1 2. COURSE INFORMATION This course will lead to Tankerman Highest Grade - as. The kourse entering form] has to be mailed or send by fax to Seagull A/S as soon as possible. You will get a unique student ID back and this must be used on all correspondence with us. A 8-part task follows the course including both theoretical and practical tasks. The practical exercises are important to complete. These tasks must be mailed to Seagull A/S. Task 1: Chap. Task 2: Chap. Task 3: Chap. Task 4: Chap. Task 5: Chap. Task 6: Chap. Task 7: Chap. Task 8: Chap. DUAUALRE The examination is shore based. Afer completion of the course and all the tasks have _been answered and sent to Seagull AS, you can mail the xamination entering form] to us. After Seagull A/S has received the entering form you will be informed where and when the examination is to be arranged. Take an active part in the course and work hard with the theoretical and practical statements given throughout the course. If there are any doubts during the course, contact Seagull A/S responsible instructor. This training course is approved by NMD and is in accordance with STCW 95 regulation W/l, paragraph 2.2 except fire fighting course, and ref. STCW 95 regulation V/1.1 and STCW 95 Regulation V/1, paragraph 2.2 and A-V/I 22 - 34. We recommend that you take all the tasks even if you are not participating on the course.Important 1, Remember to mail the course entering form. 2, Remember to mail the tasks and the print reports following the course, 3. Remember to mail the examination entering form, when ready. Mail address: Seagull A/S, Gamleveien 36, P.O.Box 1062, 1N-3194 Horten, NORWAY. Mark the envelope or email with task number Phone no.: +4733 03 09 10 Fax no.: 447 33 04 6279 Email seagull@sgull.com GOOD LUCK!MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 Gas Highest Grade Compendium Chapter 1 Introduction Department/Author: Approved by: Per Zaal Erik Frette Seagull Seagull © 2005 SEAGULL AS All rights reserved No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or otherwise copied without prior written permission of SEAGULL AS.MA-TC— DOCUMENT STATUS 94 A220. Sept 2007 Fie:K'-Trinngit-Manualerog underag\Tanker Operation ~ Gas\Revided 20071Gas\New compendiumiNow Chapter 1 inroduson doe Iesue No, Datervear Ine. by lsu No Datervear inc. by At 21.02.2006| RB/EF A2 | 20.09.2007] RB/EF Issue Paragraph Paragraph Heading! No. No. Description of Change At Updated with LNG. A2 General update. HG Chaptr 1 Iron :MA~TC— 159 A220 Sept 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page 1 INTRODUCTION 1 4.4 AsoursTOW. 1 12. Limranons oiscovereD 1 4/3 AMcNoMENTS ADOPTED IN 1995 2 14 EFFecrive Da 2 115 FAMILIARIZATION TRANING: 2 18 THE COURSE 3 177 PRODUCTION OF LiaUEFiED GASES 3 1.7.1 ACTUAL GAS CARGOE: vs nn) 172 LPG 4 47.3 NGL 6 1.7.4 COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. 5 175 LEG 5 1.7.6 AMMONIA NH 6 1.77 CHLORINE Cle. 6 178 LNG 6 1.8 LNG CONDENSATION PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM. 8 119 ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR HANDLING OF NATURAL GAS 9 4:10 THE Gas To Liguo (GTL) orion 10 411. CHEMICAL GASES. tt 4/42 SEA TRANSPORT OF LIQUEFIED GAS "1 413. The Worto FLEcT or LNG CaRRiens 14 4:44 LNG TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND INNOVATIONS w.nonsnnunsns nnn 15 1.15 INCREASED SIZE OF LNG CARRIERS. 7 146 SRV-ESRU:CNG won Sounnnnunnunananannsnann 7 1.16.1 SRV: Shuttle and regasification vessel 18 4.96.2 FSRU: (Floating Shuttle and Regasification Unit Svsnnnnanae 18 1.16.3 CNG: Compressed Natural Gas. 18 HG Chapter = rection 4MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 1 INTRODUCTION (STCW Code, sectionA-V/1 paragraph 9) Learning Objectives (On completion of this section the trainee should have a good knowledge of: - Qualifications standards according to STCW-Code. - Production of liquefied gases - Actual gas cargoes - Composition of natural gas - LNG condensation plat flow diagram - _ Altemative solutions for handling of natural gas - The Gas to Liquid (GTL) option - Chemical gases - Sea transport of liquefied gas - LNG technological developments and innovations For further information please see CBT # 0032 Liquefied Cargo properties. 4.1 Asour STCW International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers (STCW), 1978, as amended, sets qualification standards for masters, officers, and watch going personnel on seagoing merchant ships. STCW was adopted in 1978 by conference at the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in London, and entered into force in 1984. The Convention was significantly amended in 1995. The 133 current state-parties to the Convention represent approximately 98 percent of the world’s merchant vessel tonnage, 4.2. LIMITATIONS DIScovERED Between 1984 and 1992, significant limitations to the 1978 Convention became apparent. Many people felt that the Convention included vague requirements that were left to the discretion of parties to the Convention. Others felt that there were growing problems with: (a) a lack of clear standards of competence, (b) no IMO oversight of compliance, (c) limited port state control, and (d) inadequacies that did not address modern shipboard functions. Meanwhile, the U.S. deferred ratification efforts and worked for almost a decade to effect necessary changes to our licensing regulations.1.3 AMENDMENTS ADOPTED IN 1995 (On July 7, 1995, a conference of parties to the Convention, meeting at IMO headquarters in London, adopted the package of amendments to STCW. The amendments entered force on February 1, 1997. 1.4 EFFective Dates The provisions of the Convention not tied to individual mariner certification became effective when the IFR (Interim Final Rule) was published. However, provision was made for certain new requirements to be introduced over a longer period. Full implementation is required by February 1, 2002. For issuance of licenses and documents, the effective dates of the new requirements will be according to transitional guidance published by the STW Subcommittee. Mariners already holding licenses have the option to renew those licenses in accordance with the old rules of the 1978 Convention during the period ending on February 1, 2002. Mariners entering training programs after August 1, 1998 are required to meet the competency standards of the new 1995 Amendments. For persons seeking original licenses, the Coast Guard anticipates that most new training requirements will be incorporated into courses approved by the Coast Guard, or by equivalent courses. To ensure that the competency objectives of the 1995 amendments are met, parties must implement quality assurance programs, with IMO reviewing each parties’ rational program. Again, this represents a fundamental change in thinking for the intemational community. It will be mandatory that the "pulse" of the new system be checked on a recurring basis to ensure its "good health." 1.5. FAMILIARIZATION TRAINING: Both the STCW Convention and the U.S. implementing regulations use the term familiarization training or similar terminology five different ways: a. Companies are required to ensure that seafarers who are newly assigned to a ship are familiarized with their specific duties and with all ship arrangements, installations, equipment, procedures and ship characteristics that are relevant to their routine or emergency duties. Written instructions are to be issued by the company to each ship to ensure this ship-specific familiarization takes place. b. All persons who are employed or engaged on a seagoing ship other than passengers are required to receive approved familiarization training in personal survival techniques or receive sufficient information and instruction to be able to take care of them selves and take proper action when an emergency condition develops. This includes locating and donning a lifejacket, knowing what to do if a person falls overboard, and closing watertight doors. ©. Officers and ratings who are assigned specific duties and responsibilities related to cargo or cargo equipment on tankers must complete an approved tanker familiarization course if they have not had a minimum period of seagoing service on tankers.d. Masters, officers and other personnel who are assigned specific duties and responsibilities on board ro-ro passenger ships must complete familiarization training which covers subjects such as operational limitations of ro-ro ships, procedures for opening and closing hull openings, stability, and emergency procedures. e. Masters, officers and other personnel who are assigned specific duties and responsibilities on board passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships must complete familiarization training which covers operational limitations of passenger ships. 4.6 THE couRsE The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers (STCW 78/95), which contains mandatory minimum requirements for training and qualifications of masters, officers and ratings of gas tankers, This training is divided into two parts: Level 1: Liquefied gas tanker familiarization - a basic safety training course for officers and ratings who are to have specific duties and responsibilities relating to cargo and cargo equipment Level 1 training can also be covered through an appropriate period of supervised shipboard service where an approved shipboard training programme is conducted by qualified personnel, Level 2: Advanced training programme on liquefied gas tanker operations. An advanced training programme for masters, officers and others who are to have immediate responsibilities for cargo handling and cargo equipment. In addition to level 2 training, such personnel must have completed level 1 and have relevant experience on liquefied gas tankers before signing on to these positions on board. This course covers the requirements for level 1 and level 2 training required by STCW 95 Chapter V Regulation V/1 - 1.2, 2.2 and Section A- VI regulations 22-34 1.7 PRODUCTION OF LIQUEFIED GASES 474 ACTUAL GAS CARGOES Liquefied gas is divided into different groups based on boiling point, chemical bindings, toxicity and flammability. The different groups of gases have led to different types of gas carriers and cargo containment system for gas carriers.IMO divides liquefied gases into the following groups: LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas LNG - Liquefied Natural Gas LEG - Liquefied Ethylene Gas NH3 - Ammonia Cl, - Chlorine Chemical gases The IMO gas carrier code defines liquefied gases as gases with vapour pressure higher than 2.8 bar at a temperature of 37.8°C. IMO gas code chapter 19 defines which products are considered liquefied gases and have to be transported by gas carriers. Some products have vapour pressure less than 2,8 bar at 37.8°C, but are defined as liquefied gases and have to be transported according to chapter 19 in IMO gas code. Propylene oxide and ethylene oxides are defined as liquefied gases. Ethylene oxide has a vapour pressure at 37.8°C on 2.7 bar. Products not calculated as Liquefied Gas, but still must be transported on gas carriers, are specified in IMO's gas code and IMO's chemical code. The reason for transportation of non-condensed gases on gas carriers is that the products require temperature control during transport to prevent reactions caused by too high temperature . Condensed gases are transported on gas carriers either by atmospheric pressure (fully cooled) less than 0.7 bars, intermediate pressure (temperature controlled) 0.5 bars to 11 bars, or by full pressure (surrounding temperature) larger than 11 bars. It is the strength and construction of the cargo tank that decides at which pressure the gas may be transported. Examples of some gas pressure at 37.8°C and boiling point at atmospheric pressure: pressure Boiling point Condensed gas bar(ata) @atmospheric @37.8°C pressure in’ Methane Gas - 161 Propane CsHs 12.9 -43 n= Butane CyH:o 36 -0,5 ‘Ammonia NH 147 -33 Vinyl Chloride CsCl 5,7 -14 Butadiene C.H 40 -5 Ethylene oxide CH.O 2,7 10.7 1.7.2 LPG LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas - is extracted from crude oil during refining, or from natural gas separation. LPG gases are propane, butane and a mixture of these. LPG is mainly utilised for energy purposes and in the petro-chemical industry.1.7.3 NGL NGL - Natural Gas Liquid or ‘wet gas’ is dissolved gas that from crude oil. The composition of wet gas varies, depending on source (oil well). The wet gas consists of Ethane, LPG, Pentane and heavier fractions of hydrocarbons or a mixture of these. Fully refrigerated gas carriers and semi-pressurised gas carriers carry the most of the wet gas. Ethane can only be transported by semi-pressurised gas carriers, which have direct cascade cooling plants and are allowed to carry cargo down to -104°C. This is because Ethane has a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of -89°C. This will create too high condense pressure if using water as cooling medium. The cargo is condensed against Freon R22 or another cooling medium with boiling point at atmospheric pressure lower than -20°C. 1.7.4 COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. Methane Cy Ethan Cols Propane CoH NGL [IPG pened Perraae and heavier fractions of HC “Water, carbon dioxide, niogen and other non-hydeovarbon contains eat 1.7.5 LEG LEG - Liquefied Ethylene Gas. This gas is not a natural product, but is produced by cracked wet gas, such as, Ethane, Propane, and Butane or from Naphtha. Ethylene has a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of -103.8°C, and therefore has be transported in gas carriers equipped with cargo compartment that can bear such a low temperature. Cascade plants are used to condense Ethylene. As critical temperature of Ethylene is 9.7°C one can not utilise water to condense Ethylene. The definition of Ethylene tankers is LPGILEG carrier. Ethylene is very flammable and has a flammable limit from 2.5% to 34% by volume mixed with air. There are stringent demands regarding the oxygen content in Ethylene. The volume of ethylene must be less than 2% in the gas mixture to keep the mixture below the LEL “lower explosion limit’. Normally, there are demands for less than 0.2% oxygen in the gas mixture in order to prevent pollution of the cargo. Ethylene is utilised as raw material for plastic and synthetic fibres.Ethylene is transported from the Persian Gulf to the East, the Mediterranean to the East and Europe, the Caribbean to South America. There is also transport of Ethylene between the countries Malaysia, Indonesia and Korea. 1.7.6 AMMONIA NH3 Anhydrous Ammonia is produced by combustion of hydrogen and nitrogen under high pressure. Ammonia is a poisonous and irritating gas, it has TLV of 25 ppm and the odour threshold is on 20 ppm. It reacts with water and there are special rules for vessels transporting Ammonia; to be found in the IMO Gas Code, chapters 14, 17 and 19. As 1 litre water will absorb 700 litres ammonia vapour, the danger is imminent if water is introduced into a closed tank containing ammonia vapour. A dangerous vacuum will develop. Only remedy is to leave tank open prior to introducing water. The boiling point for ammonia at atmospheric pressure is -33°C, and must be transported at a temperature colder than -20°C. One can cool ammonia with all types of cargo cooling plants. Ammonia is utilised as raw material for the fertiliser industry, plastic, explosives, colours and detergents. 4.7.7 CHLORINE Cl2 Chlorine is a very toxic gas produced by the dissolution of sodium chloride in electrolysis. Because of the toxicity of Chlorine it is therefore transported in small quantities, and must not be transported in a larger quantity than 1200m*. The gas cartier carrying chlorine must be type 1G with independent type C tanks. That means the cargo tank must, at the least, lies B/5 “Breadth/5" up to 11.5 meter from the ships side. To transport Chlorine, the requirements of IMO IGC code, chapters 14, 17 and 19 must be fulfilled. Cooling of Chlorine requires indirect cargo cooling plants. Chlorine is not flammable and is utilised in producing chemicals and as bleaching agent in the pulp industry. 