The Voice of the Shaman

GlennH.ShepardJr.

NOVEMBER6,2014ISSUE

TheFallingSky:WordsofaYanomamiShaman
byDaviKopenawaandBruceAlbert,translatedfromtheFrenchbyNicholasElliottandAlisonDundy
BelknapPress/HarvardUniversityPress,622pp.,$39.95

Amazonas/ContactPressImages

ShamanDaviKopenawaintheYanomamivillageofDemini,settledinthelate1970snearaFUNAI
o utpostthat
occupiedabarracksfromtheabandonedPerimetralNorteroadproject,Yanomamiterritory,
Roraimastate,
Brazil,April2014photographsbySebastioSalgado,whoseexhibitionSebastioSalgado:Genesisisatthe
InternationalCenterofPhotography,NewYorkCity,untilJanuary11,2015.ThecatalogiseditedbyLlia
WanickSalgadoandpublishedbyTaschen.

TheFallingSky,bytheYanomamishamanDaviKopenawaandtheFrench
anthropologistBruceAlbert,takesitstitlefromacreationmythofthe
Yanomamipeople,wholiveintheborderregionbetweenBraziland
Venezuela.Theprimordialworldwascrushedbythecollapseofthesky,

hurlingitsinhabitantsintotheunderworld.Theexposedbackoftheprevious
skybecametheforestwheretheYanomamiemerged,andwheretheyremainto
thisdaytheystillcalltheforesttheoldsky.Anewskywaserected,heldin
placebymetalfoundationssetdeepinthegroundbythedemiurgeOmama.
Yetthenewskyisunderconstantassaultbytheforcesofchaos,and
Yanomamishamansworktirelesslywiththeirspiritallies,thexapiri,toaverta
newapocalypse.Adiaphanousthirdskyalreadylieswaiting,highabove,in
casethecurrentonecollapsesandtheworldonceagaincomestoanend.
Numbering33,000,theYanomamiareoneoftheAmazonslargestindigenous
societies,occupyingavastterritorycenteredontheParimamountainrange
dividingtheAmazonfromtheOrinocobasin.Isolateduntiltheearlytwentieth
century,theirfirstregularcontactswithmissionariesandgovernmentagentsin
Brazilbeganbetween1940and1960.Theserelationsbroughtthemmetaltools
andotherdesiredtradegoodsaswellasfataldiseaseepidemics.
Inthe1970s,theBraziliangovernmentbegancuttingthenorthernlegofthe
TransAmazonianHighway,causingdeforestationandnewdisruptionsto
Yanomamilife.Highwayconstructionwasabandonedafterseveralyearsbuta
hugegoldrushinthemid1980sinflictedtremendoussufferingandecological
devastation.In1992internationalcampaignsbyanthropologistsand
indigenousandnongovernmentalorganizationsresultedinthedemarcationofa
contiguousterritoryfortheYanomamitotaling192,000squarekilometers
(slightlylargerthanFlorida)sharedbetweenBrazilandVenezuela.Both
authorsofthisbook,KopenawaasinternationalYanomamispokesmanand
AlbertascofounderofthenongovernmentalorganizationCCPY(Pro
YanomamiCommission),werecentralfiguresinthisimportantvictory,and
bothremainactiveintheongoingstruggleagainstminingincursionsandother
threats.1

TheFallingSkyisseveralthings.ItistheautobiographyofDaviKopenawa,
oneofBrazilsmostprominentandeloquentindigenousleaders.Itisthemost
vividandauthenticaccountofshamanisticphilosophyIhaveeverread.Itis
alsoapassionateappealfortherightsofindigenouspeopleandascathing
condemnationofthedamagewroughtbymissionaries,goldminers,andwhite
peoplesgreed.ThefootnotesaloneharbormonographsonYanomamibotany
andzoology,mythology,ritual,andhistory.
Mostofall,TheFallingSkyisanelegytooraltraditionandthepowerofthe
spokenword.Wetakeforgrantedthesuperiorfidelityanddurabilityofthe
printedwordoverspeechintransmittingknowledgethroughtime.Inhis
singularvoiceKopenawa,talkingofxapirispirits,turnsthisnotiononitshead:

