(i)
If
AB
length of
(ii)
If
length of
If
(iii)
AC =
3-G",
2-4",
and
ratios
(Hi)
A^^,A.
XB YC
parallel to
= 21",
.4A'
BC, cutting
calculate the
A Y.
AB
2-0",
AC
1-5",
and
AY
0-9", calculate the
if
AC =
BX.
X divides AB in the ratio 8
3,
and
8-S cm., find
AY, YC.
AT
is drawn parallel to BC, cutting

ABC is a triangle, and
3.
the other sides produced at A' and 1'.
A' = 7-2 cm., find
(i) U AB = 4-5 cm., AC = 3-5 em., and .4
by calculation and measurement the length of A Y.
(ii) If A' divides A B externally in the ratio 11:4, and \^ AC =4-9
cm., find the segments of AC.

(Tfieoretical)
4.
Three parallel straight lines cut any two trausvcrsals propor-
tionally.
5.
The
straight line wliich joins the middle points of the oblique
sides of a trapezium
is
parallel to the parallel sides.
Two triangles A BC, DBC stand on the same side of the common base BC and from any point E in BC lines are drawn parallel
G.
to
to
BA, BD, meeting AC,

A I).
7.
In a triangle
DC
ABC
in
F and
Shew that FG
C.
a transversal
is
drawn
is
parallel
to cut the sides
BC, CA, AB (produced if necessary) at D, E, and F respectively,

and it makes equal angles with AB and AC; prove tiiat
BD:CD
= BFiCE.

215
47
Draw
1.
ABC, making
a triangle
Bisect the angle
3-G".
1-5",
and
and Y.
internally
.4,
2-4",
and
by
lines
externally,
which meet BC and BQ produced at A'

Measure BX, XC BY, YC; hence evaluate and compare the
;
ratios
BX BY BA
XC
In the triangle
2.
ABC,
YC' AC'
=
3-5 cm., b
and the internal and external bisectors

and Y.
c = 7-2 cm.
Z A meet BC at A"
5-4 cm.,
of the
Calculate the lengths of the segments into which the base is

divided at A" and Y respectively and verify your results graphically.
;
Frame
3.
constructions, based
upon Theorem
to trisect a straight line of given length
(i)
to divide
(ii)
a given
line internally
47,
and externally
in the ratio
3:2.
(
4.
ADC
tively.
5.
angles
.1
(i)
(ii)
a median
by
Shew that
EF
is
will
AC
if
the bisectors of the
bisectors of the angles
meet on AC.
to shew that in anj- triangle

the internal bisectors of the three angles are concurrent
the external bisectors of two angles and the internal bisector
If / is
duced to meet
the in-centre of the triangle
BC
at
A",
ABC, and
if
AI
is
pro-
shew that
AI: IX =
8.
and the angles .1 DB,

at E and F respec-
Employ Theorem 47
of the third angle are concurrent.

7.
ABC
which meet AB,

parallel to BC.
lines
A BCD is a quadrilateral; shew that

A and C meet on the diagonal BD, the
B and D
6.
is
are bisected
Theoretical)
of the triangle
AB + AC:
BC.
Given the base of a triangle and the ratio of the other sides, find
the locus of the vertex.

9.
Construct a triangle, having given the base, the
other sides, and the vertical angle.
i-atio of
the
GEOMETRY
216
PROPORTIONAL AREAS
Theorem
[Euclid VI.
48.
1]
triangles of equal altitude are to one another as
The areas of
their bases.
Let ABC, DEF be two triangles of equal

on the bases BC, EF.
altitude, standing
A ABC
the
A DEF
-.the
= BC EF.
:
Let the triangles be placed so that the bases BC,

and the triangles on the same side
Proof.*
EF are in the same st. line,

of the line.
Join
then
Suppose the base

so that,
if
BC
is
AD
AD is
BC
par' to
the base
divided into
BF.
EF = m
m equal
Def. 2, p.
:
parts, then
EF may
divided into n such equal parts, in each case by
drawn from the vertex to the points
Then
the
ABC,
DEF
lOL
st.
be
lines
of division.
are divided into triangles which
stand on equal bases, and have the same altitude, and are
therefore
And
all
equal.
.-.
Hence
A ABC contains ni
A DEF contains n.
AABC: the A DEF = m w.
A ABC the A DEF = BC EF.
of these equal
the
the
A, the
and the
Q.E.D.
* Sih;
footnoU; on
p. 1210.
PROPORTIONAL AREAS
Corollary.
217
The areas of 'parallelograms of equal
altitude
are to one another as their bases.
For
let
DB,
EG
altitude, standing
be
par"^^ of the
same
on the bases AB, EF.
AC, HF.
Join
= twice the A CAB;

=
and the par"" EG
twice the A HEF;
:. the par"' DB
the par"" EG =
AB
the ACAB the A HEF =
Since the par7)S
EF.
Alternative Proof of Theorem 48
A ABC,
A ABC = h BC X p
A DEF = \ EF X p.
A ABC ^ \BCXp ^BC
A DEF h-EFX p EF'
Let p represent the altitude of each of the
Then the area
of the
and the area
of the
.
"
DEF.
EXERCISES
{Nuvierical)
Of two triangles 7i,T2
1.
6-3" and 5-4" Ti contains

17
sq. inches.
The
2.
24
on bases of
Find the area of T-2.
of equal altitude standing
12|^
if
areas of two triangles of equal altitude have the ratio

the base of the first is 4-2 cm., find the base of the other.
3.
Two triangles lying between the same parallels have bases of
16-20 m. and 20-70 m.
find to thg nearest square cm. the area
of the second triangle, if that of the first is 50- 1204 sq. m.
;
Two
parallelograms whose areas are in the ratio 2-1:3-5 lie

parallels.
If the base of the first is 6-6" in length,
find the base of the second.
4.
between the same

5.
and
If
Two
triangular fields
lie
on opposite sides of a common base

it are 4-20 chains and 3-71 chains.
their altitudes with respect to
the
first field
contains 18 acres, find the acreage of the other.
GEOMETRY
218
Theorem
In equal
[Euclid VI. 33]
49.
circles, angles, ivhethcr at the centres or
ences, have the
same
circumfer-
on which they stand.
ratio as the arcs
and
Let ABE, CDF be equal circles
CHD, and also the A AEB, CFD stand on
;
the
A AGB,
the arcs
AB, CD.
let

(i)
the
(ii)
the
arc
the
the
Z
Z
CHD =
the arc
CFD =
the arc
Suppose the arc
Proof.*
so that,
AGB
AEB
Z
Z
the arc
if
CD may
AB
is
AB
by radii drawn
Then the A AGB, CHD,
ti
the arc
CD;
the arc
CD.
CD =
the arc
divided into
be divided into
AB
AB
???
equal parts, then the
such equal parts, in each case
to the points of division.

in
equal
circles, are dividetl into
angles which stand on equal arcs, and arc therefore
And
of these equal angles the
Z A GB
all
equal.
contains m,
and the Z CHD contains n

A AGB .the A CHD = m n.
Hence the A AGB the Z CHD = the arc AB: the arc CD.
And since the Z AEB = one half of the Z AGB; Thcor. 39
and the Z CFD = one half of the Z CHD;
.: the A AEB
the Z CFD = the arc AB the arc CD.
;
.-.
the
Q.E.D.
CoROLL.\RY.
Since in equal
angles are equal

the sector
AGB
147, E], it
[p.
:
the sector
*
circles, sectors ichich
may
CHD =
Sco footnote on
have equal
be proved as above that
the arc
p.
210.
AB
the arc
CD.
SIMILAR FIGURES
219
SIMILAR FIGURES
Two
1.
rectilineal figures are said to
one another when the angles of the
first,
be equiangular to
taken in order, arc
oqusd respectively to those of the second, taken in order.

Rectilineal figures are said to be similar
2.
when they
are
equiangular to one another, and also have their corresponding sides proportional.
Thus the two quadrilaterals A BCD,
EFGH
are
A, B, C,
similar if the angles at

are respectively equal to
those at E, F, G, H, and
if
also
rj
AB EF= BC FG= CD: Gil = DA

:
HE.
Similar figures are said to be similarly described with
3.
regard to two sides,
when
these sides correspond.
NOTE ON SIMILAR FIGURES

may be desci'ibed as ha^dng the same shape.
the figures must satisfy two conditions:
they must have their angles equal each to each, taken in order;
their corresponding sides must be proportional.
Similar figures
For
this,
(i)
(ii)
In the case of triangles we shall learn that these conditions are not
independent, for each follows from the other thus
:
if
(i)
proves
the triangles are equiangular
that their
(ii)
if
the
equiangular
On
to
triangles
have their
sides
that they are
one another.
diagram
in the margin shews two figures which
are equiangular to one another, but
which clearly have not their sides proportional
the other hand, the
one another.
corresponding sides arc proportional
Theorem 51 proves
tional.
to
first
while the figures in the second
diagram have their sides proportional,

but are not equiangular to one another.
propor-
Theorem
')0
GEOMETRY
220
SIMILAR TRIAXGLES
Theorem
[Euclid VI. 4]
50.
to
one another, their corre-
sponding sides are proportional, and
the triangles are similar.
7/ two triangles are equiangular
Let the
A ABC, DEF
tively equal to the
A D,
have the A A, B, and C respecE, and F.
AB
= BC EF = CA
-.DE
Apply the
Proof.
A DEF
on B, and EF along BC;

then since the A E = the A B,
Let
A BGH =
Gil
.-.
falls
is
the
par' to
BA BG = BC
AB DE = BC
:
is,
Similarly,
ED
by
api^lying the
FD
on C, and FE,
so that
will fall
AD =
hypothesis, the
the ext.
Hence
that
FD.
fall at G and H respectively