1.7.8 LNG LING - Liquefied Natural Gas is a gas that is naturally in the earth. The majority of all LNG is transported in pipelines from the gas fields to shore, for example, gas pipes from the oil fields in the North Sea and down to Italy and Spain. Gas carriers transport the increasing balance. When LNG is transported on gas carriers, the ROB and boil off from the cargo is utilised as fuel for propulsion of the vessel. Cargo cooling plants for large LNG carriers are very large and expensive, and they will use a lot of energy. Smaller LNG/LPG carriers have reliquefaction plants for LPG. LNG is utilised as fuel for electricity power plants, for domestic purposes, car and ship motor fuel, and in the petro-chemical industry. What is LNG? Properties and characteristics:- Typically ~ 95% methane (CH4) with small amounts of ethane, propane, butane and nitrogen - Colorless, odorless, non-toxic, non-carcinogeni¢ and in liquid form is ~45% the density of water - Vapors are ~ 50% density of air and will rise under normal atmospheric conditions (propane/butane heavier than air) - Can be stored and transported in insulated tanks at standard atmospheric pressure Flammability characteristics: - Flammable when mixed with air concentrations between 5% - 15% (methane) - Not generally considered explosive2007 LG tanker with spherical tanks (MOSS' design) LNG tanker with Membrane tanks. (GTT no.96 or Mk III)1.8 LNG CONDENSATION PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM Actual gas cargoes fig. 1 Raw LNG gas Removal of condensate Removal of acid gases Removal of water. — |___—»>| Fuel to Plant ea Separation of wet gas Condensation WY To shore LNG tank installation| To shore = installation] NGL tank p< Toshore [—Pentane and installation | heavier HC tanks| NG mndensation plant flow diagram 1.9 ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR HANDLING OF NATURAL GAS Several oil reserves are not exploited due to a lack of infrastructure to handle the associated natural gas. The disposal of gas by buming flares produces greenhouse gases and a valuable resource is lost. Flaring is therefore banned in most oil-producing regions. Existing and well-proven technologies, such as LNG, maybe a solution in transportation chains where high production volumes and long transport distances are involved. An alternative to gas flaring is to re-inject the gas into the reservoir. This may, however, in the long run reduce the oil recovery rate of the oil well. It will in principle be possible to process the gas on the production platform or onboard an FPSO for transport to shore by pipeline or as LNG. For small volumes this may be uneconomical and is avoided if possible. In addition, small gas fields with and without associated oil requires some other clever solutions in order to be exploited in an economic manner. Hence, there is a clear rationale for finding more cost effective solutions. Here two possible approaches are outlined,1.10 THE Gas To Liauip (GTL) oPTiON GTL is a process for chemical conversion of the gas into premium grade liquid products (synthetic diesel, naphtha) through “Gas-To-Liquids” (GTL) technologies. The fluid product can then be transported over long distances in conventional tankers, without severe temperature or pressure requirements. A floating GTL (Gas-To-Liquids) concept for handling associated and stranded natural gas is now being developed through the Seagas project, where DNV is cooperating with Izar, Bluewater and Foster Wheeler. The cooperation shal - Review the state of the art for offshore gas technologies - Carry out a technical and commercial feasibility analysis and - Undertake a basic design study of a GTL FPSO. Presently only two large-scale GTL_shore-based plants are in operation worldwide. The concept of a floating GTL has yet to be implemented. However, the environmental and economic arguments against flaring, together with a wide range of other arguments, have resulted in an increased focus on this concept. Several specialised process companies are making important efforts in order to overcome the challenges involved in transferring existing onshore GTL technology to offshore floating units. This shore-based plants are in operation worldwide. The concept of a floalingGTL has yet to be implemented, However, the environmental and economic arguments against flaring, together with a wide range of other arguments, have resulted in an increased focus on this concept. Several specialised process companies are making important efforts in order to overcome the challenges involved in transferring existing onshore GTL technology to offshore floating units. This takes a shore-based plants are in operation worldwide. The concept of a floating GTL has yet to be implemented. Several specialised process companies are making important efforts in order to overcome the challenges involved in transferring existing onshore GTL technology to offshore floating units. This takes a diversity of expertise among the partners and participants to obtain multidisciplinary solutions. DNV's main part of the project is assessments of the safety and risk aspects and applicable rules and regulations. The classification approach for GTL FPSO's can be based on the experience with classification and risk management of oil and gas carriers and oil producing FPSO’s. DNV's classification systematic for FPSO's including the PROD notation (requirements for the production facilities) can be also applied to GTL FPSO's. Existing methods for risk assessments can be applied for the parts not explicitly covered by the classification rules [13]4.11. CHEMICAL GASES The chemical gases mentioned here are the gases produced chemically and are defined in IMO’s rules as condensed gases. Because of the gases’ boiling point at atmospheric pressure and special requirements for temperature control, these gases must be carried on gas carriers as specified by the IMO gas code. Condensed gases are liquids with a vapour pressure above 2.8 bars at 37.8°C. Chemical gases that are mostly transported are Ethylene, Propylene, butadiene and VCM. Chemical gases that have to be transported by gas carriers are those mentioned in chapter 19 in IMO IGC code. There are, at all times, stringent demands for low oxygen content in the cargo tank atmosphere, often below 0.2% by volume. This involves that we have to use nitrogen to purge out air from the cargo compartment before loading those products. In addition, even though the vapour pressure does not exceed 2.8 bars at 37.8°C such as, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide or a mixture of these, they are still in the IMO gas code as condensed gases. Gas carriers that are allowed to transport ethylene oxide or propylene oxide must be specially certified for this. Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide have a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of respectively 11°C and 34°C and are therefore difficult to transport on tankers without indirect cargo cooling plants. Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide can not be exposed to high temperature and can therefore not be compressed in a direct cargo cooling plant. Ethylene oxide must be transported on gas tanker type 1G. 1.12 SEA TRANSPORT OF LIQUEFIED Gas In the late 1920 transportation of liquefied gases in bulk started, mainly propane and butane in fully pressurised tanks. From the mid-1960 the carriage of fully refrigerated liquefied gases commenced, and today the largest LPG carriers are typically in the range of 75 - 80000m’, carrying mainly propane, butane and ammonia. Chemical gases and Ethylene are carried mainly on smaller combined LPG/Ethylene/Chemical carriers. Typical size of LNG carriers is 125000 - 145000m3, The sea transport pattern of LPG is mainly from The Persian Gulf to Far East, From AG/Red Sea to Mediterranean/Northern Europe, and from Caribbean/Mexico to USEC/Europe. The main pattem of sea transport of LNG is - AG and Indonesia to Far East (Korea, Taiwan, Japan, China). - Trinidad to US East Coast/Gulf/Caribbean, to Europe and Mediterranean (Spain /taly). - Alaska to the Far East. - Australia Northwest Shelf to Far East and US. - Nigeria to Europe and USA. + Algeria and Egypt to Europe. - Norway (Snghvit) to USEC and Europe. (commencing 2006).Large fully refrigerated gas carriers transport the majority of the LPG at atmospheric pressure. In addition, some LPG is still transported on semi- pressure gas carriers. Fully pressurised gas carriers mainly handle coastal trade. Condensed gases are transported on gas carriers either by atmospheric pressure (fully cooled) less than 0.7 bars, intermediate pressure (temperature controlled) 0.5 bars to 11 bars, or by full pressure (surrounding temperature) larger than 11 bars. It is the strength and construction of the cargo tank that decides at which pressure the gas may be transported. Wet gas is transported from the Persian Gulf to the East, Europe to USA and some within Europe. There is also some transport of wet gas in the Caribbean to South America. Ammonia is transported with atmospheric pressure gas carriers or semi- pressurised gas carriers. Gas carriers carrying Ammonia must be constructed and certified in accordance with IMO's IGC code for transportation of liquefied gases. The definition for ammonia tanker is LPGINH, carrier. There is a lot of transportation from the Black Sea to USA, from USA to South Africa and from Venezuela to Chile. Chemical gases like propylene, butadiene and VCM are transported with medium-sized atmospheric pressure tankers from 12000m? to 56000m°. Semi- pressurised gas carriers are also used in chemical gas trade and then in smaller quantity as from 2500m‘* to 15000m’. Chemical gases are transported all over the world, and especially to the Far East where there is a large growth in the petro-chemical industry. Chemical gases are mainly utilised in the petro-chemical industry and rubber production. Among the fossil fuels available today, natural gas is by far the most clean and environmentally friendly energy source accounting for about a quarter of the worlds energy consumption (1999) and its proportional share is expected to increase. For long distance sea borne transportation of natural gas LNG represents today the most efficient commercial alternative. However, altematives that may offer economic competitive solutions as Gas to Liquid (GTL) and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) exists/are being developed both for long as well as shorter distance trades. DNV has been involved with the development of systems for seaborne transport of natural gas from the early 50'ies and issued classification rules for gas carriers in 1962 Counting vessels already delivered and firm orders the world fleet of LNG carriers are about to increase with 60% from about 100 in 1998. Options at the yards account for another 20%. The cost of a standard size carrier of 135000 - 140000m* has during the last § years dropped with about 40%. The spottrading market for LNG carriers has been increasing. This has led to speculative ordering of new LNG carriers, Exxon Mobil plans to go into LNG-ship owning business and is contemplating ordering increased size carriers up towards 250000m°. This has without doubt made shipyards as well as cargo tank system suppliers gear up their efforts in order to be able to deliver these increased size ships. Due to draught restrictions the large carriers may be wider than conventional carriers and require new design solutions w.r.t. hull form, propulsion efficiency and manoeuvring capability. Two propeller, twin skeg arrangements or azipod thrusters may be viable solutions. New propulsion systems like slow speed and medium speed diesel engines with re-liquefaction plants to handle the boil-off gas, duel fuel (diesel and gas) or pure gas engines as well as gas turbines with electric propulsion engines may be seen in the future. Increased cross Atlantic trading will require carriers capable of operation in more demanding environmental conditions. Fatique considerations and tank sloshing loads will be more important design parameters. For Atlantic trading owners today most commonly specify 40 years fatigue life in the North Atlantic. In the aftermath of the September 11th 2001 it is becoming difficult to get permission to build new land based LNG receiving terminals, particularly in the US. This will require offshore discharge terminals where safe off-loading can take place far from densely populated areas and busy ports and estuaries. The gas can be either discharged as liquid LNG/LPG into a floating receiving barge or as gas from a regasification plant onboard the gas carrier via offshore buoys or a platform to shore ready for distribution into the onshore gas grid. This will require offloading carriers capable of operating without tank filing restrictions in order to avoid the risk of sloshing damages inside the cargo tanks. Floating production of LNG allows for development of remote gas fields and utilization of associated gas from oil production. Several concepts have been developed in recent years concluding feasibility from an economical, technical and safety point of view. Common to these concepts are that they represents new solutions which have not yet been proven in practice. Design challenges exist with respect to the safety for personnel, vessel safety as well as functional requirements. The installation of a highly complex and compact process in a limited area, storage of LNG near to process equipment and accommodation, sloshing loads inside partly filled LNG cargo storage tanks and cargo transfer in open seas are examples of challenges that have to be addressed. DNV's classification rules for LNG/LPG FPSO's is based on the extensive experience gained in LNG/LPG transportation, FPSO concept studies and risk assessments as well as knowledge from ‘conventional’ FPSO design and construction. The rules use Formal Safety Assessment (FSA) as a decision support and design tool.Alternative solutions for handling of natural gas are offered by the Gas to Liquid (GTL) system and the Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) systems now under development. GTL is a process for chemical conversion of the gas into premium grade liquid products (synthetic diesel, naphtha) through “Gas-To-Liquids” (GTL) technologies. The fluid product can then be transported over long distances in conventional tankers, without severe temperature or pressure requirements. The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) or Pressurized Natural Gas (PNG) technology offers interesting possibilities for handling of associated gas and for exploitation of marginal fields. Liquefaction plant and LNG storage tanks are not, necessary, neither are LNG storage and regasification at the discharge location. A fleet of CNG ships will serve as both storage and transport vehicles and can discharge directly into the land based gas grid via an offshore discharge terminal, an offshore platform or offshore buoys. The DNV position on model testing for sloshing loads in LNG carrier tank systems is outlined based on 30 years of experience with determining sloshing loads on a variety of vessel types. Model tests have been performed for oil tankers, OBO carriers and LNG carriers. Some of the work has been carried out as part of consultancy work for external clients and some for rule development. With respect to LNG carriers model tests have been performed on both spherical tanks as well as prismatic tanks for several different institutions and companies Representative motion calculations for long term design conditions have to be carried out in order to provide realistic irregular motion input to sloshing model tests. Model scale sloshing testing with water and air has shown that the measured extreme pressures are highly sensitive to the variation of ullage pressure when depressurised to lower than approximately 100 mbar. Ullage pressure should be Froude scaled not to have over-cushioning of impacts at model scale due to the entrapped air. Froude scaling implies that 100 mbar at model scale (with water) corresponds to atmospheric ullage pressure at full scale (with LNG) when a model scale of 1/20 is used. Hence, it is recommended that a minimum model scale of 1/20 is applied when extreme impact pressures in LNG tanks are of interest. In addition to the issue of ullage pressure scaling the use of a large model scale will be important to reduce uncertainties in the design impact pressures after scaling to full size. 1.13 THE WoRLD FLEET oF LNG CARRIERS The world fleet of LNG carriers consisted in 1999 of about 106 vessels as shown in Fig. 1. Out of the early built vessels (1962-1979) 18 vessels were no longer in service as LNG carriers. Some had been scrapped or put to other use.