(EE Toonlow Protection of Synchronous GeneratorsIEEE TUTORIAL ON THE PROTECTION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS Sponsored by The Power Engineering Education Committee Power System Relaying CommitteeINTRODUCTION Intheeatly 1990's the Power System Relaying Committee conducted a survey to determine how major synchronous ‘generators in Nor America were protected fom short circuits and other abnormal electrical conditions. The result surprised those who conducted the survey. ‘The ‘major results of the survey indicated clearly thatthe re- sponding protection engineering population, with a few nolable exceptions, appeared 10 have lie knowledge boat the electrical protection of synchronous generators In retospect, this response: was probably not altogether ‘unexpected. In the past ten years, wilides have built few ew generating plants. During this same period, many companies have downsized. These wo factors have re- sulted in the loss of engineering experise in the area of generator protection ‘Sucvey findingsalso indicated wat despite te clearneed to ‘upgrade older generator prorecuon Schemes to meet cut tent IBEE/ANST C37 guide recommendations, tlties seemed reluctant go into existing power plats to make ‘needed modifications. This may be duc o several factors ‘lack of expertise, a misguided belie that generators do ‘not fail often enough io warrant proper protection, abeliet tha: operating procedures will cover prtection design deficiencies: Alsb, there was litle undersianding of new ‘concepts and protection schemes such as inadvertent ener- izing, 100% stator ground protection and sequential tip- ping. ‘The response of te Power System Relaying Committe 10 the survey resulis has been two fold: 1) Weare strengthening aur C37 guides, which relate to {generator protection, to more clearly indicate the need Tor the described protection and the risks of not pro- viding t 2) We bave prepared this tutorial which we hope wit! provide the background necessary to better under stand our C37 guides that relate fo this subject and to publicize hat these guides exist Contrary to the belie of some, generators do fail due to shor circuits or abnormal elecrial conditions. fo many cases, these fallues can be prevented by proper generator protection. Generators, unlike some other power system components, need to. be protected not only from short ‘evils bat also froen abnormal operating condivons such as overexcitation, overvoliage, loss-offield, unbalance curren, and abnormal frequency conditions, When sub jected to these abnorinal conditions, damage or complete failure con occur within seconds Us requiring automate detection and isolation. Inpreparing the utorial wehave denon te considerable ‘expertise that resides inthe Power System Relaying Com ritlee, We used a Task Force approach to waite the document, The Task Force tied to focus on the needs of tly and consuliing engineers who are involved in gen ‘erator protection. We concentrated on those areas of gen- erator protection our Survey indicated were the most mis- ‘understood, [n many cases, we explained our C37 guides ‘whieh colate to specilicprovection areas. Thereare fourteen (14) sections ofthe tutorial, References, included in eacs section, provide even more deta, The inaividuals participating in tis ator effoit. kave generously donate thei time and effort to produce what { believeisa very valuable document. would lke to express, ‘my appreciation to all the: members ofthe Tutorial Task Force who worked so hard to produce and edit this docu- ‘ment in record time, I'd like 10 specifically thank the individual section authors, Without their efforts tis docu rent would aot have been completed. Its oar hope that Lhiseffor wil contribute toube beter understanding of his important subject. (CJ. Monin Baitor Tutorial Coordinator 4 2 9) sse-2308 x274 FAK (B19) 546-0121 ecKwirte seine. ELECTRIC 15190-1180 Avenue Nor tage, FLSaRTS.g720 USA \ CHARLES J. MOZINA, PE. Manage appcatlon Engineetng Pretahon ana Protection SystemsTABLE OF CONTENTS. Page 1, Pandamentals by CJ. Mozina, 1 2. Generator Stator Phase Fault Protection by GC, Parr....... . 8 3. Field Ground Protection by AC. Pierce 2 4, Stator Winding Ground Fault Protection by S.E. McPadden and T.S. Sidhu. esate 15 5. Abnormal Frequency Protection by E.C. Fennell and M. Bajpai. 6. Overexcitation and Overvoltage Protection by K.C. Kozminski, W.G. Hartmann and S.E. McPadden...... . 32, 7. Voltage Transformer Signal Loss by ED. -Gardell 38 8, Loss of Field Protection by M. Yala... . 4b 9 on -Of-Step Relay Protection of Generators DW. Smaha . AS 10. Current Unbalance (Negative Sequence) Protection by P.W. Powell. . . 52 11. System Backup Protection’ by P.W. Powel doses 56 12. Inadvertent Generator Energizing by C.J, Mozina and G.C. Parr. . 60 13. Generator Breaker Failure by S.C. Patel, HJ. King and M. Yalla ee . levees dL 14, Generator Tripping by E.C, Pennell and K.C. Kozminski 75 ‘Geoerauor Protection Tuorial Task Force: CJ. Mozina-Chainman, PW. Powell: Vice Chairman, M. Bajpai, JA, Bright, E.C, Fennell, .D, Gardell, €.M, Gulachenski, 8. Mazumdar, GC. Parr, R.D. Petigeew, AG. Pieror, M.S, Sachdev, T. Sidhu, W.G. Hartmann, C.F. Heaville, HJ. King, 2.C. Kozminski, $C. Patel, G.W. Pence, M, Yall, $.8, McPadden, C11, Casto, D.W. Soicha.Section 1 FUNDAMENTALS 3. Mozina Bockwith Blecric ‘Largo. FL ABSTRACT “This introductory section ofthe torial provides he reader withthe baste background information to understand bet- ter the sections which follow, ICs intended to provide information forthe less experienced engineer. This section ‘describes the electrical workings of syachronous genera- tors and how they art connecied to the power system, ‘Generator performance under short circuit conditions are also described, along with generator grounding practices. Tn addition, some of the most misunderstood aspects of {generator protection are also addressed, Finally, the C37 ‘ANSI/IEEE guides which relaeo generator provection ae ‘enumerated along with the defiitions of relay device numbers, INTRODUCTION ‘The protection of synchronous generis involves the ‘considerations of more harmful sboormal operating co ‘dons than the protection of any other power system ete- ‘ment. na properly protected generator, automatic provec- tion against barmtul abnormal conditions i required. The bulk of this tutorial deals withthe need to provide such protection. The objections of some to the addition of such protection isnot so much tatit wil fail to operate when it sould, bu tha it might operate improperly to remove & ‘Renerator from service unnecesseity, This fearof applying proper praection can be greatly educed by understanding the need fr such protection and how to apply ittoa given generator. An unnecessary generator wiping is undesis~ able, but the consequences of oot tripping and damaging the machine are far worse. The cost wo the wility fo such ‘an occurrence isnot only the cost of epair or replacement ‘of the damaged machine, but the substantial cost of pur- ‘chasing replacement power during the period when the unit {is out of service, An alert and skill operator, at manned locations, can sometimes avoid emovinga generator from service by correcting the abnormal condition. Inthe vast ‘majority of cases, bowever, theevent wil occur too rapidly {for the operator to react and automatic detection and isolation is required. Operators have also been known to make mistakes and create abnormal conditions where tipping to avoid damage is required Inadvenentsntcgize Ingand overexcigtion ae examples afsuch events. Oper ating procedures are not a substitu for proper automatic. protection, BASIC SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS ‘A synchronous generator converts mechanical/thermal ‘energy into electrical energy. Toe mechanical power of te prime mover tates the shaft of the generatoron which the de leldis installed, Figure 1 illustrates a simple machine. Ping mover Imooraicl Pou —_—— a6 | Encircal uit | Prime mover energy can be obtained from burning fossit fuels such as coal, off or natural gas, The steam which is produced tums te generator shaft (rotor) atypical speeds ‘of 1800 or 3600 RPM. Converting steam energy to ine- ‘chanical rotaion is dane in a turbine. AL nuclear plants, ‘uranium fuel, Uirough the fusion proces, is converted to ‘eat which produces steam, Steam is foreed through & steam turbine to rotate the generator shaft Prime mover ‘enexgy cau also be obtained from falling or moving wate. Hydeoelecti generators rotate much slower (around 100-@ Round Rovor ‘Salient Pole Figure 2 Synchronous Generato: Types Synchronous machines are classified inwo wo principal designs —-found-rotor machines andsalient-pole machines, Figure 2 provides a cross-sectional view of bth types of construction. Generators driven by steam turbines have. Cylindrical (round) rotors with slots into which distributed field windings are placed. Mostcylindrcal rotors aromade ‘of olidstel forgings, Thenumber of polesistypically wo ‘or four, Generators driven by water wheels (hydraulic turbines) have laminated salient-pole rotors with concen- trated field windings and a large numberof poles, What- ‘ever type of prime mover or machine design, the energy source used to hur the shaft is maintained ata constant Jevel trough a speed regulator known as governor. The. fotation of the de flux in the field ofthe generator reacts with the windings of the stator and, because ofthe induc- tion principle, a three-phase voltage is generated, CONNECTION OF GENERATORS TO ‘THE POWER SYSTEM ‘There are two major basic methods used within he indus. try to connect generators to the power system. They are iret and unit connections. owen svete AsiuieY LOAD ren 3a) Direct Connected Powel sysrese auiuaiay 3b) Unit Connected Figure 3 ‘Digest Connectad: Figure 34 shows the one-line diagram {for adirect connection of a generator tothe power system, ‘The generator 's connected to its load bus without going ‘rough a voltage wansformation. The generator supplies. ‘power directly to the load. This type of connection is an ‘earlier method used within the industry forthe connection ‘of generators when generators were small in size Its stil ‘sed today to connect smaller machines, ‘UnitConnccia: Figure 3B shows the one-line diagram for ‘unitconnected generator. The generator is connected to the power system through adedicaled step-up transformer, ‘Auxiliary generauor load is supplied from a step-own transformer connecied to the generator terminals. Most large generators are connecied to the power system inthis ‘manner using a wye-della step-up main transformer con- nection, By having te generation connected 10 a deltasystem, ground fault current can be dramatically reduced ‘using high impedance grounding. Basic grounding prac- tices are addressed later in this section ofthe tutorial and again in more detail n the Stator Ground Fault Protection Secsion (Section 4), SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR ‘SHORT CIRCUIT BEHAVIOR The equivalentelectrcalcircutof asynchronous genera toris an inwemal voltage in series with an impedance. For favitcurrent calculation, the resistance component ofthe ‘generator impedance is small compared tothe reactance And is usualy neglected, Table 1 shows the symmetrical tation of a generator. Symmetsical ‘component analysis isan important mathematical tool 10 calculate generator currents and voliage under unbalance conditions. Reference 1 and 2 provide good basic infor- ‘mation on his subject ive Sequeoee ‘Zero Sequence ‘Table | Symmetrical Component Representation sitive Sequence CX,) Thves different positive sequence reacance values ae used, In he positive sequence equiva Tent circuit XA" indicates te subtransient reactance, Xe the transient reaciance, and XG the direct axis generator reaciace. All ofthese direct-anis values are necessary for ‘alulating the short-circuit cutent value at different dines iter the short cicuit occurs. They are provided by the generator manulactures as par ofthe est sheet data forthe senerator. Since the subwransient reactance value gives the highest intial curren value, itis generally used in syste short-circuit calculations for relay application, The ean. sientreactancevalueisuse for stability consideration. Toe unsaturated reactance valves are used for faut-current cl- culations because the voltage is redoced below saturation Guring faults near the wnit. Since typical generntrs are ‘operated slightly saurated, tne sustained (steady state fault ceurtent willbe less than the maximum load curcent unless the volige regulators boost the field during a sustained foult [Nesative Seuueace (3): The flow of negative sequence ‘eaten is of opposite phase rotation through the machine land appeats as a double frequency Component in the Fotos ‘The average ofthe diectaxis subtransien reactance under the polesand between the poles givesa good approximation of negative sequence reactance, In a salient pole machine regauive sequence isthe averoge of the subtransien.tceet ais and quadrature axis reectancest “+ Xq’2) but ina round rotor machine, X2 equals Xs The ze Sequence