A DEF in its new position.
Now, by
is,
ABC,
and
represents the
that
to the
int.
the
along
AA
falls
BA.
so that
opp.
CBH
A BAG;
AC.
BII;
Thcor. 46, Cor.
EF.
A DEF to the A ABC,
along CB, CA,
it
may
so that
be shewn
that
BC :EF = CA
Hence
FD.
AB DE = BC EF = CA
:
and so the triangles are similar
(see p. 219).
FD,
q.e.d.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Theorem
221
[Euclid VI.
51.
5]
// two triangles have their sides proportional

order, the
triangles are equiangular
when taken in
one another, and the
to
triangles are similar.
A ABC,
DEF, let
AB :DE = BC :EF = CA FD.
required to prove that the A ABC, DEF are
In the
It is
to
equiangular
one another.
At
and at
.'.
Proof.
in
FE make
the
in
EF make
the
Z FEG equal
Z EFG equal
to the
to the
Z B;
Z C.
EOF = remaining Z A.
A ABC, GEF are equiangular
Z
the remaining
Since the
to one
another,
.-.
But, by hypothesis,
AB GE = BC EF.
AB DE = BC .EF;
AB :GE = AB DE.
:
:.
:.
Similarly
Then
because
GE = DE.
GF = DF.
in the
<,__,.
and ii/' IS
[
.:
the
and the
.'.
that
is,
GEF, DEF,
GE = DE, GF = DF,
common;
the triangles are identically equal;
.'.
Theor. 50.
Z
Z
DEF =
DFE =
the
the
the remaining
the
Hence the
A DEF
is
Z GEF =
Z CF^ =
D =
the
the
the remaining
equiangular to the
Theor. 7.
Z B;
Z C.
Z A
A ABC.
triangles are similar (see p. 219.)
q.e.d.
AX
:
;
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
223
EXERCISES OX SIMILAR TRIANGLES

Theoretical)
that the straight line which joins the middle points of
Shew
1.
two sides of a triangle
is
parallel to the third side
(i)
In the trapezium
2.
diagonals intersect at
AB
If
AB
one-half the third side.

is
parallel to
DC, and the
shew that
= OB-.OD.
0A-: OC
2 DC, shew that
(ii)
A BCD,
a point
is
trisoction
of
on both
diagonals.
three concurrent straight lines are cut

^-l, B, C, and P, Q, R respectively;
If
3.
transversals in
by two
AB: BC = PQ:QR.
A BCD is a parallelogram, and from D a straight
4.
parallel
prove that
line is
drawn
AB at
In this figure name thrco

E, and CB produced at F.
and shew that
triangles which are equiangular to one another
to cut
BE = FC: CD.
In the side AC of a triangle ABC any point D is taken shew
5.
that if AD, DC, AB, BC are bisected in E, F, G, H respectively
DA AE
:
= FB:
then
6.
EG
is
AB
equal to
point of CD
shew that FG
;
7.
HF.
CD are two parallel straight lines; E is the midAC and BE meet at F, and AE and BD meet at G
and
is
parallel to
AB.
AB h & diameter of a circle,
drawn to cut the circumference

shew that
is
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
the
and through ,1 any straight line

C and the tangent at B and D
in
A CAB, BAD
AC, AB,
the rcct.
AD
AC,
are equiangular to one another;

are three propoi-tionals
is constant for all positions of AD.
AD
through any point A^ within^ circle two chords AB,

are drawn, and AC, BD joined; shew that
(i) the ^ AXC, DXB are equiangular to one another;
8.
If
(ii)
AX: DX = XC XB.
:
from an external point

are drawn to a circle, and AT,
9.
If
(i)
(ii)
CD
A A AT, TXB are

XAiXT = XT:XB.
the
X a tangent XT and a secant XAB

TB joined; shew that
equiangular to one another;
GEOMETRY
224
Theorem
[Euclid VI.
52.
6]
If two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one angle of
the other, and the sides about the equal angles proportionals, the
triangles are similar.
In the
ABC, DEF,
let
the
A =
Z D,
the
AB DE = AC DF.
It is required to prove that the A ABC, DEF are similar.
Apply the A DEF to the A ABC, so that D falls
Proof.
on A, and DE along AB; then
because the Z EDF - the Z BAC, DF must fall along AC.
and
let
Let
tively
G and
be the points at which
II
so that
AGII
represents the
and F
A DEF
fall
respec-
in its
new
position.
Now, by
that
hence
:.
thecxt.
and the
namely the LE, = the

I AUG, namely the Z F, = the
ZAGH,
ext.
Hence Ihe
hence,
AB DE = AC .DF;
AB :AG = AC .AH;
Theor.
GH is pai-' to BC.
hypothesis,
is,
lABC;
int.
opp.
int.
opp. /.ACB.
A ABC, DEF are equiangular

A ABC, DEF are similar.
the
4G, Cor.
(o
one anotluM',
Theor. 50.
Q.E.D.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Theorem
225
[Euclid VI.
53.
7]
If two triangles have one angle of the one equal to one angle of
and the sides about another angle in one proportional
the other,
to the
corresponding sides of the other, then the third angles arc
either equal or suppleinentarTj ;
and in
the
former case
the tri-
angles are similar.
In the
ABC, DEF,
let
the
AB DE = AC
:
Z 5 =
DF.
the
and
let
either the
or
the
C =
A C =
Z.
Proof,
(i)
If
the
(ii)
[as in Figs. 1
and
Z F
the
Z A = the Z D
I C =^ the Z F;
the
then the
and the
Z F
supplement of
the
2]
and
[Figs. 1
[Figs. 1
and
3].
2],
Theor. IG.
are equiangular, and therefore similar.
If the
let
Then the
Z A is not equal to the Z D [Figs. 1 and 3],

Z EDF' = the Z A.
A ABC, DEF' are equiangular to one another
the
.:
But
.:
:.
AB :DE=AC :DF'.
AB :DE = AC^DF;
AC DF' = AC DF.
the
(Hypothesis)
:. DF' = DF.
Z DFF' = the Z DF'F.
Z DF'E
Z C.
Q.E.D.
GEOMETRY
226
EXERCISES ON SIMILAR TRIANGLES

(
Theoretical)
In a triangle ABC, prove that any straight line parallel to

the base BC and intercepted by the other two sides is bisected by
the median drawn from the vertex A.
1.
Two
2.
p'
if p,
R,
triangles ABC, A'B'C are equiangular to one another;

denote the perpendiculars from A, A' to the opp. sides
circum-radii
li'
in-radii
r, r'
prove that each of the ratios ^

P
pair of corresponding sides.
equal to the ratio of any
-^ is
^
>'
Prove that the radius of the circle which passes through the
3.
mid-points of the sides of a triangle is half the circum-radius.
If
4.
two straight
shew
(i)
A, B,
o.
parallel lines
c'
intersect at
If in tAvo
;
A',
so that
are
drawn
in the
are similar;
concyclic.
are three coUinear points, and from
BP, CQ
same
B and C two
sense, so that
PB-.QC = AB: AC;

Q are collincar.
triangles ABC, A'B'C, the Z B = the Z
shew by Theorem
G.
CD
AB,
hence prove the points A, D, B,
(ii)
= h
lines
XA-.XC = XD.XB;
by Theorem 52 that the A AXD, CXB
")2
that the points A, P,
B',
and
it is
also
what conclusion mav be drawn ?
b'
Shew by diagrams how
this conclusion
is
affeetcd,
if
given that
(i)
7.
.1
BCD
is
c is less
(ii)
c is
(iii)
c is
than
b,
equal to b,
greater than
a parallelogram
P and Q
h.
arc points in a straight
AB; PA and QB meet at R, and PD and QC meet

shew that RS is parallel to A D.
at S
8.
In a triangle ,4 BC the bisector of the ^'ertical angle A meets
the base at D and the circumference of the circum-cirde at E; if
EC is joined, shew that the triangles BAD, EAC are similar; and
line parallel to
:
hence prove that
ABAC
= AE-AD.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Theorem
In a right-angled
54.
triangle, if
227
[Euclid VI.
8]
a perpendicular
the right angle to the hypotenuse, the triangles
are similar
whole triangle and
to the
to
is
drawn from
on each side of
it
one another.
Let
BAC
drawn perp.
be a triangle right-angled at A, and

to
the
A BAC
and
to
.'.
BDA =
.'.
.".
Hence the
Corollary,
Z BAC, being rt.

common to both;
the remaining
is
angles,
ZBCA
equiangular to the
Theor.lQ.
A BAC;
the A BDA, BAC are similar.

A ADC, BAC may be proved similar.
and hence similar to each

(i)
DA
is
A BCA,
hence
Because the
BAD are
similar,
BA = BA: BD;
BA^- = BCBD.
^ CBA, CAD are similar,
.-.
.-.
other.
is DBA, DAC
DB: DA = DA: DC;
Because the
mean proportionaHjetween
DA- = DB DC.
and hence
(ii) Because the
hence
is
A BDA
.-.
(iii)
are similar to
A BDA^, ADC, being equiangular to the A BAC,
are equiangular
is,
A BDA, ADC
their corresponding sides are proportional;
Similarly the
that
be
A BDA, BAC
the
and the Z B
the remaining ZB.4Z)
hence the
AD
one another.
In the
the
let
BC.
BC:
CB: CA = CA: CD;

CA^ = CB-CD.
q.e.d.
are similar,
DB
and DC;
GEOMETRY
228
EXERCISES
(Miscellaneous Examples on Theorems 50-54)
ABC is an equilateral triangle of which each side = a. In

1.
BC, produced both ways, two points P and Q are taken, such that
BP = CQ = a, and AP, AQ arc joined. Shew that
(i)
PQ:
PA = PA:
PA'-
(ii)
PB.
3a2.
AD
2.
A BC is a triangle, right-angled at A and
is drawn perpendicular to BC i{ AB, AC measure respectively 4" and 3", shew
that the segments of the hj'potenuse are 3-2" and 1-8".
,
A BC
3.
is
a triangle right-angled at A and a perpendicular

,
drawn to the hypotenuse

Theorem 54 that
is
BC
shew
by Theorem
(i)
25,
AD
by
(ii)
BC-AD = AB-AC.
AC
ABC is
a triangle right-angled at A, and

is drawn perpendicular to the hypotenuse, also -C'A' is drawn parallel to CA.
= 12 cm., and
If AC = 15 cm., and AB = 20 cm., shew that
CA' = 9-6 cm.
4.
AC
At the
5.
C and
extremities of a diameter of a circle, whose centre
tangents are drawn

these are cut in Q and
any third tangent whose point of contact is P. Shew that
(i) QR subtends a right angle at C
radius
r,
(ii)
6.
Two
tact at A,
PQPR
is
by
r2.
and
r' respectively have external conand a common tangent touches them at P and Q. Shew
circles of radii r
that
(i)
(ii)
PQ subtends a right angle at A

PQ""
[Ex. 9. p. 182.]
rr'.
[Produce PA, QA to meet the c'irfMunf(>rences at X and

prove the triangles PAY, X AQ riglit-anglrd and similar.)
Two
7.
mon
that,
circles
if
(i)
(ii)
8.
touch one another externally at
PQ is produced
PA, AQ are joined,
tangent
Two
circles
drawn, one to each
shew that
if
BC,
to
meet the
circle, to
BD
and
and a com-
.4,
line of centres at
the triangles SAP, SQA are

SA^ = SP- SQ.
and
intersect at A and B
}',
.S'.
Shew
similar;
at
.4
tangents are
meet the circumferences at C and D:
are joined, then
BC BA = BA BD.
:
AREAS OF SliMlLAU TRIANGLES

Theorem
The areas
[Euclid
55.
M.
10]
of similar triangles are proportiotial
on correspondimj
229
to the
squares
sides.
Let
DEF
ABC,
be
triangles, in
iîiiiilar
which
BC
and
EF
are corresponding sides.