‘As a curiosity ~ one vessel, the El Paso Savannah built at Avondale shipyard in the US in 1978, was converted to an OBO carrier in 1982 and traded for two years. In 1992 she was converted to an FSO (Floating Storage and Offloading vessel) and was successfully operating on the Cohasset-Panuke field off the east coast of Canada for 8 years. During 2000-2001 she was upgraded for continued service as an FSO for operation in North Atlantic/North Sea environments. The last five years, from 1999 onwards, altogether 61 firm orders for LNG vessels have been placed at the world's shipyard with another 24 options. Most of the orders have been placed in the Far East — the majority in Korea and Japan, 3 in China, 6 in Spain and one in Belgium. This appeared to be the situation at the beginning of the year of 2003. Current Fleet Profile: - Approximately 155 LNG carriers in operation with a total capacity of about 18 million m*: © 120 km’ or larger ~ 125 carriers © 50 km* to 120 km? ~ 16 carriers © Less than 50 km3 ~ 15 carriers - About Fifty-five LNG carriers are currently under construction: co 138 km’ or greater ~ 46 carriers © Less than 138 km? ~ 9 carriers © 5 NIB delivered so far 2004 © 6 neworders placed so far 2004 1.14 LNG TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND INNOVATIONS The world use of natural gas is expected to increase. For long distance seaborne transportation of natural gas LNG represents today the most efficient commercial alternative, but economically competitive systems for smaller volumes and shorter distance trades like Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) are emerging, The number of LNG carriers is increasing and prices have dropped about 40% during the last 5 years. Spot trading is increasing and so has speculative ordering of new LNG carriers. New increased sizes of LNG carriers (up towards 250000m3) are being contemplated. New propulsion systems and hull forms are discussed. Fatigue considerations and tank sloshing loads will be more important design parameters. For Atlantic trading owners today most commonly specify 40 years fatigue life in the North Atlantic. Offshore discharge terminals where safe off-loading can take place far from densely populated areas and busy ports and estuaries will be the future preferred option for LNG discharge terminals. This means regasification onboard the gas carrier and offloading via offshore buoys or a platform system to shore ready for distribution into the onshore gas grid. This requires offloading carriers capable of operating without tank filling restrictions in order to avoid the risk of sloshing damages inside the cargo tanks.Floating production of LNG allows for development of remote gas fields and utilization of associated gas from oil production. Common to these concepts are that they represents new solutions, which have not yet been proven in practice. The installation of a highly complex and compact process in a limited area, storage of LNG near to process equipment and accommodation, sloshing loads inside partly filled LNG cargo storage tanks and cargo transfer in open seas are examples of challenges that have to be addressed. Alternative solutions for handling of natural gas are offered by the Gas to Liquid (GTL) system and the Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) systems now under development. The DNV position on model testing of sloshing loads inside partly filled LNG cargo tanks is outlined based on 30 years of experience with determining sloshing loads on a variety of vessel types. The importance of representative long term irregular motion input to model tests, ullage depressurization and the use of sufficiently large test models in order to reduce uncertainties in full scale pressure results is pointed out The demand for natural gas is increasing on a world-wide basis as a result of the increase in the world energy consumption, and increasing environmental concer. Among the fossil fuels available today, natural gas is by far the most clean and environmentally friendly energy source accounting for about a quarter of the worlds energy consumption (1999). This fraction is expected to increase in the years to come. For long distance seaborne transportation of natural gas LNG represents today the most efficient commercial alternative. The seabome transport of liquefied gases in bulk is older than often realised. Already in 1949 the first dedicated liquefied gas carrier was delivered with DNV class. This was a vessel with fully pressurised cargo tanks. DNV, therefore, became involved very early in the setting of safety standards for these types of vessels, and was the first of the classification societies to publish comprehensive rules for gas carriers. This was in 1962 A research team on LNG was established in DNV in 1959. A membrane tank system was developed and tested successfully in 1962. The system used double corrugated aluminium sheets as the primary barrier. This system was later taken over and further developed by Technigaz in France. The Moss spherical tank design was developed by the Kvaerner Group in Norway during 1969-1972. Basic design criteria for type B tank were formulated by DNV in 1972 rules. In order to confirm compliance with the design criteria comprehensive R&D programmes were carried out in DNV, e.g. sloshing loads from liquid movement inside the cargo tanks, crack propagation and fatigue characteristics and later also buckling strength. Since then, the DNV rules for liquefied gas carriers have been updated on a more or less continuous basis to take into account new developments in design, material technology and service experience. Over the years these Rules have been the basis for classification of a major share of the world tonnage of gas carriers. Typical size of LNG carriers is 125000-145000m’. Lately, sizes up to above 200000 m* are on the drawing table.4.15 INCREASED SIZE OF LNG CARRIERS According to the Shipping newspaper TradeWinds [2] (condensed quote) “Exxon Mobil is looking to break into the LNG-ship owning business by ordering up to 10 giant LNG carriers to ship products from two giant trains planned for it Qatar Gas production project. Exxon Mobil has not decided on how many of the new giant carriers to order, but is said to be considering a mix of six to eight ships of 200 000m* to 250 000m? and two to four conventional sized ships of around 145 000m? “(end quote). Exxon Mobil's executive vice president Harry Longwell stated last year that (quote) “continued technological advances that increase the LNG ship sizes are also lowering transportation cost. LNG carriers significantly larger than the current 138000m® can be built and safely operated and offer the potential for significant reductions in the cost of long-distance supply” (unquote). This was an important message to the market giving incentives to the development of such giant vessels. Without doubt shipyards as well as cargo tank system suppliers are gearing up to be able to offer these large ships. Typical size of LNG carriers is 125000- 145000 m*. Lately, sizes up to above 200 000m are on the drawing table. Smaller LNG carriers have reliquefaction plants, and can also be utilised for LPG transportation. The world’s use of natural gas is increasing. Although the development of new technology will lead to new solutions and new methods of transportation, the transportation of liquefied natural gas (LNG) by ship will stil be the dominating alternative. But while most LNG trades so far have taken place on fixed routes, with fixed volumes for each voyage and avoiding the toughest seas, things will change. Spot trades will increase. New vessels — almost as big as the largest crude oil tankers - will be built for transporting the LNG. There will be more cross-trading and activities in the Atlantic Basin. Fatigue damage accumulation is twice as rapid in the North Atlantic than in the comparatively more benign environment where most of today's routes are. In addition, offshore LNG import terminals now under construction - at which safe offloading can take place far from populated areas and busy ports - may create more sloshing while officading. This requires offloading carriers capable of operating without tank filling restrictions — or with filling restrictions determined for the environmental conditions at the actual offloading location. 4.16 SRV-FSRU-CNG In addition to traditional transportation of LNG, new concepts for transportation and distribution have been developed. The main reason for this may be found in USA, particularly after Sept.11" 2001 The philosophy is to move LNG deliveries offshore. Some major cities in US have run various scenarios simulating terrorist attacks on fully loaded LNGMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 carriers in vicinity of populated areas. The term “NIMB" (Not in my backyard) is frequently quoted, and appears increasingly popular in political circles. Offshore solutions have been developed and already implemented in US Gulf by ‘Exelerate' ( derived from El Paso) and Exmar. New projects are under way at other locations in the US. LNG carriers will moor at the proposed deepwater port by means of two submerged unloading buoy systems. The unloading buoys moor each LNG carrier on location throughout the unloading cycle by means of mooring lines and anchor points located on the seabed. Two unloading buoys will be utilized so that natural gas can be delivered in a continuous flow without interruption by brief overlap between arriving and departing LNG carriers. As the first LNG carrier moored at the deepwater port is emptied, a second LNG carrier moors up at the deepwater port. After vaporization of LNG and send-out of natural gas, the first LNG carrier disconnects from the unloading buoy and returns to the overseas loading point for reload. Meantime a third LNG carrier, already in transit to the deepwater port, repeats the cycle. This sequence provides the operational flexibility to ensure uninterrupted delivery of natural gas. 1.16.1 SRV: Shuttle and regasification vessel A traditional LNG vessel, equipped with regasification units and bow mooring and connection equipment. The vessel will load LNG at an export terminal (traditional) and discharge the cargo as gas (at approx. 100 bar) to submarine pipeline via a Turret Loading and mooring buoy. 1.16.2 FSRU: (Floating Shuttle and Regasification Unit) Basically an SRV staying at the buoy as a storage vessel, the LNG will be loaded (transhipped) from other vessels. The LNG will then be processed as above. 1.16.3 CNG: Compressed Natural Gas Such vessels have been seriously considered, there is already established a company for development of such alternative. Natural Gas will be transported at approx. 200-250 bar, the capacity will be abt. 50% of an LNG carrier of identical size. The cargo containment system of an LNG is yet to be tested, but the philosophy is to utilise stacks(bundle) of pipes longitudally as the cargo ‘tank’.pe2007 Overview of SRV/FSRU terminal HG Chapter troduction »2007 Gas Highest Grade Compendium Chapter 2 Chemistry and Physics Department/Author: Approved by: Per Zaal Erik Frette Seagull Seagull © 2005 SEAGULL AS All rights reserved No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or otherwise copied without prior written permission of ‘SEAGULL ASMA-TC— DOCUMENT STATUS 94 A220. Sept 2007 Fe K'- Training t-Manualerog underag\Tanker Operation ~ Gas\Revided 2007\Gas\New compendiumiNew Chapter 2 Chemtry and Physio S00 Iesue No, Datervear Ine. by lsu No Datervear inc. by At 21.02.2006] RZ/EF A2 | 20.09.2007] RB/EF Issue Parra Paragraph Heading! No No esespion of Change Al Updated with LNG. a2 General update HG Chapter 2~ Chen ond Phyes DMA~TC— 159 A220 Sept 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 2 CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS (STCWC CODE, SECTION A-V1 PARA. 26). 2.1. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUEFID GASES AND THEIR VAPOURS. 2.4.1 The Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) 2.2” BASIC THERMODYNAMIC THEORY. 2.2.1 Basie Organic Chemistry 2.22 The periodic system. 2.2.3 Carbon 2.2.4 Hydrocarbon Groups. 2.2.5 Alkanes... 2.2.6 Alkyl. 22.7 Alkenes.. 2.2.8 Alkadienes, 2.2.9 Alkynes. 2.2.10 Cyclo alkanes 2.2.11 Arenes 22.12 Alcohols 22.13 Aldehydes 2.2.14 — Ketones. 22.15 Temperature, heat, energy and pressure. 22.16 Aggregate States 22.17 Solid Substances 2.218 Fluids 2219 GA808 vrovnnnnen 2.2.20 Phase changes. 2.2.21 Melting . 2.2.22 — Enthalpy, 2.2.23 Evaporation... 2.2.24 Boiling 2.2.25 Condensation. 2.2.26 Distilation 2.2.27 — Saturated, Unsaturated or Superheated Steam 28 THE GAS LAWS 2.3.1. The Boyles law. 2.3.2 Gay-Lussacs laws 2.3.3 The absolute zero point. 2.34 The Avogadros law 2.3.5 The Dalton Law.. 2.3.6 The Joules law. 2.3.7 Joules-Thompson effect. 2.3.8 Diffusion 24 BASIC REFRIGERATION 2.8 MOLLIER DIAGRAM ~ INTRODUCTION 2.5.1 The Moller Diagram and the Psychrometric Chart 2.5.2 The Moller Diagram. 2.5.3 The enthalpy of moist air. 2.6 CALCULATION OF THERMAL TRANS 2.6.1 Example 1 2.7 CONVERSION TABLE 27.1 Temperature 27.2 Pressure, HG Chops 2= Chom and Phe27.3 Energy /Heat 274 Power 2.7.5 Thermal conductivity. 2.7.6 Thermal conductance 2.8 THERMODYNAMIC TABLES 2.9 MOLLIER DIAGRAM HG Chops 2= Chom and Phe 40 40 40 40 4 492 CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS (STCWC CODE, SECTION A-V1 PARA. 26) Learning Objectives (On completion of this section the trainee should have a good knowledge of: - Properties and characteristics of liquefied gases and vapours - Reid vapour pressure - Basic thermodynamic chemistry - The periodic system - Hydrocarbon groups - Temperature, heat, energy and pressure - Aggregate states - The Gas laws - Basic refrigeration = Molliere diagram - Calculation of thermal transfer 2.1 PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUEFID GASES AND THEIR VAPOURS. All petroleum products and crude oil are essentially mixtures of a wide range of hydrocarbon compounds. The boiling points of the compounds range from — 162°C (methane) to well in excess of +400°C, and the volatility of any particular mixture of compounds depends primarily on the quantities of the more volatile elements. The volatility is characterised by the vapour pressure. When transferring a petroleum product to a gas-free tank it begins to vaporise, that is, it liberates gas into the space above it. This gas has also a tendency to re- dissolve in the liquid. The pressure exerted by this gas is called the equilibrium pressure of the liquid, usually referred to simply as the vapour pressure. ‘The vapour pressure of a pure compound depends only upon its temperature. With a mixture of compounds, the vapour pressure depends on the temperature, elements and the volume of the gas space in which vaporisation occurs, The true vapour pressure (TVP) or bubble point vapour pressure is the equilibrium of vapour pressure of a mixture when the gas/liquid ratio is effectively zero. The highest vapour pressure is possible at any specified temperature. As the temperature of a petroleum mixture increases, its TVP also increases. If the TVP exceeds atmospheric pressure, the liquid begins to boil The TVP of a petroleum mixture gives a good indication of its ability to give rise to gas, but unfortunately it is a property which still is extremely difficult to measure. 