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Fatigue
Fatigue
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
MicrostructureProperties:II
Fatigue
27-302
Lecture 9
Fall, 2002
Prof. A. D. Rollett
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
MaterialsTetrahedron
Processing
Performance
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Microstructure
Properties
Design
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Objective
The objective of this lecture is to explain the
phenomenon of fatigue and also to show how
resistance to fatigue failure depends on
microstructure.
For 27-302, Fall 2002: this slide set contains
more material than can be covered in the time
available. Slides that contain material over
and above that expected for this course are
marked *.
Design
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
References
Mechanical Behavior of Materials (2000), T. H.
Courtney, McGraw-Hill, Boston.
Phase transformations in metals and alloys, D.A.
Porter, & K.E. Easterling, Chapman & Hall.
Materials Principles & Practice, Butterworth
Heinemann, Edited by C. Newey & G. Weaver.
Mechanical Metallurgy, McGrawHill, G.E. Dieter, 3rd
Ed.
Light Alloys (1996), I.J. Polmear, Wiley, 3rd Ed.
Hull, D. and D. J. Bacon (1984). Introduction to
Dislocations. Oxford, UK, Pergamon.
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
a :=
Alternating stress
m :=
Mean stress
R := Stress ratio
:=
strain
Nf :=
number of cycles to failure
A := Amplitude ratio
pl :=
Plastic strain amplitude
el :=
Elastic strain amplitude
K := Proportionality constant, cyclic stress-strain
n := Exponent in cyclic stress-strain
c :=
Exponent in Coffin-Manson Eq.;
also, crack length
E :=
Youngs modulus
b :=
exponent in Basquin Eq.
m :=
exponent in Paris Law
K :=
Stress intensity
K :=
Stress intensity amplitude
a :=
crack length
Notation
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Fatigue
Fatigue is the name given to failure in response to
alternating loads (as opposed to monotonic
straining).
Instead of measuring the resistance to fatigue
failure through an upper limit to strain (as in
ductility), the typical measure of fatigue resistance
is expressed in terms of numbers of cycles to
failure. For a given number of cycles (required in an
application), sometimes the stress (that can be
safely endured by the material) is specified.
Design
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Fatigue:generalcharacteristics
Primary design criterion in rotating parts.
Fatigue as a name for the phenomenon based on the
notion of a material becoming tired, i.e. failing at
less than its nominal strength.
Cyclical strain (stress) leads to fatigue failure.
Occurs in metals and polymers but rarely in ceramics.
Also an issue for static parts, e.g. bridges.
Cyclic loading stress limit<static stress capability.
Microstr.
effects
Design
Fatigue:generalcharacteristics
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
SNCurves
S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines
locus of cycles-to-failure for given cyclic stress.
Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also
alternating tension-compression.
[Hertzberg]
Plot stress versus the
log(number of cycles
to failure), log(Nf).
[see next slide,
also Courtney figs. 12.8, 12.9]
10
Fatiguetesting,SNcurve
mean3>mean2>mean1
mean1
mean2
mean3
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
logNf
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Notethepresenceofa
fatiguelimitinmany
steelsanditsabsence
inaluminumalloys.
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Dieter]
11
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
EnduranceLimits
Some materials exhibit endurance limits, i.e. a
stress below which the life is infinite: [fig. 12.8]
Steels typically show an endurance limit, = 40% of
yield; this is typically associated with the presence
of a solute (carbon, nitrogen) that pines
dislocations and prevents dislocation motion at
small displacements or strains (which is apparent
in an upper yield point).
Aluminum alloys do not show endurance limits;
this is related to the absence of dislocation-pinning
solutes.
At large Nf, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.
Therefore strengthening the surface (shot peening) is
beneficial to delay crack nucleation and extend life.
12
Fatiguefracture
surface
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Hertzberg]
13
Fatiguecrackstages
Stage1
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Stage2
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Dieter]
14
FatigueCrackPropagation
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
15
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
FatigueCrackNucleation
Flaws, cracks, voids can all act as crack nucleation
sites, especially at the surface.
Therefore, smooth surfaces increase the time to
nucleation; notches, stress risers decrease fatigue
life.
Dislocation activity (slip) can also nucleate fatigue
cracks.
Microstr.
effects
Design
16
DislocationSlipCrackNucleation
Dislocation slip -> tendency to localize slip in bands.
[see slide 10, also Courtney fig. 12.3]
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
17
Objective
Crack
Initiation
Slipsteps
andthe
stressstrain
loop
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
18
DesignPhilosophy:DamageTolerant
Design
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
19
Definitions:StressRatios
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
Alternating Stress a
Mean stress m = (max +min)/2.
Pure sine wave Mean stress=0.
Stress ratio R = max/min.
For m = 0, R=-1
Amplitude ratio A = (1-R)/(1+R).
Statistical approach shows significant
distribution in Nf for given stress.
20
AlternatingStressDiagrams
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Dieter]
21
MeanStress
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
endurancelimitatzeromeanstress
mean
a = fat
1
tensilestrength
Design
tensilestrength
mean
22
Cyclicstrainvs.cyclicstress
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
23
Cyclicstressstraincurve
Objective
Crack
Initiation
[Courtney]
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
24
Cyclicstressstrain
Wavy-slip materials
generally reach asymptote
in cyclic stress-strain:
planar slip materials (e.g.
Objective
brass) exhibit history
Crack
dependence.
Initiation
Cyclic stress-strain curve
SN
defined by the extrema,
curves
i.e. the tips of the
Cyclic
hysteresis loops. [Courtney
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Courtney]
fig. 12.27]
25
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
CyclicStrainControl
Strain is a more logical independent variable
for characterization of fatigue. [fig. 12.11]
Define an elastic strain range as el = /E.