It is required to -prove that
A ABC
DH be
the A DEF = BC~ EF\

drawn pcrp. to BC, EF respectively;
and denote these perp^. by p and p'
the
Let
AG
The
Proof.
and
A ABC = \BC
ÂBC _ BC
"a DEF
But
since
the
A DEF
= \EF- ;/.
...
^^^'
EFp'
/LB
the
p
p
the
E,
from
the
similar
ABC, DEF,
and the
the
.'.
Z.
ABG,
G =
DEH
the
Z H,
being right angles
are equiangular to one another,
Theor. 16.
"
-A^
BC
= ^,
Er
the
from the sunilar
^ in
V
A ABC ^ BC BC
A DEF EF EF
A ABC the A DEF
Substituting for
or,
Theor. 50.
DE
p'
ABC, DEF.
(i),
^ BC^
EF^'
= BC-
EF'-.
q.e.d.
GEOMETRY
230
EXERCISES ON THE AREAS OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES

1.
drawn
In any triangle
parallel to
AXY
triangle
2.
and 2
45
ABC,
BC.
If
the sides AB, AC are cut by a lino A'}'

is one-third of AB, what j)art is the
ylA
of the triangle
ABC?
Two
ft.
corresponding sides of similar triangles are 3 ft. G in.

4 in. respectively. If the area of the greater triangle is
sq. ft., find that of the smaller.

3.
The area
parallel to
of the triangle
BC, cuts
AB
BC is 2.5-6 sq.
5:3.
in the ratio
cm., and A' Y,
drawn
Find the area
of llu^
triangle ,1A"F.
4.
Two
.similar triangles ha^ê areas of
cm. respectively
5.
find the ratio of
A BC and
A YZ
any
392
Shew how
to
ABC,
sc].
XY
draw a
straight line A'l' parallel to
so that the ftrea of the triangle
nine-sixteenths of that of the triangle
BC
AXY
the liase
may
bo
ABC.
Theoretical)
AD
ABC is
a triangle, right-angled at .1, and

pendicular to BC shew that
A BAD: ACD = BA"-: ACK
7.
20()
AB.
length of the corresponding side

6.
cm. and
are two similar triangles whose areas are

= 7-7", find the
in.
If
respectively 32 sq. in. and 60-5 sq.
of a triangle
sq.
pair of corresponding sides.
is
drawn
jxt-
8.
trapezium A
BC D
has
its sides
}f A B
diagonals intersect at O.
the triangle AOB to the triangle
is
AB,
CD
i);irallcl,
and
lis
double of CD, find the ratio of
COD.
two triangles have one angle
of one equal lo ono angle of

the other, their areas are proportional to the rectangles contained
by the sides about the equal angl(>s.
9.
10.
If
Prove that the areas
of similar triangles
have the same ratio
as the squares of
(iii)
corresponding altitudes;
corresponding medians;
the radii of their in-circles;
(iv)
the radii of their circum-circlcs.
(i)
(ii)
CHORDS OF CIRCLES
231
RECTANGLES IN CONNECTION WITH CIRCLES

Theorem
any two chords
If
externally,
equal
to the
[Euclid III. 35 and 36]
56.
of a circle cut one another internally or
hy the segments of one
the rectangle contained
Fig.
Fiff. X,
In the0
ABC,
let
internally in Fig.
A',
is
rectangle contained by the segments of the otJur.
the chords
1,
AB,
CD
and externally
2.
cut one another at
in Fig. 2.
XA,
the recL
XB =
Join
Proof.
the
In the
AXD =
the
A AXD,
A
vert.
the rect.
XAXB
XA,
in Fig. 1,
at the O^'^ standing on the
A AXD, CXB are

.XA^XD,
" XC XB'
:.
is,
CXB,
the remaining angles^ are equal;
hence the
that
AT, XD.
Z CXB, being opp.
and the same angle in Fig. 2;

and the Z A = the Z C, being
same arc BD;
.:
the red.
AD, BC.
Theor. 16.
equiangular,
= XC-XD;
XB =
the rent. AT,
XD.
q.e.d.
GEOMETRY
232
Corollary. If from an external point a secant and a tandrawn to a circle, the rectangle contained by the whole
secant and the part of it outside the circle is equal to the square
gent are
on
the tangent.
Let XBA be a secant, and XT a tangent

O AB Thorn the point X.
It is required to prove that XA XB = X T-.
io\n
Proof.
drawn
to the
AT, BT.
Then
the
the
because
.
A
Z
XAT = the
TXA
is
Z XTB,
common,
the third angles are equal,
the
A XAT, XBT arc similar.
Theor. 45.
Theor. 16.
Theor. 50.
'
XT XB'
XA, XB = sq. on
'
.'.
rect.
XT.
q.e.d.
RECTANGLES IN CONNECTION WITH CIRCLES

(
1.
dicular
56
Theoretical)
ABC is a triangle right-angled at C and from C

CD is drawn to the hypotenuse; shew that
;
ADDB
2.
two
If
common
CD
chord two chords AB,
If
in their
are drawn, one in each circle,
AX- XB = CX- XD.
3.
Deduce from Theorem 56 that the tangents drawn
from any external point are equal.
4.
a perpen-
CD'-.
and through any point
circles intersect,
shew that
233
two
to a circle
tangents drawn to them from any
circles intersect,
common chord produced are equal.

common tangent PQ is drawn to two circles which
point in their
5.
at
If
A and
6.
If
B, shew that
two straight
AB
AB,
lines
XB
CD
= CX XD, deduce from Theorem

the points A, B, C,
intersect at A' so that Â'56 (by reductio ad ahsurdum) that
are concyclic.
In the triangle A BC, perpendiculars A P,

and B to the opposite sides, and intersect at
AO-OP = BO- OQ.
7.
8.
dicular
9.
BQ are drawn from

shew that
ABC is a triangle right-angled at C, and from C

CD is drawn to the hypotenuse; shew that
AB-AD = AC:
Through A, a point
straight lines
CAE,
cut
produced bisects PQ.
DAF
of
intersection
of
two
a perpen-
circles,
two
are drawn, each passing through a centre
and terminated by the circumferences
shew that
CA-AE = DA-AF.
10.
If from any external point-P two tangents are dra\\Ti to a
given circle whose centre is
and radius r; and if OP meets the
chord of contact at Q, shew that
OP-OQ =
to
r2.
AB K fixed diameter of a eii-cle, and CD is perpendicular

AB {or AB produced)
any straight line is drawn from A to
11.
cut
{?,
CD
at
P and
if
the circle at Q, shew that

AF- .\Q = constant.
GEOMETRY
234
56
(Miscellaneous)
1.
The chord of an arc of a cu-ele = 2c, the height of the arc =

= r. Shew by Theorem 56 that
h,
the radius
h{2r
Hence
off
h)
c\
find the diameter of a circle in
which a chord 24" long cuts
a segment 8" in height.

2.
feet
The
radius of a circular arch
is
25
feet,
and
its
height
is
18
find the span of the arch.
If the height is reduced by 8 feet, the radius remaining the same,

by how much will the span be reduced?
Check your calculated results graphically by a diagi'am in which
1" represents 10
feet.
the equation h{2r h) = c^ to find the height of an

arc whose chord is 16 cm., and radius 17 em.
Explain the double result geometrically.
3.
Employ
4.
If
circle,
d denotes the shortest distance from an external point to

t the length of the tangent from the same point, shew
and
by Theorem 56 that
did
2r)
t\
diameter of the circle when

= 2-4"; and verify your result graphicallj'.
Hence
find
the
and
1-2",
If the horizon visible to an observer on a cliff 330 feet above

5.
the sea-level is 22J miles distant, find roughly the diameter of the
earth.
Hence
approximate distance at which a bright

above the sea is visible at the sea-levol.
find the
raised 66 feet
If h is the height of an arc of radius

6.
6" = 2rh.
the are, prove that
7.
semi-circle
chords AC,
is
described on
BD are drawn
AB^ =
yl /?
r,
and
the chord
light
oi'
lialf
and any two

P; shew that
as diameter,
intersecting at
ACAP + BDBP.
B and C, and the two direct common

and DF are drawn; if the common chord is produced
tangents
to meet the tangents at C, and //, shew tliat
(111- = AK' + B('\
8.
Two
AE
FOURTH PIIOPUKTIONALS
235
PROBLEMS
Problem 33
To find
the fourth proportional to three given straight lines.
Let A, B,
to
st. lines,
portional
is
C be the three given

which the fourth prorequired.
Draw two
Construction.
length, containing
From
ACB
any
st.
DL,
lines
DK
of indefinite
angle.
DL
cut off DG equal to A, and GE equal to

and from DK cut off DH equal to C.
Join GH. Through E draw EF par" to GH.
HF is the fourth proportional to ^ B, C.