Idonotpossessoldbooksinwhichmyancestorswordshavebeen
drawn.Thexapiriswordsaresetinmythought,inthedeepestpartof
me.Theyareveryold,yettheshamansconstantlyrenewthem.They
canneitherbewatereddownnorburned.Theywillnotgetoldlikethose
thatstaystucktoimageskinsmadefromdeadtrees.WhenIamlong
gone,theywillstillbeasnewandstrongastheyarenow.
Thebookwastranscribed,translated,andeditedfromahundredhoursoftaped
interviewsAlbertconductedwithKopenawaintheYanomamilanguagefrom
1989through2001.Theprojectbeganinlate1989(thetwohadalreadyknown
eachotherforadecade)whenKopenawa,inananguishedreactiontothe
invasionofYanomamilandsbygoldminers,leftAlbertanextendedaudio
messageonthreecassettetapes.Theircollaborativetranslationandpublication
ofthismaterial,joiningshamanismwithethnopolitics,broughtthe
Yanomamicausetointernationalattention.Continuingtheprocess,Kopenawa
askedAlberttohelphimwritethisbook,settinghisspokenwordsonpaper
(whathecallsimageskinsorpaperskins)inthewhitemanslanguage
(ghosttalk)tospreadthemthroughouttheworld.
Asbothnarratorandfirstauthor,Kopenawaaddressesthereaderdirectly:
Youdontknowmeandyouhaveneverseenme.Youliveonadistantland.
ThisiswhyIwanttoletyouknowwhattheelderstaughtme.
DaviKopenawawasbornaround1956ontheupperRioToototobinear
BrazilsborderwithVenezuela,whichatthetimehadnotyetbeenformally
demarcated.HisYanomaminameisknowntohiskinsmenbutcannotbe
repeatedinpolitecompany:fortheYanomami,pronouncingapersonsname,
especiallythatofadeadfamilymember,isoffensiveandinfuriating.Annoyed
byoutsiderswhoconstantlypestertheYanomamiabouttheirnames,
Kopenawasayssimply,Wewanttoprotectourname.Wedontliketorepeat
itallthetime.
HisChristianname,Davi(David),wasgivenbyevangelicalNewTribes
missionarieswhobuiltanoutpostatToototobiin1963.Thesurname
Kopenawaheacquiredhimself,yearslater,duringshamanicinitiation.The
namereferstokopena,afiercewaspspecieswhosewarriorspiritshelphim
battleillnessandevilforces.

TheFallingSkyisorganizedthematicallyratherthanchronologically,shifting
betweendetailsofKopenawaslife,observationsaboutYanomamiculture,
digressionsonmythandcosmology,andaccountsofdreamsandshamanic
visions.Thoughrepetitiveandsometimesrambling,thereiterationofparticular
factsandphrasesprovidesrhymeandmetertoatextthatoriginatedasanoral