reactance is less than the positive aid negative sequence valves, Because of ‘the bigh avaiable ground fault curtent fora solidly groved ‘machine, impedance (Feactance or resistance) is almost always inserted the neta grounding path excepton very ‘small generators swhere the cost of providing such ground: ing in relationship to the machine costs ae significant. Aspreviously sited, the stator winding resistance i gener ally stnal) enough to be neglected in calculating short ciseuits. This resistance however i important in determin- ing the de time constants of an asymmetrical short circuit crtent Tocaleulatefaulsor unbalanced abnormal genera tor conditions the posive, negative and z2r0 sequence networks are interconnected. Reference 1 and 2 provide mote information on this subject. For coramon fault con tions they are connected as shown in Table 2‘nnecator Fault Current Desay: Because the generator's oy positive sequenceis characterized by tree eactances with ‘increasing values overtime, is fault current decays with time, 42) Three Phase Fault Figure 4 Symmetrical Trace of a Generator Suort-Circuit Curent Figure 4 illustrates a single phase symmetical trace of 3 ‘dye phase short cireuit wave form (6¢ component absent) such as might be obtained oscillographically, The wave form shown in Figure 4 can bedividedinw tree periods oF time regions, + SuburansicntPeriad-This period lasts fora few cycles uring which the curent magnitade is determined by the generator subtransient reactions (Xd") and decay time by the Ta” time constant, + Lransient Period - Covering a relatively longer time ‘uring which the current magninude is determined by the generator transient reactance (Xd and decay time by time constant Ta + Steady-State Pesiod -is the longtime level of genera- tor fault current whose magnitudes determined by the ‘generator diect axis reactance (Xd), ‘When de otfiets are considered generator currents for a three phase faulecesemble those shown in Figure 5, ee " u a 4) Double Phase to Ground Fault ‘Table 2 Fault Sequence Network Connectionspe i Phase & 0%: component s Figure 5 Generator Short-Ciscuit Currents for a3 Phase Fault with de Offset ‘When a generator fault is detected by protective relays itis Separated from the power system by tripping the generator ‘eeaker, field tneaker and prime mover. Breaker Trips Figure 6 Generator Terminal Fault Current ‘The system contribution (othe fault wit immediately be removed when the generator breaker tips as illustrated in Figure 6, The generator curent however, will continue 0 flow afer the tripping. The generator shon circuit current can not be "tumed-off" instantaneously because of the sored energy in te rotating machine. The flow of damag. ing generator fault current will continue for a period of several seconds afer the generator has been tipped mak: ing generator Faults extremely damaging. Generator erm nal leads are usually isolated through bus constriction to ‘minimize mol pase terminal faults. The generator is also ‘grounded in such a manner as 10 substantially reduce ‘ground fault currents. Tis is done by inereasing the zero sequence impedance by inserting neutral ground imped ance, GENERATOR GROUND PRACTICES Two types of grounding practices represent the major methods used! within the industry t0 ground. generator staior windings. These aetighand low impedance ground: ing \ Generator 3 / wee [| ce Gonorato’ ‘windings + Re 7b) High lmpendance Grounding Figure 7 Generator Grounding PracticesSirpeniaerces cea teen te oa ipa ceil eek reeaes Rees ee ane Isctuneseentrat Loving Bm Day, Sasa eaeee nd mresebnigactwcr saat pone ‘operated on a common bus or they are directly connected (Genermer 2cine phase: fants, Tintaiowetrcoqeemieasasenss bt Yautemaadentgeemoromt: — € Sctoniouets beara a -Pigire 7 sins age |? REWAEFOWE. Ani moIng 14 erator grounded by utilizing a distibution transformer with a secondary resistor. This grounding method allows [40 Loss-of field protection the ground fault curent to be reduced to low levels, fag ‘ypialy 525 Amps, Its used on unit connect genre Negalve wigs mbeyeca cima {0 tos Js9 Stator Thema Prtcuon “ . SIGN Time overurent round relay. 44.11 ANSVIEEE GENERATOR SIG Rime evercurent groan PROTECTION GUIDES: pu for is S1V Volage-contotied or volagesestained 11 , i line overeuen ely. Backup for ‘Three major ANSV/IEEE guides outline the protection u nd peneral wu ‘Tequirement and practices for synchronous generators, sysiem and generapr pase Faults ‘These guidesareunder he sponsrshiporte IEEE Power [39 Overvolae protection 6 System Relaying Commitee. They provide wea ot |goc tage slay, Str ground cinco ont etal pewcuncfse, FON Orewa Ste gow at 4 clzonous generators. ; o> Votuge balance relay, Deveson ot 7 Guiles Tine blown voltage transformer fuses CHTIO2 “Gaidetor AC Generator Protection . ‘ €37.101 “Guide for Generator Grourid Protection’ 63 ‘Transformer Fault Pressure Relay 14 37.105 Guide for Abwornal Frequency Protection |e96, Breaker File timer 8 for Power Generating Plants oar id ground fault protection 3 RELAY DRVICE NUMbERS 71 Transformer oi or gas level 4 78 Loss-of-synctronism protection 9 Devicenumbersareaconcisen fying protec- serena aconcisemethodospeifyingmroee: Igy Frequency relay Both undertequency 5 ton requirements. Numbers fom 1 to 100 ate assigned specific definitions, When discrete relays were the only method of protector, they denoted a peciic relay needed |g6 Handset lockout auviliary clay A for potetion, With the advent of multifunction relays, [x they are used to describe the functions within such relays, [876 Differential relay, Primary phase- 2 Listed below are the relay device numbers and their asso- fault protection for the generator ciated function that are used for generator roection. [87 Stator ground fuk ferential protection 4 Device number designation i sed throughout the torial 50 this list provides a handy reference, The defnitons vided for each number are tose that woul relat 9 their application o protecting generators 187) Ditferemial lay for overall generator 2 : an vansformer protection BEN The haimente vealsiyntlays. Pobraion Yh Biurcs parol: Aott~ BE bnew ductal Poors 6 SIR Re ie gio 4 repent ‘sep ine sce. Fribaalaney Soot ee plore. ifort, and overtequency protection 1871 Differential relay. Primary protection 2 forthe wransformer‘A typical generator relay function diagram using Device REFERENCES ‘numbers shown in Figure 8 1. Blackbur, J. Lewis, "Symmetrical Components or Power Systems Engineering,” Marcel Dekker, In, New York, NY, 1993. “Protective Relaying, Theory and Application.” ABB Relay Division, Coral Springs, FL, Marcel Dekker, 1994. 3, ANSVIEEE C37.102-1986, “IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection.” 4, Mason, Russell C., “The Art And Science of Protective Relaying," John Wiley & Sons Inc, [New York, NY, 1956, 5, Fitegeral, AE. And Kingsley, C, “Electric “Machinery.” McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1961. 6. Zorhas, Pino, “Electric Machines,” West Publishing Co,, New York, NY, 1989. Figure 8 Typical Unit Generator Transformer Configuration Yo gra De ocho Ros €lF Protiedieo fechecboo Frosle quale» ‘Ener giqor agg pr - Vollegy 2Section 2 GENERATOR STATOR PHASE FAULT PROTECTION GC. Pare ABB Power T&D Company Birmingham, AL ‘Abstract. A phase fault n'a generator stator winding is’ TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL SCHEMES always considered to be serious because ofthe high ew Tenisencounteredand be potential damagerotemachine Peccentage Dillesentia The varable percentage ifferen- windingsaswellastotheshafsandcouplings.Longrepai Gal (Fig. A) is used most often for large machines. Toe times fr severely damaged machines can be very expen-slopemay vary rom 541 SD% or mor. ATixed percentage sive as well as generate igh costs for eplacement power relay is usualy fixedat 1010 25%. A ypc scheme using while the macbine is ot of service. Minimizing the dam ‘ge dueto stator faults is therefore important. To make this station worse, the fultcutentina faulted enero does notstop when the generator field is tipped andthe genera- tori separate from the system. The eneay stored inthe )feté will continue to supply fault curent for. several oe" seccinds, . / f . \orenre J A (GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON seca — NON-OPERATION. “Major generator units use high sped protection to detect —" these severe statot winding faults ané minimize damage esinan The use of rapid de-exclution methods siay even be . SUED produce faster decay OT Tauicutens, big speed differential relay is normally used o detettree- phase, phase-phase and double phase to ground falls. Figure A. Variabe Slope Percentage ingle phase-o-ground falls are not normally ceecable by sitferentil relays on macbines vsless Weir neat i solily or low impedance grounded, When the neazal is ‘rounded trough a high impedance, the fuk caren is usually ess than the sensitivity ofa differentially. A iferential relay will not detect a tarn-tur faut inthe same pase because the curent in and out af the winding ‘will not change. Separate trn-turn fault deection can be provided on generators with two or more windings per phase and will be discussed subsequenly. When one ct connected to a generator differential isin uhe generator neutral and the others located in the generator breaker, the application of the cts need to be checked thoroughly because the ots are tkely to be dissimilar, Normally generator stator phase fault protection does ot need to be concemed with inrush as in a wansformer protection scheme since the generator voltage is built up slowly when the feldis applied. Threetypesof high-speed differentia relaysare used for stator phase faultdetection” Figuee B Percentage Differential Relay Connection — ‘Six-Bushing Wye-Connecied Generatora variable percentage differential relay is shown in Pigure ‘. Cumrenttransformers used ina differential relay scheme should have the same characteristics however, the variable percentage differenial is generally more tolerant to ct ‘errors a high currents. 1t should be noted tht using the Same standard accuracy t's does not guarantee geting the sane characteristics. The actual characteristics should be ‘checked for similarity, Figure C:High-Lmpedance Ditters High Imoedance Ditferemial, These relays shouldbe sup- plied from idenicat c's with ful distributed secondary ‘windings and have negligible leakage reactance. The relay is actually a voltage relay and responds to bigh voltage ‘pressed across its coil caused by the c's all wying to focce current through the operate winding during an intor- nal faul.‘The setng of te high impendance relay is based ‘onthe perfectpecformance of neinputctand thecomplete saturation ofthe other. For the very igh currents in large generators, the proxi ity of cts in different phases to each other can cause ‘nbalance cuments to flow in the ct secondaries’. These ‘currents mus be less than the minimum sensitivity of the differentia relay used. Normally this is taken car of nthe design of the unit by Ube supplier but, it should also be ‘checked Self Balancing Ditferential Relays, The sell-balancing sebeme (Fig, D) typically is used on smal generators. Tey wil detect phase and ground faulis onthe generator stator. ‘This scheme uses a single low ratio ct per phase with the Jeads of both ends ofeach winding passing through so the ‘et flux is zero for normal conditions, A simple instanta- neous overcurrent relay connected to the ct secondary gives fast reliable protection by detecting any difference between current entering or leaving the winding. The Figure D Self-Balancing Protection Scheme Limited sizeof the ct windows limits the size of condvetor and thence the size of we unit tat can be protected. The ‘lay should be as low a burden as possible, typically solid state to maintain high sensitivity and lessen the fikelinood ‘of ct saturation. Very high fault currents can saturate this lype ct if a sensitive electromechanical relay with high ‘burden is used. igure E Split Phase Protection Using Separate Current TransformersFigure G Spl Phase Protection Using Double: Primary Singl> Secondary Current Transformer TURN TO TURN FAULT PROTECTION Using Sota Relaving, Most turbine generators have ‘single tum stator windings. On generators with multi-tura coils and two ormore windings pe phase the spi-phase relay scheme can be used to detect tur-tur faults, In this scheme Figure E), the cireut in each phase ofthe stator windings are spit imo two equa groups and te currents of each group compared. A ifference in ese curenis indicates an unbalance caused by a single tm fault A ‘ery-inverseovercurentrelay with nsantaneous attach smentisusully sed fortis scheme, The ime overcurrent is se above any normal unbalance current but below the unbalance caused by asingle shored turn. The ume delay 4s sett prevent operation for transients occuring daring extemal faults caused by unequal et response 10 the transient. The instantaneous unit mus alo be st above transients during extemal faults and will probably only ‘detect mut-tum or phase to phase felts ‘Any expected problem with cterrorscan