Because GH is par' to EF, a side of the A DEF
DG GE = DH HF.
Then
Proof.
.-.
That
Then
HF
is
is,
A B = C HF.
:
the fourth proportional to
.4,
B, C.
Problem 34
To find
the third proportional to two given straight lines.
Let A, B he the two lines to

which the third proportional is
required.
AB
This problem
C =
to
B.
it.
(See
is
!.
that special case of Problem 36 in which
5, p. 205.)
The
solution given alx)ve appHes
GEOMETRY
236
Problem 35
To
divide a given straight line internally
given
and externally in a
ratio.
MN A
Let
AB
he the
st. line
nally in the ratio
Construction.
At
From
From
B
to be divided internally
and exter-
A'^.
A make any
angle
BAH
AH cut off AP equal to M.

PH and PA cut off PC and
Join BC,
PC,
BC.
with
AB.
each equal to N.
Through P draw PX par' to BC, and PY par' to BC.

Then AB is divided internally at X, and externally at Y
N.
in the ratio
Proof,
(i)
Because
(ii)
.'.
Because P 7 is par' to BC, a side of the

N.
A Y YB = AP PC =
:
line
A ABC,
By
Corollary.
st.
PX is par' to BC, a side of the A ABC,

= AP :PC = M :N.
AX XB
.'.
AB may
a similar prr)c(>ss a
be divided internally
into segments proportional to three lines.
Construction.
cut
L,
off
Draw AH, and from
QR
Join RB
AP, PQ,
M, N.
QdrawPX,
it
equal respectively to
;
and'through
P and
()y par' to BR.
Then evidently
AX
L ^
XY .M
= YB
A^.
MEAN PROPORTIONALS
237
Problem 36
To find
the
mean
proportional hetween two given straight
lines.
AC
Let AB,
be the two given
opposite senses
AC
AB,
Place
Construction.
BC
and on
st. lines.
in a straight line,
describe the semi-circle
From A draw AD at rt. angles to BC, to cut

Then AD is the mean proportional between
Join
Proof.
Now
And
the
Z BDC,
the
.'.
.-.
AB
in
BDC.
O" at
D.
and AC.
BD, DC.
being in a semi-circle,
in the right-angled
the
and
BDC, DA
is
is
rt.
perp. to
A ABD, ADC are similar

AB -.AD = AD :AC
angle.
BC,
Theor. 54.
that
is,
AD
is
the
mean
proportional between
AB
and AC.
Note. If the given lines AB, AC arc

placed in the same sense, the mean proportional between tliem may be cut off from A B
by the following useful construction.
On
AB
draw a
semi-circle;
Then
AX is
.-.
that
is,
and from C draw
CD
AX equal to
the mean pi-oportional between AB
For the ^ ABD, ADC are similar,
AB: AD = AD: AC;
AB: AX = AX: AC.
From
to cut the O"^ at D.
AB
cut
off
perp. to
AB
AD.
and AC.
Theor. 54.
::
GEOMETRY
238
GRAPHICAL EVALUATION OF A QUADRATIC SURD

Find the approximate value
Example.
of
(i)
Vo,
(ii)
v'21.
Hence take AB, AC rcspoctively to repre1.

terms of any convenient unit, and find A D, the mean
Vs = V5 X
(i)
sent 5 and
1 in
proportional between them.
A D- = AB-AC
Then
AD
.-.
By
(ii)
measuring
AD,
V2I = V7 X
III, p. 200.
= 5X1 =5.
= VS.
the value of V5 is roughly found to l)o 2-24.

3.
Here take AB, AC equal to 7 cm. and 3
cm. respectively, and proceed as before.
for
Note. Factors should be chosen so as

AB, AC.
e.g. \/23 = V2-3 X 10;
to give convenient lengths
vU
= V2^'x^.
EXERCISES
Find graphically, testing your results by arithmetic
1.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
7:3; and
3.
ments
4.
5.
second
x:
and externally
in the
4-2=
x:16=
Divide a
numbers
line,
line,
4-2: 6-3.
25
.r.
(Take 1 cm. as the unit of length.]

[Ix-t 1" represent 10.]
7-2 cm. in length, into three parts proportional
2, 3, 4.
Divide a
Measure and
calculate these parts.
3-9" in length, into three parts, so that the
= | of the first, and the third = J

On a side of 1-5" draw a rectangle
on a side
7.
in length, internally
each case measure and calculate the segments.
Obtain graphically the unknown term in the following stateand check your result by arithmetic
= 10: 1-6. (Take 1" as the unit of length.]
(i) 1-25: X
(ii)
to the
in
of proportion
(iii)
G.
20"
Di\'ide a line,
2.
ratio
The 4th proportional to 2-4", 1-5", 1-6".

The 3rd proportional to 2-5" and 1-5".
The mean proportional between 7-2 cm. and 50 cm.
of 2".
Measure the other
VS;
(iij
equal in area to a square
side of the rectangle.
Find graphically the approximate

(i)
of the second.
VlO;
A\alues of
(iii)
Vî.
EXERCISES IN PROPORTION
239
Determine geometrically the approximate values of

8.
lowing expressions, verifying each drawing arithmetically
tlif f(jl-
^'
in
(iv)
The
The
The
a =
10.
field is
= 8
em., 6
(i)
(iii)
is
(ji)
^
2-71
6:M,
(iii)
2-13
1-2(3.
1-51
a triangle .4 BC from each of the following sets of data,

each case calculate and measure the lengths of the sides
(ii)
2-4
2-8
Draw
9.
and
3-5
(i)
perimeter
perimeter
perimeter
40",
.4
= 4-8"; and
a: 3 = ?>: 4 = c: 5.
= 11-1 em. and a lb, b = ^ c.
= 11-8 em. and .4 1 = /? 2 = T:
= 90; and 6: c = 5:3.
;
.3.
represented in a plan by a triangle A BC, in whieh

G-4f'm.
If the gi-eatest side of the field
200 metres, find the lengths of the other sides.
fence,
= .5Gem.,c =
run across the
field, is
represented in the plan by a line

in .1 B distant 40 cm. from
PQ parallel to BC drawn from a point P

A Find the length of the fence.
.
11.
A man 6 feet in height, standing 1.5 feet from a lamp-post,
observes that his shadow cast by the light is 5 feet in length how
high is the light, and how long would his shadow be if he were to
approach 8 feet nearer to the post?
;
To
12.
bank
width of a canal a rod is fixed vertically on the

shew 4^ feet of its length. The observer, whose eye
above the gi'ound, retires at right angles from the canal
find the
so as to
8 in.
he sees the top of the rod in a line with the further bank.
his distance from the canal is now 20 feet, what is its width ?
is
ft.
until
If
man, wishing to ascertain the height of a tower, fixes a

the ground at a distance of 27 ft. from the tower.
Then, retiring 3 ft. farther from the-tower, he sees the top of the
staff in line with the top of the tower.
If the observer's eye and
the top of the staff are respectively 5 ft. 4 in. and 12 ft. above the
13.
staff vertically in
ground, find the height of the tower.
A person due S. of a Ughthouse observes that his shadow

by the Hght at the top is 24 feet long. On walking 100 yards
due E. he finds his shadow to be 30 feet long. Supposing him to be
G feet high, find the height of the light from the ground.
14.
cast
GEOMETRY
240
SIMILAR POLYGONS
Theorem
57
Similar polygons can he divided into the same number of

and the lines joining corresponding vertices
similar triangles;
in each figure are proportional.
FGHKL
Let ABODE,
be similar polygons, the vertex A
corresponding to the vertex F, B to G, and so on. Let AC,
AD
FH, FK.
be joined, and also

(i)
the
FHK, and
(ii)
FGH
ABC,
are similar
the A ADE, FKL.

AB :FG = AC FH =
:
Proof.
the
(i)
the
the
.-.
/.
Z FGH, and
A ABC, FGH
the
Also the
Also
A ACD,
as also the
AD
FK.
Since the polygons arc similar,.
ABC =
.:
the
Z BCA =
Z BCD =
ACD =
AB FG = BC GH
:
the
the
the
Z GHF
Z GHK
Z FHK.
Thcor. 52.
are similar.
;
AC FH = BC GH (the A being similar)

= CD HK (the polygons being similar).
:
/.
Thcor.
A ACD, FHK are similar.
way the A ADE, FKL are similar.
the
In the same
52.
SIMILAR POLYGONS
And
(ii)
FGH
AB FG = AC
= AD
:
:FH, from the

FK, from the
:
HFK.
241
similar
similar
A
A
ABC,
CAD,
Q.E.D.
In Theorem 57 the polygons have been divided into simiby lines drawn from a pair of corresponding vertices.
Other ways in which this subdivision may be made are:
(i) By lines drawn from a
fair of corresponding points on
Note.
lar triangles
the perimeters oj the figures, brit
not vertices.
(ii)
pair
By
lirtes drawn from a

corresponding points
of
within the polygons.
The
proofs of the proposi-
tion for these cases are Itft as
an exercise for the student.

It is well to notice also
the
following case in which the

subdivision is made.
(iii)
By
polygons.
lines
drawn from a pair
of corresponding points outside the
In this case let the student prove that

the corresponding triangles are similar
and note that these triangles are not parts
of the polygons but that the polygon
= the sum of the ^ OAB, OBC,
ABODE
ODE
OCD,
and similarly
diminished by the
OAE;
for the polygon FGHKL.
GEOMETRY
242
Problem
On
37.
a side of given length
Method.]
[First
to
draw a
figure similar to a given
rectilineal figure.
Let
ABODE be the given figure,
given side
and suppose that
and
LM the length of the
this side
to correspond to
is
AB.
Construction.
From
AB
cut off
Join
AB'
equal to
LM.
AC, AD.
From B' draw B'C par" to BC, to cut AC at C.

From C draw CD' pai-" to CD, to cut AD at D'.
From D' draw D'E' pai-" to DE, to cut EA at ".
Then A B'C D'E' is the required figure.
Outline of Proof,
is
(i)
By construction the figure AB'CD'E'

ABODE.
equiangular to the figure

(ii)
From
the three pairs of similar triangles
it
may
be
shewn that
CW
AB' ^ BT^ ^
^ D'E' _ E'A
.AB
BC
EA
CD DE
that
is,
corresponding sides of (he polygons are proportional.
Accordingly the figure

to
LM
.
'
is
similar to
AB'CD'E'
ABODE.
described on a liiiee(iual
SIMILAR FIGURES
Theorem
Any
243
58
may
two similar rectilineal figures
be so placed that the
lines joining corresponding vortices are concurrent.
C
Fig.
I.
ABCD,
A'B'C'D' be similar figures.