performance.
ThefirstsectionofthebookdescribesKopenawasinitiationasashamanin
theearly1980s,whenhewasalreadydisenchantedwiththewhitepeoples
world.Yanomamishamansuseapowerfulhallucinogenicsnuff,ykoana,
madefromtheresinofthenutmegrelativeVirolaelongata.Bytakingit,the
shamandiesorbecomesotherandexperiencesthespiritworldfirsthand.
Kopenawarendersthesevisionswithimagesofhauntingbeauty:
Thexapirifloatdownthroughtheairfromtheirmirrorstocomeprotect
us.Theirmirrorsarrivefromtheskyschest,slowlyprecedingthem.
Theysuddenlystopintheairandremainsuspended.Whentheyarrive,
theirsongsnamethedistantlandstheycamefromandtraveledthrough.
Theyevoketheplaceswheretheydrankthewatersofasweetriver,the
diseasefreeforestswheretheyateunknownfoods,theedgesofthesky
where,withoutnight,oneneversleeps.
Thexapiri,enumeratedencyclopedicallyasspiritbeingswhoareidentified
withparticularbiologicalspecies,areasexuberantanddiverseastherainforest
itself:
Oncetheparrothasfinishedhissong,thetapirspiritbeginshis,then
comestheturnofthejaguarspirit,thegiantarmadillospirit,andallthe
animalancestorsspirits.Theagouti,acouchi,andpacaspiritstearout
theharmfulthingsthattheevilbeingsstuckin[thesickpersons]
image.Thewaspspiritsarrowthem,thespiritsofthewitiwitimanamo
kitelaceratethemwiththeirsharpblades,andthecoatispiritsknockthem
outwiththeirclubs.Thespiritsofthearokohi,apuruuhi,komatimahi,
andoruxihitreesbumpintothemandknockthemover.Thoseofthewari
mahitreethrashthem.Withtheirskullssplitandtheirbodiescoveredin
wounds,thestunnedevilbeingseventuallystumble.
KopenawaelucidatesthephilosophyunderlyingtheYanomamiworldview.
Therelationshipbetweenimage(spiritessencesthatshamansperceiveand
manipulate)andskin(physicalmanifestations)isreminiscentofPlatos
AllegoryoftheCave.Theconceptnrope,whichAlbertglossesasvalueof
growth,canbeunderstoodasaYanomamialternativetoAdamSmithstheory
ofcapitalistmarkets.NropeistheinvisiblehandthatregulatesYanomami
economy,ecology,andspirituality:
Thevalueofgrowthremainsabundantintheforestandifourgardens
takethevalueofhunger[i.e.,donotgrowwell],ourshamansdrinkthe
ykoanatobringitbackhome.Andifneedbewecanalsoborrowthe

forestsfertilityfromafriendlyhouse.Whentheforestsrichnessruns
away,thegamebecomesskinnyandscarce,forthisrichnessiswhat
makesgameprosper.Tolive,theirimagesmustfeedontheimageof
theforestsvalueofgrowth.Thisiswhyshamansalsobringdownthe
imageofthegamesfatwiththatoftheforestsfertility.
Kopenawaselaborationofshamanicconceptsgoesbeyondethnographyand
becomesanewgenreofnativephilosophicalinquiry.Whenanindigenous
narratorthisarticulateproducesanoriginalexegesisofhisownworldview,
anthropologyandanthropologistshavebecomealmostobsolete.Almost:forit
isBruceAlbertsdeepknowledgeofYanomamilanguageandcultureandhis
subtleskillasatranslatorthatallowKopenawasvoicetocomethroughwith
suchdirectnessandpower.

Thesecondsectionofthebookcomeschronologicallyfirst,describing
Kopenawasearlylife.Hisfatherdiedwhenhewasveryyoungthedeathwas
blamedonsorcerybyanenemywarrior,anaccusationasseriousashomicide.
Hadhelearnedofthisfactsooner,Kopenawamighthavekilledthesorcererto
avengehisfatheraccordingtoYanomamicustom.Buttodayalongtimehas
passed,andIamnolongerangry.Anyhowthismanalreadydiedofmalaria
whenthegoldprospectorsarrived.
Hismotherdiedinameaslesepidemicthatwasbroughttothevillage
unwittinglyin1967bytheAmericanmissionaryKeithWardlaw,whoseinfant
daughterwasinfectedenroute.Themissionariesdidtheirbesttotreatthesick,
butthediseasespreadquickly,leaving165stricken,includingKopenawa
himself,andseventeendead.
InYanomamifunerals,thecorpseissuspendedupatreewithinaprotective
latticeuntilitdecomposes.Thebonesarethengathered,cremated,pulverized,
andconsumedinbananaporridgeinordertoreleasethespirit.Christianburial
isconsideredarevoltingpractice:Wethinkthatwhitepeoplelike
mistreatingtheirowndeceased.Theyshutthemupundergroundandinsult
thembymentioningtheirnamesatanyopportunity.
YetthemissionarieswereequallyappalledbyYanomamicustoms,andtook
advantageofthevillagersphysicalexhaustiontoburythedeadsecretly:
Iwasneverabletolearnwheremymotherwasburied.Thepeopleof
Teosi[God,fromthePortugueseDeus]nevertoldus,sothatwecould
notgatherthebonesofourdead.Becauseofthem,Iwasneverableto
mournmymotherthewayourpeopleusuallydo.Itisaverybadthing.

