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2012 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. All rights reserved. 0011-3204/2012/5303-0002$10.00. DOI: 10.1086/664920
trup 1992:11) that are themselves invisible and therefore cannot be captured by a camera.
It comes as no surprise that both Weiners and Hastrups
arguments were received with much disapproval by visual
anthropologists (Crawford and Turton 1992:5; Faye Ginsburg,
quoted in Weiner 1997:213; MacDougall 1998:71). Lucien
Taylor fiercely argued against what he took to be an iconophobia in anthropology. In his view (Taylor 1996:88), anthropologys discomfort with images has to do with films
capacity to exceed theory and showing anthropologists purchase on the lived experience of their subjects to be rather
more precarious than they would like to believe. In a similar
vein, David MacDougall (1998:71) suggested that Hastrup
quite simply was giving up on photography too easily. According to MacDougall, words are superior in their capacity
of showing us the rules of the social and cultural institutions
by which [people] live (1998:259), but images are far superior in addressing subtle issues of social agency, body practice, and the role of the senses and emotions in social life.
In this article, we wish to draw renewed attention to the
key question that underlies much of this debate for and
against visual anthropology: Can film show the invisible, or
is it trapped within the visible surfaces of the social world?
Despite the criticisms raised, we find that Hastrups main
assertion that the camera is incapable of capturing the invisible meanings of social life needs renewed consideration. Of
key importance is the attention she draws to the fact that
although film and images taken by cameras may look similar
to our ordinary seeing, they do differ in significant ways.
Ethnographic filmmakers are quite certainly aware of these
differences, but their take on filmmaking has, as we shall see,
largely consisted in minimizing them, so as to let the camera
imitate the human eye.
Our period of accelerated technological innovations has
supported this development: first, with the advent of mobile
lightweight sound recording and, more recently, with digital
recording formats and affordable handheld camcorders,
which allow ethnographic filmmakers to make longer takes
than ever before. The shifts from black-and-white to color
film and more recently from 4 : 3 to 16 : 9 (widescreen) have
likewise enabled more realistic simulations of our normal field
of vision. Yet, as realized by Dziga Vertov (1929; Croft and
Rose 1977) almost a century ago, a camera is not a human
eye but a mechanical eye, which, rather than a continuous
stream of vision, provides a series of frames with a limited
range of contrast, color reproduction, depth of field, and angle. The real wonder of cinema, we venture to suggest, lies
not in its inferior imitation of the human eye, but rather in
its mechanical capturing of footage, which subsequently can
be put together with other pieces by way of montage.
Our task here is to explore how ethnographic filmmaking
may expand our horizon of experience if we take seriously
the key differences between the camera eye and the human
eye and consider the use of manipulative filmic devices for
transcending the limitations of human vision. We argue that
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particular humanist ethics premised upon humility or respect, expressive of the filmmakers sensitivity towards their
subjects (Grimshaw 2001:12930, 138). Consequently, the
observational filmmaker has to be cautious with any form of
cinematic effectabnormal framing, grading, extradiegetic
music, commentary, disruptive juxtaposition of shots, and so
onwhich runs the risk of disturbing the transmission of the
camerapersons lived experience of the life-world filmed
(Henley 2004:11516; Kiener 2008:407).
By favoring in this way seeing over assertion, wholeness
over parts, matter over symbolic meaning, specificity over
abstraction (Grimshaw and Ravetz 2009:539), observational
cinema proposes that the strangeness of even the most exotic
people can be counterbalanced by a sense of familiarity
(MacDougall 1998:245)that is, a sense of how, despite cultural differences, we are ultimately all subject to the same
plane of embodied spatial and temporal existence. This is
exactly what MacDougall (1998:252) points to when he writes
that the image transcends culture . . . by underscoring the
commonalities that cut across cultural boundaries. In his
view, one of the key contributions of visual anthropology to
our discipline at large is the challenge that images and film
pose to abstract cultural representations, by returning our gaze
to transcultural commonalities of being human (MacDougall
1998:245).
montage. Thompson and Bordwell (2003) also locate in Griffith the beginnings of the continuity system, which aims at
preserving narrative clarity by avoiding shifts of camera angle
of more than 180 degrees, by using shot/reverse-shot to couple
the viewpoints of people within a scene and by cutting from
wide-angle shots to close-ups of the same actions taking place.
