Magnetostatic Fields

Engineering Electromagnetics
Magnetostatic Fields
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To define Biot-Savarts Law

To define Amperes Circuit Law
To apply Biot Savarts Law and Amperes Law in
the analysis of electromagnetic systems
To determine Magnetic Flux Density
To determine Magnetic Scalar and Vector
Potentials
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
To apply Biot Savarts Law and Amperes Law in the
analysis of electromagnetic systems
4.
5.
To determine Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials
Introduction
We now focus our attention on static magnetic fields,
which are characterized by H or B. There are
similarities and dissimilarities between electric and
magnetic fields. As E and D are related according to
D = E for linear material space, H and B are related
according to B = H.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A definite link between electric and magnetic fields

was established by Oersted in 1820. As we have
noticed, an electrostatic field is produced by static or
stationary charges. If the charges are moving with
constant velocity, a static magnetic (or
magnetostatic) field is produced. A magnetostatic
field is produced by a constant current flow (or direct
current). This current flow may be due to
magnetization currents as in permanent magnets,
electron-beam currents as in vacuum tubes, or
conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The development of the motors, transformers,

microphones, compasses, telephone bell ringers,
television focusing controls, advertising displays,
magnetically levitated high-speed vehicles, memory
stores, magnetic separators, and so on, involve
magnetic phenomena and play an important role in
our everyday life.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
There are two major laws governing magnetostatic

fields: (1) Biot-Savart's law, and (2) Ampere's circuit
law. Like Coulomb's law, Biot-Savart's law is the
general law of magnetostatics. Just as Gauss's law
is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's law is
a special case of Biot-Savart's law and is easily
applied in problems involving symmetrical current
distribution. The two laws of magnetostatics are
stated and applied first; their derivation is provided
later in the chapter.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Biot-Savarts Law
Biot-Savart's law states that the magnetic field
intensity dH produced at a point P, as shown in
Figure, by the differential current element Idl is
proportional to the product Idl and the sine of the
angle between the element and the line joining P
to the element and is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance R between P and the
element.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
That is,
or
where k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units,

k = 1/4, so the equation becomes
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In vector form,
Thus the direction of dH can be determined by the

right-hand rule with the right-hand thumb pointing in
the direction of the current, the right-hand fingers
encircling the wire in the direction of dH as shown in
Figure(a).
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Alternatively, we can use the

right-handed screw rule to
determine the direction of
dH: with the screw placed
along the wire and pointed in
the direction of current flow,
the direction of advance of
the screw is the direction of
dH as in Figure(b).
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It is customary to represent the direction of the

magnetic field intensity H (or current I) by a small
circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether
H (or I) is out of, or into, the page as illustrated in
Figure.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Just as we can have different charge configurations,

we can have different current distributions: line
current, surface current, and volume current as
shown in Figure.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
If we define K as the surface current density (in

amperes/meter) and J as the volume current density
(in amperes/meter square), the source elements are
related as
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thus in terms of the distributed current sources, the

Biot-Savart law becomes
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
As an example, let us apply the line current equation

to determine the field due to a straight current
carrying filamentary conductor of finite length AB as
shown in Figure.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
We assume that the conductor is along the z-axis

with its upper and lower ends respectively
subtending angles 2 and 1 at P, the point at which
H is to be determined. Particular note should be
taken of this assumption as the formula to be derived
will have to be applied accordingly. If we consider
the contribution dH at P due to an element dl at (0, 0,
z),
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
But dl = dzaz and R = a - zaz, so
Hence,
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Letting z = cot, dz = -cosec2d, the equation

becomes
or
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The expression is generally applicable for any

straight filamentary conductor of finite length. Notice
that H is always along the unit vector a (i.e., along
concentric circular paths) irrespective of the length of
the wire or the point of interest P. As a special case,
when the conductor is semi-infinite (with respect to
P) so that point A is now at O(0, 0, 0) while B is at (0,
0, ); 1 = 90, 2 = 0, the equation becomes
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Another special case is when the conductor is infinite

in length. For this case, point A is at (0, 0, -) while
B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 180, 2 = 0, so the equation
reduces to
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To find unit vector a is to determine a from
where a is a unit vector along the line current and a

is a unit vector along the perpendicular line from the
line current to the field point.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Amperes Circuit Law

Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of
the tangential component of H around a dosed path
is the same as the net current Ienc enclosed by the
path.
In other words, the circulation of H equals Ienc; that is,
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily

applied to determine H when the current distribution
is symmetrical. It should be noted that the equation
always holds whether the current distribution is
symmetrical or not but we can only use the equation
to determine H when symmetrical current distribution
exists. Ampere's law is a special case of BiotSavart's law; the former may be derived from the
latter.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side of

the equation, we obtain
But
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Comparing the surface integrals clearly reveals that
This is the third Maxwell's equation to be derived; it

is essentially Ampere's law in differential (or point)
form whereas the other equation is the integral form.
We should observe that
; that is,
magnetostatic field is not conservative.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Applications of Amperes Law

We now apply Ampere's circuit law to determine H
for some symmetrical current distributions as we did
for Gauss's law. We will consider an infinite line
current, an infinite current sheet, and an infinitely
long coaxial transmission line.
Magnetostatic
Fields
A.
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Infinite Line Current

Consider an infinitely long filamentary current I
along the z-axis as in Figure.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To determine H at an observation point P, we allow a

closed path pass through P. This path, on which
Ampere's law is to be applied, is known as an
Amperian path (analogous to the term Gaussian
surface). We choose a concentric circle as the
Amperian path, which shows that H is constant
provided p is constant.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Since this path encloses the whole current I,

according to Ampere's law
or
Magnetostatic
Fields
B.
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Infinite Sheet of Current

Consider an infinite current sheet in the z = 0 plane.
If the sheet has a uniform current density K = Kyay
A/m as shown in Figure, applying Ampere's law to
the rectangular closed path (Amperian path) gives
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To evaluate the integral, we first need to have an

idea of what H is like. To achieve this, we regard the
infinite sheet as comprising of filaments. As evident
in Figure (b), the resultant dH has only an xcomponent. Also, H on one side of the sheet is the
negative of that on the other side.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Due to the infinite extent of the sheet, the sheet can

be regarded as consisting of such filamentary pairs
so that the characteristics of H for a pair are the
same for the infinite current sheets, that is,
where Ho is yet to be determined.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Evaluating the line integral of H along the closed

path gives
From the equations, we obtain Ho = 1/2 Ky.

Substituting Ho gives
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In general, for an infinite sheet of current density K

A/m,
where an is a unit normal vector directed from the

current sheet to the point of interest.
Magnetostatic
Fields
C.
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Infinitely Long Coaxial Transmission Line

Consider an infinitely long transmission line
consisting of two concentric cylinders having their
axes along the z-axis. The cross section of the line
is shown in Figure, where the z-axis is out of the
page.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The inner conductor has radius a and carries current

I while the outer conductor has inner radius b and
thickness t and carries return current -I. We want to
determine H everywhere assuming that current is
uniformly distributed in both conductors. Since the
current distribution is symmetrical, we apply
Ampere's law along the Amperian path for each of
the four possible regions: 0 a, a b, b
b + t, and b + t.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For region 0 a, we apply Amperes law to path

L1, giving
Since the current is uniformly distributed over the

cross section,
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hence, the equation becomes
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For region a b, we use path L2 as the Amperian

path,
since the whole current I is enclosed by L2.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For region b b + t, we use path L3, getting

where
and J in this case is the current density (current per
unit area) of the outer conductor and is along -av that
is,
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thus
Substituting this, we have
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For region > b + t, we use path L4, getting
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Putting the equations together gives
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The magnitude of H is sketched in the figure shown.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Notice from these examples that the ability to take H

from under the integral sign is the key to using
Ampere's law to determine H. In other words,
Ampere's law can only be used to find H due to
symmetric current distributions for which it is
possible to find a closed path over which H is
constant in magnitude.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetic Flux Density

The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric
flux density D. As D = oE in free space, the
magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic
field intensity H according to
where o is a constant known as the permeability of

free space. The constant is in henrys/meter (H/m)
and has the value of
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by
where the magnetic flux is in webers (Wb) and the

magnetic flux density is in webers/square meter (Wb/
m2) or teslas.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The magnetic flux line is the path to which B is

tangential at every point in a magnetic field. It is the
line along which the needle of a magnetic compass
will orient itself if placed in the magnetic field. For
example, the magnetic flux lines due to a straight
long wire are shown in the Figure.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The direction of B is taken as that indicated as

"north" by the needle of the magnetic compass.
Notice that each flux line is closed and has no
beginning or end. It is generally true that magnetic
flux lines are closed and do not cross each other
regardless of the current distribution.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a

closed surface is the same as the charge enclosed;
that is,
Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge
as shown in Figure (a), which also reveals that
electric flux lines are not necessarily closed. Unlike
electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close
upon themselves as in Figure (b). This is due to the
fact that it is not possible to have isolated magnetic
poles (or magnetic charges).
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
For example, if we desire to have an isolated

magnetic pole by dividing a magnetic bar
successively into two, we end up with pieces each
having north and south poles as illustrated in Figure.
We find it impossible to separate the north pole from
the south pole.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.

Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a
magnetic field must be zero; that is,
This equation is referred to as the law of

conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss's law for
magnetostatic fields just as D dS = Q is Gauss's
law for electrostatic fields. Although the
magnetostatic field is not conservative, magnetic flux
is conserved.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
By applying the divergence theorem to the equation,

we obtain
This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation to be

derived. The equations shows that magnetostatic
fields have no sources or sinks. It suggests that
magnetic field lines are always continuous.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maxwells Equations for Static EM Fields

Having derived Maxwell's four equations for static
electromagnetic fields, we may take a moment to put
them together as in Table. From the table, we notice
that the order in which the equations were derived
has been changed for the sake of clarity.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The choice between differential and integral forms of

the equations depends on a given problem. It is
evident from Table that a vector field is defined
completely by specifying its curl and divergence. A
field can only be electric or magnetic if it satisfies the
corresponding Maxwell's equations. It should be
noted that Maxwell's equations as in Table are only
for static EM fields. As will be discussed in the next
Chapter, the divergence equations will remain the
same for time-varying EM fields but the curl
equations will have to be modified.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials

We recall that some electrostatic field problems were
simplified by relating the electric potential V to the
electric field intensity E (
). Similarly, we
can define a potential associated with magnetostatic
field B. In fact, the magnetic potential could be scalar
Vm or vector A.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To define Vm and A involves recalling two important

identities
which must always hold for any scalar field V and

vector field A.
Just as
, we define the magnetic scalar
potential Vm (in amperes) as related to H according
to
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Combination of equations gives

Thus the magnetic scalar potential Vm is only defined
in a region where J = 0. We should also note that Vm
satisfies Laplace's equation just as V does for
electrostatic fields; hence,
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
We know that for a magnetostatic field, V B = 0.

We can define the vector magnetic potential A (in
Wb/m) such that
Magnetostatic
Fields
Just as we defined
we can define
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To derive the line current equation, we have the

equation
where R is the distance vector from the line element
dl at the source point (x, y, z) to the field point
(x, y, z) as shown in the figure.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
and R = |R|, that is,

Hence,
where the differentiation is with respect to x, y, and z.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Substituting the equation, we obtain
We apply the vector identity
where f is a scalar field and F is a vector field. Taking

f = 1/R and F = dl, we have
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Since operates with respect to (x, y, z) while dl is

a function of (x, y', z'),
Hence,
and
It shows that
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
By substituting the equations and applying Stokes's

theorem, we obtain
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thus the magnetic flux through a given area can be

found using either the two equations. Also, the
magnetic field can be determined using either Vm or
A; the choice is dictated by the nature of the given
problem except that Vm can only be used in a
source-free region. The use of the magnetic vector
potential provides a powerful, elegant approach to
solving EM problems, particularly those relating to
antennas.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Derivation of Biot-Savarts Law and Amperes Law

Both Biot-Savart's law and Ampere's law may be derived
using the concept of magnetic vector potential. The
derivation will involve the use of the vector identities
and
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Since Biot-Savart's law is basically on line current,

we begin our derivation as
If the vector identity is applied by letting F = dl and f

= 1/R, the equation becomes
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Since operates with respect to (x, y, z) while dl is

a function of (x, y', z'),
Also
where aR is a unit vector from the source point to the

field point.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thus equation (upon dropping the prime in dl')

becomes
which is Biot-Savarts Law.