beeliminaled by the use of a single or double window ct as shown in Figures F and G. The elimination of ct erors will permis the use of a more sensitive setting on the instantaneous relay. The single window ct is usually limited to «mall eneraiorsbecans© oF the sizeof the window, The double window ot shown in Figure G can be used for larger generators Split-phase protection wll detect phase and some ground faults in the stator winding. However, because ofthe ti delay tis normally used to supplementhigh-speod differ- ential protection for high magnitude phase faults. BACKUP ‘Themost common type of backup protection used for unit connected generator stator pase faults is the overall differential relay. For smaller units or units connected directly to2 bus, system back-up and negative sequence relays, discussed in a separate section of the tworil, are cused. Also, an impedance relay is sometimes used to provide back-up protection for the generator step-up lwansformer and generator ‘Qvesall Differential. An overall generator differential is ‘connected by including a unit connected generator and step-up transformer inside one differential relay zone as sbown in Figure H. A harmonically restrined ‘cans foriner differential elay is used for this application. The ‘generator auxiliary transformer may also be included in the differential zone as shown. The high ct rato required fn whe low voltage side of the auriliary transformer to balance the differential circuit currents may require theGr) Figure H Generator phase favlt backup \_ overall giferenial scheme vee ofan auxiliary ct. Lisusually preferableto include tbe auxiliary transformer inside the overall differential if tat 4s possible. The auxiliary transformer differential cis on the auxiliary vansformer high voltage side may severely saturate for bigh side faults due tothe extremely bigh fault current at that point. Saturation could be so severe tha tbe differential relay might fall ,o operate before saturation ‘occurred and result ina failure to trp. The overall differen- tial connected to the auxiliary vansformerlow vollage side ‘would detec tbat fault and provide backup tipping, a It's sasfactory on cross compound generators to parallel csi the neutral side ofthe generator ort connect them to separate windings of amulti-winding differential relay. tis sometimes practical 1 apply a thee winding tans former differential 1 two generators connected 10 one step-up wansformes. Impedance Relay. A single zone impedance relay may be connect to's and wt onthe high voltage side of tie generator step-up transformer soastolookback toward the ‘generator. may be set to tip with no intentional tine ela fr pase faults since it does not have to coordinate ‘withany otberrelays fora faultin the generator. It must not have any reverse each if st wit no time delay, However, ‘einga distance relay ten operat for power swings, loss ‘of excitation and inadvertent energization. Its setings shoul be made with these possibilities in mind. Applica tion ofthis relay is discussed urbe i the section on Out of SepRelay Protection of Generators. Suing Hinitations may notallow the relay tobe setto look completely through tbe generator. REFERENCES 1. Blackbur, J. Lewis, Protective Relaying Principles and. Applications, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New. York, NY, 1987, Chapter 8, pp. 248 “IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection,” ANS IEEE €37.102-1986, Pruniner, R.A, “Accuracy of Curent Transformers Adjacent to High Curent Busses.” AIEE Transac tions. Vol. 70, Past i, 1951, pp.1656-1662Section 3 FIELD GROUND PROTECTION AC. Pierce Factory Mutual Research Corp, Norwood, MA Abstract The field circuit ofa generator is an ungrounded de system. A single ground fault wil not generally affect the operation of generator nor wil it produce any imme iste damaging effects. However, te probability ofthe second ground fault occurring is greater after the frst ground fault has occurred. When 3 second ground faul, ‘occurs, portion of the field winding will be shor-cir. cuited, thereby producing unbalanced airgap fluxes inthe ‘machine. The unbalanced fluxes produce unbalanced mag neti foroés which esult in machine vibration and damage. A field ground also produces rotor iron heating from the unbalanced currents which result in unbalanced tempera tures that can cause damaging vitraion. The ipping practices within the industry for field ground relaying ave ‘not well established, Some utliis trip while others prefer {alarm thereby’ risking asecond ground fault and major danage. INTRODUCTION ‘This section of te tutria is concerned with the derecion ‘of ground faults in the Geld circuitry. Loss of fied protec tion isaddressed in another section of he tutorial Once the first field yround has occurred, the probabibiy of the second ground occurring is much greater, since the first ‘ground establishes a ground reference for voliagesinduced in the Geld by stator wansiers. These transients increase the stress to ground at other points onthe field winding. Ground detection for the exciter and field windings are ‘usually supplied as part of the generator manufacturer's ‘equipment. A recent generator protection survey indicated that 82% of all generating unis included in the survey employ field ground detectors, OF ese detectors, only 30% tip the unit on occurrence af afield ground. ‘Dicexplanation forthe low percentage of tipping is party ‘due tothe earlier practices used by utes twas common Industry practice to apply a generator feld ground relay oo ‘rush type generators to alarm on rotor ground. These relays were generally instantaneous types that frequently ‘operate during a units sta-up due tointermitent grounds produced by moisture, copper dusting or during system transients. Copper dustig is cased by rotor bars rubbing together while the unit was on turing gear, especially for prolonged time, Unit aperators would rovtinely reset the slam and continue with the stt-up procedure, 1 a persistent alarm occurred, technicians attempted to loeate the problem by lifting insirument shunts. Ifthe found could not be found within a reasonable period, the unit was supposed tobe tipped manually. However, the anany nuisance alarms and the very ew legate ones ‘caused unitoperatorsto ose confidence in the field ground relay, therefore the alan lost eredibilily. Operators con- Lived tokeeptheunison-inersking tat aseeond ground would never occur. Catasvpbie rocor failures have 0c: fired toa second ground in the main Geld developing ‘very quickly after the fst ground. In thse instances, the operators were notable isolate the cause ofthe irstalam soc were they ele bring the units oftine ia an orderly fashion befoce the second ground occured “Theserotor failures prompladsome major generatormana facurers (0 develop a more secure field ground relay that had a builtin timer, The timer would prevent relay misoperation from temporary grounds caused by system Uuanstens. The relays were designed so that detection of a legitimate first ground would automatically trp the gen: ceraiorand remove field excitation before a second ground could develop. Some wiles, ue to manufacturers’ rec ‘ommendations and warranties, bave decided to change {from an alarm policy to wip policy with the iaueduction of hisrelay. Aldsough the tip mode using ihe more secure field ground relay greatly diminishes the risk of a cata- ‘sophie rotor failure, is use sill increases the chance of it ase tipping doeto copper dusting and other phenom. cera asexperienced by some utes, In setting the relay, compromise between pickup sesiivty and security must be recognized, The decision to tip or alarm must be carefully weighed, teePROTECTION METHODS ‘There are several methods in common use for detecting rotor field grounds, g toca eT we ht ‘our E a4 “= Figure 1 Fleld Ground Detection Using a de Source {Im the method shown in Figure 1, ade voltage source in series with an overvoltageeelay coil is connected berween \benegative ide ofthe generator ield winding and ground. ‘A ground anywhere in te field will cause he relay (0 ‘operate. A brush is used to ground the rotor sbaft since the bearing ol film may insert enough resistance in the circuit 0 thatthe relay would not operate for a field ground. One to thee seconds of time delay ts normally used with this telay in onder to prevent unnecessary operations for mo- ‘mentary transitory unbalances of the field circuit with respect to ground. These momentary unbalances may be ‘caused by the operation of fast response thyristor type excitation systems, yan ~ esa Figure 2 Field Ground Detection Using a Voliage Divider Figuee 2 ilustrates a second method used to detect field circuit grounds, Itis similar to ground detection schemes used to sense grounds on substation control batteries. This method uses a vollage divider and a sensitive overvoltage relay between the divider midpoint and ground. A maxi- ‘mum voltage is impressed on the relay by a ground on ‘either the positive or negative side of the field circuit, However there isa nol point betwoen positive and nega- ‘ive where ground fault will not produce a voltage across ‘the relay. Ths generator Feld ground relay is designed 10 ‘overcome the mull problem by using a nonlinear resistor ‘varistor in series with one ofthe two linear resistors inthe voltage divider. The resistance of the varistor varies with the applied voluge, The dividers proportioned so that te field winding null points atthe winding midpoint when the exciter votiage is at rated voltage, Canges in exciter voluge will move the null point from Whe field winding COnabeusblessexciationsystem continued monitoring for field ground is wot possible with conventional field ground relays since the generator field connections ae costained in he routing element, Figure 3 Field Ground Detection Using Pilot Brushes Figure illustrates the addition ofa pilot brush or brushes togainacoess to the rotting Feld pats. Normally this isnot dont since elininating the brushes sone of theadvantages ‘of a brushless system, However detection systems can be used to detect felt grounds if collector rng is provided. ‘nthe rotating shaft along witha pilos brush that can beperiodically insaled to monitor the system. The ground heckcan be done automaticaly by asequencing diner and control or bythe operator. The bruses used inthis scheme ‘ate not suitable for continuous coniat withthe collector rings. The field circuit impedance to ground is one lg of 1 Whratstone bridge connected via the brush, A ground fault shorts onthe field winding 0 rotor capacitance, Cy, Which unalances te bridge circuit. Ifa volage is read between ground andthe brush, which s connected to one Side of the, generac field, then a ground exis, For brushless machines resistance measurements canbe used to.evahnte the integrity ofthe field winding Figure 4 Field Ground Detection for ‘Brushless Machines gue dilosteatesametiod for contnuoys montring of field groonds on brushless nachines without wing plot ‘bases, The relays wansmiteris movnedon tie generator field diode wheel. ts source of power isthe ac brushless excite system, Two leads ae connected 10 the diode Inddgecireitoftheroiatng rece t provide ths power Ground detections obtained by connecting ove lead ofthe rans ote negative bus ofthe eld rected the so led to the rotor sat. These connections put the Felder in series wih he voltage terete inthe tranomitee, Curent is determined by the field ground resistance and te location ofa fall with respect to the poviuve and negative bus. The transmiuer detects the fesstandeciange between the Feld winding andthe rotor coe, The tanmitter LED's emt tight for nama cond tions. Thereceveris mounted onthe exceebousing. Te receiver's infrared detectors sense the light signal from the LED across the air gap. Upon detection of a faul, the LED'saretumned off Lossof LED ight to theeceiver will actuate the ground relay and initiate a trip or alarm. The ‘olay has a setabe time delay of up to 10 se. BACKUP PROTECTION Backup protection for the above described schemes usu- ally consists of vibration detecting equipment, Contacts ae provided to trp the main and eld breakers if vibration isabove that associated with normal shor circuit wansients for faults extemal to the unit. A brush seating verification scheme is also sometimes used en brushes are retractable, The scheme re- ‘quires two brushes with apower supply which byrelay action wil indicat feidherbrush does ‘nol seat and therefore the ground detection is ‘ot functioning, ‘TRIPPING CONSIDERATIONS From a protection viewpoiny, the safest prac ticeistoshutdown the generator antomadcally when the first ground is detected. A second round fault may. be. imminent: because of insulation probleme in the feld. There have ‘eon instances in which a second ground fault ‘nas caused damage tothe field. Many wuliies ‘alarm with the feld ground relay with written {instructions forthe operator tounloadand sbut ‘down the machine in an orderly manner. REFERENCES 1. “IEBE Guide for AC Generator Protection,” ANSU IEEE C37.102-1986, 2. “Protective Relaying, Theory and Application,” ABB Relay Division, Coral Springs, FL, Mascel Dekker, 1998. 