InpartfearingthattheepidemicwasretaliationfortheirresistancetoChristian
teachings(oneYanomamitermformeaslesisTeosiawai,Godsepidemic),
mostinthevillagesoonconverted.Wardlawandhiswifepublishedexcerpts
fromtheirdiariesinamissionaryjournalwiththedisconcertingtitleBrown
Gold.Theyappearmoreconcernedwiththefactthatmanyofourfriendshad
passedontoeternitywithoutknowingChristthanwiththetragedyofthe
epidemicindeed,theyseemtorevelinitspowerinpersuadingtheYanomami
toacceptChristianfaith:Godnevermakesamistakeandnowthatthecrisisis
passedwecanseehowtheLordisworkinginheartsthroughthethingsthat
havehappened.ThepowerofGodisatworkanditisagreatandmarvelous
thingtobehold.Indeed.

Amazonas/ContactPressImages

YanomamiprotectorsofthesacredmountainPicodaNeblina(MistPeak),whichwasoverrunbygoldminersin
thelate1980s,Maturac,Yanomamiterritory,Amazonasstate,Brazil,April2014

YetthevillagersadhesiontoChristianitywasshortlived.Kopenawas
stepfather,apowerfulleaderwhohadbeenamongthefirsttoconvert,
encounteredhypocrisyandlogicalcontradictionsinthemissionaries
teachings.Heandmostothersreturnedtotheoldways.Theywereespecially
disappointedbyTeosisinabilitytopreventfurtherepidemicsdespitetheir
ferventprayers.Drawingonhislatershamanicexperiences,Kopenawarefutes
Christiandoctrinewithpracticalreason:

Themissionariesdeceiveduslongago!Toooften,Ilistenedtothemtell
us[Jesus]willcomedowntoyou!Hewillcomesoon!Buttimehas
passedandIstillhaventseenhim!Ifinallygottiredofhearingtheselies.
Doshamansvainlyrepeatthiskindofthingallthetime?No,theydrink
theykoanaandinstantlybringdowntheirspiritsimage.
Kopenawadeclares,[God]isdeadandhisghostdisappearedbeyondthesky.

Afterhismothersdeath,Kopenawabecamerestless.Atagefifteenhebegan
workingforBrazilsfederalIndianagency,FUNAI,asanativeguide.Thus
beganadecadelongperiod,fromtheearly1970sthroughtheearly1980s,of
extensivetravelsinYanomamiterritoryandneighboringindigenouslands,and
tocitieslikeManausandBoaVista.Hemakesfunofhisownyouthful
enthusiasmtobecomeawhiteman:WhenIsawthewhitepeopleslipon
theirpants,Ithought:Iamgoingtohidemylegsjustlikethem!Uponfirst
arrivinginManaus,heseesbustlingactivityinthemarketandmuses,Allthis
tobarterforsomeoldpiecesofpaperskin[money].Heobserveswith
innocentcandor,Ihadneverseensomanywhitepeople!Theywerereally
everywhere!Itoldmyselftheymustneverstopcopulatingtobesonumerous.
Hisfascinationwiththisworldendedwhenhecontractedtuberculosis.Aftera
lengthystayinahospitalhereturnedhomeandlittlebylittlethedesireto
becomeawhitemandisappearedfrommymind.Hewentbacktoworkfor
FUNAIinthemid1970s,witnessingthesenselessdestructioncausedbythe
illfatedPerimetralNorteroadproject.Nolongernaiveaboutwhitepeoples
ways,hebegantounderstandthethreattheyposetotheexistenceofthe
Yanomamiandtheforest:Thewhitepeoplesthoughtisfullofignorance.
Theyconstantlydevastatethelandtheyliveonandtransformthewatersthey
drinkintoquagmires!
Intheearly1980s,Kopenawamarriedthedaughterofatraditionalistshaman
andbegantheinitiationrecountedinPartIofTheFallingSky.Duringthelate
1980s,however,Yanomamiterritorywasoverrunbytensofthousandsofgold
prospectors,bringingnewwavesofepidemicsandunprecedentedculturaland
environmentaldevastation.Kopenawa,drawingonhisshamanicinsightsand
uniqueexperienceamongwhites,emergedasthemainspokesmanforthe
Yanomamicause.
Heremarks:Thethingsthatwhitepeopleworksohardtoextractfromthe
depthsoftheearth,mineralsandoil,arenotfoods.Drawingonmythsand
shamanicexperiences,Kopenawadevelopshisownunderstandingofthe
destructiveforcesunleashedbymining.Diggingdeepundergroundthreatensto
tearouttheskysroots,themetalfoundationserectedbythecreatorgod