/. B' = the
Z B, the figures can be so
placed that A'B', B'C are respectively par| to AB, BC. It
follows, since the figures are equiangular to one another, that
C'D'is par' to CD, and D'A' paH to DA.
It is required to prove that when corresponding sides of the
Let
Then
since the
AA' BB'
figures are parallel,
Join
A A'
Join
SB
and SB'
one straight
it
CC
externally at
it
will
DD' are concurrent.

S in the ratio AB A'B'.
:
be shewn that >S5 and SB' are in
line.
In the
Proof.
divide
A
.-.
SAB, SA'B', since AB and A'B'

the Z SAB = the Z SA'B'
are par',
SA SA' = AB
and, by construction,
.-.
the
SAB, SA'B'
.'.
the
-.A'B'
Theor. 52.
are similar;
Z ASB =
the ZA'SB'.
Hence SB, SB' are in the same st. line

is, BB' passes through the fixed point S.
Similarl}^ CC and DD' may be shown to pass through S.
q.e.d.
That is, AA', BB', CC, DD' are concurrent,
XoTE. Observe that the joining lines A A', BB', CC, DD' are
;
that
all
divided externally at
.S'
sides of the given figiires.
in the ratio of
is
any
pair of corresponding
called the centre of similarity.
GEOMETRY
244
NoTK.
In placing
tlio giv(>n
figures so that A'B',
A />, BC, two cases arise

A'B' and AB may have the same sense,
A' B' and .4 B may have opposite senses,
B'C
are rc-
spcftivcly parallel to
(i)
(ii)
1 and 2;
as in the Fig. below.
as in Figs.
In the latter ease

par' to
current
but
it
follows also that
to
CD, and D'A'
it
Problem
On a
CD' is par'
may be proved that A A', BB', CC, DD' are eonhere S dividers A A' internally in the ratio AB: A'B'.
DA, and
given side to
[Second Method.]
37.
draw a
figure similar to a given figure.
A BCD
be the given figure, and A'B' the given side

A'B' correspond to AB.
and join AA', BB'
Construction.
Place yl7i' par' to ^B
by lines meeting at ;S.
Join SC, SD.
Through B' draw B'C par' to BC, to meet SC at
through
draw CD' par' to CD, to meet SD at D'.
Let
and
let
Join A'D'.
Then A'B' CD'
is
the required figure.
The student should pi'ove (i) that A'B'CD' is equiangular

to A BCD, (ii) that corresponding sides of these figures are
proportional.
Tlie proof
is
the converse of Tiieorem 58.
SIMILAR FIGURES
245
EXERCISES ON SIMILAR FIGURES

1.
On a base AB, 6-5 cm. in length, draw a quadrilateral
A BCD from the following data
A =^ 80,
Z JS = 70, AD =4-4 em., BC = 3-2 cm.
Taking any convenient point as centre of similarity, make
:
(i)
reduced copy of
the corresponding side of

(ii)
An
A BCD, such that

A BCD is 3: 4.
enlarged copy of
ABCD,
such that the ratio of each side

is 5:4.
ABCD
to the corresponding side of

2.
the ratio of each side to
In a semi-circle drawn on a given diameter AB, inscribe a

may be on the arc, and two on A B.
.1 B = 2?-, and the side of the inscribed square = a, shew that
square, so that two vertices

If
5a-
4r'.
Draw
a sector of a circle of radius 2-4", the central angle

being 60 and inscribe a square in it.
If the radius of the sector = r, and the side of the square = a,
calculate from measurements the ratio a r.
3.
In a sector of which the radius =5 em., and the central angle

45, inscribe a rectangle with its sides in the ratio 2:1.
Prove that two such rectangles can be drawn, and compare by
4.-
measurement
Draw
5.
c
their greater sides.
a triangle
ABC, making
= 8
cm.,
6=7
em., and
G cm.
Working from the vertex ^1 as centre of similarity, inscribe a

square in the triangle, so that two of its angular points may be in
the base BC, and the other two in AB, AC.
Draw a triangle ABC, making a = 2G", B = 110, C = 35.

In the triangle ABC inscribe an equilateral triangle, having
G.
(i)
(ii)
7.
one side parallel to BC; ^

one side parallel to any given straight
In a given triangle
ABC inscribe a triangle
DEF.
how many ways may this be done?
Draw a regular he.xagon ABC DEF on
line.
similar to a given
triangle
In
8.
it
its
vertices
on the remaining
1 -2", and in
and DE, and
a side of
inscribe a square having "two sides parallel to
AB
sides of the hexagon.
GEOMETRY
246
Theorem
The areas
59.
[Euclid VI. 20]
of similar polygons are proportional to the squares
on corresponding
sides.
D
K
Let
FG
ABODE, FGHKL
ho similar polygons, and
let
AB
be corresponding sides.
the
polygon
ABODE
Join
the
the
FCHKL =
polygon
AO, AD,
A ABC, FGH are similar

also the A AOD, FHK are similar
and the A ADE, FKL are similar.
FHAABO: the A FGH = AO^the
FCK
Thcor. o7.
Thcor. na.
AB-
FK.
FII,
Then the
Proof.
.-.
AAOD: the A
FIIK.
Similarly',
the
A AOB
A FHK
the
A ABC ^
A FGH
Hence
And
in this series of
cedents
is
.-.
is
to the
sum
to its consequent
the
fig.
=
=
ABODE
AD""-
equal ratios, the
sum
FK-L.
of the ante-
of the consequents as each antecedent
Thcor. \, p. 207.
FK-
A ADE :lhe A
A AOD ^ A ADE
A FHK A FKL
the
the
fig.
FGHKL
=
=
the
AABO
AB^
the
A FGH
FG-.
Q.E.D.
AREAS OF SIMILAR POLYGONS

Corollary
Let
1.
portion, so that -
a,
represent three lines in pro-
h,
and consequently
247
h^
ac.
Q
c
Now
suppose similar figures
and
to be
drawn on a and
corresponding sides,
b as
then
Hence
Fig.
P ^ ^ ^ i^ = ^
Fig.
drawn on
similar figures are
ac
b^
and awj
and second a^ correspond-
lines are proporfiouals,
straight
if three
the first
ing sides, then

the fig.
on
the first
Corollary
the fig.
2.
on
the
KAB,LCD A
be similarly described on
MF,
be similarly described
on
EF, GH.
^,
/^**v^
ABAB = EF
EF'
= ^.^,;
e^.
KAB the fig. LCD = AB- CD-
But the
and the
fig.
fig.
MF
the
fig.
KAB
/
G
Thensmce
:.
AB, CD,
also let similar figures
XH
the first
K
:
let similar figures
and
Let
AB CD = EF GH
and
second
-.
the
fig.
the
fig.
XH = EF-
Theor. 59.
GH-.
LCD = the fig. MF
the
fig.
XH.
Hence if four straight lines are proportional, and a pair of

similar rectilineal figures are similarly described on the first
and second, and

o,re
also a pair on the third
proportional.
and fourth,
these figures
geomp:try
24S
EXERCISES
Similar figures are described on the side and diagonal of a
1.
square
prove that the ratio of their areas
is 1
2.
Similar figures are described on the side and altitude of an

prove that the ratio of their areas is 4 3.
2.
equilateral triangle
3.
The area of a regular pentagon on a side of 2-5" is approximately lOj sq. in. find the area of a similar figiu'e on a side of 30".
;
The length
4.
of a rectangular area is 10-8 metres,
and the
5 find the length and

breadth of a similar rectangle containing one-ninth of the area.
ratio of the length to the breadth
is
12
In the plan of a certain field, 1" represents G6 yards if the

5.
area of the plan is found to be 100 sq. in., find the area of the field
;
in acres.
why
Explain
in this
example the shape
of the field
is
immaterial.
represented on a plan by a quadrilateral A BC D

drawn to the scale of 25" to the mile. If AC = 20", and the off-
An
6.
sets
estate
AC
from
is
B and D
to
measure 24" and 26" respectively,
find
the acreage of the estate.

7.
field of
1-89 hectares
is
represented on a plan by a triangle

and 15 cm. On what scale is
v/hose sides measure 13 cm., 14 cm.,
drawn?
the plan
8.
hexagon
regular hexagon
is
in order.
and so on.
inscribed in
is
side of a em. and a second

joining the middl(> points of the sides
drawn on a
it liy
In like manncT a third hexagon is insc-ribed in the second

Find the ratio of the first hexagon to the fifth.
Compare the area of any regular hcwagon with the areas of (lie
9.
regular hexagons described on two unequal diagonals of the original
one.
10.
Compare
the areas of the regular inscribed and the regular
circumscribed hexagons of any

11.
Shew that
circle.
the areas of two similar cyclic figures are propor-
tional to the squares of the diameters of their circum-cirdes.