3, "Field Ground Detection System Instruction Manual.” Dresser Rand, Blectric Machinery 2100-IN-324B, 4. "Machine Field Ground Detector Relay PIGH12-B," GEK-4188, General Elect, 5. “Type DGF Generator Field Relay,” ABB IL41-747 “aeSection 4 STATOR WINDING GROUND FAULT PROTECTION S, Basterday-MePadiden Public Service of Colorado Denver, CO ABSTRACT “his part of te tril deals wit enero aor ger rounding andthe protection schemes sedo detect guroe found fauis. Two types of grounding, bigh ang tow LInpedance a6 described, These two OS of rounding practices represent the major methods used witha ine nosey wo oun Beneaor Sato wins. The nae proection sebemes used ar also described. INTRODUCTION “The meth of stor grounding used ina generator nae lation determines the generator's performance: guring ‘ground feulicondiins. Ifthe generators solidly grounded ris pacically never the case it wil delve a ery heh apagrtude ueattoasingletino-ground(SLG glen its terminals, accompanied by a 58% reduction ia we Phase un phe voles involving the aed ple yj modest neuralvoageshit the gearatorisungroynded dis aso pracicaly never the case, i will Geyer 4 eplgible amount ofcutent w aboted SLG faut ie terminals, acsmpanied by no reduction inthe phase to. pase tenia volges and a ful neal voltage syn “These represen ie extemes in genentor grounding wit sonal pote alling predictably in between, Ihe nigh magntde of fault cument which rus fou Sold grunting a generator is unaeepable becanes at tne aul daage itn cause, Shoting down he penesoe ‘hough iping the generator beaker, Fil, and erame inover doesnot cause the ful caret toimmedinuy 95 to vero, The flox Wappen the eld wl esol inthe fat tute slowly decaying overa numberof Seconds aterthe enor sipped which substantially exacerbates ae age. On deer hand, operating @ generator ungrounded jrovies relgbe fault cueDt, Bac We tne-0-greged Totes nic unaulted phases canrse Curing arcing ype faut o dngesly hgh levels which coald cause pe fale of enero nsalaon,Asaresl, ta." W indnge tn aor qertrs ae grounded in a manne thy wa edoey faut eet and Overvolages and yet provige » means of detecting the ground fault condition quickly gh to provet 00 baring. TW (pes of grounding are widely wes witbin the industry. They art catepoyzed fs high and ow inpedance grounding TS. Sidha ‘University of Saskatchewan ‘Dept. of Electrical Engineering ‘Saskatoon, SK, Canada LOW IMPEDANCE STATOR GROUNDING This grounding method is ustrated in Figure 1 Figure 1(A) Generators Bussed Togedher ‘ona Common Bus Sharing a GSU + REACTOR ressror |-| [+ Figure 1(B) Generators Sharing a Transformer< cont soccasies Figucé 1(C) Generators Connected Dicey o.a Distribution System Figure 1(A-C) Low lmpedance Grounding ‘The grounding resistor or reactor is selected to limit the ‘generatr's contribution to a SLG fault to a range of ‘currents generally between 200A, and 150% of rated load current. With tis wide cange of available fault current, phase differentia relaying can provide some grount-aul [protection for higher level of ground currents. However, the differential relay will nt provide ground felt protec- tion for the entie stator winding. Is common practice to provide supplemental protection. Figure 2isan illustration ‘ofa ground differential scheme that can be used o provide, this enbanced sensitivity. The scheme uses a peoduct type \irectional overcurrent relay (B7N) and its application is fully described in Reference 5, The relay is connected to receive differential curen in its operating coil circuit and ‘generator neutral (31) cutent in its polarizing czeuit ‘The differentia comparison is biased to assure that a Positive restraint exists for an external fault even though the current wansformers, Rey and Re, have substantially different perfomance characteristics. This scheme pro- Vides excellent security against misoperatin for extemal faults and provides very sensitive detection of round faults ab Le Paonatton to he Figure 3 High Impendance Grounded Generntor Currents shown for extemal faust igure 2 Generator Ground Differential Using Product Type Relay “16HIGH IMPEDANCE STATOR GROUNDING High resistance generator neural grounding is itustated in Figure 3. Ie is primarily wtlized on unit connected systems, however, ican aso be used on eross-compound _generaions where one windings genecallyhigh impedance rounded, High resistance generator neutral grounding ullizes a dlistbution. transformer with a primary voltage rating ‘greater than or equal othe line-to-neutral voltage rating of the generatorand secondary rating of 120 Vor 240 V. The istribution transformer should have suficient overvolt ‘age capability sothatit doesnot saturate on SLG faults with Ue machine operated at 105% of rated voltage, The sec ‘ondary resistor is usually selected so that fora SIG fault the terminals ofthe generator, the power dissipated inthe ‘esistor is approximately equal to the reactive volt-am Peres in the zer0 sequence capacitive reactance of the ‘generator windings, its leads, and the windings of any {tansformers connected tothe generator terminals. Using his grounding method, a SLG fault generally limited to 3-25 primary amperes. Asaresultchislevelof fault current is not suficient co operate generator differential relays Appendix I provides a detaled example of iow to deter mine the size ofthe ground resistor to meet the eequie ‘ents cited above as well as calculate be resulting ground currents and voltages, ‘CONVENTIONAL HIGH IMPEDANCE STATOR WINDING PROTECTION METHODS Neutral Overvottage/Current Scheme-Themos widely sed protective scheme in high impedance grounded sys. temsisatime delayed overvoltage relay (S9GN}connected ‘cross the grounding resisior to sense nero-sequence volt age as shown in Figure 3, The celay used for this function is designed to be sensitive to fundamental frequency volt age and insensitive to third-harmonic and other zero sequence harmonic voltages that ae present atthe genera tor newts, ‘Singe the grounding impedance is large compared tthe ‘enerator impedance and oxher impedances inthe circuit, the full phase-o-newtral voltage will be impressed across the grounding device for a phase-to-ground fault atthe enerator terminals. The volage at the relay is a function ofthe distibution wansformer ratio and the location of the aul. The voltage will bea maximum fora terminal fault ‘and. decreases in magnitude as the fault location moves fromthe generator terminals toward the nevi. Typically, the overvoliage relay has a minimum pickup seting of Approximately 5 V. With this setting and with typical distribution transformer ratios, this scheme is capable of| detecting faults to within about 2-54 ofthe savor neutral. The time seting for the overvoltage relay is selected to ‘rovide coordination with other system protective devices, Specific area of concer are: ‘A) When grounded wye-grounded wye vt's are con- ‘ected atthe machine teminals,theneutral ground overvoliage relay should be coorinated with vt ‘eansformer fuses to prevent tripping the genera- ‘orforvisecondary ground faults, Ktherelay time delay for coordination is not acceptable, the coor. «ination problem can be alleviated by grounding, ‘one ofthe secondary phase conductors instead of the secondary neutral. Thus, a secondary ground foult results in a phase-o-phase vt fault which will nt operate the neutral ground overvottage ‘lay. However, when this technique is used, the coordination problem sitexist for ground faults ‘om the Secondary neutral; thus, its usefulness is, limited © those applications where the exposure ‘onthe secondary neutral to ground faulsis small ) The voltage relay may have to be coontinated with system relaying for system ground faults System phase-to-ground fault will indice zero. Sequence voltages at he generator neural ve to capacitve.coupling between the windings of the unit transformer. This induced voltage will ap- ear onthe Secondary of the grounding distribu ‘lon wansfomner and can cause operetion of the eto-sequence voliage clay, ‘A time overcurent relay can be used as backup protection When the generator is grounded thzough a distribution timastormer with a secondary eesistor. The current tans. former supplying the overcurrent relay may be located ‘either in the primary nevual circuit or in the secondary icoit oF te distribution transformer, as shown in Figure 3. When the current irasformer is connected i the dis bution ransfoner secondary circuit, acurren transformer ‘ati is selected so thatthe relay current is approximately equal (0 the maximum primary current in the generator ‘neural. An inverse or very inverse time delay overcustent relay is generally used fortis application. The overcurrent Felay must be st so that it dees noc operate on the normal ‘unbalance curents andthe zero-sequence harmonic cur- Fenis that appear inthe neutral, The pickup setting ofthe overcurrent relay should be no less than 135% of the ‘maximum value of current measured in the netral under non-fault conditions. In general, the overcurrent relay Provides less sensitive protection than the overvoliage ‘relay that detects zero sequence voltage. As with the overvoltage clay. the overcurrent relay must be tine coordinated withthe voltage tansformer fuses and with the system ground relaying, oir100% STATOR WINDING GROUND FAULT Use as their relaying signals fr fault detection. Figure 4 PROTECTION METHODS shows the third harmonic voltages (V3RD) presen at the ‘eutraland terminals ofatypical generator during diferent Conventional protection for stator ground faut detection load conditions: (a) under normal operation (b) fora fault conhigh impedance grounded systems hasbeen discussed al the neutral end. and (c) for a fault atthe generator fn the previous section. These protective schemes arc terminals. straight forward and dependable, bowever, these relays would provide sensitive prtzction fr only about 95 per- The folowing observations can be made frm Figure 4: ‘centof the stator. Tiss because the fauln the remaining fivepercentof te winding. nearthe neutral, doesnotcause sufficient 60 He residual voltage and residual curent to operate these relays ICs portant to protect major gen- ‘eraocs with an adiional ground fault protection system ‘50 that fant coverage for 100 percent ofthe winding is ‘obinined. The techniques for detection of ground faults ‘whieh cover 100 percent of stator windings canbe broadly vided into tw categorie: 2 + Third harmonic voltage based techniques + Neutral or esidual voltage injection +90 3 AL Lo%D wo Lon secure. Tem, 7) Notor ‘A FUL LOAD “a nora s : ‘orem 50 30 _-f ra tor 4 a“ NO LOAD vera, <= Teun IFAT aT retinal neuTRAL SS NO LOAD - Fu Loo wel paur aT 5 svynot Feta Figure 4 Third Harmonic Voltages for Different Conditions ina Typical Generator ‘Third Harmonie Voltage Based Techniques - Third ‘harmonic voltage components are present atthe terminals ‘of nearly every machine 1 varying degrees; hey arise and vary dus 10 differences in design and manutacure. If ‘The level of third harmonic voltage atthe neutral ‘and generator terminals is dependent onthe oper- ‘ating conditions ofthe generator, The voltage is ‘higher at full load than at no load condition as epiced Figure 4; however, depending on the ‘generator design, the reverse may be nu, There is a point in the windings where the third harmonic voltage is ero, The exact position of this point depends on operating conditions and ‘generator design. For 8 ground fault at the neutral, the third bar ‘monic voltage a the neutral becomes zero, Fora fait near the neutral, the level of third harmonic voltage at the neutral would decrease and the level atthe generator terminals would increase, ‘The amount of decrease or increase depends on ‘he operating conditions and the location of the fault. ” For a ground fault at the terminals, the third harmonic voltage at te temninals becomes ze. fa fauk occurs near the generator erminals, Une level of third harmonic voluage at the newtal ‘would increase and that of atthe terminals would decrease, The amount of increase or decrease is ‘again dependent on the prevailing operating con- ditions and the location ofthe fault ‘The levels of tid harmonic voltage vary from cone machine © another machine depending on the design. The thd harmon levels of any generator shouldbe measured withthe generator onnecied and disconneced fom the power sys- tem before installing any thid-barmoni-tased protection schemes ensure that adequate eves ‘xs 0 operate the vzious prolecive element present in a sufficient amount, this voltage is used by the The techniques based on the use of thirdbanmonic voltage Schemes in this calegory to detect ground faults near the ca be divided as follows: neutral, The third ermonic voltages measured at the ‘enerator neutral or terminals oc both are used to provide protection, Before discussing the techniques and their ‘operating principles, itis worthwhile o look atthe charac- teristics of third harmonic voltages which these schemes ‘Third harmonic neutral undervolage technique 2 ‘Third harmonic residual terminal voltage tech- nique ‘ied harmonic