Through such techniques, the idea is to maintain unbroken
connection with each preceding [shot] (Alfred Capus, quoted
in Thompson and Bordwell 2003:46).
While editing in the continuity style of much American
cinema is provided to create an illusion of a smooth flow of
time, early Soviet filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein (1928)
and Dziga Vertov (1929) experimented in speeding up film
footage, slowing it down, making shots overlap so that actions
are repeated, or violently shortening the real-time duration
of events through jump-cutting (Thompson and Bordwell
2003:131). Rather than an illusion of real-time actions in
contiguous spaces, what they aimed for was a new cinematic
presentation of time and space (Sitney 1990:44). Thus, Eisenstein emphasized how shots were to be placed not next to
each other but rather on top of each other, so that each cut
consists in a qualitative leap (Deleuze 2005:38).
What we take from Griffith and the early Soviet filmmakers
is their concern with the filmic possibilities of juxtaposing
shots, thus enabling visual experiences that differ from normal
perceptioneither in the form of organic narrative wholeness
or in the form of radical shock therapy. In contrast to this,
most ethnographic filmmakers in the observational tradition
have been preoccupied with the cinema of duration as advocated by Andre Bazin (2005:39; Grimshaw and Ravetz 2009:
539)that is, the ability of the camera to capture events and
actions in human life in the order and pace that they actually
occur.
In Griffith and Eisenstein, but even more so in the cinema
of Vertov, the camera was valued not for its capacity to imitate
the human eye, but precisely for its mechanical nonhuman
nature. For Vertov, montage referred not only to the piecing
together of shots in the editing room, but also to the assembly
of shots as framed and recorded in the camera (Aumont et
al. 1997:65). We adopt montage in this broadest sense as a
production technique, which is evident both in film shooting
and in the subsequent juxtaposition of shots during editing.
Whether in the camera or in the editing room, montage can
be defined as cinematic rearrangement of lived time and space.
Its set goal is what Vertov referred to as Film-Truth (Petric
1987:4, 8)that is, to transcend ordinary human perception
and offer views on reality of a super-real quality, emerging
from the juxtaposition of otherwise incompatible perspectives. While the humanized camera provides footage from a
perspective, which stands in an indexical relationship to the
familiar regime of human perception, montage, as here understood, is the production of superhuman vision that pushes
the frontiers of the observable world into uncharted regions.
A somewhat similar take on films capacity to decode reality
has been pursued by scholars concerned with cinema and
285
globalization. Thus, George Marcus (1994) points to our present-day entanglement in global cultural processes as a kind
of invisibility that is difficult to present with the long unobtrusive takes of observational cinema. Parallel editing, he
suggests, may be a method of setting the scene objectively,
so as to reflect the reality of the contemporary global world
(Marcus 1994:48). More recently, Wilma Kiener (2008:394)
has echoed this argument by pointing out how editing solves
the problem of showing whatwhile being absentis a necessary part of the whole. Montage, she argues (Kiener 2006:
3), make[s] visible [the] social and psychological effects of
the globalising and the postcolonial world. Thus, for both
Kiener and Marcus, the simultaneity of global cultural processes is a form of invisibility that can be rendered visible
through the use of montage.
In a similar vein, Dai Vaughan (1992:110) has addressed
the potential of montage for highlighting the constructed nature of all filmmaking, which often remains invisible in the
low-key montage style of many ethnographic films:
What are needed . . . are methods whereby the various
strands of the [ethnographic film] discoursethe referential
nature of the images, their demonstrative disposition, the
construction of narrative continuities in time and space, the
filmic and extra-filmic codingsmay be denied elision and
offered as separable to the viewers security.