12.
all
Two
respects.
similar polygons which are equal in area are equal in
SIMILAR FIGURES
Theorem
In a right-angled
the
hypotenuse
is
any
to the
on
larly described figures
[Euclitr VI. 31]
GO.
triangle,
equal
249
on
and simi-
rectilineal figure described
sum
of the two similar
the sides containing the right a?igle.
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle of which BC is the

hypotenuse
and let P, Q, R be similar and similarly described figures on BC, CA, AB respectively.
;
R+
the
AB and
and P,
BC
the
Proof.
similar
fig.
Since
figs.
In like manner,
AB^-
BC'-
ratios
R +
fig.
AB-'
/.
the
Corollary.
fig.
Q _ AC-
P~ BC'Q_
AB'-
Theor. 59.
(ii)
'
'
'
on each side in
fig.
-\-
P.
fig.
(i)
fig.
But
the
are corresponding sides of the
fig.
fig.
Adding the equal
Q =
fig.
fig.
fig.
(i)
and
(ii)
AC-
BC-
AC- = BC-
the
fig.
The area of a
circle
Theor. 29.
Q-=^ the
fig.
P.
drawn on
the
q.e.d.
hypotenuse
of a right-angled triangle as diameter is equal to the su7n of the

circles similarly
For the areas

their diameters.
drawn on
the other sides.
of circles are proportional to the squares
[Page 199.]
on
GEOMETUY
250
EXERCISES
(Miscellaneous)
In a triangle
1.
ABC,
dicular to the hypotenuse.
BA'-
(i)
right-angled at A,
AD
is
drawn perpen-
Shew that
= BC-BD;
(ii)
CA^ - CB-CD.
Hence deduce Theorem 29, namely,

BC^ = BA^ + ACK
2.
BC
In the diagram of Theorem 60, draw AD perpendicular to

hence prove that, if the fig. P = the A A BC, then
(i)
3.
fig.
the
Q =
fig.
the
A ADC;
(ii)
the
fig.
R =
the
A ADB.
In the diagram of Theorem 60, if A B: AC =8:5, and

sq. cm., find the areas of the figs. Q and R.
if
the
P = 8-9
4.
BY
and CZ are medians of the triangle ABC, and YZ is

PMnd the ratio of the triangle BGC to the triangle YGZ.
joined.
[See p. 98.]
5.
ABC is an isosceles triangle, the equal sides AB, AC each
measuring 3-6". From a point D in AB, & straight line DE is
drawn cutting AC produced at E, and making the triangle ADE
equal in area to the triangle
AB
ABC.
If
AD
1-8", find
AE.
diameter of a circle, and two chords .IP,

produced to meet the tangent at B in A' and Y.
6.
Shew
is
a,
that
(i)
(ii)
the
A A PQ, A YX
AQ
aro'
are similar
the four points P, Q, Y,
are concyclic.
In the triangle ABC, the angle A is externally bisected by a

line wjiich meets the base produced at D and the circum-circlo at
7.
show that
8.
AB-AC = AEAD.
Draw an
and having
its
isosceles triangle equal in area to a triangle
vertical angle equal to the angle
ABC,
.1.
9.
On a given base draw an isosceles triangle equal in area to a
given triangle A BC.
10.
Any
regular polygon inscribed in a circle is the geometric

regular polygons of
mean between th(! inscribc'd and circumscribed

half the number of sides.
SIMILAR FIGURES
Problem
To draw a
equal
to
Let
is
251
38
figure similar to a given rectilineal figure,
a given fraction of
ABODE
it
be the given
and
in area.
which a similar figure
figure, to
to be drawn, having its area a given fraction (saj- three-
fourths) of that of the
Construction.
AB
From
cut
fig.
ABODE.
Prob. 7.
Make AF three-fourths of AB.
off AB' the mean proportional between AF
and AB.
Prob. 39.
On AB' draw the fig. AB'O'D'E'
similar to the
fig.
Note.
ABODE.
Prob. 40.
AB'O'D'E' = f of the fig. ABODE.

By construction, AB"^ = AFAB.
Then the
Proof.
Now
AB'
the
fig.
figs.
ABODE, AB'O'D'E'
are corresponding sides

.
"
^^.
AB,
AB'O'D'E'
&g.
are similar, and
ABODE
^ AB'^
'
Theor. 59.
AB-
AFAB
AB'-
ÂF^S
AB
GEOMETRY
252
EXERCISES
Divide a triangle
1.
XY drawn
and
ABC into
BC
parallel to the base
two parts of equal area by a line

and cutting the other sides at A'
1'.
Find
(i)
by
ealeulation,
(ii)
by measurement, the
Divide a triangle .1 BC
2.
PQ, XY drawn paralh^l to the base BC.
prove that
ratio
AX
If
AP ÂX
^ AB_
V2
Vf
Hence shew how a triangle may be divided

drawn parallel to one side.
P and X
AB.
by
lines
lie in
AB,
into three parts of equal area
into n equal parts
by
lines
3.
Draw a rectangle of length 8 em., and breadth o cm. Then
draw a similar rectangle of one-third the area.
Measure its length to the nearest millimetre, and verify your result by calculation.
4.
Draw
the
Z A =
Draw a
and
AB
90;
A BCD
from the following data:
= BC = 8 cm.
AD
= DC =
G cm.
similar quadrilateral to contain an area of 30 sq. cm.,
find to the nearest millimetre tht^ length of the side; correspond-
ing to
AB.
5.
of
a quadrilateral
Di\'ide a circle of radius
two concentric
0.
3" into three equal parts by means
circles.
Draw
similar
to
a rectilineal figure equal in area

[Euclid VI. 25.]
a given figure S.
to a
given figure E,
ami
given figures E and S by equivalent squares

Problems 10 and 33). Let the sides of these squares be a and
h respectively, and let s be one of the sides of 5.
[First replace the
(see
Find
p,
a fourth proportional to
b, a, s,
so that h: a
s: p.
p draw a figure P similar to the figure S, so that p and

corresponding sides. Then /' is the figure recpiired
On
e
lor
P = -in'V- =
= E
S
s"
.S
the fig. P - the fig.
fc2
:.
E.\
are
BISECTOR OF VERTICAL ANGLE
253
MISCELLANEOUS THEOREMS
*
Theorem
61
If the vertical angle of a triangle is bisected by a straight line

which cuts the base, the rectangle contained by the sides of the
triangle is equal to the rectangle contained by the segments of the
base, together with the square
on
the straight line
the angle.
Let
which
bisects
^^/^
ABC be a triangle, having the
BAC bisected bj' AD.
the red.
AB,
AC =
the red.
BD,
DC +
the sq.
Suppose a circle circumscribed about the

let AD be produced to meet the O" at E.
on
A ABC
AD.
;
and
Join EC.
A BAD, EAC,
BAD = the Z EAC,
AEC in the same segment
and the Z ABD = the
the remaining Z BDA = the remaining Z ECA
that
the A BAD, EAC are equiangular to one another
Proof.
Then
in the
because the
Z
Z
.'.
is,
.-.
Hence
But
.-.
the rect.
^
= ^. _
AE AC
ABAC
=
=
ADDE =
AB, AC =
Theor. 50.
AEAD
AD""
-\-
= {AD
DE)
AD
ADDE.
BDDC
the rect.
BD,
Theor. 56.
DC +
the sq. on
AD.
Q.E.D.
GEOMETRY
254
Theorem 62
If from the vertical angle of a triangle a straight line is drawn

perpendicular to the base, the rectangle contained by the sides of
by the perpendicu-
the triangle is equal to the rectangle contained
and
lar
the diameter of the circum-circle.
In the
BC
and
A ABC,
let
AE
AD
be the perp, from A to the base

diameter
of the circum-circle.
be a
let

the red.
AB,
AC =
the red.
AE, AD.
Join EC.
Proof.
Then
A BAD,
in the
EAC,
angle
BDA =
the
rt.
and the Z
ABD =
the
Z AEC,
the
rt.
ECA,
angle
in the semi-circle
ECA,
in the
same segment
BAD = the remaining Z EAC

the A BAD, EAC are equiangular to one another.
that
Theor. 50.
AB AE = AD AC
Hence the rect. AB, AC = the rect. AE, AD. q.e.d.
.'.
the remaining
is,
.:
Note.
Let
a, h, c
denote the sides of
and p the perp. A D.

Thensinee
(lie
radius,
AEAD
2Rp
= AB-AC
= cb.
he
"-u
nltc.
ahe. _
2ap ~ 4a"
ABC, R
its
oinnmi-
D1AG(JNALS OF QUADKILATEllAL
Theorem
The
255
[Ptolemy's Theorem]
63.
rectangle contained by the diagonals of a quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle is equal to the
tained by
its ojjposite sides.
swn
of the two rectangles con^
*^-
Let
AC,
A BCD
BD
be
be a quadrilateral inscribed in a
its
and
circle
let
diagonals.
BD =
AB, CD
BC, DA.
Z BAC
to each add the Z EAC,
then the Z DAC = the Z EAB.
Proof.
Since the Z EAB = the Z DAC,
and the Z ABE = the Z ACD in the same segment
the A EAB, DAC are equiangular to one another
the rect.
AC,
Make
the
the rect.
DAE equal
the red.
to the
.*.
.-.
BA:CA=BE:CD;
Theor. 50.
ABCD
= AC-BE
Again in the A DAE, CAB,
the Z DAE = the Z CAB,
and the Z ADE = the Z ACB, in the same segment
the A DAE, CAB are equiangular to one another;
hence
(i)
.'.
.-.
hence
DA :CA=DE
BCDA
CB;
ACDE
(ii)
Adding the equal rectangles on each side in (i) and

AB- CD + BC- DA = AC- BE + AC- DE
= AC (BE + DE)
= AC-BD.
(ii)
Q.ED.
GEOMETRY
256
EXERCISES
ABC
1.
an
is
From
2.
and on the base, or l)ase proshew that the circumscribed circles of
isosceles triangle,
duced, any point A'

the triangles ABX,
is
taken
ACX
are equal.
the extremities B,
an
of the base of
drawn perpendicular
shew that
at D
ABC,
straight lines are
tivelj',
and intersecting
isosceles triangle
AB,
to
AC
respec-
BC-AD = 2ABDB.
If
3.
the diagonals of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle are at

sum of the rectangles contained by the opposite
right angles, the

sides
is
double the area of the
figure.
4.
A BCD is a quadrilateral inscribed
diagonal BD bisects AC; shew that
ADAB
5.
If
the vertex
the. base, it will
in
cii'cle,
and the
= DC- CB.
ABC
of a triangle
is
joined to any point in
divide the triangle into two triangles such that their
AB
circumscribed circles have radii in the ratio of
to
AC.
Construct a triangle, having given the base, the vertical

angle, and the rectangle contained by the sides.
6.
7.
Two
same circle
by any two sides of the one is to
any two sides of the other as the base of
triangles of equal area are inscribed in the
shew that the
rectangl(> contained
the rectangle contained bj'

the second is to the base of the
8.
ia
lateral triangle
ABC.
If
is
first.
BC
a point on the arc
of the circum-circle of
PB + PC
9.
A BCD
is
sects the angle
cumference of the
if
circle,
the points
and
value of
From
the formula
R when
(i)
21'',
A and C
circle,
is
a.
=
4A
and
BD
bi-
are fixed on the cir-
variable in position,
is
AB + BC BD
10.
= PA.
a quadrilateral inscribed in a
ABC;
an equi-
joined to A, B, and C, shew that
shew that
constant ratio.
(see
Note,
p.
254)
find
the
the sides of the triangle are as follows:
20", 13";
(ii)
30
ft.,
25
ft..
11
ft.
Draw to a convenient scale and check your work by measurement.
EXERCISES IN REVIEW
257
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
PARTS
The
1.
RL
QM
PT =
Prove that
^ TOS, QOR
A
4.
prove
St. line
A Q TS
PQR
5.
is
respectively.
PR
to
any other
is
PS
a A.
its
vertical
.4
of the
AD
10.
point
of
Z BAC\s>
s
of the
joined;
A ABC
HF >
R.
DEF.
is
AD
which
IIG.
bisected
||
to
A ABC is produced to
Z ACD meet at 0.
of the triangle
Shew that AD>, = >
by
AB,
AC
sides of figure
bisecting
acute, right, or obtuse.
Q and
of the isosceles
QPR.
bisects angle
gi^'en lengths.
Prove the four
joins the vertex
BC.
EF
Prove
equal.
The base BC
Z ABC. and CO
A A.
two
DM, DN drawn
9.
QT
distances from two given inter-
in the base
meets the base BC at D.