comparator technique (3)ta ! ryt 59C Instantaneous Overvoltage Supervisory Relay 50GN Overvoltage Relay Tuned To The Fundamental (60 Hz) Frequency 27 Undervoltage Relay Tuned To The Third Harmonic (180 Hz) Frequency 2. Tuners Figuce 5 A Third Hannonic Undervotiage ‘Ground Fault Protection Scheme ‘Third Harmonic Undervoltage Technique igure 5) ‘his wiique uses the facta fora fault near the neural the level of third harmonic wltageatthamentral decreases. "Therefore, an undervoliage relay operating from third harmonic voltage measured at the neutral end covld be ‘used to detect the falls near the neutral. The grown faults Inthe remaining portion ofthe windings canbe detected by ‘conventional ground fault protection, e.g an overvoltage felay (S9GN) which operates on the 60 Hz neutral vollage "The combination of bots elays provide 100 percent stator ‘winding protection. A simplified prowection scheme using ‘this tecbnique is show in Figure 5. ‘The relaying signals are taken from voltage inputs mea sured across tie neutral resistor. An itemal isolating transformer scales the vollage down 10 the continous Taling of whe relay and also provides isolation of the protection scheme, The undervoltage protection consists Sa 180 He tuned filter, an undervoltage (27) level detec for, onine logic and a timer, Overvoltage prosestion is made up of a 60 Hz, tuned filter, an overvoltage (59GN) fevel detector and a timer. “The settings of undervoltage and overvoltage level detec {ors ae such that overlap foal (ant cations on the stator ‘winding from the generator terminals to the neva is fssured, Generally, third barmonic voltage of not mare than 1 percent of the rated volage is needed to provide ‘adequate overlap, Normally, the third barmonic ‘undervoltage protection can provide adequate protection for 0-30 percent of the stator winding measured from the neva owards the machine terminal. The undervoltage ‘ela stings sbould be well below dhe minimum third harmonic vollage present at te neutral during normal ‘operation ofthe generator. ‘The third harmonic ynderyottage relay must be blocked to avoid false tipping during generator shut down or startup. ‘This is achieved by providing a supervisory overvoltage (59C) relay. Insome cases, the generator does not develo significant third harmonic voltage until itis oaded. In tis ‘ease, supervision using an overcurrent relay can be pro- ‘vided; the overcurrent relay would operate when the cur rent exceeds its pick up value. Therefore, under light load ‘condivons, and when the main breaker is open the third ‘harmonic undervoliage relay would be out of service and ‘analiemate protection schemeshouldbe considered, Thiel harmonic undervoltage protection would operate for open ‘and short eitcuits of primary or secondary windings of tbe neu grounding transformer and would not be able t0 (eieet an open circu in the secondary grounding resis- tance. ‘Third Harmonic Terminal Residual Voltage Technique (Rigure 6) - This technique is based on the fact that for & faultoear the neutral, be level of third harmonic voltage xt the generator terminals increases. Therefore, an ayervelt age relay using third harmonic voltage at the Aerihinals Of ‘ageneratorcan be used for detecting faulisnear the neutral 'hs before, the ground fants inthe remaining portion ofthe ‘windings can be detected by te conventional 95% protec: tion, e.g. an overvoltae relay which operates on 60 Hz reuval voltage. Both of these relays would, wherefore, provide 100 percent protection of stator windiags by €o¥- ring different portions of the windings. A. simplified rection scheme using this technique i shown in Figure 6 ‘Te residual voltage tthe machine terminals is supplied by the wye grounded broken-deta transformer, This vol ages passed through a 180 Hztuned fiterand anovervolt- age (99T) detector, At the neuzal end the elaying signal teaken across the neural resistor an internal relay isat- ing warisforme scales ie voltage down to the continuous. rating ofthe ela. This vollge is passed through the GO Hz toned fter and then provided to an overvoltage (S9GN) level detector ne FFor a ground favlt-near the neutral, the level of third pbarmonic voltage # the generator tepninals becomes el fevated and the third harmonic overvaltage relay woudIE ‘operate, This relay mustbe setin sucha way thatitdoes not respond to the maximum third harmonic voltage present at the generator terminals during normal operation. Also, the settings of the overvoltage relays atthe neutral end and at the generator tenminals should be such that detection of faults in te entire winding is assured S9GN Overvoltage Relay Tuned To The Fundamental (GHz) Frequency. SOT Overvoltage Relay Tuned To The Third Harmonic (180 Hz) Frequency 24,2-2, Timers Figure 6 Third Harmonic Residual Terminal Voltage Based Ground Fault Protection Scheme ‘Third Harmonic Comparator Technique (Figure 7) - ‘Thisscheme compares themagaitudeof the third isrmonic tht 4 é hy voltage atthe generator neutral to that at the ‘generator terminals. The scheme is based on the premise that the ratio of the third bar- monic voltage atthe generator terminals to that atthe generator neutral is almost con- stant during tenoral operation ofa gener (oc. This ratios upset fora ground fault near the neutral or near the terminals ofa genera tox, and this facts used to detect these faults, ‘The ground faultsin the remaining porion of the windings are detected by the conven ‘ional 95% ground fault protection, e.g and. ‘60-Hizovervoltage or overcurrent relay oper- ang from the neutral voltage or current respectively. Figure 7 shows a simplified ‘diagram of the comparator scheme, S9GN Conventional Overvolage Relay Tuned To The Fundamental Frequency. 59D Third Hamonie Vottage Differential Relay ‘The basic operating principle of this scheme isa differen. tial third harmonic approach. I consists of two full wave Dridge rectifiers, two 180 Hz pass filters and an isolaing/ ‘matching wansformer. The isolating transformer isused10 ‘match te thiedharmonic voltage from the generator termi nals to that from the neutral end, Any difference voliage will cause the current to flow in te differential elay. This relay assumes that the ratio ofthe thd harmonic vollage al gocrato terminals (6 thitd harmonic voltage at genera tor feusral finn’ brant dusing norm conditions. If the ratio ofthe third harmonic teminal to third harmonic neutral voltage changes, this would cause the difference ‘voltage to appear, andthe differential selay would operate ‘Also slight variations in ths ratio during normal operation ‘would reduce te relay sensitivity. Figure 7 Third Harmonic Comparactor Ce Based Ground Fault Protection Scheme‘The settings of whe conventional 95% protective relay (S9NG) and those ofthe third barmonie differential relay (39D) should be chosen in such a way tha fault detection ‘coverage for theentie stator windings is ensured. The third bbarmonic differential relay detects ground faults near the eotral as well as atthe terminals. The conventional 95% ‘round faut relay detects faults inthe upper portion of the windings and overlaps much of the windings protected by le third harmonic differential relay. The third harmon. ‘ifferenial relay sensitivity is minimal. fora falt some- where near the middle of Ube winding. At this point the difference between the thisd harmonic voluges at neutral and t terminals is very near tothe relay seting, The relay setuing is usvally determined from field tests during com: missioning. As an example, the magnitude of the third harmonic vollage at te neutsl and atthe terminals and their ratio for differen operating conditions for atypical generator are given in Table 1. The need for multiple t's and the necessity of field tests for determination of relay slings are te weak points ofthis scheme. However, Wis, scheme provides dhe optimum 100 percent fault coverage. ‘Voltage Injection Scheme (Figure 8) - Due to design variations, certain generating units may not produce suffi- cient third harmonic voltages to apply the ground fault ‘protection schemes based on third harmonic signals. Alter. hale fait detection techniques wovld be needed in these situations. Voltage injection scheme detects ground faults by njectinga vollageatshoretentor residually inabroken delta voltage transformer secondary. Full ground fault provection is available when the generator is on turning ‘eat and during sirup provided the injected vollge source ‘does not originate from the generator. Some schenies inject. ‘a coded signal ata sub barmonic frequency which can be synchronized with ihe system frequency. Onesuch scheme ‘at injects a frequency of 15 Hin the generator neutral is showirin Figure 8. The resultant 15 He, current is mea- sured, When a ground fault occurs, the 15 Hz current increases and causes the relay to operate, The 15 Hz injection signal is synchronized to the 60 Hz generator terminal vollage. E (Glee Figure 8 Subharmonie Voltage Injection Scheme for Ground Fault Protection The voltage injection scheme operates with the same sensitivity for faults ove the enti range ofthe windings. ‘Also, it provides 100% ground fault protection indepet ent ofthe 95% ground fault sebemes. In addition, these schemes ave self-monitoring and have a sensitivity inde ‘pendent of system voluge, load current and fequctey. The ust of sub bannonic frequeuctes offers improved sensitivity because of the higher impedance path of the generator capacitances at these frequencies. Also, the integrations over half cycle ofthe sub harmonic frequency result in zero contributions from the signals of system frequency and banmonics (Le, 60 Hz, 120 Hz, 180 Hz etc.) and, wherefore, these do not influence the measure UNIT LOAD 180 HZ. RMS VOLTAGE VOLTAGE RATIO Mw MVAR NEUTRAL TERMINAL TERMINAL/NEUTRAL ° ° 28 a 1908 1 ° as 3 148 35 s a 38 141 os s 42 30 119 M5 25 3s 62 Lb x40 28 80 80 100 ‘TABLE I Magnitode of Tied Harmonic Voltages for a Typical Generator 21‘ments. The economic penalty (high cost) sesociated with ‘providing and maintaining a reliable sub-barmonic source ‘ism disadvantage. Another disadvantage ofthe scheme is its inability to detect open circuits in the grounding trans- {former primary or secondary a thiscauses.adecrease inthe. 15 Hzcurrent andnotan increase as needed by this scheme to indicate a fault. An undercurrent condition can, how: ‘ever, be used to give an alarm for indicating & grounding system problem or los of sub harmonic source. TRIPPING MODE All stator ground detection methods described in this section should be connected (0 trip and sbutdown the REFERENCES “IEEE Guide for Generator Ground Protection” ANSU/ IEEE C37,101-1998, CH. Griffin and J.W. Pope, “Generator Ground Fault Protection Using Overcurrent, Overvoltageand Unéervoltuge Relays,” IEEE Trans. on Power Appa- ‘atusand Systems, Vol.PAS-101, No, 12, Dec. 1982, pp. 4490-450. L.W. Pope, “A Comparison of 100% Stator Ground FaultProtection Schemes for Generator Stator Wind: ings," IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Sys- tems, Vol.PAS-103,NNo.4, April 1984, pp, 832-840, TEE Guide for “AC Generator Protection Guide” ANSI/IEEE C37,102-1988, “ProtectiveRelaying, Theory and Application,” ABB Relaying Division, Coral Springs, FL, Mariel Dekker, 1994,APPENDIX ‘The appendix presents an example of bow to calculate the zero sequence fault quantities and hove to determine the value and ratings ofthe grounding elements (resistor and. ‘uansformer) used in the conventional 95% 60 Hz based impendance grounded protection schemes. A 974 MVA, 22 KV generator is unit-connected to a 345 kV ‘ansmission sysiem and grounded through a disibution twansfonmner as shown in Figure A below: rege 19200000 SOE BAet ‘Assume the phase-to-ground capacitive weactance ofthe generator, wansformérs,Iéads, and associated equipment in the system of Fig. A is Xx = 6780 02 per phase. Toe ‘chin value ofthe secondary resistor has been selected 80 that when reflected across the distribution transformer, the sesuling resistance, Ry, is equal 19 1/3 of Xu Figure A Due tothe high resistance grounding, the capacitances 0 ground in the system, which is not usually taken into account because of their high reactance values relative 10 the series inductive reactances in the system, become significant. In general, these ae distributed capacitances, ‘butforpurposesof tese calculations, theycanbe “lumped” ‘and modeled as a single capacitor. Tae most significant ‘capacitances in the system shown (and in any similar such system) are those associated withthe generator windings, the generator surge capacitors and arresters, and the gen- erator step up transformer low voltage windings. These twee typically account for more than 95% of the system ‘capacitance to ground. Other sources ae We isolated phase bus ducts, the unit auxiliary transformer high voltage windings, and tehigh voluge windings of any instrument ansformers (ie., generator t's). Generally, we capac tance values mst be obiained from the equipment manu- factuter; however, insulation or power factor wsts (Le. “Doble” type tesis) are excellent sources as well. All capacitance values used for these calculations