Temperature

Measurement
Mark Murphy, PE
Technical Director, Fluor Corp.
Standards
Certification
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2#

Types of Temperature Instrument

Thermocouple (T/C)
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Thermowell
Thermistor
Bi-metallic Thermometers
Filled Thermal Systems

3#

Various Units of Temperature Measurement

C degrees Celsius (or Centigrade)

F degrees Fahrenheit
K Kelvin
R Rankine

Relationship between different units

C = (F - 32)/1.8
F = 1.8 x C + 32
K = C + 273.15
R = F + 459.67
Conversion tables or software can be utilized to facilitate
with converting between these units.

4#

Thermocouples (TCs)
Basic Theory
In 1821 a German physicist named Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric effect which forms
the basis of modern thermocouple technology. He observed that an electric current flows in a
closed circuit of two dissimilar metals if their two junctions are at different temperatures.
The thermoelectric voltage produced depends on the metals used and on the temperature
relationship between the junctions.
If the same temperature exists at the two junctions, the voltage produced at each junction
cancel each other out and no current flows in the circuit.
With different temperatures at each junction, different voltages are produced and current flows
in the circuit.
A thermocouple can therefore only measure temperature differences between the two
junctions, a fact which dictates how a practical thermocouple can be utilized.

Iron (Fe)
100C

0C
Constantan (CuNi)

Thermocouple Circuit
5#

Thermocouples (TCs)
Thermocouple measuring circuit
Equivalent to
80C reading
Iron (Fe)

100C
Hot Junction:

Copper (Cu)

20C
Constantan (CuNi)

10

0
mV

Copper (Cu)

In Process
Cold Junction:
Needs to be held constant to give a
fixed reference. ( early methods
held cold junction at 0C using ice
or refrigeration unit).

6#

Thermocouples (TCs)

Standard Thermocouple Alloy Conductor Combinations

CODE

CONDUCTOR COMBINATION

TYPICAL OPERATING
RANGE F

Platinum-30% Rhodium / Platinum-6% Rhodium

+2500 to +3100

Tungsten-5% Rhenium / Tungsten-26% Rhenium

+3000 to +4200

Tungsten-3% Rhenium / Tungsten-25% Rhenium

+2800 to +3800

Nickel Chromium / Constantan

0 to +1650

Iron / Constantan

+0 to +1400

Nickel Chromium / Nickel Aluminium

0 to +2300

Nickel-Chromium-Silicon / Nickel-SiliconMagnesium

1200 to +2300

Platinum-13% Rhodium / Platinum

1600 to +2600

Platinum-10% Rhodium / Platinum

1800 to +2600

Copper / Constantan

-300 to +650
7#

Thermocouples (TCs)

A graph of
temperature vs.
voltage shows
thermocouple
characteristics
are not
perfectly linear.

8#

Thermocouple Resolution

Temperature Change From 500 deg F to 510 deg F

TYPE

500 OF 510 OF DIFF

4.140

4.248

0.108

17.945 18.371 0.426

14.110

10.561 10.789 0.228

2.017

2.070

0.053

1.962

2.012

0.050

12.574 12.887 0.313

14.418 0.308

9#

Thermocouples (TCs)

Thermocouple Construction
Sheath (normally stainless steel)

Normally element is in a thermowell

Arc Welded Junction
(some are earthed at tip
For improved response
time)

Conductors
insulated by
Magnesium Oxide
Powder

Commonly element is 1/4 outside

Diameter
Sheath material, normally Stainless
steel but can be special material such
as Inconel, Incoloy, Hastelloy etc.
Duplex thermocouples have 2 elements
inside one sheath.
10#

Thermocouples (TCs)
Thermocouple Tip Types

Ungrounded For
use in corrosive and
pressurized apps.
Slow response time.
Offers electrical
isolation.

Grounded For use in

corrosive and
pressurized apps.
Quicker response time
than ungrounded due to
improved heat transfer.

Exposed For use in

dry, non-corrosive, nonpressurized apps.
Quickest response time
of all three.

11#

Thermocouples (TCs)

Response time
comparision among the
different thermocouple tip
types.

12#

RTDs
RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors) operate under the principle that
the electrical resistance of certain metals increases and decreases in a
repeatable and predictable manner with a temperature change.

13#

RTD Elements
Wire Wound Element

Precise lengths of wire are wrapped around

a ceramic mandrel, then inserted inside a
ceramic shell which acts to support and
protect the wire windings.

Inner Coil Element

Wires are coiled then slid into the holes of a

ceramic insulator. Some manufacturers
backfill the bores with ceramic powder after
the coils are inserted. This keeps the coils
from shorting against each other.

Thin Film Element

Metallic ink is deposited onto a ceramic substrate.

Lasers then etch the ink to provide a resistance path.
The entire assembly is encapsulated in ceramic to
support and protect.

14#

RTD Leadwire Configuration

2-wire: Should only be used
with very short runs of
leadwire. No compensation for
leadwire resistance.
3-wire: Most commonly used
for industrial applications.
Leadwire compensation.
4-wire: Laboratory use
historically, moving more into
industrial applications. Full
compensation for leadwire
resistance.