2.1.1. The Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) Testing is a simple and generally used method for measuring the volatility of petroleum liquids. Measurement of the RVP is conducted at 37.8°C (10°F). ‘The greater the RVP value, the more volatile is the oil. Normally crude oil has a RVP of between 0.1 and 0.8 kg/cm’. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 1‘A sample of liquid is put into the test container at atmospheric pressure. The volume of liquid should be one fifth of the container's total volume. Then the container is sealed and immersed in a water bath, which is heated to 37.8°C. The container is then shaken in order to mix the liquid properly and the rise in pressure due to vaporisation can be read on the attached pressure gauge. This Pressure gauge gives a close approximation in bars. Because the liquid’s vapour pressure is at 37.8°C, RVP is useful for generally comparing the volatility of a wide range of petroleum liquids. However, it has small value as a means of estimating the likeliness of gas evolution in specific. situations, mainly because the measurement is made at the standard temperature of 37.8°C and at a fixed gas/liquid ratio. For this purpose TVP is much more useful. As mentioned, in some cases, correlation exists between ‘TVP, RVP and temperature. For safety measures against fire on ships, the Norwegian Maritime Directorate in the Regulation of December 3° 1979 uses 61°C as limit value for flash point and 2.8 kg/cm? for vapour pressure at 37.8°C. The oil referred to in this regulation is: - Mineral oils with a flash point below 61°C, such as kerosene, benzene, gasoline and crude oil or other flammable liquids with a flash point below said limit = Mineral oils with a flash point of 61°C or higher, such as marine gas oils, fuel oil, diesel oil, lubricating oil, which give off flammable gases when heated. - Oils and fats of animal or vegetable origins, such as whale oil, groundnut oil, linseed oil etc., which give off flammable gases when heated. = The liquid chemicals referred to are: Chemicals with an absolute vapour pressure lower than 2.8 kg/cm? at 37.8°C. The condensed gases referred to are: - Chemicals with an absolute vapour pressure of 2.8 kg/cm? or higher at 37.8°C. 2.2 BASIC THERMODYNAMIC THEORY 2.24 Basic Organic Chemistry Organic chemistry mostly deals with chemical compounds containing carbon. 2.2.2 The periodic system The periodic system is built on the principle that the electrons in the outer shell determine the chemical properties of a material. An atom consists of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and electrons form the atomic nucleus. The electrons move with high velocity around the nucleus, at different levels and HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 2orbital. The levels are numbered from K to Q and called electron shells. At maximum, there can be 8 electrons in the outer shell. There are equal numbers of protons as electrons in an atom, meanwhile the number of neutrons may vary. The periodic table arranges the 118 elements in increasing number of electron shells. Each vertical column is one of the periodic table's main groups. The number of electrons in the outer shell is always equal to the atom’s main group number. Two of the main elements in the periodic system are Hydrogen and Helium, and fall under group IA and VIIIA. The atomic models are illustrated as follows Carbon falls under group IVA and has 4 electrons in the outer shell. Hydrogen Helium @ Hektron © oven © Proton The elements in the group IA have only one electron in the outer shell *©-©© HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 3Itis therefore easy to emit one electron to elements within group VIIA, which has seven electrons in the outer shell and is “short of" one electron to fill up the outer shell. Such mutual sharing of an electron is called ion bonding. ‘An example for such a bonding is when Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) bond with one another and form Sodium chloride or cooking salt Na+Cl ———+ Na‘+cr Nacl Sodium “emits” the only electron to Chlorine, and is thereby positively charged. Chlorine “receives” the electron and is thereby negatively charged. We call this mutual sharing of electrons, covalent bonding. Covalent bonding is common in both organic and inorganic chemical reactions. When two or more atoms bond together, they form a molecule. There are 8 side groups between the main groups IA and IIIA. All the elements in the side groups are metals, and they easily form alloys with one another. The rows in the periodic chart indicate the periods. The 7 periods indicate the number of electron shells. Sulphur is located in row 3 (period number 3) and has thereby 3 shells. We also look at the electron shells as the electrons’ energy level. The elements in group VIIIA are named noble gases. Noble gases occur only in atomic form. ‘Atomic number Atomic weight Most inorganic elements are metals. The metals form metal bonding where the atomic are organised close together. The individual element has numbers from 1 to 118. The periodic system's number is the element's atomic number. The atomic number also indicates the total number of electrons in the atom. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 41594 AaI20- Sept 2007 Group 1 2 Period bo rr 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 47 F 5 2 Be B bel 3 2] 13 Mi Al 4 0|f21 26 [27] 28] 29] 30] 31 2.2.3 Carbon You find the element Carbon in the main group IVA/period number 2, which has four electrons in the outer shell number 2. The atomic number for carbon is 6, which means there are totally 6 electrons divided between two electron shells with 4 electrons in the outer shell, and 2 electrons in the innermost There are many isotopes of carbon. Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different number of neutron in the atomic nucleus. There are two natural forms of Carbon, graphite and diamond. Carbon is not particular reactive in room temperature. When heated, it will easily react with for example, Oxygen. We say that carbon is combustible. The different products of the combustion are dependent of accent to oxygen. C+O, 02+ 393 kJ (at complete combustion) +050, =CO+113kJ ——_(atincomplete combustion) Both reactions are exothermic, that means heat is produced in the chemical reaction. Both reaction products are also gases. Carbon dioxide, COz, is the product of complete combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide, CO, which is, the product of incomplete combustion of carbon. A partly incomplete combustion produces both less heat and more formation of carbon monoxide than a complete combustion. Carbon monoxide is odorless and a very poisonous gas that always is present in a real combustion process. Inert gas produced in an inert gas generator or flue gas plant onboard will always contain carbon monoxide due to incomplete combustion, especially when the air excess is reduced. HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics $Poisoning of carbon monoxide occurs because the hemoglobin in the blood reacts much easier with CO than with oxygen. When you breathe a mixture of these two gases, CO is thereby first absorbed in the blood and seizes the absorption of oxygen. The result of this poisoning is a sort of suffocation at very low concentrations. These relations are very important to notice. You must always check the cargo tank atmosphere for carbon monoxide before personnel are allowed to enter the tank. 2.2.4 Hydrocarbon Groups Hydrocarbon is a common expression for all chemical compounds that includes carbon and hydrogen. You find the element carbon in only two different natural conditions, as graphite and as diamond. Carbon is the element that naturally forms most natural chemical compounds. It is not reactive in room temperature, but it will when heated up react more easily with, for example, the oxygen in air. We say that the carbon is combustible. The combustion is exothermic, which is a reaction that produces heat. Hydrogen is the smallest main element. The gas (Hz) is light and is flammable in air. There are small quantities of hydrogen in free natural form on earth. Hydrogen is strongly widespread, first of all in form of water and naturally compounds together with carbon. Crude oil and natural gas consist mainly of a mixture with various unequal hydrocarbon compounds. Following sketch indicates an example of a natural gas’ composition: |Gas [Methane Ethane Natural (NGL) | Propane | LPG atura Hydro- Butane Gas Naplita carboons Natuzal Gasoline from and other, C5+ wells Non- hydro- Water, carbondioxide ete. carbons Carbon has four electrons in the outer electron shell that can be divided with others. You may look at the four electrons as four “arms” that can be connected to the hydrogen atom's single “arm’, and creates hydrocarbon compounds. o HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics ‘Some of the hydrocarbon compounds are naturally created; other are only created in chemical controlled processes. To simplify the overview of these natural components, and all new hydrocarbon compounds that is created in the petrochemical industry, the different hydrocarbon compounds are grouped dependent of how the “arms” or the chemical bonding are between the two atoms. The most important hydrocarbon groups are: * Alkanes, also called Paraffin's Alkyls Alkenes, also called Olefins Alkynes, also called Acetylides Alkadienes, also called Di-olefins Cyclo-alkanes Arenes Alcohol Aldehydes Ketones In addition to above listed hydrocarbon groups there are others like Carboxylic acid, Esters, Ethers etc. 2.2.5 Alkanes Alkanes are the simplest hydrocarbon compound and are the major part of crude oil and natural gas. The carbon atom’s four arms are united to the hydrogen atoms’ single arm and have this general molecule-formula: CyHane2 where "n” are a positive integer. All alkane compounds have the ending “-ane”. The gas methane is the smallest molecule, and is the main component in natural gas. A methane molecule consists of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. METHANE: By adding one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms to methane, we get ethane, which is the next component in this group. HG Chapter 2 Chemivry and Phe 1By adding carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms, and at the same time maintain the same simple form of binding, new alkanes are formed. The third component in the alkane group is propane, C:Hs ETHANE: When the number of carbon atoms increase, the number of possible bonding between the atoms increase. You can arrange 20 carbon atoms and 42 hydrogen atoms in 366319 different ways. PROPANE: Many materials may have the same molecule formula, but the properties (boiling point, density, etc.) are different because the atom structure is different. Such bonding is called isometric bonding. Normal-butane and iso-butane are examples of isomers where both have the same molecule formula, but properties. n-Butane, C4Hro Chemical formulas and names are many times derived from each other. Pentane is derived from the Greek word “pent”. That means “five", and it refers to the number of carbon atoms in the material. Other names like methane and ethane are not following this system. These names are called trivial names. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics ‘MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 iso-Butane, CaH ro ° In the following list, some of the most common alkanes are listed with melting- and boiling point at atmospheric pressure. Note that melting point and boiling point increase by the length of chain for the straight-chained hydrocarbons. Melting | Boiling | Number of Name: Formula Point | point isomeric Eo °c ___| compounds Methane CHa =182,5 | -161,6 0 Ethane CoH ~183,2 -88,6 0 Propane CoH -1899 | 42,5 0 nButane | CiHio 135 05 2 iso-Butane | CxHso “145 ALT mPentane | CsHiz 130 36 3 nHexane | CoHra 95 69 5 nHeptane | CH 1 98 n-Octane | Cove 7 126 18 nNonane | CoHyo 4 151 35 nDecane — | Cio» -30 174 75 2.2.6 Alkyls If one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane molecule, an alkyl molecule is created. The different compounds are named by the alkane, but with the ending ‘yl’ instead of *-ane’. The general molecule formula for alkyl groups are: CyHan +1 The compounds in this group are chemical products where the CH-group is attached to various alcohol and chloride compounds 2.2.7 Alkenes ‘You do not find alkenes in the natural forms. These compounds are produced in a cracking process within the petrochemical industry. Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a double bonding between two of the carbon atoms. The general molecule formula for alkanes is: CyHen HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics °MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 The simplest alkene is ethylene, CH, that is produced by cracking of for example propane, ethane, butane or naphtha: The next alkene is propylene, CsHs, which is produced by cracking other hydrocarbons or naphtha. The alkenes are so-called unsaturated hydrocarbons. The double bonding may easily loosen up, “arms” that are attached to several hydrogen atoms released, and the alkenes may change back to (chemical reaction) alkanes. PROPYLENE: -o Number of Name: Formula isomeric compounds Ethylene CH 0 (ethene) Propylene CoHs 0 (propene) 4-Butene Cs -185,4 | 6,3 4 cis-2-Butene _|C,Hs -138,9 | 3,7 4 jtrans-2-Butene |C,Hs -105,6 | 0,9 4 iso-Butene CuHs -140,4 | 6,9 4 4-Pentene CoHio 6 The number of isomeric compounds increase by the number of carbon atoms. Double bonding also gives additional possibilities for combination because the double bonding may be located on several different places inside the molecule. The following molecules have the same molecule formula, but different structure and thereby different properties. Notice the difference between a cis- bonding and a trans-bonding HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 10MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 1-Butene (or commonly called ‘Butylene’) CH; Trans-2-Butene 2.2.8 Alkadienes Alkadienes are hydrocarbons with two doubles bonding in the molecule. The general molecule formula for alkadienes is: CaHen-2 Propadiene Butadiene Melting || Boiling Name: Formula point point °G °C. Propadiene _|C3Hs -136,5 | 34,5 1,3- CoHs -108,9 44 Butadiene HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics uMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 2.2.9 Alkynes Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bonding between two carbon molecules. The alkynes have the same general formula as for the alkadienes: CyHene +0 Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, and form a homologous serial. The simplest compound within this group is etyne, C2Hs, Melting | Boiling | Number of Name: Formula point | point | isomeric eal °c | compounds Etyne CaHe “82 84 0 (Acetylene) Propyne | CHy -102 23 0 (Allyene) 2.2.10 Cyclo alkanes Cyclo alkanes are hydrocarbons with single bonding between the carbon atoms, but the molecules form a circular structure. The compounds are saturated, and form a homologous serial. The general molecule formula for the cyclo alkanes is; CiHan ‘The circular structure of the cyclo propane: o Melting Number of Name: Formula point isomeric ec compounds Cyclopropane | C3He -126 Cyclobutane |C.Hs. -50 Cyclopentane | CsHio -93 HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 2MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 Cycloheptane | CoHy2 81 2.2.11 Arenes Arenes are cyolic, but unsaturated hydrocarbons because of its double bonding, The