sbould be [Phase to grouadona per-phase basis. Nove that capacitance in farads or microfarads will need 10 be converted to capacitive reactance (oluns) at 60 It, For the purposes of the discussion, a SLLG fault will be assumed athe terminals of the generator. In tems ofthe resuiting fault quantities (voltage and current), this foes tion yields tbe worst case, That is, the neutral shift (or evelopment of 3 across the distribution transformer secondary winding) and faultcurrent enaguitudes are great cst Interns of relay Sensitivity, this is the “best” location foraSLG faultiooceu precisely because the quantitiesare greatest, and, wherefore, whe probability of detection is areatest_ As the fault is moved! deeper into the generator ‘winding towards the neural, the fault quantities decrease ‘inmagniwude, reducing he abibty of he protectivedevices todetectit, A ground fault atthe terminals of the generator as shown in Fig. A, ‘Syummeiisal Compongnts Solution ‘With symmetrical components, SG faults are calculated by connecting the positive, negative, and zero sequence ‘networks in series as shown in Fig. (1) and solving forFFigore B SLG Fault Symmetrical Component Bauivalent Circuits ‘i Figure B(1) Symmetrical Component Equivalent Circuit for Calculation of SIG Fault o— lon fi pin Figure B(2) Reduced Approximate Symmetical ‘Component Equivalent Circuit ay "The equivalent positive and negative sequence imped- ances of the system andthe 2er0 Sequence impedance ofthe ‘generator can be neglected because they are extremely ‘small as compare tothe equivalent circuit made up ofthe neutral esistor anid THE distibuled zero sequence capaci- tance, The zero sequence network is open at the delta ‘winding of the generator step up transformer and consists of the reflected generator neutral resistor in parallel with the phase-to-ground capacitance of the generator windings and associated equipment. The approximate equivalent circuit is shown in Fig, B(2) to which the following ns apply 1g lon + ae Where 1 = (oul zero sequence fault coment lg zero Sequence current flowing inthe neutral resistor Ig zero sequence current flowing inthe lumped ‘capacitance Let Zag be the equivalent parallel combination of 3Ry and Xe! Zam 0.546780 - 6780) = 3390 - 33902 1, Ey, = generator phase-to-neutral volige (positive se quence) Big 22 12.700 om deme phe mp vane’ i3 ‘hen, Jpn the fault is fy = Ey= 12200. «1873 +j1873 4 Zon, 3390-13390 ‘Sic Int = 3o, Haak = 3 (1.873 + 1.873) = 5.62 +j5.62 A ‘Atemnately, finding the currents in 3R, and Xo respec Lively, we arrive ate same resatt: ‘Let be the curent in the generator neural: then, y= oy =3( Ee a Ete) 12:20. 562.4 " aR.) (R, ) 2260 “With X_= 6780.9 per phase, the fault current contsibution from the capacitance is aE 312,700) 2 Blog = th me = J5.62A feat Te yer80 “The toa fault curent,Tua is equal 1031p = Int Taga = 5.62 + 5.62 = 795145" A 1 isthe current flowing in the generator noua for a SLG fault atthe generator terminals, The current le flowing in the distribution transformer secondary wiring and through the resistor, R, is l, mullplied by the tums ratio of the distribution wanstormer: sal). tn o50( 222) ana 24‘Tue voliage across the secondary resistor is: The resistor rating is: Vas ba (R) =311 (0.738) = 229.5 ‘The latter two quantities, Vp and are the ones avaiable for setting relays. Thereader is reminded that he resistance -valueof the grounding resistor was selected on the bsis of ‘the zero sequence capacitancesin the system, Thecontinu- kw. lage XV 1000 (220.5)311) BON 14 ‘us ratings of the resistor and grounding transformer © The transformer shouldbe rated at: ‘chosen assuming atu neural voltage shift (due 10a SLG fault at the generator terminal). As shown above, Vp for this condition and this example is 229.5V. This implies continuous ratings for both resistor and transformer of at least 71.4 KW: kwe AATING *! 99. 1000 = ROG 748Section 5 ABNORMAL FREQUENCY PROTECTION EC. Fermell Flocida Power & Light Juno Beach, FL. Abstract Both the generator and the turbine ae limited in the degree of abnormal frequency operation that ean be tolerated; Atreduced frequencies, there willbe a retaction {in the ouput capability ofa generator. The turbine, espe- cially seam and gas turbines, are considered to be more ‘restrictive than tie generator at reduced frequencies be- ‘cause of possible mechanical resonances in the many stages of turbine blades. Deperure from rated speed ‘nderload will bring stimules frequencies closer to one or ‘more ofthe natural frequencies of the various blades and ‘there will be an increase in vibratory stresses. As vibratory stresses increase, amage is accumulated which may lead (cracking of some pans of te blade structure Primary undertrequency protection for turbine generators is provided by the implememation of automatic lad sted- ing programs on the power system. These load shedding programs sbould be designed so that for the maximum possible overload condition, sulficient load is shed to ‘uickly sestore system frequency to near noni Backup protection for underfrequency conditions is provided by the use of one or more underfrequency relays and ier on ‘each generator, The underfrequency relays and timers are usually connected to tip the generator. INTRODUCTION When a power system is in stable operation at normal frequency, the total mechanical power input from the prime mover to the generators is equal to the sum of the connected toads, and all real power loses in the system. A significant upset ofthis balance causes anabnormalsystcin frequency condition. The abnormal frequency conditions ‘can cause generators wo trip or te Hines to open from ‘overioad or parts of the system to separate due wo power swings and resulting instabliry, This could result in the ower system separating into one or moce electrically ‘sola islands, ‘Most utilities have implemented an automated load shed- «ing program to prevent both total system collapses as well asminimize the possibilty of equipment damage during an M. Bajpai Arizona Public Service Phoenix, AZ ‘abnormal frequency operating condition. These load shed. ‘ing programs are desigued wo: + Shed just enough ioads to relieve the overtoading on ‘connected generation, * Minimize the risk of damage to the generating plant. + Mitigate the possibtity of cascading the event as a result ofa unit underfeequency tr + Quickly restore system frequency to near ‘normal Two types of abnormal frequency conditions can a power system: on 1. Underfrequency condition oceuss on a power system. as a result of a sudden reduction in input power rough the loss of a generator(s) ot key intetie(s) {importing power. "This can produce’a decline in the ectine. 2. Am overfrequency condition occurs as @ result of & sudden loss of load or key intertis exporting pover The prime mover outputs supplying the initial load drop is absorbed by accelerating these units and ean resultinan increase in system frequency, ‘There are two major considerations associated with oper- ating a generating plant at an abnormal frequency. These + Prowection of equipment from damage that could re sul from operation at an abnomnal frequency. ‘+ Prevention of inadvertent wipping of the generating Unit fora recoverable abnormal frequency condition that does notexceed the plantequipmentdesiga init, ‘The inajor parts of a generauing plant that ate affected by abnormal frequency operation are generator, step tans formers, turbine, and te stauon auxiliary loads. Theeffect ‘of sbnonnal frequency conditions on these major pars of ‘a gencration plant will be discussed in tis section, along with recommended protection speed of the generator, resulling in system trequetieynt STEAM GENERATING PLANT - ABNORMAL, FREQUENCY OPERATION ‘A. Genetaior Oven aderfrequeney Capability While no standards have been established for abnormal frequency operation of synchzonous generators, tisrecog: nized that reduced frequency results in reduced venti ‘ion; therefore, operation atreduced frequency should beat reduced kVA During an underfeequency operation ofthe unit, itisalmost certain fo be accompanied by high value of foad current sdiavn from tbe generator. This eould rest in exceeding the short-time thermal capability of the generator, The permissible sbon-time operating levels for both ibe stator ‘nd rotor (or cylindrical rotor synchronous generators are specified in ANSI C5013, The limitations oa generators ‘operating in an underfeequency condition are less restric: live dhant those placed on Whe turbine, However, when _generator protection is required, ithas teen industry prac lice to provide overcurrent protecuon, Overtrequency is usually the result of a suen reduction nload and therefore is usualy associated with light-load ‘or no-load operation, During overfrequency operation, achive ventilation is improved and the flax densities tor a given lenninal volage are reduced, Therefore, operation ‘within the overfrequentcy limits of the turbine wit) not produce generator overheating $0 long as tated kVA and ‘ated voltage are not exceeded, deere (ae I the generator voltage regulator is tefl in service at significantly reduced frequencies, de vols per bert Lin tation ofa generaior could be exceeded. However, most incidents of excessive vols per lertz occur for reasons other than reduced frequency operation and are addressed in another section of bis tworial , Turbine Over Inderfrequency Capability “The primary consideration in operation of a steam wibine undedoad at oer than the synchronous Gequetcy isthe protetion of te Long uined blading inthe low pressure {urbineclement Figure llutatesacomposte represent {ng the most restrictive limits rete to ANST C37.106) for lage steam turbine paral oF fl-toad operating limita ‘ons uringabrovmnal frequency. Operation of these stages andedoad, ata speed hatcauses coincidence of blading, atu frequency band wil ead toblading fatigue damage and ultimately blading failures. This problem can be pac- ticularly severe when negative sequence current ow ‘trout the generator armature, tereby exiting torsional foquencies, blade reservance around 120 Ha Overtrequency protectinnis generally notapplied because govemor nunback controls oF operator actions ae counted ‘upon o correct te tsbine speed. However, considerations ‘ust be given to the impact on overspeed protection and he isolation oF te wot during an overtrequency condition This is necessary in order to ensure coordination and: provecion lor trbine blades For ¥erfrequency condisions. Since te operating limits forthe units are the same as shown in Figure 1 above the 60 Hz line ALELERE Figure 1 Typical Steam Turbine Partial or Full-Load (Operating Limitations During Abnormal Frequency 27b Ba Figure 2 Protection Scheme - Block Diagram = SET ( Frequeney Band Comments 600.595 = ‘No relay action - urbe can operate contouowsly. 98 Noo | Frequency rconder alana . 595.585 ~~ | Sysieanoperaior mus toed fad oriole Be ual : : mihin 30a a set nto 585 S10 in ”| “Toei hand By vip or alm defending on seams india wae procter For aa fe opera {us these rexpective ines shed oad oe slate the wnt ‘Table 1 Frequency and Timer Settings for above scherne a ra ow. Wott ye | 7” SaRIRP TO ono gah ? * } Figure 3. Application Example 28Protection methods for preventing turbine operation out- side the prescribed tims willberestrictedtounderfroquency protection. System load shedding schemes provide the ‘primary turbine underfrequency protection, Appropriate ‘oad shedding can cause the system frequency to return to ‘normal before the turbine abnormal Knits are exceeded. Automatic Joad shedding underfrequency relays are used 10 shed the required amount of load needed to maintain a ‘ond-to-generation balance during a system overtoad. ‘Tuerefore; operation at frequencies other than rated or near ‘ated speed is time-resrited 1 the limits forthe various ‘frequency bands published by each turbine manufacturer for various blade designs. The abnormal frequency limits are generally based on worst-case conditions because: 1, The natural frequencies of blades withina stage differ due to manufacturing tolerance, 2. The fatigue may increase with normal operation for ‘seasons such as pitng, corrosion and erosion ofthe blade edges. 