Define a plastic strain range, pl.
Typically observe a change in slope between
the elastic and plastic regimes. [fig. 12.12]
Low cycle fatigue (small Nf) dominated by
plastic strain: high cycle fatigue (large Nf)
dominated by elastic strain.
Design
26
Straincontrol
offatigue
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
[Courtney]
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
27
CyclicStraincontrol:lowcycle
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
=f (2N f )
28
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
CyclicStraincontrol:highcycle
For elastic-dominated strains
at high cycles, adapt = E e = (2N )b
a
f
Basquins equation:
2
Intercept on strain axis of extrapolated
elastic line = f/E.
High cycle = elastic strain control:
slope (in elastic regime) = b = -n/(1+5n)
[Courtney, fig. 12.13]
29
Strainamplitudecycles
Objective
Crack
Initiation
[Courtney]
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
30
Totalstrain(plastic+elastic)life
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
31
FatigueCrackPropagation
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
Crack Length := a.
Number of cycles := N
Crack Growth Rate := da/dN
Amplitude of Stress Intensity := K = c.
Define three stages of crack growth, I, II and III,
in a plot of da/dN versus K.
Stage II crack growth: application of linear elastic fracture
mechanics.
Can consider the crack growth rate to be related to the applied
stress intensity.
Crack growth rate somewhat insensitive to R (if R<0) in Stage II
[fig. 12.16, 12.18b]
32
FatigueCrackPropagation
da/dN
I
II
Kc
III
Design
Kth
33
*ParisLaw
Paris Law:
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
dc
m
=A(K )
dN
m ~ 3 (steel); m ~ 4 (aluminum).
Crack nucleation ignored!
Threshold ~ Stage I
The threshold represents an endurance
limit.
For ceramics, threshold is close to KIC.
Crack growth rate increases with R (for
R>0). [fig. 12.18a]
34
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
*Striationsmechanism
Striations occur by development of slip bands
in each cycle, followed by tip blunting,
followed by closure.
Can integrate the growth rate to obtain cycles
as related to cyclic stress-strain behavior. [Eqs.
12.6-12.8]
cf
dc
NII =
c dc/ dN
0
cf
dc
NII =
m
A
( c)
c0
Design
35
*Striations,contd.
Provided that m>2 and is constant, can integrate.
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
If the initial crack length is much less than the final length, c 0<cf, then approximate
thus:
A1( )m 1(m/ 2)
NII =
c0
(m/ 2) 1
Microstr.
effects
Design
36
*DamageTolerantDesign
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
37
Geometricaleffects
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
38
MicrostructureFatigueRelationships
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
39
MicrostructureaffectsCrackNucleation
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
da/dN
I
II
Kc
III
Kth
40
DefectsinMaterials
41
MetallurgicalControl:fineparticles
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
graphcourtesyofJ.
Staley,Alcoa
42
Coarseparticleeffectonfatigue
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
graphcourtesyofJ.
Staley,Alcoa
43
Objective
Crack
Initiation
Alloysteelheattreatment
Increasing hardness tends to raise the endurance
limit for high cycle fatigue. This is largely a function
of the resistance to fatigue crack formation (Stage I in
a plot of da/dN).
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Dieter]
44
Castingporosityaffectsfatigue
Gravity cast
versus
squeeze cast
versus
wrought
Al-7010
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Polmear]
45
Titaniumalloys
[Polmear]
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
For many Ti alloys, the proportion of hcp (alpha) and bcc (beta) phases
depends strongly on the heat treatment. Cooling from the two-phase region
results in a two-phase structure, as Polmears example, 6.7a. Rapid cooling
from above the transus in the single phase (beta) region results in a twophase microstructure with Widmansttten laths of (martensitic) alpha in a beta
matrix, 6.7b.
The fatigue properties of the two-phase structure are significantly better than
the Widmansttten structure (more resistance to fatigue crack formation).
46
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
*DesignConsiderations
If crack growth rates are normalized by the elastic
modulus, then material dependence is mostly
removed! [Courtney fig. 12.20]
Can distinguish between intrinsic fatigue [use Eq.
12.4 for combined elastic, plastic strain range] for
small crack sizes and extrinsic fatigue [use Eq. 12.6
for crack growth rate controlled] at longer crack
lengths. [fig. 12.21.]
Inspection of design charts, fig. 12.22, shows that
ceramics sensitive to crack propagation (high
endurance limit in relation to fatigue threshold).
Design
47
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
*DesignConsiderations:2
Metals show a higher fatigue threshold in
relation to their endurance limit. PMMA and
Mg are at the lower end of the toughness
range in their class. [Courtney fig. 12.22]
Also interesting to compare fracture
toughness with fatigue threshold. [Courtney fig.
12.23]
Design
48
*Fatigue
propertymap
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Courtney]
*Fatigue
propertymap
49
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
[Courtney]
50
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
*VariableStress/StrainHistories
When the stress/strain history is stochastically
varying, a rule for combining portions of
fatigue life is needed.
Palmgren-Miner Rule is useful: ni is the
number of cycles at each stress level, and Nfi
is the failure point for that stress.
[Ex. Problem 12.2]
Microstr.
effects
Design
ni
=1
i N fi
51
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
*FatigueinPolymers
Many differences from metals
Cyclic stress-strain behavior often exhibits
softening; also affected by visco-elastic
effects; crazing in the tensile portion produces
asymmetries, figs. 12.34, 12.25.
S-N curves exhibit three regions, with steeply
decreasing region II, fig. 12.31.
Nearness to Tg results in strong temperature
sensitivity, fig. 12.42
Design
52
Fatigue:summary
Objective
Crack
Initiation
SN
curves
Cyclic
stressstrn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design