meet AC in
and AB in A'.
ing
and QS,
QR and PT
is
joined and bisected at H:
The
8.
st. line
half the difference of the angles
any point
is
PS and PT are equal

QT, RS intersect at 0.
isosceles.
Find a point such that
7.
and that
collinear
From P and R PT, RS
bisected at Q.
is
secting straight lines shall be equal to
DG
are
isosceles.
SPT =
Prove angle
6.
P,
T,
PQR, PQ = PR.
PR
drawn perpendicular
are
PR of the
RL = LT
PS.
parts cut off from PQ,
Prove
PSR.
angle
QM
= MS.
meets
of the angles
are the middle^ points of the sides PQ,

are produced to T and *S' so that
and
In the isosceles
3.
PQR
of the triangle
Prove the sum
T.
L and
PQR.
and
bisector of the angle
QR at S and QR is produced to
PQR and PRT equals twice the
2.
I-IV
or
D.
resp.
AN DM
BO
bisect-
Prove Z
BOC
ABC to the middle

BD according as
<
GEOMETRY
258
BC
A r]rr\v with
the base of an isosceles triangle ABC.
radius CB cuts AB, AC in D and E resp.
Shew that
parallel to the bisector of Z B.
11.
DE
is
C and
centre
is
The
12.
quadrilateral formed by the bisectors of the angles of
any quadrilateral
cyclic.
are two equal straight lines not

Find a point T so that the A 7'PQ =
straight line.
PQRS
14.
SR
is
PQ and RS
13.
produced
is
if
DE
a parallelogram.
necessary at D and
same
TRS.
in the
drawn W PR meets SP,

Prove AQDP = A
E.
QER.
Trisect a parallelogram
15.
by
st. lines
through a vertex.
P and Q are twô fixed points. Find a point

may be a minimum.
PQRS is a parallelogram. PT is drawn
16.
OQ-
in
QR
and
18.
If
17.
is
any point
in
PT.
Prove
A QOR
such that
to
OP^
any point T
TOS.
two chords of a circle intersect at right angles, the sum

on their segments equals the square on a diameter.
of the squares
Find a point within a given triangle at which the three
19.
sides subtend equal angles.
Through an
20.
greatest possible
st.
When
Is
the solution possible?
two given circles draw the

terminated by the two circumferences.
intersection of
line
21.
Describe a circle of given radius to touch tw-o given
22.
Describe a circle of given radius to touch two given inter-
secting
23.
PQR
circles.
St. lines.
From a given point

such that PQ = QR.
without a given
circle
draw a secant
From
the extremities of the diameter of a circle perpenSliew that the centre is equally
to any chord.
distant from the feet of the perpendiculars.
24.
diculars are
drawn
25.
Draw a tangent to a circle which shall bisect a given parallelogram which is- outside the circle.
2G.
line
Describe a circle with given radius to touch a given

its centre in another given st. line.
st.
and have
Describe a circle with given radius to pass through a given

27.
point and touch a given st. line.
EXERCISES IN REVIEW
D{ scribe a circle with given radius
2S.
and a giva st. line.
259
to touch a given circle
of
AD and AE bisect the interior and exterior angles

A ^ BC, and meet BC at D and E and O is the middle
of
BC.
29.
at
point
Prove OC^ = OD- OE.
In a given circle inscribe a triangle whose sides are parallel

to three given st. lines.
30.
31.
P, and
Two
the triangles
whose centres are .4 and B touch externally at

drawn meeting the circles in C and D. Shew that
circles
CPD
is
APD, CPB
are equal in area.
Construct a triangle equiangular to a given triangle and

having a given circle for one of its escribed circles.
32.
33.
Construct a triangle, given the base, the vertical angle,
and the radius
of the inscribed circle.
If two circles intersect and through a point on their common

34.
chord produced two secants are drawn, one to each circle, the
four points of section of the secants with the circles are concyclic.
35.
If ABC is a triangle, right-angled at A, and
perpendicular to BC, shew that
(i)
(ii)
BC^: BA^ =
BC'2: C.42
Hence deduce
BC"^
AD
is
drawn
BC BD;
:
= BC-.CD.
= BA"^ + .4C-.
bisected by a straight hne XY drawn

Determine the ratio AX: AB.
Hence bisect a triangle by a line drawn parallel to the base.
36.
ABC
triangle
parallel to the base
37.
If
two
circles
tangent, touching
is
BC.
have external contact at A, and a common

at B and C, meets the line of centres at S,
them
A SB A: A SAC
Two
= SB:SC.
jiid B, and at A tangents are

drawn, one to each circle, meeting the circumferences at C and D.
If AB, CB, and
are joined, shew that
38.
circles intersect at yl
BD
ACBA: A ABD
39.
DEF is
= CB: BD.
the pedal triangle of the triangle

= AB'-: DB'-;
.4SC:
A DBF
AFDC: A DBF
A
fig.
AD'-: BD'-.
.4
BC
prove that
GEOMETRY
2G0
In a tjivon triangle
40.
ABC
a second triangle
joining the middle points of the sides.
What
third is inscribed in like manner, and so on.

fourth triangle of the triangle ABC?
41.
semi-cii*cle is described
chords AC,
Two
42.
mon
BD are
drawn
AB^ =
^B
DF
B and
the
and any two
Shew that
and the two
C,
if
produced to meet the tangents at G and
//,
and
is
ACAP + BDBP.
are drawn;
tangents
by
inscribed
fraction
as diameter,
intersecting at P.
AE
on
is
In this inscribed triangle a
direct
common
the
com-
chord
is
shew that
GH^ = AE^ +5C2.

43.
circle
If
and
from an external point P, a secant
PM
PilP =
Two
44.
PCD
perpendicular to a diameter
is
circles
PCPD + AM
drawn
is
AB, shew
to a
that
MB.
whose centres are C and
intersect at
A and
B; and a straight line PAQ is drawn through A and terminated

by the circumferences prove that
(i) the Z PBQ = the Z CAD;
(ii) the Z B PC = the Z BQD.
:
AB
AB
45.
is
parallel to
a given diameter of a circle, and

if X is any point in A B,
AX'2
CD
is
any chord
+ XD^ = XA- + XB\
the opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral are prcduced

to meet, the bisectors of the angles so formed are perpendicular.
46.
If
Given the vertical angle, one of the sides containing it,

47.
and the length of the perpendicular from the vertex on lh<^ base:
48.
point
A, B, C are three points in order in a straight line: find a

PB = PB PC.
in the straight line such that PA
:
Through D, any point in the base of a triangle ABC.

straight lines DE, DF are drawn parallel to the sides AB, AC, and
meeting the sides at E, F: shew that the triangle AEF is a mean
proportional between the triangles FBD, EDC.
49.
50.
Given the base, and the position
vertical angle
of the bisector of the
ANSWEliS
2G1
ANSWERS TO NUMERICAL EXERCISES

Since the utmost care cannot ensure absolute accuracy in graphical work, reThe answers here given are
only approximate.
those found by calculation, and being true so far as they go, furnish a standard
sults so obtained are likely to be
may test the correctness of his drawing and measurement.

HrKults within one per cent of those given in the Answers may usually be con-
by which the student

fldercd satitsfaclory.
Page 15
Exercises.
12(i;
;.
:U);
2.
112.1";
4.
(i)
201; 80.
i5,jO.
11 min.
14.j, 35,
145.
1.
J.
.9.
08, .37,
V. nearly.
Page 27
37 ft. 6. 101 metres. 7. 27

281 yds., 1.35 yds., 1.53 yds.
cm.
125, 55, 125.
3.
21.
424 yds., nearly N.

214 yds.
;
10.
W.
Page 41
15 sees., 30 sees.
12.
Page 43
Exercises.
/,.
2-2", 50. 73 nearly.
.{.
S.
ft.
Exercises.
/.
8 hrs. 40 min.
86, 94.
5,"^.
00
:.\
.)();
S.
55,
(ii)
Exercises.
75
37 miu.
5 hrs. 45 min.
'l7.
92, 40.
.;.
Exercises.
0.
07, 02.
Page 45
12, 72;
20, 80. 80.
/.
30, 00, 90.
3.
40.
4.
51, 111, 18.
o.
(1)34;
6.
08.
7.
120.
c9.
36, 72, 108, 144.
9.
165.
2.
11.
(i)
.30,
o, 15.
Exercises.
2.
(i)
45;
(ii)
30.
3.
(i)
Page 47
12;
(ii)
15.
(ii)
(ii)
107.
GEUMKTRY
262
Exercises.
4.
(i)
Sl;
c.
Degrees
10.
(ii)
55.
Page 54
ANSWERS
2G3
Page 104
Exercises.
SO .sq. in. 4- 3r)0 sq. in.