compounds are aromatic. Benzene, which is very stabile and frequently used together with other products in the petrochemical industry, is a well-known product within this group. Benzene is a poisonous gas, exposure to benzene may cause hallucination and brain damages. Unleaded gasoline is not as innocent as it seems; the lead content is simply replaced by benzene as ‘anti-knocking device’! Take a good look on the warning signboard on gasoline stations (written in small letters and not very conspicuous). Benzene: Melting | Bolling | Number of Name: Formula point point isomeric Eo °c __| compounds Benzene [CsHs 55 80,1 2.2.12 Alcohols Alcohol are organic compounds where the functional group is the hydroxyl- group —OH. All alcohol ends with *-ol”. The different alcohol’s are divided in subgroups, dependent of the form of bonding. Melting | Boiling | Number of Name: Formula point point isomeric °c °C. compound Methanol [CH:OH “97,8 64,5 Ethanol CoHsOH -117,3 78.3 2.2.13 Aldehydes Aldehydes have one functional group -CHO. Melting | Boiling | Number of Name: Formula point | point | isomeric °c °C compound Formaldehyde | HCHO 118 -19 HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 8Acetaldehyde |CHsCOH 123.5 20,2 2.2.14Ketones Ketones are compounds where the functional group is the carbon-group. Melting | Boiling | Number of Name: Formula point | point | isomeric oe °c compound [Acetone CH3COCHs -94,3 56,2 2.2.15 Temperature, heat, energy and pressure When you mix cold and warm water, the temperature will eventually be a specific average temperature. If multiple objects, with different temperature, are placed in a room, the temperature of the objects and the temperature in the room will eventually be the same. This is the heat theory's O. law that forms the basis for measuring the temperature with a thermometer. Empirically, the heat will, at all times, move from the warmer material to a colder material. One can prevent heat transmission by a heat-insulating barrier. If the barrier is totally heat insulated, it is called adiabatic. If a material, or a collection of materials (a system), is totally surrounded by adiabatic barriers, no heat exchanging can occur with the surroundings. The temperature characterises a fixed stated condition of a material, and can only be measured indirectly by measuring another directly measurable size, that changes with the temperature. With a mercury thermometer or an alcoholic thermometer, the temperature can be determined from how the liquid changes the volume. Because of this, the individual materials change the volume differently at varying temperatures. Graduation on a mercury thermometer must necessarily be different from the graduation of an alcohol thermometer. One calibrates thermometers by measuring the temperature at one or several fixture points. Boiling water at 760 mm HG is one example of such a fixture point. Measuring the temperature based on other material's characteristics has its obvious weaknesses. Different temperature scales make its impossible to establish a uniform method of many thermal calculations. William Thompson, later ennobled as Lord Kelvin, was one of many physicists that worked to find an absolute temperature scale independent of another material's properties. He defined a theoretical temperature scale, which later acquired the name "Kelvin" (or K). The Kelvin scale, adopted by the Sl-system, begins at the absolute zero point, which is defined to -273,15°C, but has the same graduation as the Celsius- scale. In most thermal calculations, it is sufficient to estimate the zero point of the Kelvin scale at -273°C, which will be used as conversion factor in this compendium A temperature difference has the same measured value in Kelvin as in the Celsius-scale. Converting from Celsius to Kelvin is HG Chapter? - Chemise and PhysicsTemperature in Kelvin mu 273 + temperature in Celsius degrees = 50°C = (273 + (-50))K = 223K orc = (273 + 0)K =273K +50°C = (273 + 50)K =323K When a car decelerates, the velocity of the car decelerates, the kinetic energy is reduced. The temperature on the brakes rises simultaneously. An electric driven compressor, which compresses the gas, increases the temperature of the gas, but consumes electrical power simultaneously. If we switch on the hotplate, the temperature rises, simultaneously the hotplate consumes electrical energy. When oil burns, chemical combined energy falls as the temperature rises. Mutually, for all these phenomena are that a temperature increase is in progress simultaneously as we copy energy in one or another form. Mechanical energy, electrical energy, chemical energy or heating energy is all expressions for energy that can be summarised as: “Energy is the capability to perform work” We will mainly go into two forms of energy in this compendium, potential (position) energy and kinetic energy. A temperature increase can take place by transfer of heat from one material to another at lower temperature. It is natural to conclude that heat transfer is also a form of energy transfer. Heat is often defined as the energy that is transferred from one system to another, because of difference in temperature. We measure heat with the same unit as all other forms of energy. The heat (quantity) required to heat up one gram of water one degree Celsius at a temperature of 14.5°C, is defined as one calorie (cal). The Sl-system uses the unit “Joule” for heat. If 41855 Joule is supplied to 1 kg water at a temperature of 14,5°C, the temperature will rise 1K. Conversion between the unit calorie (cal) and Joule (J) is therefore; 1cal= 1855 J or 1 keal = 4185.5 J (One can transfer heat from one place to another in different methods. If an iron bar is heated at one end, the whole bar will gradually be warm. The heat will spread through the material and we say that the heat occurs as stationary thermal-conductance. At thermal conducting, the heat is, at all times, deducting from a location with higher temperature to a location with lower temperature. The speed of the thermal conductance is a temporary dependent of the material. Metals are good heat conductors, gases the inferior. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 15Stationary thermal conductance or heat flow through one level is defined as: =IMAx Ax (Ty = T2) where: IN= specific thermal conducting ability or thermal conductivity with unit W/mK 8 = the thickness of the material in m A= the area of the material in m? T, = temperature on the warmest side in Kelvin ‘Tp = temperature of the coldest side in Kelvin General expressions for heat flow, heat quantity, work or energy is always with the Sl-unit J (Joule). When above mentioned energy forms are measured or calculated during a stated period, the measuring unit is always in J/s, which is the same as Watt (W). In liquid and gases, the molecules move by heat conductance. The heat alters the density, and different density provokes flow that takes the heat ahead. ‘When heat conductance takes place by movement in the material, we say that the heat is transferred by convection. Heat can also be transferred by radiation. In the vicinity of a heated material in cold surroundings, one can feel the heat at a long range. We say that the material radiates heat or emits heat rays. You cannot lead the heat you feel through the air, because as you hold a shield against the heat source, the heat is gone. To produce heat from radiation, you have to stop it with a material. The radiate is slightly enervated in air. The faster and darker the material is, the easier the radiate absorbs and converts to heat. The influence of heat radiation is often underestimated. Understanding this type of heat transfer is important in the work of reducing heat transfer. Emission or emanation is also a form of radiation. A practical example is in a thermos. Double walls with vacuum alone does not prevent transfer of products, in spite of fact that thermal conductance in vacuum is zero. Some heat is, transferred by radiation between walls. To eliminate this, the sides facing vacuum are silver coated. This reduces the heat radiation to a few percent. You can express the relation between absorption and emission as the absorption capability of two materials that has to conduct to each other as emission capabilities. (One measures and describes pressure in different ways independent of what is measured, who measures it and how it is measured. The engineer reads the pressure in a system on a manometer. The mate reads the atmospheric pressure on a barometer or a mercury column. In thermal technical charts and diagrams, the expression absolute pressure is used. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 16over pressure, excess pressure Manometer Pressre, i, cargo tank presse Atmospheric pressure Vacuum One can easily describe the different “pressure” by help of a diagram. The lowest possible pressure that can exist is vacuum. Therefore one estimate absolute pressure from this starting point. The pressure of the manometer is pressure above the atmospheric pressure. As the atmospheric pressure will vary, the logical choice is to show pressure dependent values as a function of absolute pressure, like for example in thermal technical charts and diagrams. We can use a mercury column or a water column, both to indicate atmospheric pressure and excess pressure. A normal atmospheric pressure is defined as 760mm Hg, The gravity of or the pressure that a liquid column of 760mm Hg amounts to can be calculated in this way: P= xgxH where: pressure in N/m? (Newton per square meter) IF the density of liquid (The density of mercury 13595.1 kg/m? g= the gravity of shaft ration (9.81 mis’) height of the liquid column in meter (760 mm = 0.76 meter) p = (13595.1 x 9.81 x 0.76) Nim? = 101359 Nim? 1 normal atmospheric pressure define as = 1013 mill bars 1 atmosphere = 10° Nim? = 100 000 Pa = 100 kPa = 1 bar Oil physics Physics is the lesson of different substances and property forces and their energy form Chemistry is the substances’ composition and the substantial or permanent changes these substances may undergo. The theory about atoms and molecules understands that substances are able to divide into smaller parts, atoms and molecules. 2.2.16 Aggregate States Solid, fluid and gas form conditions must be seen in connection with the understanding of molecule forces. An example’ HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics ryWhen splitting a piece of wood the molecules separate along the split area. The force being used corresponds with the force binding the molecules together. If you now wish to force the two pieces together again, a certain power has to be used. The first power in use will be called the force of cohesion. The second power in use will be called the force of expansion. Cohesion and expansion summed, is called intermolecular force. The cohesion is due to the fact that all substances (elements), including the smallest parts in a substance, execute a mutual back sweep on each other. We therefore have the same nature as the force of gravity. It decreases rapidly when the distance between the smallest parts increases. The expansion is due to the fact that the molecules in all substances, both solid, fluid and gas forms execute movements or vibrations and therefore fill-up an entire room, 2.2.17 Solid Substances A solid substance has a fixed form and fixed volume. An iron bar is resists being lengthened or pressed together. The molecules in the iron bar will try hard to keep a certain mutual distance to each other. The iron bar is resistant to rubbing and bending. In solid substances the molecules have fixed places according to each other, and the same applies to the substance’s volume and form. This is because the cohesion and expansive force is very large. 2.2.18 Fluids Fluids have a fixed volume, but do not have any fixed form. To squeeze water in a cylinder with tight-fitting piston is hard without using large power. Similar to the molecules in solid substances, the molecules in a liquid substance have a certain mutual distance between each other. The liquid molecules on the other hand have no fixed positions according to each other. Liquid will always be shaped based on where the liquid is stored. The cohesion force in liquids is not powerful enough to prevent the molecules from moving freely according to each other. However, the force is still strong enough to maintain the distance between each of the fixed molecules. The expansion force is equal as in solid substances. 2.2.19 Gases Gases have no fixed volume or fixed form. A gas will always try to fil as great a volume as possible, and will therefore fill the room, the tank and so on, where the gas is stored. The cohesion force in gas is too small to prevent the molecules from changing both the distance and the position in accordance with each other. The expansion force gets free scope and the gas expansion is total and unlimited. By exposing gas to forces greater than the expansive force itself, the gas will be compressed. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 82.2.20 Phase changes fe I Tempe ‘Any substance can be transformed from one condition to another, by means of temperature changes or varying temperatures and pressure. Ice, water and water vapour are the same substance in different forms. The transformation between cohesion and expansion with water molecules goes through these three phases - solid substances, liquids and gases. 2.2.21 Melting When a solid, pure crystal substance is continuously supplied with heat, the substance will melt. For example: oA Vigeficn 20 H betas Ws i bbe equal 0 000 SU alae Hag 1 kg of ice with a temperature of -20°C exposed to heat (the pressure is 1 atm). A thermometer placed in the ice will show a rise in temperature up to 0°C, which is melting point of the ice. The heat supplied after the melting point is achieved will have no effect to any temperature rising, as long as the ice is present. During the melting, the temperature is invariable, and the heat supplied during the melting process is consumed in melting the ice. When all the ice is melted, the temperature in the water will rise. So, the amount of heat supplied to 1 kg of the solid substance, in order to reach the melting point where the change from solid to liquid form occurs, is called the “melting heat’ HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 19The heat needed to transform a solid substance at a given temperature, into a liquid substance with the same temperature, is called the “specific melting heat”. The unit for specific melting heat is Joule/kg. The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid substance is called “specific melting heat’, abbreviated ‘r’. The unit for specific evaporation heat is Jk. 2.2.22 Enthalpy A substance's total energy consists of the extemal energy (Work) plus the internal energy. Enthalpy is an expression for a substance’s internal energy abbreviated "h’ (or e’). This enthalpy is an expression of how much energy is tied up in one kilo of the substance. The unit for enthalpy is Joule/kg. The comparison of enthalpy to temperature change of gradients shows how much energy is needed to be supplied to bring ice through the three different stages. 