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287
Figure 1. A lamp (Christian Suhr). A color version of this figure is available in the online edition of Current Anthropology.
how closely film resembles human perceptual experience, Taylor (1996:7576) emphasizes how, in particular, the long take
of observational cinema honors the duration of real-life interaction and the homogeneity of space by preserving the
relationships between objects rather than substituting [them
with] the abstract time and synthetic space of montage (cf.
Henley 2004:114). But is it really the case that the long take
of a camera so closely resembles our ordinary vision? One
major difference that comes to mind is the fact that the three-
dimensional reality we usually perceive is depicted twodimensionally in film. MacDougall (2006:270, 274) also points
to this fact, when describing how films construct for us a
three-dimensional space based on two-dimensional pieces.
But whereas MacDougall, in line with the observational doctrine, emphasizes how closely this construction resembles human perception, it is a construction nevertheless, which, in
order to achieve its reality effect, has to manipulate considerably with frame, color, contrast, focus, and depth.
288
Let us clarify this by considering one of the most fundamental differences between the technological mediation of
vision by the camera and ordinary human visionnamely,
the difference between viewing through one rather than two
eyes. As Merleau-Ponty showed us, the three-dimensionality
of things is given to us in human vision because we simultaneously appropriate a multiplicity of other possible viewpoints. Merleau-Pontys claim finds further support in the
fact that we normally never see an object from one position.
Most often, we see it as an intertwinement of two positions
that is, through our two eyes. As Arnheim (1957:11) has
pointed out, depth perception relies mainly on the distance
between the two eyes, which makes for two slightly different
images. The fusion of these two pictures into one image gives
the three-dimensional impression. Contrary to Taylor and
the realist codex of much ethnographic filmmaking, Arnheim
pointed to this fact as an example of how filmic vision radically differs from human double vision.
Hence, at the most elementary level, Hastrup is in fact
perfectly right when she states that the flat representation of
her camera did not reveal the same three-dimensional reality
that she had seen with her two eyes. Because of her two eyes,
whose vision bends around things, she was literally able to
see a bit more of the ram exhibition than what was later
depicted in her photographs. Human vision with its double
perspective is, therefore, always already one step ahead, toward
the view from everywhere, than is the single (Husserlian)
perspective of a camera lens. Despite current experiments in
3-D, film is still not able to reproduce the full human perception of space that observational filmmakers have tried to
imitate. While we in ordinary double vision are able to see
around things, this is not possible with the single perspective
of the camera lens. Whereas the three-dimensionality of things
is normally given to us as an inherent feature of our vision,
film has to shift angle, combine perspectives, and in other
ways manipulate the image in order to give a sense of the
three-dimensional features of what they depict.
it to copy the work of our eye. The better the copy, the
better the shooting was thought to be. Starting today we
are liberating the camera and making it work in the opposite
directionaway from copying. (Vertov, quoted in Roberts
2000:19)
289
Figure 2. The Ax Fight (Asch and Chagnon 1975). A color version of this figure is available in the online edition of Current
Anthropology.
in the footage that have not been addressed in the anthropological explanation. Seeing the steel axes yet a third time,
one is pushed to question where these axes might have come
from and what impact the surrounding world has on the
violent event. Furthermore, what leaps to the eye is how disruption of the chronological development of the event
through montage brings together two women in an argument.
While the critical role of women as initiators and participants
in the fight is entirely absent in Chagnons explanation, the
manipulation of the footage in the last part of the film strongly
emphasizes it. Linda Connor and Patsy Asch (2004:176) appreciate this manipulation, as it makes clear the inadequacy
of the anthropological explanation. As the filmic compression
of time unfolds hitherto unseen layers of the social interaction,
the in-depth thick ethnographic description of kinship and
alliance structures is rendered thin. Contrary to Hastrups
argument about the hierarchy between writing and film, the
filmic in this instance grows thick and comes to encompass
and transcend the anthropological explanation.