198 sq. in.
s. 42 sq. ft^
em.
12. 2-6 in.
0. 10,000 sq. m
10.
1',.
15. 11,700 sq. m.
900 sq. yds. 48 yds.; 4-8".
19. 1154 sq.ft.
17. l-CV.
IS. 000 sq. ft.
16. 1 cm. = 10 yds
22. 110 sq. ft.
20. 100 sq. ft.
21. 156 sq. ft.
72 sq. ft.
25. 75 sq. ft.
23. 288 sq. ft.
2Ji.
6 sq.
in.
2.
3- 30 sq. in.
6.
6 sq. in.
3-36 sq. in
110 sq. ft.
3.
')
Page 107
Exercises.
(i)
22 cm.;
(ii)
3-()".
1-5".
2-
7.
2.
3-4 sq.
5.
1-93", 75.
in.
3.
Page 109
Exercises.
ISOsq. ft. (ii) 8-4sq. in. 1 heetaro.

(iii) 20- .50
(ii) 15-40sq. em.
(i) 13-44sq. cm.
15 sq. cm.
4- 6-3 sq. in.
G. 3-30 sq. in.
(i) 8"; (ii) 13 em.
(i)
Exercises.
11,400 sq. yds.
2.4 cm. 5.1 cm,
;
Angle
574-5 sq.
Page
112
2.
0312
4.
2.04"; 2.20".
sq.
m.
sq.
cm.
in.
GEOMETRY
264
Exercises.
cm.
(i-ocin.
1.
(i)
S.
41ft.
/,.
7.
48 m.
S.
T)
(ii)
(iiij
05 miles.
25 mil(>s.
Exercises.
and
Page 123
:i~".
yv)
.i.
.-7.
G-lkm.
.'^
73 m.
1-0";
(ii)
2-8 cm.
l(j ft.
(I.
02
70.
ft.
Page 125
2-83".
11. 4-24 cm.

18 sq. cm.
p = 0-93 cm.
m. (i) 20 cm.; 15 cm.; (ii) 40 cm.; 39 cm.
17. 35 em.
12 cm. 300 sq. cm.
IS. (i) 30 sq. in.
(ii) 90 sq. ft.
(iii) 120 sq. cm.
(iv) 240 sq. yds.
Ifi.
5-1 cm. nearly.
in.
(i)
(iii).
//.
W,.
70-71 sq. m.
1.',.
Exercises.
/.
030
2.
8-
sq.
cm.
Exercises.
.',.
5 cm.; 90.
5-20".
1.
71cm.
Exercises.
40
.'i.
cm.
'>.
Exercises.
1.
3.
23-90 sq. cm.

27-52 .sq. cm.
5 cm.
ft.
Page 134
3.
a.
0-25".
circle of radriis
cm.
Page 136
10".
G.
3-1 cm.;
150
sq.
cm.
Page 140
2.
8-40
/,.
129.8(M) sq.
2.
24".
a.
O-O sq.
in.
Page
sq. in.
0-0". 0-8".
7.
0-8".
/.
1-7".
2.
3\/2=42cni.
J,.
17".
0.
5 cm.
fl.
Exercises.
Exercises.
7.
m.
149
3.
r,.
cm.
132
'
Exercises.
/.
Page
15 cni.
/,.
V7 = 20
cm.
Page 153
Page 155
1-3".
3.
2v'3 - 3-5 cm.
ANSWERS
Exercises.
2.
1-85'.
.7.
rA".
i;.
Exercises.
1.
74, 148',
Ki''.
.?.
11.')".
Exercises.
1.
S-Ociu.
3.
3 cm. and 17 cm.
1.
72, 108, 108.
S.
n-r/'.
?.
3.
1()2".
Page 160
l.(j";
1.5"; 0.0".
Page
163
230.
Page
8-7 f-m.
3.
/,.
12", 07.
Page 174
Exercises.
Page 176
Exercises.
Page 180
1-6".
3.
1-7".
4.
2-3 cm., 4-6 cm., 0-9 cm.

0-9 cm. 20-78 sq. cm.
1.
2-12";
4-.50 sq. in.
/,.
128^;
1-7.3".
1.
3-46"; 400".
4.
(!)
41-.57 sq.
cm.
.;.
3.
1-.39".
7.
3-2 cm.
8-5 cm.
Exercises.
Page 195
Exercises.
Page
(ii)
2-5".
Page 194
2.
;
o.
193
Exercises.
47.
1-98", 1-0".
4-
Page
fjo", S,
172
Exercises.
Exercises.
2.
Page 157
.?.
Exercises.
265
186
2.")9S sq.
77-25 sq. cm.
t.
cm.
2-0".
GEOMETRY
266
Page 200
Exercises.
L
S.
7.
(i)
28-3 cm.
(ii)
628-3 cm.
e.
11-31 cm.; 10- 18 sq. cm.

30-5 sq. cm.
S. 8-9".
/,.
.9.
35;
(ii)
8;
(i)
4-0", 5-6".
5.
4-0 cm., 2-4 cm.
=3:2;
1.
(i)
each
(i)
1-4";
3.
(i)
5-6 cm.
cm.,
90
(ii)
;
(ii)
0-8";
(ii)
/.
0-9", 0-0"; 4-5",
20
each
(iii)
10-5 sq.
110".
in.
30
33-9 acres.
1-2"; (ii)2-0"; (iii)

3-5", BR = 2-5".
r,.
2-1", 1-8".
7.
1-2", 1-3", 1-95."
9.
0-8 cm., 1-4 cm., 2-1 cm.
in.
120 cm.
= 5:2.
sq. ft.
3.
2.
5.
04
cm.
sq.
Page 222
0-3 cm.
2.
(1)2-1";
/,.
3-2 cm., 4-2 cm.
6.
5 ft., 12J
5f cm.
(ii)
ft.,
ft.
Page 230
10 sq. em.
Exercises.
26".
3-6".
each
3.
<"?.
Exercises.
J,.
16-5 em.,
(iii)
cm.
7-7 cm.
(i)
1.
12-57 sq.
Page 217
2.
QB =
20
10.
in.
Page 215
5.
/.
2.
in.
30"; 3:2.
140 em., 10-5 em.
3.
\.
352-99 sq.
43-98 sq.
em.
=5:3;
Exercises.
/.
3".
S.
(ii)
0-4 cm., 2-4 cm.
Exercises.
/.
7-7 cm., 2-8 cm.
2.
cm., 1-5 em.
in.
cm.
Page 214
Exercises.
4.
sq.
4.
160
Exercises.
8.
10-62 sq.
a.
(iii)
1.
56
4"
Page 209
Exercises.
3.
(i)
J,.
7:5.
H.
5-0".
Page 234
48 ft.; 8 ft.
8100 miles; 10
3.
miles.
2 em.
32
oni.
ANSWERS
Page 238
Exercises.
10";
0-9";
1.
(i)
,?.
1-4", 0-6"; 3-5", 1-5".
J,.
1-6 cm., 2-4 cm., 3-2
7.
(i)
1-73; (ii)3-16;
9.
(i)
1-2", 1-6",
(iii)
(ii)
(i-O
(iii)
cm.
cm.
140 m., IGO m.
12.
(iOft.
3.
0-52.
(iii)
20";
;
125 m.
13. 72
//.
24
ft.
U,.
lOGft.-
Exercises.
Page 245
(iii)
6.
3-6 m.,
1.5-48 sq. in.
Exercises.
3. 2-5 sq. cm., G-4 sq. cm.
5. 7-2".
Exercises.
1:V2.
3.
4-
Gem.
Exercises.
10|";
(ii)
ISfft.
ft.
in.
Page 248
90 acres.
C. 512 acres,
1 cm. represents 15 metres.
J,.
ft.,
31:28, noarly.
5.
B.
(i)
(ii)
1-G7.
3.
10.
2-8;
(i)
1-8", 1-2", 0'9".
(ii)
Exercises.
1.
2-0;
3.
5.
20.
2-7".
8. (i) 3; (ii)3-21; (iii) 2-26.

3-0 cm., 3-6 cm., 4-5 em.
2-5 cm., 4-3 cm., .50 cm.; (iv) h = 3-4", c = 2-1", nearly.
10.
7.
267
1-.5
m.
Page 250
4.
4:
S.
G-2 cm., 3-8 em.
1.
Page 252
.',.
Page 256
G-9 em.
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(JNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY
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EDUCATION
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^^

THE WESTERN CANADA

cAuthorized by the 'Departments of Education

^Manitoba, Saskatchewan, oAlberta and

I'opYRiGHT. Canada, 191S,

the MACMILLAN COMTANV OF CANADA, LIMITED.

Symbols and Abbreviations

Lines and Angles.

two straight lines cut one another, the four

four right angles.

Supplements of the same angle are equal.

same angle are

The Comparison of Two Triangles

If two angles of a triangle arc equal

If two triangles have the three sides

If one side of a triangle is pro[Euc. I. 1(5.]

than another, then the .side opposite to the greater angle is

straight line the perpendicular

Cor. 1. Any two angles of a triangle are together less than

the shortest straight line from

Of two obliques OQ, OR,

greater distance from C

from a given point to a given

Two obliques, OP, OQ, which cut AB

Ofi cuts .l/i at the

If a straight line cuts two

a straight line cuts two parallel

Parallels Illustrated by Rotation'

Straight lines which are parallel to

All the interior angles of any rectilineal figure,

Identical Equality of Triangles

[Euc. I. 33.] The straight fines which join the

one angle of a parallelogram

All the sides of a .square are equal

angles are right angles.

diagonals of a parallelogram bisect one an-

more iKirallel straifilit lines,

there are tliree or

and the intereepts made by

are also equal.

In a triangle ABC, if a set of lines Pp, Qq, Rr,

straight line at a given point in

a given point in a given straight line to

parallel to a given straight line.

a straight line perpendicular to a given

divide a given straight line into any

the three sides.

construct a triangle having given two sides

the hypotenuse and one side.

The Construction of Quadril.\terals.

construct a right-angled triangle having given

given the lengths

construct a jiarallelogram having given two

their middle points are concurrent.

I'he bisectors of the angles of a triangle arc concurrent.

The medians of a triangle are concurrent.

The perpendiculars drawn from the

the opposite sides are concurrent.

Parallelograms on the same base

parallels (hence, of the

the same base and

two triangles are equal in area,

Experimental Proofs of Pythagoras's Theorem