2.2.23 Evaporation A liquid changing to gas is called evaporation. This may happen by evaporation or boiling. To achieve evaporation, heat of evaporation is needed. Some liquids evaporate very quickly, such as gasoline and ether. Other liquid substances evaporate very slowly, such as in crude oil. Evaporation is vapour formed out of the liquid surface and occurs at all temperatures. This is explained by some of the liquid’s surface molecules being sent into the air, which is strongest at high temperatures, dry air and fresh wind. The specific temperature calls the amount of heat needed for one kilo of liquid with fixed temperature to form into one kilo of steam with the same temperature’. The heat from evaporation is set free when the steam forms to liquid again, or condenses The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid is called “specific heat of evaporation", abbreviated as (r). The unit for specific heat of evaporation is Jikg, 2.2.24 Boiling Boiling is vapour formed internally in the liquid. The boiling occurs at a certain temperature, called “the boiling point’. Water is heated in normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm), in an open container. In common, some parts of air are always dissolved. The rise in temperature is read from a thermometer placed in the liquid’s surface. When the temperature has reached 100°C, vapour bubbles HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 20will form inside the liquid substance, especially in the bottom of the container. With continuous heat supply, the bubbling will rise like a stream towards the surface and further up into the air. The water is boiling, The formation of bubbling vapour can be explained as follows During the heating, the water molecule’s kinetic energy increases, consequently the molecules demand more space. During the boiling, as long as there is water in the container, the temperature will be 100°C. The boiling point is dependent upon the pressure. If the steam or the atmospheric pressure increases above liquid substance, the boiling point will also rise. If the surface temperature is just below the boiling temperature, then the water steam will evaporate on the surface. The evaporation point and the boiling point will be the same accordingly. ‘The pressure from the surrounding liquid is the total amount of pressure above the liquid, Pa, plus the static liquid pressure. P =Pa +(yxgxh) pressure in Pascal (100 000 Pa + 1 bar) barometer pressure the liquid density in kg/m? = force of gravity acceleration (9,81m/s*) seEvy ® liquid column in meter. When reducing the pressure above the liquid, the boiling point will also be reduced. A practical use of this characteristic is the production of fresh water on board (fresh water generator). 2.2.25 Condensation Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. If a gas is to be reliquefied at the same temperature, we must remove the heat of evaporation from the gas. A gas can be reliquefied at all temperatures below the critical temperature. By cooling a gas, the molecule speed decreases hence the kinetic speed. The internal energy decreases, as well as, the molecule units and liquid forms. 2.2.26 Distillation Distillation is a transferring of liquid to vapour, hence the following condensing of vapour to liquid. Substances, which were dissolved in the liquid, will remain as solid substance. With distillation it is possible to separate what has been HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 2dissolved from the substance which was being dissolved. When a mixture of two liquids with different boiling point is heated, will the most volatile liquid evaporate first while the remaining becomes richer on the less volatile? On board, for instance, seawater is distillated by use of an evaporator. 2.2.27 Saturated, Unsaturated or Superheated Steam Let us imagine boiling water, releasing vapour from a container, leading the steam into a cylinder that is equipped with a tightening piston, a manometer and two valves. The steam flows through the cylinder and passes the valves, whereon the valves are closing. There now is a limited and fixed volume of steam in the cylinder. Around this cylinder a heating element is fitted. Vapour from the container is constantly sent through this heating element to ensure that the temperature is maintained constant. The piston is pressed inwards, and now the manometer should show a rise in pressure. But, the manometer shows an unchanged pressure regardless how much the volume is reduced. What's happening is, the further the piston is pressed inwards, some parts of the steam are condensed more using less volume. The vapour from the heating element removes the condensed heat, which is liberated during the condensation process. We find that the amount of steam, which is possible to contain per volume unit, remains constant when the steam’s temperature is equal to the condensation point at the set pressure. The room cannot absorb more vapour, it is saturated with steam and called “saturated”. If the piston is pressed outwards, the pressure will still show constant. The conclusion is: ‘+ With temperature equal to the condensation point by set pressure, steam is saturated, * Steam above boiling water is saturated, + Saturated steam with a set temperature has a set pressure. This is called saturation pressure. + With constant temperature saturated steam cannot be compressed. This also concems vapour as saturated steam of other gases. Use the same cylinder arrangement as before. The cylinder contains saturated steam, no water. The piston is drawn outward. When no water exists over the piston no new steam will be supplied undemeath. The manometer will now show reduced (falling) pressure as the steam expands. When saturated steam expands without supplying new steam, it is called unsaturated steam. The room has capacity to collect more steam. Unsaturated steam contains lower pressure than saturated steam at the same temperature. The unsaturated steam in the cylinder can be made saturated again in two ways. Either by pushing the piston inward to the originated position, or let the unsaturated steam be sufficiently cooled down. When the temperature is reduced, the saturation pressure will reduce. Unsaturated steam will, in other words, have a too high temperature to be saturated with the temperature it originally had. Therefore, this often is referred to as superheated steam. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics B2.3. THE GAS LAWS The gas laws are laws that describe the basic facts for ideal gases. Many actual gases under pressure and temperature that we normally get in touch with can not observe as ideal gases. Calculations based one-sided of the gas laws, will therefore necessarily often depart from reality. The gas laws are meanwhile important by that the laws establish simple and clear connections by the condition changes of the gases. 2.3.1. The Boyles law Boyles law, of Mariottes law establish that when the gas quantity is confined and the volume varies under constant pressure, the pressure will vary so that the product of pressure and volume is constant. The law can also express as: px V = constant One illustrate the law a by thinking a cylinder filled with gas. A well-adjusted piston closes the gas inside the cylinder. The pressure in the gas is p, by a volume V, before changing. If the piston is removed so that the volume alters to V, the pressure p after volume change is: Pix Vi= Pa x Ve Pa = (Pix Vi) / V2 A change of state in the gas where the temperature is constant is called an isotherm alteration The Boyles law agrees to good approach for air and hydrogen up to about 100 pressures of the atmosphere. For other gases as carbon dioxide, the law is only for lower pressure. If the pressure is 1 bar and the volume 1 litre before alteration, after reducing the volume to half, the pressure will be Pa = (Pr x Vi) Vee (1x 1)/0,5 bar HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 42.3.2. Gay-Lussacs laws Gay-Lussacs ‘.law establish that the gas volume varies proportionally in condition to the absolute temperature of the gas when the pressure is constant. The law can also express as: V1 / Ty = constant The law can illustrate by thinking a cylinder filled with gas. A good adjusted piston that moves free shuts the gas inside the cylinder. The pressure in the gas is constant and determined by the weight of the piston. If you heat the gas so that the temperature alters from T1 to T2, the volume alters from V1 to V2. The new volume is: Vi ITs = V2 IT Va = (Vix T2)/Ts ‘An alteration of state in the gas under constant pressure is called an isobar change. Gay-Lussacs 2.law establish that the pressure of a gas quantity is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas when the volume is constant. The law can also express as: p1/T;= constant One can illustrate the law by thinking a cylinder filled with water. The piston is locked so that the volume stays the same. If you heat the gas so that the temperature is altered from T1 to 72, the pressure will alter from p1 to p2. The new pressure after heating will be: PilTs = po /T2 Po = (Pix T2)/ Ts A state of proportion in the gas with unaltered volume is called an isochor alteration. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics M2.3.3. The absolute zero point. Gay-Lussacs experiment is used to decide the absolute zero point. If you heat a small glass tube in water where a small mercury droplet fences an air column, the state between the air volume and the temperature is plotted in a diagram when the temperature changes. ‘When the temperature rises, the volume increases. The read off values for temperature and volume is close to a straight line. The differences are so small that they are inside the accuracy. The line that emerges shows how the volume varies with the temperature under constant pressure. The pressure will at all times during the experiment be the total amount of the atmospheric pressure and the weight of the mercury droplet. 2.3.4 The Avogadros law The Avogadros law says that equal volumes of two gases with the same pressure and temperature contains the same amount of molecules. A conclusion of this statement is that the state between two gases density (p) at the same pressure and temperature, has to be equal to the state between the masses of the individual molecules in the gases or the state between the relative molecule masses (M). mA, = My/Mz 23.5. The Dalton Law The Dalton law say that the total pressure in a gas mixture is equal to the total amount of the partial pressures (part-pressure), that each of the gases will alone in a room with the same temperature as the mixture, The law expresses as: Piotat = Ps + Pz +. The Dalton law is logical. Every gas fills all the volume, independent of other gas molecules that are present. The molecules itself obtains itself an utmost small part of the volume. Therefore every gas will have a pressure that responds to this. One can also see the restriction of the law from this explanation. It has no longer any existence when the pressure is so large that the molecules occupy a perceptible part of the volume. It has also no accuracy when the gas molecules has influence on one another, and also not if the gases has a chemical reaction against one another. Po 2.3.6 The Joules law The law of Joules say that the inner energy in a precise amount of ideal gas only depend of its temperature and is independent of the volume. If pressure and volume is changed in a process, the inner energy will remain constant if the temperature is constant. According to the kinetic gas theory, the inner energy in an ideal gas is equal the complete kinetic energy that the molecules have because of its disordered movement. This can express, as the inner energy in a precise amount of ideal HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 3sgas is proportional with the absolute temperature. A conclusion of this statement is if an ideal gas expand (gets a larger room), the temperature and with that the inner energy will remain unchanged after expansion. Indirectly, the law is demonstrated by experiments with actual gases. These experiments indicate that the inner energy of an actual gas is dependent of the gas volume, but this dependence decreases the more the gas approach to become an ideal gas. In an actual gas the force of attraction works between the molecules. The force of attraction between the molecules by usual pressure is small, but is not equal zero. It is therefore necessary to perform work to increase the distance between the molecules and expand the gas volume. If the expansion is adiabatic, that is without heat exchange between the surroundings. This work can only be because in expense of the molecule kinetic energy and the temperature of the gas sink 2.3.7 Joules-Thompson effect The Joules-Thompson effect describes the divergence from the Joules law of an actual gas. According to Joules law, the temperature will not change if a gas expand freely without working. Practical the temperature will fall freely for most gases of hydrogen and helium that is heated during expansion. When air expand from about 50 bar to the atmospheric pressure, this is cooled with about 13K. It is the result of this effect, one can observe or feel when air or another gas is let out from an air bottle and the delivery valve (expansion valve) is noticeable colder. Cooling plants that are used on board expand the vaporisation of the gas. The Joules-Thompson effect in such plants is insignificance and there for not calculated with 2.3.8. Diffusi Bromic gas that has a brown colour is well suited to demonstrate diffusion between gases. If you fill a glass with bromic gas and a glass filled only with air on top, one can after a while se that the content in both glasses is gradually brown-coloured. Diffusion has taken place. In despite of that bromic gas has five times as large density as air diffuses that gas up in the top glass with air. All gases can mix at diffusion. As the molecules in the gases are accidental and unorganised, a precise gas molecule will over time come any where in the room that is available (according to the kinetic gas theory). From the kinetic gas theory it is natural to draw the conclusion that the diffusion velocity is faster the larger velocity the molecules have. At experimental experiments the Englishman Graham reached following connections: The diffusion velocity for a gas is converted with the square root of the density of the gas and directly proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature. These can mathematical express as: vi/¥2 = w/t in As equal volume of two gases contain, at the same pressure and temperature, that same amount of molecules (Avogadros law), the state between the density of the gases (p) and the masses of the individual molecules and the relative molecule masses (M) be: i! = My/Mz HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 2From above mentioned two expressions, gases diffusion velocity can express as: vilv2 = VMAVM, This formula can be used to find how fast gases diffuse in proportion to one another. When the molecule mass to nitrogen is 28 and the molecule mass to hydrogen are 2, we find the relative diffusion velocity for nitrogen to: Viva = VMZAM, = ¥32N2 = that show hydrogen diffuse 4 times faster than nitrogen. 