Seen in relation to one another, the five sequences add up
to a mosaic image, a phantom-like whole, which enables us
to experience and compare each perspective in relation to the
others. The inconsistencies, dissonances, and gaps between
the various contradicting viewpoints force us to consider what
yet other perspectives could reveal, thus making us create new
imaginary viewpoints that expand into infinity. Indeed, the
extensive and persistent debate (Martinez 2004; Nichols 2004;
Ruby 2000:129) about the film is itself a testimony to how
290
Figure 3. Gandhis Children (MacDougall 2008). A color version of this figure is available in the online edition of Current Anthropology.
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank David MacDougall, Peter Crawford,
Keir Martin, Ton Otto, Jakob Hgel, and the five anonymous
reviewers of Current Anthropology for providing much-needed
criticisms. Previous drafts of the article were presented at the
European Association of Social Anthropologists Biennial
Meeting in Ljubljana, August 2008, and at the Transcultural
Montage conference at Moesgard Museum, August 2009.
Comments
Rebecca Empson
Department of Anthropology, University College London, 14 Taviton Street, London WC1H 0BW, United Kingdom
(r.empson@ucl.ac.uk). 31 X 11
This fascinating article puts forward a new method for ethnographic filmmaking. By incorporating disruptive moments of montage (both the juxtaposition of frames, and the
arrangements of things in a single shot), filmmakers will be
able to present multiple perspectives on a single event and
guide the audience to different ways of seeing the world. These
possibilities are not afforded in written anthropology, which
address only a narrow spectrum of our imaginative faculties,
nor are they possible in observational filmmaking with its
emphasis on long shots that risk dulling the subtleties of the
lived world.
Clearly, what is shown in film and writing is not all there
is to an event, and Suhr and Willerslev are keen to find a
method by which to reveal what they call the invisible that
is known but is not always visible to us. A camera is certainly
not a person, but the mechanical nature of the medium, they
Martin Holbraad
Department of Anthropology, University College London, 14 Taviton Street, London WC1H 0BW, United Kingdom
(m.holbraad@ucl.ac.uk). 31 X 11
295
Andrew Irving
Department of Anthropology and Granada Centre for Visual Anthropology, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester
M13 9PL, United Kingdom (andrew.irving@manchester.ac.uk). 8
XI 11
296
Jens Kreinath
Department of Anthropology, Wichita State University, 216 Neff
Hall, 1845 Fairmount Street, Wichita, Kansas 67260-0052, U.S.A.
(jens.kreinath@wichita.edu). 8 XII 11
The article Can Film Show the Invisible? presents a theoretically challenging attempt to reconfigure anthropological filmmaking on the basis of montagethe composition of visual
images or juxtaposition of successive film shots as a cinematographic technique. Taking montage as the key technique for
cinematographic production, Suhr and Willerslev stress the difference between the human eye and the camera eye. They
criticize the humanized camera eye in observational cinema
for being unable to disturb commonsense viewpoints of human
perception. Suhr and Willerslev not only call into question what
they label the mimetic dogma, but they also object to
traditions in social anthropology that criticize visual anthro-
pology or question its potential to present an insiders perspective. In proposing a theoretical framework that can show
multidimensional visual descriptions of indigenous viewpoints to substitute written ethnographies through visual accounts, Suhr and Willerslev attempt to solve the problem of
mimesis in ethnographic filmmaking by proposing a positive
answer to the question of the title. While arguing that the
difference between the human eye and the camera eye is
key for this breakthrough in representing the invisible, the
rather tempered answer they give finally negates the proposed
question: montage only constitutes the moment of rupture
in the perspectival vision, and therefore film cannot show,
but can only reveal or elude to, the invisible in its own right,
notably through the work of montage.