Omamatoholdupthecosmos.Heconcludesthatmineralsareinfact
fragmentsofthesky,moon,sun,andstars,whichfelldowninthebeginning
oftime.Thesehot,dangeroussorcerysubstanceswerehiddenbyOmamain
thecooldepthsoftheearth.Tearingtheseevilthingsoutofthegroundand
smeltingthemunleashesdiseaseriddenvapors.Epidemicillnessesare
representedinthespiritworldascannibalbeingslivinginhousesoverflowing
withmerchandiseandfood,likegoldprospectorcamps.
TheseillnessesmakenotonlytheYanomamisick,buttheskyitself:
Theskyisgettingassickaswedo!Ifallthiscontinues,itsimagewill
becomeriddledwithholesfromtheheatofthemineralfumes.Thenit
willslowlymelt,likeaplasticbagthrowninthefire.Iftheskycatches
fire,itwillfallagain.Thenwewillallbeburned,andwewillbehurled
intotheunderworldlikethefirstpeopleinthebeginningoftime.

ThethirdpartofthebookrecountsKopenawasinternationaltravels,
beginninginthelate1980s,toconferencesandeventsintheUSandEuropeto
representtheYanomamicauseandreceivenumeroushonors,amongthem
SpainsBartolomdelasCasasAward.Kopenawaexaminestheseexperiences
toexplorethedeepcosmologicalandphilosophicaldividebetweenhisown
worldviewandthatofwhitepeople.
OftheMerchandiseLovethatheseesattherootofwhitepeoplesgreedand
destructiveness,hestateswithpropheticmoralclarity:Merchandisedoesnot
die.Whenahumanbeingdies,hisghostdoesnotcarryanyofhisgoods
ontotheskysback,evenifheisverygreedy.Kopenawaalsoperceiveshow
theshamanicpathhassethimapartfromordinaryYanomami:Ifyoudonot
becomeotherwiththeykoana,youcanonlyliveinignorance.Youlimit
yourselftoeating,laughing,copulating,speakinginvain,andsleepingwithout
dreamingmuch.
TheanthropologistNapoleonChagnon,authorofYanomam:TheFierce
People,2ismentionedbrieflyattheendofthebook.However,especiallyin
Chapter21,whereKopenawacontrastsYanomamitraditionalrevengekillings
withtheWesternphenomenonoftotalwar,Chagnonscontroversiallegacy3
loomslarge,asdoesAlbertsowneditorialhand.Thischapterseemsto
recapitulate,inKopenawasvoice,thesameargumentsAlberthasraised
againstChagnoninheatedscholarlydebates.4Asaculturalanthropologist,
AlbertseesYanomamiwarfarefromthenativepointofview:anintegralpart
ofmourningpracticesthataimaterasingalltracesofthedeadperson
(includingcrematedbones)andquicklysatinggrieffueledragethrough
revengeontheindividualkillerorsorcerer.Chagnonswidelycited