15#

Wheatstone Bridge

The most common method for measuring the resistance of an RTD

is to use a Wheatstone bridge circuit. In a Wheatstone bridge,
electrical excitation current is passed through the bridge, and the
bridge output current is an indication of the RTD resistance.

16#

17#

RTDs

The most common material is Platinum.

Its resistance is 100 at 0Celsius.
Hence the term PT100

Its resistance is 138.5 at 100Celsius.

Hence the Fundamental Interval of 38.5
Or 0.385 per 1Celsius Rise in Temperature.

There are other materials available for more unusual temperature ranges
such as Germanium (e.g.10 to 100 Kelvin).

18#

RTDs and T/Cs

Temperature Sensor Selection Guide
RTD

Thermocouple

Temperature Range

-328F to 1562F

-310F to 3308F

Accuracy

0.001F to 0.1F

1F to 10F

Moderate

Fast

Stable over long periods

Not as stable

<0.1% error / 5 yr.

1F error / 1yr.

Linearity

Best

Moderate

Sensitivity

High

Low

Vibration applications

Poor

Good

Response Time
Stability

19#

RTD vs T/C Accuracy

RTD
Temp.C
Grade B
-200
1.10C
-100
0.67C
0
0.25C
100
0.67C
200
1.10C
300
1.50C
400
1.90C
500
2.40C

Grade A
0.47C
0.30C
0.13C
0.30C
0.47C
0.64C
0.81C
0.98C

Thermocouple Type J & K

Standard Premium

2.2C
2.2C
2.2C
2.3C
3.0C
3.8C

1.1C
1.1C
1.1C
1.2C
1.6C
2.0C

20#

Temperature Element Assembly

Head

Nipple-Union-Nipple

Thermowell

21#

Thermowells

Straight Shank

Flanged

Van Stone

Plug

Step Shank
Tapered Shank

Threaded

Weld-in

Plug
with
Chain

Accessories
22#

Thermowells

Insertion Length

Lagging
Extension
23#

Thermowell Installation
PIP Flanged Thermowell
Installation Requirements

Perpendicular
Pipe Installation

Elbow Installation
24#

Thermowell Design & Material

Considerations for Thermowell selection:

Process temperature
Environment / Process media
Fluid or gas pressure
Pipe or vessel size
Flow velocity

25#

Wake Frequency

Thermowells must be carefully selected for

processes where significant velocity is
present.
By penetrating the process flow, the
thermowell is subject to the stress and friction
of the flow. This may set up a natural
vibration that may result in the shearing off of
the thermowell into the process. This is
called the Wake Frequency.
ASME PTC 19-3 Thermowells
This Standard establishes a mechanical
design standard for reliable service of
thermowells in a broad range of
applications. This includes an evaluation
of the forces caused by external pressure,
and the static and dynamic forces
resulting from fluid impingement.

26#

Wake Frequency Calculation

Energy Absorbed
By Thermowell

Top View
Vortices

Resonance
Condition

fWake
Side View

Wake
Frequency
(fWake)

fWake = fNatural

fNatural

Thermowell Calculations
1) Ensure that: fWake
fNatural

< 0.8
27#

Other TW Failure Modes:

Process-Induced Bending Stress

Velocity
Density
Diameter

FDrag

FDrag

Flow

Area
Length

28#

Thermowell Insertion Modification

29#

Transmitters
Signal Conditioner
Low level inputs
mV from thermocouples
from RTDs
High level outputs
4-20mA current
Digital (i.e. Fieldbus)

30#

Thermistors
Thermistors are temperature sensing devices that are similar to RTDs in that
their resistance changes as temperature changes.
The major difference is that for most thermistors the resistance decreases as
temperature increases.
Thermistors are an inexpensive alternative to RTDs when temperature ranges
are below 150C. Thermistors can be used from temperatures of 80C to
300C.
Most thermistors have base resistances, which are much higher than RTDs.
One of the greatest advantages of using a thermistor sensor is the large
change in resistance to a relatively small change in temperature. This makes
them very sensitive to small changes in temperature.

31#

Bimetallic Thermometers
A Bimetallic Thermometer
consists of an indicating or
recording device, a sensing
element and a means for
connecting the two.
A pointer is attached to the
rotating coil which indicates
the temperature on the dial.

Basic example:
Two metal strips expand at different
rates as the temperature changes.

Bimetal Coil
Coil rotation is caused by the
difference in thermal
expansions of the two metals.
32#

Filled Thermal Systems

33#

References

ISA MC 96.1 Temperature Measurement Thermocouples

PIP PCETE001 Temperature Measurement Guidelines
PIP PCFTE100 Thermowell Fabrication Details
ASME PTC 19.3 Temperature Measurement
Internet websites:

Sensorsmag.com
Omega.com
Isi-seal.com
Sensortecinc.com
Wikipedia.org
Rosemount.com

34#

QUESTIONS

Any Questions???

35#