The opposition Suhr and Willerslev construct between the
cinema of duration (with its focus on vision, as represented
by the observational cinema) and the cinema of disruption
(with its use of montage, as exemplified by the cinema verite)
is more than questionable. Although even the discontinuity
and disruption between the single picture frames go beyond
the perception and thus remain invisible to the human eye,
the streaming of any film images in a sequential order creates
the image of continuity and duration. The speeding up or
slowing down of film streaming can reveal further dimensions
of social reality and interaction otherwise inaccessible to the
human eye. Stressing montage as the only device that interrupts the duration in the visual gaze, Suhr and Willerslev
primarily focus on the spatial dimension in the perspectivity
of human vision, leading them to neglect the inherently temporal condition of human vision. In this respect, they fail to
address various notions of sequence, tempo, and movement
in the visual field or to consider the processes of perception,
cognition, and imagination in the production and reception
of cinematographic devices.
Besides their bold epistemological claims and audacious
rhetorical devices Suhr and Willerslev employ, some fundamental theoretical problems underlying their argument remain unresolved. One of the main issues is the concept of
the invisible. Even though it is described as a quality related
to everything that is inaccessible to the three-dimensionality
of human perception, the invisible becomes an object of study
in itself, despite that it is outlined as a condition of human
perspective. The invisible is defined in terms of different phenomenological traditions with the radical otherness in the
perspectivity of human perception a` la Levinas or with the
inherent sociability of human vision a` la Merleau-Ponty. Leaving aside the lack of attention to the obvious differences in
their theoretical assumptions, the arguments of Suhr and
Willerslev regarding the juxtaposition of perspectives as constructed by cinematographic techniques of montage are in no
way related to jargon-laden terms, such as the view from
everywhere, excess of visibility, or multispatial and multitemporal viewing experiences. These terms remain conceptually vague, if not empty, when one considers the totalizing
implications of the language used to describe the super-
297
Bill Nichols
Department of Cinema, San Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, California 94132, U.S.A.
(billnichols99@gmail.com). 20 XI 11
Suhr and Willerslev broach a crucial issue: How can ethnographic film contribute to understanding concepts and categories that escape the field of vision and the gaze of a camera?
Their discussion oscillates between two key qualities of the
cinematic image: indexicality and realism. Indexicality refers
to the precision of the correspondence: a photographic image,
like a fingerprint and unlike a sketch or painting, bears an
exact resemblance to what it refers to (Nichols 2010). Realism,
unlike the various modernisms (expressionism, surrealism,
etc.) and postmodernism (with its stress on surface, citation,
and repetition) minimizes its felt presence as a style to maximize the felt presence of what it refers to. Traditional historians often criticize historical films for factual errors: the
film anchors itself in a historical moment with indexical but
fictionalized links that are incorrect. History didnt happen
as the film purports it did. Traditional anthropologists often
criticize ethnographic films for conceptual failures and sty-
298
Reply
We are grateful to the commentators for critically addressing
our text. It is a thrill to receive so much high-quality feedback
and to see the vigorous discussions that our argument has
caused, stretching from warnings of the danger that our approach may substitute multiple local perspectives with a single
universal method (Empson) over accusations of an antihumanism reminiscent of the propaganda films of Leni Riefenstahl (Kreinath) to arguments for even more radically freefloating montage as a new distinctive voice of ethnographic
filmmaking (Nichols). We take all of these commentaries as
being suggestive of the acute need to rethink the broader issues
of visual anthropology and what montage may have to offer
anthropology in general. Since there is more food for thought
than we can possibly digest within the word limit, we focus
on some of the recurrent questions. We apologize for not
addressing them all.