2.4 BASIC REFRIGERATION There are seven different refrigeration principles, but we are to concentrate about the process that has been known the longest and that has the largest distribution The process of evaporation is the process that is used at the most in modern cooling technique. It is here the cooling medium evaporation heat that is utilised to transfer heat from one place to another. For a liquid to evaporate one must supply heat to the liquid. The heat is taken from the surroundings that thereby are cooled. In an air condition plant on board, Freon liquid is lead into an evaporator, the heat from the air is transferred to the liquid that evaporate, and the air is cooled (One must here emphasise that there is always in speak of transport of heat from a warmer media to a relative colder media. Equal that water flows from a higher level to a lower because of that the gravity will heat from a higher temperature to a lower. How can then heat transfer from the relative cold Freon gas that is sucked back to the compressor and transfer to the relative much warmer seawater? To elevate water from a lower to a higher level, work has to be done by help of a pump. To transport heat from a lower temperature to a higher: The thermodynamics 2" main sentence say: “Heat can only be transported from a body with low temperature to a body with higher temperature by converting of mechanical work.” Itis this law that is utilised in any cooling plants or condensation plant for cargo on gas ships. Heat is transferred from the relative cold cargo gas to the relative much warmer seawater. For this to be possible one must perform a work on the gas by the compressor compressing the gas to a higher pressure and temperature than the seawater, and heat can thereby transfer from the gas to the seawater in a heat exchanger. Since the compressor secures a continuous high pressure and temperature in the heat exchanger, both the supplied heat quantity under compression and the evaporation heat transfer to the seawater. The gas condenses and is allowed back by a regulation valve and back into the tank, The job of the regulation valve is to secure a liquid lock for thereby to maintain a high pressure in the condenser, and to distinguish between the low-pressure side and the high-pressure side in a condensation plant. Without this valve it is HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics ximpossible to maintain the condensation pressure and keep the cooling process up. In many cooling plants thermostatic expansion valves are used at this purpose. A thermostatic expansion valve is not regulated by the liquid level in a liquid collector before the valve, but by the overheating temperature inside the evaporator. Regardless of the valve is a regulation valve or a thermostatic expansion valve, the job is the same and the valve has no “cooling technical" qualifications in itself. (ref. Joules-Thompson effect). On ships that transport condensed gases in bulk, the cargo in the cargo tanks will at all times be in its boiling point. As the temperature difference between the cargo and the surroundings are partly very large, heat will transfer from the surroundings to the cargo. Isolation will never prevent heat-transfer, only reducing this. The heat to the cargo will lead to temperature increase with thereby following pressure increase. This process will unprevented be in progress until the temperature of the cargo is equal as the surrounding temperature. If the cargo is propylene and the surroundings ambient temperature is 27°C, the pressure in the cargo tank will gradually build up to about 11 bars. With exception of fully pressurised gas carriers, there is no gas ship with cargo tanks that is Constructed to resist such a pressure. To maintain the tank pressure less than the pressure the cargo tanks is designed for (MARVS), it is necessary to remove the supplied heat. This can be done in three different ways. We can condensate the vapour back to the cargo tank, we can use the vapour as fuel or we can blow the vapour out in the atmosphere. LNG ships use the vapour in the propulsion machinery and that is a part of the chart. How the cooling plant is constructed depends of the size of the ship and what kinds of cargo the ship is built to carry. Roughly the cargo cooling plant is, divided into in three main types: + Direct cooling plants; the cargo condensing directly against seawater. + Cascade plants; the cargo gas is condensing at a cooling media as for example R22. + Indirectly cooling plants; the cargo is cooled or condensed against a cooling media or a without compression of the cargo gas. ‘As mentioned earlier, there is unqualified necessary to cool a compressed gas under its critical temperature to condensing this. As the condensing temperature normally is no lower than 5°C above the seawater temperature, we can set a cool technical limit for what can be condensed against seawater. The diagram shows a saturation curve and the critical point for the most actual gas cargo. It is here drawn a reflected boundary line at a condensing temperature of 37°C. We then suppose that the seawater temperature in the area the ship is trading will be maximum 32°C and that the highest condensing temperature. 2.5 MOLLIER DIAGRAM - INTRODUCTION The Mollier diagram is a valuable tool in helping to understand refrigeration calculations. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 2In a cooling plant, the cooling media will constantly change its state. Vapour is compressed and gets a higher pressure and temperature, vapour condenses and liquid vaporises. In the cooling process, the aggregate state, pressure and temperature change continuously. To perform calculations of the cooling process, one must know the enthalpy changes taking place. If one is to make enthalpy-tables for a cooling media in all possible states, you will find a large and unpractical table. Diagrams for simply cooling media where the cooling media's enthalpy under the actual aggregate are stated, are therefore developed. Such a diagram contains infinitely much more information than a table can have, and gives, in addition, possibility to make a “heat-technical picture” of the cooling process. Before making use of the Mollier diagram one has to learn how the diagram is, built, and how the different lines lie in the diagram. This will make it easier to find information in the diagram. 2.5.1 The Mollier Diagram and the Psychrometric Chart If you think that the slightly skew edges of your Mollier or Psychrometric Diagram are the result of multiple passes of the image through bad copier optics, then this article is for you. One can make a reasonable career in preventive conservation, and carve out a position of influence and power, through understanding this one diagram. It describes all the properties of moist air that the conservator needs to know. A thorough understanding of how the diagram is constructed is a great help in using it, particularly when exploring thermal properties of moist air. 25.2 The Mollier Diagram The Mollier Diagram is the European version of the Anglo-American Psychrometric Chart. They are identical in content but not in appearance. | will describe first the Mollier diagram and then show the simple transformation that changes it into the psychrometric chart. The Mollier diagram, also called the ix diagram, is based on the relationship between heat content and water vapour content of air. The heat, or energy, content is difficult to measure directly, so the diagram is cunningly distorted to give the illusion of being based on the relationship between temperature and relative humidity and water vapour content. Temperature is easy to measure, relative humidity is considered by some people to be easy to measure and so the diagram is transformed into a useful tool 2.5.3 The enthalpy of moist air Heat content is called enthalpy in the jargon of the air conditioning engineer, so {will use this word from now on. It is measured in Joules. By convention, the enthalpies of both water and dry air are defined to be zero at zero degrees Celsius. To obtain the enthalpy of moist air at any temperature we need to calculate three quantities: how much heat needs to be used to vaporise the water, how much heat is needed to warm the water vapour to the required air temperature and how much heat must be added to the other, constant components of the air, mostly nitrogen and oxygen. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 2MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 It is helpful to start by getting a sense of the magnitude of these quantities by calculating an example, before looking at the diagrammatic representation which generalises them Consider one cubic metre of air at 10°C and 40% RH weighs about 1kg. The water content is about 0.003 kg per kg of dry air. Just evaporating the water takes 0.003 x 2501 (the specific heat of water) = 7.5 Joules of energy, without raising the temperature above zero. Raising the temperature of this steam by ten degrees requires 10 x 0.003 x 1.84 (the specific heat of steam) = 0.06 Joules, not very much compared with the heat needed to vaporise the water. Finally the nitrogen and oxygen take 10 x 1 (the weight of the air) x 1.007 (the specific heat of air) = 10.1 Joules. Heating the air is the largest of the three energy inputs that are needed. Notice, however, that the energy needed just to vaporise the necessary water into the air to give 40% RH is of similar magnitude to the energy needed to heat the air from zero to ten degrees. This is why humidification is expensive. This calculation can be generalised in a diagram showing lines of constant temperature plotted on a grid with enthalpy, i, on the vertical axis and water vapour content, x, on the horizontal axis: x kghke Consider first the bold red line marked 0 (degrees C.). The slope upwards to the right indicates that energy is needed just to add water vapour to the air at constant temperature. The line for 20 degrees starts higher up the energy axis, i, because energy is needed to raise the temperature of dry air. The line then rises diagonally with increasing water content, nearly parallel to the isotherm for zero degrees, but with a slightly greater upward slope. This divergence is because the energy needed to heat the water vapour component of the air is greater than that for dry air: the specific heat of dry air is about 1 Joule per kilogram per degree while the value for water vapour is 1.84 Jikg °C. This is a large difference but because air at 10°C and 40%RH contains very little water vapour, the increase in slope is quite small in the region of the diagram that is of interest in conservation. This then is the basic diagram linking enthalpy, water content and temperature. Now we come to the elegant transformation that makes it much more useful and versatile. The red isotherms linking points of equal temperature on the diagram are so nearly parallel in the region of interest in air conditioning and outdoor climate that the diagram can be sheared by holding steady on the lef side and pulling down on the right edge until the line for zero degrees lies exactly horizontal, whereupon the other isotherms lie very nearly horizontal. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics ioImagine the entire diagram made of wires that are hinged together to form a net that can be sheared by grasping the zero isotherm and forcing it down to a horizontal position. The other isotherms will now be almost horizontal, giving a vertical axis that is both temperature, reading horizontally across, and enthalpy, reading diagonally across and down. We now have the skeleton of the Mollier Diagram. i 7 5 2 Enthelpy —h uf! Log p-h diagram or called the Mollier diagram, has a vertical logarithmic scale for pressure (p) and a horizontal scale for enthalpy (h). In the Mollier diagram, one will often think of the two different units for the different qualities. We will consistently make use of the SI-units and refer to these scales only. The pressure of the Mollier diagram is, as in all heat technical tables, given as absolute pressure. If nothing else is given, we have chosen to set the atmospheric pressure to equal 1 bar, which corresponds to 0.1 MPa. In cooling technical calculations one is only interested in enthalpy changes and hot the absolute enthalpy values. The values for enthalpy are therefore chosen from a random reference state. One must take note of this, if one wants to compare enthalpy values from the different tables or diagrams. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics iuPM hfs) In the Mollier diagram, the “sack” is the most bearing curve. The bent line that goes from the lower left comer and upwards the KP (the kinetic point) is called the liquid line. If this line is lengthways, the liquid is always in its boiling point. The line bends from KP and is almost vertically down the middle of the diagram This line is called the saturation curve. On this line, the state will be saturated gas. At the right of the saturation curve, the gas is super-heated. To the left of the liquid line the liquid is super-cooled. The area between the liquid and the saturation line specifies a mixture of boiling liquid and saturated gas. The dashed line indicates the proportion of mixture between liquid and gas. Halfway between the liquid line and the saturation line there will be equal parts of gas as liquid. In the sketch above, one line is marked “0.1”. Along this line there is 90% liquid and 10% saturated gas. The distance between the liquid and the saturation tine indicates how large the vaporisation is. Notice that the vaporisation varies with the pressure and is lessened, the higher the pressure is. In the critical point, quid can not appear. The Mollier diagram also has lines that indicate density (or specific volume), temperature and entropy. The lines for entropy indicate how pressure, temperature and heat content change in an adiabatic state of proportion. An adiabatic state of proportion is an alteration without heat exchanging with the surroundings. The real compression progress in a compressor will of course deviate some from these lines because of loss in the compressor and heat exchange with the environment. The lines for density (kg/m*) or specific volume (m*/kg) indicate density with varying pressure and temperature. The line for constant temperature is vertical from the top of the diagram down to the liquid line. The temperature goes from the liquid line horizontal to the saturation line, thereby to bend vertically towards the enthalpy from the saturation line. To maintain necessary training in using the Mollier diagram, we will see in some examples how to obtain useful information from the diagram. This course provides a Mollier diagram for propane utilises the diagram in the following advice. Take note that there are often two scales for pressure and enthalpy. Note which units to utilise for temperature, density and entropy. We will only utilise Sl-units in our calculations. In the course enclosure, tables for conversion between the most common units are enclosed HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 2When you plot and draw in the diagram it is recommended to always utilise a soft pencil. The diagram can be used several times. 