3. Tholimitshouldalsorecognize the eftecof ditional Joss of bade life incurred during abnormal operating Conditions not associated with under-speed or over= speed operation. Power systems whose designs are such that system islands, ant Foomied because of load shedding schemes or unfore- seen circumstances should consider uiierfrequéncy pro tection of the turbine generator to reduce the risk of steam, turbine damage in the island area, In addition, turbine _Renerator underfrequency protection provides backup pro: tection against the failure of te load shedding system. A typical relay scheme to provide generator trips during an lunderfrequency condition from which the system could recover, yet minimize the risk of damaging the aubine is shown in Figure 2, Table I summarizes the frequency and timer settings used in Figure 2 ‘The dotted line in Figure 3 represents the characteristic of the relay settings and the solid line represents the turbine ‘damage limits, The following design criteria are suggested as guidelines in the development of an underrequency protection scheme: 1. Establish wip points and time delays based on the ‘manufacturers turbine abnormal frequency nits, 2. Coordinate the turbine generator underfequency tip ping relays withthe system auromated load shedding program, 3, allure of a single underfrequency relay should not cause an unnecessary tip of the machine, 4, Failure of a single undertrequency telay to operate ‘during an underfrequency condition should at jeop- ardize the overall protecive scheme, ‘5. Relays sbould be selected based on their accuracy, speed of operation, and reset capability 6. The thine underfrequency protection system should bein service whenever the unit is syncbronized tothe system or while separated from the system but supply- ing auxiliary power, 7, Provide separate alarms to alert the operator of a system frequency less than normal and an indication of a pending ip of the unit. Rows: Steam Plant Auailiary « Undertreawency ‘Considerations ‘The ability ofthe steam supply system to continue opera: tion during an extended period of underfrequency opera ‘von depends on tie margin in capacity of the auniliary motor drives and shaft-trive loads. The most limiting auxiliary equipment is generally the boiler foed pumps, circutaing water pomps, and condensate pumps, since cach pereentol speed reduction causes larger percents 9f capacity. The critical frequency at which the pertoe” ‘mance of the pumps will affect the plant output will vary from plant to plant. Consequently, the minimum safe frequency evel for maintaining plant output is dependent fon each plant and the equipment desiga and capacity associated with each generating unit Provection against undertrequency operation is usvally allocated (© the thermal protective equipment, but more refined protection is possible using a frequency sensitive relay ofa volt per hertz relay, which will measure acwal system conditions NUCLEAR GENERATING PLANTS - ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OPERATION A. Tusbine Geucrasor Ovectndertrequency, Capabily| ‘The wibine generator considerations that affect operations of the plant are in general, the same as those discussed in the section on steam generating plants -23-‘8: Nuclear Power Plant Ausiliares-Undesfrequsncy ‘Considesations ‘The major effect of an underfrequency condition on the plant auxiliary system is to cause various outputs of elec- trical coolant pomp lows.in the nuclear seam system tobe reduced. Operation as a result of reduced flows in pats of the system may be detrimental tthe plant equipment. The nuclear plant designs that are based on pressurized water ‘reactor (PWRY and boiling water reactor (BWR) are ana- lyzed separately because their responses to abnormal fr ‘quency operation differ. PWR Plaats ‘The impact of abnormal frequencies on PWR units is its effecton the reactor coolant pump speed, which varies with the power system frequency. Ifthe frequency at the plant collapses, the reactor willbe tripped automatically when this condition results in reduced coolant flow through the reactor. When the reactor trips the generatorisalso tripped and the reactor is shuldown with the reactor coolant pump connected to the power system. Ifthe frequency continues todecay at arate greater than the design coast-downrate of the reactor coolant pump, the reactor coolant flow ate will be forced down by the decaying system frequency. This condition could result in a challenge to the safe operation (of the plant, This is one of the most seriousimpacts that a ‘underfrequency condition can impose on a PWR plant. Tn addressing the problem indicated above, one possible solution i isolate the reactor coolant pumps fom the power system ifthe system frequency decay exceeds the ‘pump design coast Syswen backup protection as it is applied to ‘generator protection consists of time delay relaying to detect system faults, requiring the wipping ofthe generator, ‘which have not been propery isolated by primary system relaying, This section ofthe tutorial covers te basic types. ff system backup protection that are in wide use for ‘symchtonous genesis, The types of protective relays ‘used, their purpose and seting considerations are dis ‘cussed as well as the consequence of not having the ‘protection installed. INTRODUCTION ‘System backup protection asis applied to generator protec: tion consists of time delay protection for lne-to-ground ‘and multiphase fault conditions. Backup geueratorprotec- live schemes are used to protect against failure of the primary system protective relaying and a subsequent long clearing system faults, The trade off in this typeof relaying Sseheme i gerry, Since ese Cidions We ow of the Figure 1 Application of System Backup Relays— ‘Unit Generator-Transformer Arrangement igure 18 Application of System Backup Relay-— Generator Connected Dizecly to the Systern power system, relay settings forthe backup must be sens: tive enough to detect these conditions This sets up a trade” ‘off between sensitivity and security of tbe generator. ‘Figure 1 shows the basic types of backup protection used ‘on unit-connected and direct-connected synchronous gen- ‘erators. Backup protection is generally divided into phase fault backup protection and ground fault backup protec tion, Phase fault prowection is provided by the 21. 51, or 51 Veelays. Ground fault protections provided by the SIN telay connected to the step-up transformer high side nev ‘ral, The 46 negative sequence relay provides protection for unbalanced phase and ground faults but nat for bal anc ee pase faults PHASE FAULT PROTECTION ‘As shown in Figure 1, current wansformers for phase fault protection are normally connected tothe neutral side ofthe {geverator to provide-addional backup protection forthe. “generator, Potential transformess are connected 00, th generator bus, The backup protection is time delayed to ‘assure coordination with the primary system relaying Backup phase proxection is nomally provided by two types of relays, overcurrent and distance. Backup, ‘overcurrent protection is used when te lines are protected biyovercurent relays and distance protection isused when “The Tines are prowseted with phase distance relays. GrercarreRT HACTp relays ae Utica To coorOMate With Fine distance relays because of we changes in tip ume for ‘overcuirent relays for diferent system conditions. Phase backup relaying (51'V and 21) may besupervised by ‘vollage balance relay \o prevent false Uipping for loss of. potential of open circuiting of te potential coil. When these relays are applied as primary wipping for smaller units, they maybe designed to trip on lss of poretial, This is normally done by using a voltage balance relay 10 compare the output of two sets of vollage transformers --conpected.o the generator terminal, ‘Backup phase fault protestion also provides backup pro- tection for the generator and step-up transformer zones. before the generator is synehronized 10 the gystem. A. ‘eneralnote, te generator aultcurrentscandecay quickly ducing low voltage conditions created by aclose in fault. Inthese applications the fault curemt decrement curve forthe eneratorexciter should be reviewed carefully for time constants and currents, See the Fundamentals Section for sore details ‘Oveccuneat Phase Backup ‘The simplest type of overcurrent phase backup protection isthe 51 overcurrent relay. The $1 relay most be set above Joad and have a long enough time delay to ride through generator swings. A the same time it must be set low enough (o tip for reinote phase favls for various system conditions. Inmost cass, reliable seting criteria cannot be met on a realistic system. The most recent survey of ‘generator backup practices found minimal applications of ‘overcurrent (51) backup, “The pickup setting ofthis type of relay would normally be 1.510 2.0 times the maximum rated current forthe genera {or to prevent false trips. Coordination requirements usu ally cause the time delay to exceed 5 seconds, Since the ‘generator fant currentdecaystoneas rated fll load current asdetermined by synchronous reactance and the generator time constant, Ue relay setting willbe too bigh wo pickup. ‘Only n'a small number of applications will the system cootdination requirements and whe generator time cow: ‘tants allow a reliable setting for a simple overcurrent backup. "The mostased group-of-overcarren phase baokyp.clays sons grothewoliagerestrained and voltage contolled overcurrent relays. Both of these relays allow gettngs below load current of the generator to provide lower sensitivity to system faults. Tbe voltage contotled overcurent relay disables the overcurrent tripping until the voliage drops below a set level. If generator fault voltages for remote faultsare well below the normal operating voltage levels of the generator, the overcurrent function can be safely re- strained by the voltage, unit of the voliage controled overcurrent. The voltage restrained overcurrent relay ‘changes the pickup ofthe overcurrent unit proportion to the vollage which desensitizes the rlay to oad curents ‘increasing sensitivity (6 faults whICh drop the volt age and pickup of the relay. Both of these relays depend on a voltage drop during the fault condition to function property. For generators con nected to a weak system, voltage drops for system faults ‘may not be different enough trom normal volige 1 provi a.safe.margin. 1 this is ve. then the ability 10 voltage supervise the overcurrent protection will nt pro- Vide the needed security and the backup protection aust be set t00 high to be effetive. a 3 rap Sotlog at tea vonage a8 Tap Setting a6 % 0 2 80 7500 Input Voltage (% of rated votago) Figure 2 Voltage Restraint Overcurrent Relay Characteristic “The generator current fora three phase faults lowest for sn unloaded generator with te regulator out of service. ‘Tisisthe worse case conditions used for seting these two types of relays, Fora voltage consoled relay the pickup setting sbould be 30% to 404% of full oad cutent. Because the tipping times of he backup overcurrent relays are delayed about seconds or more the generator curents shouldbe calculated using te synebronous reactance of the generator and the voltage bebind the sytchronoos reactanceot he generator. With teregulataroutof service and only minimal auxiliary load, a typical vale forthe vollagebehind thesynchronousreactane isapproximately «2 perunt-Givenetypica enersterimpedance of LS per. snit-and-# teppetensformer impedance of 1 pu the ‘maximum steady stat: curent will be.7 pe unit without fied boosting Thecharacteristicofatypica vollagerestained overcurrent telay is shown in Figure 2, Pickup ofa volage restrained overcurrent sbould be set at 150% of generator rated current with ated voltagerestrant. This wil typically give apickup of 25% of generator rated current with O% voltage sestrant. This wil give a proportional pickup for volages Detween 0% and 100% rated restraint. Note that these settings do not normally allow the backup relaying to protect for faults on the auxiliary bus because ofthe large Impedance of the station service transformer. “Time delay setting should be based on worst-case coordi ration with system protective relays, The worst-case is usually a delayed tip with breaker failure clearing times. For line relays with pilot relaying the worse case used is {just delayed tripping because a delayed wip with breaker failure assumes both afallure of pilot relaying anda failure ‘of te breaker. This is usually too conservative and very low probability, Coordination is usually calculated with exo voltage restraint. This is a conservative approach since in reality tome voltage restaint is present and will ‘work to improve the conninationORO et oat oto O4tHoO—5 Figure 3 Complex System Configuration with Mullipl Iofeeds Some generator excite systems use only power potential twansformers (PPT) connected othe generator erninals as {input power to the field excitation, These exciter systems ‘may notbe able tosustain faulccurrentslong enough forthe ‘backup protective relaying to operate, Ths curent reduc. Yon must be taken intoaccount when setting the relay time delay forthe PPT based systems, The second typeof backup phase protections the distance relay. According tothe most rent uty survey, the distance relay was by far the most used phase backup otecon. Typically one zone of distance relayig witha tmbo cbanicteriscis applied I the generators connected Utroughacels-grounded we step-up transformer crain relays equ auxin wansformers ich shi “potential pase angleomach te syne vleges for sytem fil ob deed comedy. See igre 1 ‘The distance relay application requires a seing which aches far enough wo cover a fault for failure of the line relaying going out of the power stauon, Tis seting is ‘complicated by infeed effects and different line lengths (Figure 3) when muliple ines connect the generator othe system. The infeed effets require the setting to be much bigher than the line impedance. Coordination with tine Protective devices is usually