sociobiologicaltheoryreducesYanomamiwarfaretoaDarwiniancontest
amongmalestocapturewomenandprocreate.5Albertandothers6haveused
Chagnonsowndatatorefutehiscentralclaimthatthefiercer,more
homicidalYanomamimenhavemoreoffspring.
YettheoverallpictureChagnonpaintsofYanomamisocietyduringthe1960s
inhisnotoriousethnographyisnotaltogetherdifferentfromthatdescribedby
Kopenawaforthesameperiod:Atthattime,oureldersdidnothesitatetokill
theenemieswhohadeaten[aYanomamiexpressionforkillinginwarfare,
notactualcannibalism]theirkin.Theywereveryvaliant.Albertquibbles
aboutthenuancesoftheYanomamitermwaithiri,glossedbyChagnonas
fiercebutqualifiedbyAlbertasambivalentlybothaggressiveand
valiant.ThereislittledoubtfromKopenawasownwordsthatthe
Yanomamivaluebravery,revenge,andthewarriorethos,thoughmanyother
thingsbesides.Inhisfranklanguage,Kopenawarefersoftentohiskinsmens
preoccupationwitheatingvulvasthefactthattheverbtoeatisa
euphemismforbothintercourseandkillingsuggeststhattheYanomami,like
manypeople,seesexandviolenceassomehowrelated,ifnotinthecasual
sensesuggestedbyChagnonshypotheses.
Kopenawaconcludesbyreflectingontheprofoundculturalchangesthathave
turnedthiswarriorethosoutwardtowardnewthreats:Thewordsofwarfare
havenotdisappearedfromourmind,buttodaywenolongerwanttoharm
ourselvesthisway.
Hedescribeswithsincereregrethowhelostanespeciallypowerfulbirdspirit
afteralongairplaneflight:Someofmyxapiriwerecarriedawayasdown
feathersbytheblastoftheairplanemotors.Thepathsofmynewayokora
caciquebirdspiritsmusthavebeenseveredwithoutmyknowledge.Andyet
variousuncannyexperiencesanddreamsduringoverseastripsreinforcedhis
convictionthatthexapiriareindeedpresentinthesedistantlands,andthatthey
alsoworktoprotectthewhitepeoplewholiveunderthesamesky.Hefinds
echoesofYanomaminotionsinWesternenvironmentalthought,butwithan
importantcaveat:Sincethebeginningoftime,Omamahasbeenthecenterof
whatthewhitepeoplecallecology.Intheforest,wehumanbeingsarethe
ecology.
Absorbingglobaldiscussionsofclimatechangeandtheenvironment,
Kopenawafindsauniversalapplicationforhisshamaniccalling:Thereisonly
oneskyandwemusttakecareofit,forifitbecomessick,everythingwill
cometoanend.
Thehybridwritten/spokentextualduetAlberthascreatedwithhis

YanomamifriendrescueswhatMarshallMcLuhancallstheresonating
diversityofspokenwordsonthetypographicpage.Likehisancestors,whose
voiceswillcontinuetoechoinshamanssongsafterhisdeath,DaviKopenawa
hasmadesurethathisownpowerfulwordswillbepreserved:
EveniftheydonotlistentomywordswhileIamalive,Iamleavingthe
drawingsofthesewordsonthispaperskinsothattheirchildrenandthose
whoarebornafterthemcanonedayseeandunderstandthem.

1 KopenawasHutukaraAssociationpostsfrequentonlineupdatesatwww.hutukara.org.
2 Holt,RinehartandWinston,1968.
3 Formyowndiscussionofthecontroversy,seeAnAxtoGrind:NapoleonChagnon,theYanomamiandtheAnthropology
Tribe,NotesfromtheEthnoground,March30,2013,atethnoground.blogspot.com.
4 SeeBruceAlbert,YanomamiViolence:InclusiveFitnessorEthnographersRepresentation?,CurrentAnthropology,Vol.
20,No.5(1989).
5 SeeNapoleonChagnon,LifeHistories,BloodRevenge,andWarfareinaTribalPopulation,Science,Vol.239,No.4843
(1988).
6 SeeBrianFerguson,Materialist,Culturalist,andBiologicalTheoriesonWhytheYanomamiMakeWar,Anthropological
Theory,Vol.1,No.1(March2001).

19632015NYREV,Inc.Allrightsreserved.