Using the identity with the equation, we obtain
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It can be shown that for a static magnetic field
so that upon replacing B with oH, the equation

becomes
which is called the vector Poisson's equation.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In Cartesian coordinates, the equation may be

decomposed into three scalar equations:
which may be regarded as the scalar Poisson's

equations.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It can also be shown that Ampere's circuit law is

consistent with our definition of the magnetic vector
potential. From Stokes's theorem
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
From the previous equations,

Substituting this yields
which is Ampere's circuit law.
Magnetostatic
Fields
QUESTIONS
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGLEV TRAINS
- maglev is short for magnetic levitation
- it means that these trains will float over a guide way
using the basic principles of magnets
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
ELECTROMAGNETS AND MAGNETIC RELAYS
- William Sturgeon developed the first practical
electromagnet in the 1820s.
- today, the principle of the electromagnet is used in
motors, relay switches, in read/write heads of hard
disks and tape drives, loud speakers, magnetic
levitation, and many other applications
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
- when an electric current generated by
a power source flows through the wire
coiled around the central core, it induces
a magnetic field with field lines
resembling those generated by a bar
magnet
- when subjected to a magnetic field,
ferromagnetic materials, such as iron or
nickel, get magnetized and act like
magnets themselves
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
Magnetic Relays
- is a switch or circuit breaker that can be activated
into the ON and OFF positions magnetically
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
- Valdemar Poulsen, a Danish engineer, invented
magnetic recording by demonstrating in 1900 that
speech can be recorded on a thin steel wire with a
simple electromagnet
- videotapes were introduced in the late 1950s for
recording motion pictures for later replay on
television
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
- other types of magnetic recording media were
developed since then, including the flexible plastic
disks called floppies, the hard disks made of glass
or aluminum, the magnetic drum, and the magnetic
bubble memory
- all take advantage of the same fundamental
principle of being able to store electrical information
through selective magnetization of a magnetic
material, as well as the ability to retrieve it (playback)
when so desired
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
Record Process
- sound waves incident on a microphone causes a
diaphragm to vibrate, creating an electric current with
corresponding time and amplitude variations as that
of the original sound pattern
- after amplification, the current signal drives a
recording head consisting of an electromagnet to
magnetize the tape as it is drawn past the head
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
- the tape is made of a plastic base material with a
coating of ferric oxide powder glued to its surface
- when exposed to the magnetic field, the previously
randomly oriented molecules of the ferromagnetic
powder become permanently oriented along a
specific direction, thereby establishing a magnetic
imprint of the original sound signal on the tape
Magnetostatic
Fields
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TECHNOLOGY BRIEF:
MAGNETIC RECORDING
Replay process
- accomplished by reversing the process of read
process
- drawing the magnetized tape past a reproducing
head induces a current having a vibration
proportional to that on the tape, which is then
amplified and converted back to sound waves
through a loud speaker

Magnetostatic Fields

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Engineering Electromagnetics

To define Biot-Savarts Law

A definite link between electric and magnetic fields

The development of the motors, transformers,

There are two major laws governing magnetostatic

where k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units,

Thus the direction of dH can be determined by the

Alternatively, we can use the

It is customary to represent the direction of the

Just as we can have different charge configurations,

If we define K as the surface current density (in

Thus in terms of the distributed current sources, the

As an example, let us apply the line current equation

We assume that the conductor is along the z-axis

But dl = dzaz and R = a - zaz, so

Letting z = cot, dz = -cosec2d, the equation

The expression is generally applicable for any

Another special case is when the conductor is infinite

To find unit vector a is to determine a from

where a is a unit vector along the line current and a

Amperes Circuit Law

Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily

By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side of

Comparing the surface integrals clearly reveals that

This is the third Maxwell's equation to be derived; it

Applications of Amperes Law

Infinite Line Current

To determine H at an observation point P, we allow a

Since this path encloses the whole current I,

Infinite Sheet of Current

To evaluate the integral, we first need to have an

Due to the infinite extent of the sheet, the sheet can

where Ho is yet to be determined.

Evaluating the line integral of H along the closed

From the equations, we obtain Ho = 1/2 Ky.

In general, for an infinite sheet of current density K

where an is a unit normal vector directed from the

Infinitely Long Coaxial Transmission Line

The inner conductor has radius a and carries current

For region 0 a, we apply Amperes law to path

Since the current is uniformly distributed over the

Hence, the equation becomes

For region a b, we use path L2 as the Amperian

since the whole current I is enclosed by L2.

For region b b + t, we use path L3, getting

Substituting this, we have

For region > b + t, we use path L4, getting

Putting the equations together gives

The magnitude of H is sketched in the figure shown.

Notice from these examples that the ability to take H

Magnetic Flux Density

where o is a constant known as the permeability of

The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

where the magnetic flux is in webers (Wb) and the

The magnetic flux line is the path to which B is

The direction of B is taken as that indicated as

In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a

For example, if we desire to have an isolated

An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.

This equation is referred to as the law of

By applying the divergence theorem to the equation,

This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation to be

Maxwells Equations for Static EM Fields

The choice between differential and integral forms of