required forcing aime which {slonger than second zone clearing time for the line fat. In addition to this, the setting must remain conservatively above the machine rating to prevent inadvertent trips on ‘eneraiey swings and severe voltage disturbances. This itera normally require compromises inthe desired pro: tection 1 maintain generator security ‘There are-a number of considerations in setting phase distance backup relays. For applications where high speed Protection of the local-switchryand i eyulved, a to zone application is requised with the first zone timer set to coordinate witha bigh speed line relaying plus a breaker {allure time. This seting can usually aecommodateinfeeds. However, therearetwo problems with tis seting: 1) Ihe lines. out of the power station are relatively short, the {impedance ofthe step-up transformer may cause the short ‘one to see beyond the line protection, Seting the relay ‘with margin to allow for errors in impedances may add ‘ore impedance tothe sting than the short line. 2) A, ‘problem for older relay protective schemes with no zero vollage fault protection where the close-in fault causes the ‘wipping unit ofthe relay not to operate, no zero voltage « *fauliprowectionexsis onthe power systeen bus; high speed Uuippg ofthe generator is required to prevent reclosing out-of-phase from remote end transmission relays, The benefits fom shorter tipping times for faults within the ‘one betwoen the generator breakers and the backup dis- tance relay are minimized by the slow field decay and _generater coast down characteristics. ‘The long reach sing shouldbe checked for coordination ‘with the auxiliary bus relays. The long reach setting must allow for the. regulator response to short time system overonds and allow for recoverable generator swings Because of these conditions distance relays should be set o ‘carry more than 200% of the MVA cating ofthe generator, BACKUP GROUND PROTECTION Figure | sbows the location of the backup ground protec- tion relays. For whe unit-eonnected generator the clay i tecaiéa tthe neta o the spp uansornge, " In the difécuy-colmected generator, the backup relay 1s connected {0 a current transformer in the neutral of the _Beneratr. In some applications, itis advantageous fo have ‘both an off-line and on-line backup ground celay. Price wo synchronizing the low set ground relay on the unit con. ected generator can protect the high side transformer bushings and leads to the generator breakers with high speed trip. With the generator breaker open, there is no need to coordinste with system relays. The direct con- ‘ected generator can provide bigh speed grourd protection {or the zone up tothe generator breaker in off-line oper lion, The relay used for backup ground protection i the simple time overcurent relay with an inverse or very inverse time characteris, This off-line relay shouldbe set at a minimum seting. The ‘on-line relay should be Set to coordinate withthe slowest round fault protection on the system, Particular attention shouldbe paid © coordination with ground distance pro- tection on the: transmission tnes:“Any-highr resistance round fault ouside the reach of the ground distance relay sbould not be seen by the backup ground relays.“The backup ground protection shnuld pickup for ground faults atthe end ofall ines out ofthe station, Coordination ‘equines the pickup to be atleast 15% to 25% higher than ‘the highest ground relay seting, For lines protected by ‘ground distance relays, the backup relay should be set ‘above the highest sysiem ground distance relay's fault resistance limit to provide coordination, < sont i Relauns ‘The negative sequence relay bas been covered in detail in nother section ofthis torial. This section wll emphasize tbe relay characteristics as they apply to system backup protection, The negative sequence relay should be se to protect the generator based on rated current capabilities from ANSIC50,13, lis Gesirable tosot We relay to protect. ‘for system series unbalance which requires the use of the sensitive slatic relay. A low setting will allow the negative sequence relay to protect the generator for open conductor conditions which may nol be detected by any other relay proteetion “The most recent survey on backup protection showed ‘minimal operations of the negative sequence overcurrent relays for faults on the power system. This validates the ‘idea tat setting the negative sequence relays atthe genera- toccapabiity down to continuous ratings silleaves large ‘coordination iargin between the wipping times of system “oultmqectign aiid generibr negalvetegusice ro ‘tection, On the other hand, getierator negative sequeince relays inay not be good backup for system faults because ‘of additional equipment damage due to long tipping time ‘before the faults cleared and subsequent generator insta- bility for the extended fault clearing mes. As pointed out before, the negative sequence relay does not protect for ‘balanced three phase faults, CONSEQUENCE! ‘As was stated at the beginning of this section there are ‘ade-offs in the application of system backup protection. "The most recent survey of the industry on this topic outlined both the risks in security and sensitivity, Inthe survey a total of 46 operations of backup protection ‘were reported by Ue respondents. Out ofthis tua there ‘were 26 correct operations and. 19 incorrect operation. ‘Tebackup ground protection hath fewestmisoperatons “The phase and negative sequence operations were fiarly evenly split between comtect and incorrect. OF these misoperaons, nine were faulty ox maladjusted relays, thee were wiring eros, ures were incorect stings, tiree were open potent! circuits, and one was personne] error. These misoperations emphasize the need for caret] application and implementation of the backup protection ‘Walso nderins the fact iat these relay sebemes are secure when applied andimplemented comecty. “The survey also outlined three events which occurred as a esul of not having backup relays, Two resulted in a fice that burned up six cubicles as a result ofa failed breakers "The third reported generator damage asaresultof one hour ‘of operation with on pole of he high side breaker open. One other incident with lack of backup protection has been reported tothe author. Iwasa long clearing ground fault resulting from a 230 kV breaker failure operation which resulted in damage on two generator rotors because of negative sequence electromechanical relay sensitivities. CONCLUSIONS ‘The application of generator backup protection involves. the careful consideration of trade-offs between sensitivity ‘and security, The risks in applying backup protection can be minimized by careful consideration of the points dis: cided in tis section of the tnloriak"Mhesesisksare fa. ‘outweighed! bythe wonsequences of at-having. proper Dackup protection, REFERENCES 1. “ASurvey of Generator Back-up Protection Practices {TERE Comuitee Repor," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No.2, April 1990, pp 575-584. ‘gins, TA. Holly, HJ.and Wall,L.A., "Generator Representation and Characteristics For Three Phase Falls,” Georgia latin of Technology Relay Con ference, 1989. ANSI/IEEE C37.102-1987, "Guide for AC GeneratorSee yn 12 INADVERTENT GENERATOR ENERGIZING CJ. Mozina Beckwith Elecuic Co, Largo, FL Abstract Inadvertent oraccidenta energiing ofsynchro- ‘nous generators his been a particular problem within the industry in recent years. A significant number of large ‘machines bave been damaged or, in some cases, com pletely destroyed when they were accidentally energized while offline. The frequency of these occurrences as ‘prompied major U.S. generator manufacturers to recom ‘mend that te problem be addrested through dedicated protective relay schemes. INTRODUCTION Cnsavetent or secidental energization of lrg turbine generaors bas occured frequnly enough witin tie industry in recent years to warrant concer, When a get ator igenegid wile off-line on turing gear or cnet ing astopitbebaves a a induction motor and can be damaged within afew seconds, Turbine damage can aso ~oeue significant uate of tage machines have be severly. damaged and..is some. cages, completely he, suoyed Ae cost othe ules for uch an oceurence is otonly the es of repair of replacement of te damaged anacine, Bute substanal cost of purchasing replace snen, power dating the period when te uit is out of Servce\Operang errs, breaker bead Mashoves consol circa uncdons ore combination ofthese causes have rege in generators becoming accidently energized aie offline) (Operating Exons - Operating erors have increased within the industry as bigh voltage generating stations bave be comemore complex with the use of breaker-and-a-halfand sing bus configurations. Figure 1 shows typical one-line dingrams for two such sutions, “These station designs provide sufficient flexibiliy toallow single bigh voliage generator breaker (Aor B) to be taker ‘out-of-service without also requiring the unit 10 be re moved Crom service. Breaker disconnect switches (not shown) are available 1 isolate the breaker fox reps. When the unitis off-line, however, generator breakers (A and B) are generally retumed to secvice as bus breakers to com- plete a row ina breaker-and-2-bal station or to complete a ring bus. This results in the generator being isolated from GC. Pare ABB Power T&D Co, Binningham, AL. oH EH @ PaURE! 0 TyBCA ara, {yptoN maou om RS the system dough only an open high voltage disconect suite ($1), Additonal isolation fom the power system can be provided by removing generator straps of other sectionlizin devices inthe generator sophase bs. Gen- erally, tes isopase bus devices are opened to provide safety clearances or itolaon for extended unit outages. “Therease many instances in which the high voliag@ discon rect switch (S1) provides the ontyisclaon geen the ‘machine andthe sytem, Even with extensive ileriocks between te generator breakers (A and B) a tbe discon- rect switch ($1 to prevent accidental switch closure, a signifi number of cases have been reotded of vis beingaccidenaly energized rough his disconnectswitch while one, Compounding this problem isthe possi ity tat some or all generator protection, for one reason or auothes, may be disabled during this pao. ‘Another path for inadvertent energizing of a generator is ‘through the unit auxiliary system by accidental closure of ‘unit auxiliary transformer breakers (C oD), Because of the higher impedance in his path, the currents and result ‘ng damage are much lower than those experienced by the generator when it is energized from the power system, ‘Becaker Head Mashover' The extreme dielectric suess associated with HV and EHV breakers and the small ‘contact gap spacing associated with theirbigh-speed inter ‘upling requirement can lead to coniact Mashovet. This flashover of contacts (generally one oF two poles) isan ‘other method by which generators have been inadvertently ‘energized. The isk ofa flashover ts greater just prior to synchronizing or just after the unit is removed from ser-vice, During this period, the voliuge: across the open generator breaker can be twice nonmal as the unit slips angularly with the system. lossof pressure in some ypes ‘of HV and EH breakers during hisperiodcanresultin te flashover ofa breaker pole(s), energizing the generator and causing significant flow of damaging unbalanced current in the generator windings, This unique breaker failure ‘condition must be quickly detected and isolated to preveot ‘Major generator damnage ‘Large machines connected tothe system through medium- voltage generator breakers have also been inadvertently energized, The use of these medium-voliage generator ‘breakers allows more operating flexibility than the tradi- tional unitconnected configuration, Figure 2 shows a ‘one-line diagram fortis design ‘When the generator is off-line, breaker E is opened to provide isolation from we system. This allows the unit auxiliary transformer to remain energized and carrying load when the generator is out of service and to provide startup power when the generators brought on-line. There have heen reported cases of accidental closures of breaker and pole flashovers resulting from loss of dielectric strength i Figure Station with Low Volusge Generator Breaker GENERATOR RESPONSE TO. INADVERTENT ENERGIZING ‘Generalor Resoonseto Thee: Pace Enesstiag - When a generale is accidentally energived with Uxee-phasesys- tem voluge while on turning gear, itbehaves aan indue- tion motor. During thre-phase energization at standstill, rolating.flux.at synchronous frequency is induced in the generator foo. The resulting rotor eureot i fored ina sbetansient pats inthe rotor body and damper windings (if Wey exis) similar to Wose rotor curen. paths for negative sequence stator currents during generator single piliasing. The machine impedance during this high slip interval i equivalent ois negative sequence impedance (R,,+iK,). The resistive component ofthe impedance is usualy neglected. The negative sequence machine reac- ‘ance isapproximatelyequaltotheaveragecfbemachine's

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