Let us begin with a few clarifying remarks about what we
mean by the invisible and the potential of montage for
addressing itsomething that remains unclear to Empson
and perhaps to others as well. In the article, we discuss the
so-called view from everywhere and the otherness of the
other as examples of the invisible, which we broadly understand as that which constitutes the background or premise
of visibility, but which must hide itself in making things and
people visible. However, the invisible is, at least in principle,
as Kreinath suggests, everything that is inaccessible to the
three-dimensionality of human perception or, more precisely, that which allows us to perceive the world threedimensionally. Montages capacity to evoke the invisible is
summarized by Irving in a perhaps clearer prose than our
own, when he writes: Rather than a systematic understanding
of the invisible (which would simply translate the unknown
into the Same) . . . montage offers a practical approach in
which social life is denaturalized [by recasting it] through
unfamiliar eyes. Still, we insist on a notion of the invisible
as not simply the unseen (Irving), but as that which cannot
be seen. The defamiliarization of montage, therefore, cannot
show, but only evoke the invisible through the orchestration
of different perspectives, encroaching upon one another.
Montage can break the visual skin of the world, so to speak,
but it can never show the invisible in itself.
This stance does not imply a confused use of the terms
vision and understanding or perception and conception as suggested by Empson and Holbraad, but rather the
collapse of such dichotomies. As Nichols puts it, film language
299
graphic truth speaks itself, thus placing the viewer in the kind
of servility that the Nazi ideology advocated for the German
people before the Fuhrer. To Kreinath, our proposed alternative to the imperious subject-centered ontology of observational cinema implies nothing but such a slavish selfabnegation with respect to the viewer. However, the work of
montage in films such as The Ax Fight, Gandhis Children,
and Les Matres Fous on which we have built our argument
serves to obstruct any such attempt of confining to a single
totalizing visual order. Through montage, they avoid the fetishization or rendering into an idol any particular perspective
as a substitute for the invisible. Instead, the viewer is left
essentially estranged with little hope for fulfillment or relief.
By all means, this use of montage shares little with the totalizing visual order pursued by Riefenstahl and Nazi ideology
more generally.
In Nicholss comment, an argument is made to more radically liberate the language of ethnographic film from indexicality and realism, so as to give it a distinctive voice of its
own. The indexical links between film and reality is of key
importance as we see it. Indeed, indexicality is the primary
material and source of tension in montage. Montage, in the
film examples we have discussed, consists in the bringing into
play perspectives from profilmic reality with those of filmmakers and viewers. It is by means of the incongruencies and
dissonances between multiple perspectives that the invisible
ground of the seen is allowed presence. In this sense, our
approach to montage can be located halfway between Empsons argument for keeping to local modes of displacing the
visible and Nicholss argument for a distinctive ethnographic
film language, less encumbered by indexicality.
Finally, we wish to address Holbraads comparison of our
montage model with Levi-Strausss bricoleur. It holds true
that bricolage, like montage, refers to the construction or creation of a work from a diverse range of things at hand. Holbraad
calls attention to the parallels between Levi-Strausss concern
with rehabilitating savage thought from habitual charges of
irrationality, and [our] desire to see film as a medium for
sophisticated anthropological thinking. A comparison of cinematic montage with the mechanisms of myth and ritual is
certainly a pertinent project. We are skeptical, however, about
the degree to which the model of ritual and myth suggested
by Levi-Strauss adequately describes the work of montage we
have outlined here. In Levi-Strausss effort to rescue savage
thought from charges of irrationality, he may have emphasized
rationality too much. It seems to us that both the bricoleur
and the engineer in Levi-Strausss model seek to integrate and
consume the object within a totalizing order (the myth or the
project). The work of montage that we suggest here aims at
the opposite: that is, to reinstall the invisible where it has been
eradicated so as to make the object impossible to consume for
our gaze. Unlike the bricoleurs logic of the concrete, the
montage filmmaker may strive toward a plane of abstract formalization with the targeted aim of transcending the domain
of the visible and our commonsense perceptions of what is
300
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