2.5.3.1 Example 1 The ship is loaded with propane and the tank manometer pressure is 2 bars. Find the physical state for the liquid in the loading tank. Any state of proportion can settle in the diagram if we can identify two actual crossing lines. As the cargo in the loading tank always lies in its boiling point, the state of proportion must lie somewhere among the liquid line. It is also known that the pressure in the tank and above the liquid is read off at 2 bars on the manometer. This pressure is equivalent 3 bar absolute (if we assume the atmospheric pressure to 1 bar) or 0.3 MPa. The state of proportion here is the Point of intersection between the liquid line and the pressure line of 0.3 MPa. steaks) ¥ (mie) 0.3 Mpa Tite) 2.5.3.2 Example 2 The ship is loaded with propane and the tank pressure is read off on the manometer at 2 bars. Plot the state of proportion for the gas above the liquid in the cargo tank, As the gas above the liquid in the loading tank is, at all times, saturated, the state of proportion must lie somewhere on the saturation line. The pressure in the tank and above the liquid is read off to 2 bars on the manometer. This pressure is equivalent to 3 bar absolute (if we assume the atmospheric pressure to 1 bar) or 0.3 MPa. The state of proportion here will be the state of intersection between the saturation line and the pressure line of 0.3 MPa. HG Chapter 2 Chemivry and Phe 32 03 Mpa HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 7] T594 Te. ep 2007m7 St 2.6 CALCULATION OF THERMAL TRANSFER The cooling plant on a gas carrier is dimensioned by calculated heat transfer to cargo tanks and systems when the ship is new. The insulation is exposed for wear and tear and is on many gas carriers partly strong reduced. When the insulation on cargo tanks gets inferior, it will have influence on the capacity of the vessel. Its construction and choice of components give the cooling plant's capacity. Systematic maintenance will hold this capacity. The amount of heat transferred to cargo tanks and cargo pipes dependent on the insulation’s state, surrounding temperature, heat radiation and movements. Before taking a closer look at the condition around heat transfer on gas carrier, itis useful to form a picture of the heat balance. Itis indicated easily by following illustration: Heat is transferred from the surroundings to the cargo and systems for cargo because of the temperature difference. The transmission heat to the cargo tanks, Qurian iS the total transferred heat to the cargo tanks with cargo, steel and insulation. Transmission heat to cargo pipelines Qrrpipe is the total transferred heat to cargo in the pipes, pipe and insulation around the pipes. The heat of compression, Qi.compr iS the heat supplied to the gas in the ‘compressor and the heat of condensation Qcond is the heat transferred to the seawater in the loading condenser. When the cooling plant is driven to keep the temperature of the cargo constant, the heat balance is expressed as: Qhrsank + Qrepine + Qrecomor = Qeond or as: Que tank = Qirom cargo tank ~ Q rn to cargo tank The actual amount of heat transferred from the surroundings to a cargo tank or a system can be quantified in several methods. HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics asAt first we will look on how this can be done onboard, and how to evaluate the result and what results the eventual effectuated effort will have. Most gas carriers are equipped with a graphic description of the calculated heat transfer to the cargo tanks. This is a theoretical calculated description that does not necessarily give the right image of the heat transfer. The older the ship is the larger is, probability that the calculated heat transfer DOES NOT coincides with reality. Control of the reel heat transfer can be executed onboard. If a loaded cargo tank is closed and isolated from the cooling plant over a period of time, the transferred heat from the surroundings can be measured. The heat transfer is thereby quantified and is comparable with what it was or should be, Before looking on a concrete example, it is of importance to emphasise that when accomplish such measuring, one must evaluate the results from the accuracy of the instruments. As the measuring instruments onboard has normally no more accuracy than + 10%, the period of measure should be as long as possible. Further it is important that if comparing repeated actual measurements, the measures have to be made at the best possible equal condition ‘We will now take a look at different examples and what we can do. 2.6.1 Example 1 ‘A 12 year old smaller intermediate pressure gas carrier with 6 cargo tanks is loaded with ethylene and has just moved the sailing area from Europe to SEA. The captain report that the ships capability to cool down ethylene is perceptible inferior. The cooling rate is now at the lower edge of 0.3°C per day when the temperature of the cargo gets lower than -102°C. Inspection of the loading tanks indicate more ice than usual round all of the tank foundation and tank no. 2 and 4 has many “ice spots”. Several “ice spots” than before are also observed on suction lines and condensate lines on deck. The cooling plant is checked and driven at optimum, but the cooling rate is more than halved at the same pressure in proportion to when the ship sailed in European waters. As the cooling plants condition is verified good and the plant is verified optimum driven, the bad cooling rate must be the result of the insulation has been worse during the years. The heat transfer has probably increased gradually through the years, but the influence has not been operational visual before the ship altered sailing area. It is obvious that the insulation on tank no. 2 and 4 plus the insulation on the lines on deck are mostly reduced. Repair of the insulation is necessary, but the question is which areas have most influence on the cooling capacity. Clarification of this is of importance when planning and priority of the insulation repair. The amount of heat transfer to the cargo tanks and pipelines must be coneretised and compare with the repair costs before making the right decision. Cargo tank no. 2, 3 and 4 are the same type and size. To find out how much heat that is transferred to the “bad” loading tanks in proportion to one of one of the "good, the tanks are shut for 24 hours. ‘The measuring instruments that are utilised during the experiment are calibrated and the following sketch for heat transfer is utilised and filled in: Heat transfer for Cargo tank HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 6no.2 Datotime BOOT eT | S107 aT 10:30 40:30 Cargo tank filling ratio EKA Mass cargo in MT 522,837 “Ambient temperature in °C 2 3] ‘Sea wator temperature in °C 28| 23] ‘Average Hold space temperaturein°¢ [7 _—23|——~—=i| Ship's movement Camsea__[Calmsea Weather condition (Cloudy [Gioudy ‘Average liquid temperature in °C “1057 “02 Cargo tank pressure in mBar 30] 165] Enthalpy liquid in kukg 270 2 As the weight of gas is relative much less than the liquid weight, only the enthalpy change of the liquid is measured. The enthalpy values exist in heat technical table and the heat transfer to the cargo in tank no. 2 is calculated to: [(mass cargo x enthalpy-change) / (time in seconds)] [(92,837 x 10° x (29.3 - 27.0) / (24 x 60 x 60)] KW = 15,8 kW. Corresponding, the heat transfer is measured and caloulated to the cargo in tank no. 3 and 4 to respectively 13.9 KW and 22,2 kW. In the technical description of the ship the calculated heat transfer when the ship was built to 13.1 kW for each tank at the same surrounding temperature and seawater temperature is located. ‘A comparable table can be made and indicates as follows: Calculated _ | Calculated Percentage transfer before: |transfernow: | change: Cargo tank] 13,1 KW 15.8 KW 20% 2 Cargo tank|13,1 KW 13,9 KW 6% 3 Cargo tank] 13,1 KW 22,2 KW 70% 4 The calculations confirm the observations and presumptions made before in connection with the inspection of the tank insulation. It is rather no doubt that the insulation on tank no. 4 is essential much more deteriorated than the remaining two tanks. The priority at en eventual re- insulation of cargo-tanks can thereby well substantiate. HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics EBy comparing present operational parameters for the cooling plant with earlier registered operational data, the temperature increase on the vapour from the cargo tank to compressor has increased essential. Six years ago, during almost the same condition, the vapour temperature rise from —100°C to -60°C from the cargo tank to compressor. Present observed temperature increase is from — 100°C to -40°C. The vapour is essential now more over heated than earlier. A compressor's cold capacity is expressed as: Ques =m x HH Higher temperature on the vapour into the compressor involves lower density and thereby reduced amount of vapour through the compressor per time. The influence of inferior insulation on the suction lines to the cooling plant will have direct influence on the cooling capacity. A comparable table indicates as follows: Density on gas v/1 bars and -60 °C 1,7699 kg/m? Density on gas v/1 bar and -40 °C 1,6181 kgim> Percentage reduction in density 9% The reduction of the suction line's insulation involves a direct reduction of the cooling rate of about 10% in this temperature area. The size of the heat loss through condensate lines and liquid lines cannot be measured directly because there will at all times be and unknown and varying mixture of liquid and gas in the pipes. Judgement must at all times be adjusted and from the rapport from this ship, one must assume that the insulation here has the same condition as the suction lines. If this is the case, the influence of bad insulation on the condensate lines will have maximum consequence. The liquid lines are only utilised in a short period (during loading and discharging), while the condensate lines are utilised during all of the cooling period. The increase of the relative heat loss through the insulation on loading tank no. 2 and 4 is now indicated. Likewise has the reduction of cooling capacity because of increased heat transfer to the suction gas established. There is no doubt that both conditions have influence on the operational situation on the ship. But it is difficult to compare these two directly, for thereby to establish which one of them that has the strongest effect on the ship's possibility to execute the transport commission. To make the data's comparable the alteration in the heat transfer to the suction line is quantified, The ship's three loading compressors have stated a capacity of 680m°/h at the same operational condition. The alteration of the heat transfer to the suction line in proportion to earlier years is calculated to: HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 8[Vapour Ethylene [Temperature at inlet compressor-60 °C lbefore, T; lEnthalpy, hy 572.7 kdlkg [Temperature at inlet compressor now,-40. °C [Te lEnthalpy, hz 607.4 kilkg Densitygm: 1,6181 kg/m Number of compressors 3 \Capacity per compressor, V 680 mh Difference in heat transfe(gm 318 kW mim = ((3 x V) / 3600) x ma x (he = hy) One can see that about 30 kW more heat to the suction cables is supplied now compared to earlier year. Simultaneously the measures indicate that the heat transfer to the cargo is about 15 KW more than earlier. (One must here emphasise that the total heat transfer to the cargo tanks will be larger because the steel in the cargo tanks with insulation is supplied heat). Heat transfer to the suction vapour in the suction pipe has a direct influence on the cooling plant's capacity. In addition, too high suction temperature will have a bad influence on the plant's operational conditions by for example that the pressure pipe temperature may be too high. 2.7 CONVERSION TABLE 2.7.1 Temperature Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit 0 -273,15 -459,67 255,372 A7777 0 273,15 0 32 2.7.2 Pressure Pa Bar Kglom? Lbffin? Nim? “4 10x10% ——-10,197x 10" 0,145x 107 100 x 10° 1 1,019 14,503 98,065 x 10° 0,980 1 14,223 6,894 x 10° 68,947x 10 70,307 x 10% 1 HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 9MAT 1594 AaI20- Sept 2007 2.7.3 Energy / Heat (Joule) KWh kcal hkh Btu Nm, Ws 4 0,277 x 10" 0,238x 10° 0,377x 10" 0,947 x 10 3,6 x 10° 1 859,845 1,359 3,412x 10° 4,186 x 10° 1,163 x 10° 1 1,581x10° 3,968 2,647x10° 0,735 632,415 1 2,509 x 10° 1,055x 10° 0,293x10° 0,251 0,398 x 10° 1 2.7.4 Power w keal/h Buh Nmis, Jis 1 0,589 3,412 1,163 1 3,968 0,293 0,251 1 2.1.5 Thermal conductivity Wim k kealim h K Wim°’c — kcal/ mh °C 1 0,859 1,163 1 2.7.6 Thermal conductance Wim? K kcalim? h K Wim? °C. kcal | m?h eC 7 0,859 1,163 1 HG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics «02.8 THERMODYNAMIC TABLES The following thermodynamic tables is enclosed n-butane propylene ethylene ethane freon R22 propane + methane HG Chapter? - Chemise and PhysicsMAT ep 2007 n-BUTANE C,Hio lesion Eaegy ‘Approx muloule Molecular Weight ser ‘VelostyinLigud Phase” (610°). 210 Centposes Boling Poa (at Ub) se. Velo in Gaseous Paseo 20°C)» 00701 Capes Limits of ines, iss PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR NOTE 1, hp based on zr t-129° in iid pase cd A re ee a Tr wal ‘PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOUR (specie volume. a: betulpy kal: absolut presse) HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics eMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 PROPYLENE C; He Igaion Temperate re Molar Weight nas Tgaiton Eacey ioe Bling om Ct bt ee ioelenpetie as AL Lit of nectaneabiy, any Velo ascoas Phase a 20°C). 00845 Censpoaes PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR NOTE |. ily based onze at -129°C nig pase = = Bay] (es | ae a er | ‘said | Vapor | Liga | Vapour [Liga bed on as” get ta Vapour [asic HG Chapter 2 Chemivry and Phe 4“MAT 594 Aaa ep 2007 PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOUR (y specie volume, mg, benlaipy Kell Pact preset) ‘NOTET-Tatalpy Dae on 20 at 729 i guid pase HG Chapter 2- Chemise and PhysicsMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 ETHYLENE C; Hy Molecular Weight raas Bolliag Poa (at ba) Limits of ines, PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR Hose. 32-86% Citcal Temperature ore ‘Veoctyinigud Phase (100°) 130 Cenpoises Velo in Gaseous Paseo °C). 00933 Cano C| ban [Vapoud tiga Napa] igid|VapoarFaaate heap | [°C] tan | Vapour] tigid Vapour Liga Wapoar god heat tos] osss [osse | 149 | ss | sus] ize | so Jase | | ae] i208 | oss f° anne | 213 1312 | aaa | 90 104] 0996 Joss | 1788] 248 | sono] i208] 60 Jas | | 44] 27 Jom} 2128 | 234 113 | ata | os 32 0255} ists | 392 ims | 123 | 6 “2] i829 | omss| mas | 338 | ager | 1319 813 0 oa | ime | 431 sma isa [ioe] [Sol tos |onom | aa | ser | dann | ists | 22 | 909 36 oss | anes | 5s ins | 156 | 1083, -a6| 2153 | oars | 2323 | ao | 4305] 131s | 554 | 762 st cine | isi | 52 ras | 167 | tore |] 28] 2271 Jomo] asso | as | aaa] ania | s70 | 793 4 ois | 1909 | 8.47 1263 | 225 | 1038 14] 2928 | cores | 2513 | 60.2 | 3979 | 1298 | os | 639 mm sine | 9a | 97 1267 | 237 | 1030 12] 3039 |ooiss| 2553 | G43 | 3e17 | 1294 | are | sis a ‘aes POI | Tos Tar] tr ] Tos S [3391p o0rs6 | omaness | 735 | s7a1 L299 | 720 | 370 82 ours | i987 | 132 1286 | 298 | 983 2} 3901 foot) 2826] 909 | 839 | i270 | 790 | aso ‘ oon | 200i | 133 aes | 311 | ons | os: | ooto2 | 2906 | oxo | 3441 | 1260 | 20 | 40 4] 931s Joosss) 2098 | 173 1301 | 380 | 98. 6] 4673 | coors | 3260 | tsi [3063 | sate | 920 | 290 iihar—[-P=S0 bar] P=1stor Eopy Peps “so | osi2 | 13e7 | 0467 | 1242 J o3se | tzu | om fae} = | = | = | = S039 Par | 0300 | 1a9s [oar | 1393 | osm] Rs Pore | aa | ao fois | 1452 | oss | r4es J oazs | tan7 | ois | tas J ois | ies “io _| oos | 155.7 | ost | 1572 | oss | 156: | 0354 | 1549 | ose | 1308 10 | oar | 1659 | o.ses | 6s | ost7 | 1663 | oss | 165.2 | 0.149 | 1500 ao form | 1201 | ons | 18a | 053s | 1483 | o3o4 | ser2 forse | 130 vo | oso | 1908 | ao | 1903 | oa | 1902 | oaea | ses fotst | ists to | oss | isis | oss | soa | sas | 1923 | o4ns | soi | otss | ists s0_| oss | 1900 | oss | ions | oss | 1978 | 0489 | ise | ott | 1917 TOO [OHA [ORE | OHM Paar | URwT | Zor OsUS [oO | OT | TSR tio | tors | 2073 | 6327 | 2068 ] 0700 | 2057 | ass | 2083 J o2nt | 1985. 10 | 17 | 282. | i072 | 232.1 | 0809 | 2305 | 656 | 220.0 | 0234 | 2245 ‘NOTE. ati Baedon 20 a: 119°C i guid pe HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics “6MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 ETHANE C,H, Molar Weigh sar ‘Velosty i Ligud Phase (85°C) 152 Catipises Being Pa (a ase ‘Velocity in Garou Phase 20). 10925 Centos PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR NOTE 1. Enthlpy based on zeo at -100°C in guid phase Te ay ar Vina] — Spa vas — Daa aig ae Taro) Prsce a tie | ine [ince || temp] Pre one “eat re | eae Wipes | tiga Wa Te [Wap [es fea er Nes eel ar tt HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics “MAT 594 Aaa ep 2007 PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOUR (vipsie valine, gs boty Kl: Paolini) HG Chapter 2- Chemise and PhysicsMAT Boling Pos (at st) 408, Velociyin cous Mate (G°6).”. 01204 Contos PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR NOTE |, Eup based on zero a 40°C in iguid ptase 1 nae tt x eal 5 te Ten Pear i Ls iat x rer + HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics “MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOUR (vipsie vole ig; totaly kcal: P-aholte presse) HG Chapter 2- Chemise and PhysicsMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 PROPANE C; Hs Iguton Tenor fave Moscla Weight a Ieaton Bacay ‘eprax.1 multe Boing Pot ats) aac Velocity m Gascon Phase (OC). 00783 Contos PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR NOTE |. Eoshlpy based on zoo o-129°C in gid pase Vapor | SRE Vaimne Daa] aia Vina] — Spa vas — Daa aps [oa aro] Prams a = teang [itt | [temp] Pree one spi | sine |e | ae” [ga] Ease] ao [Wages fen Sd rere re tt HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 50MAT 594 Aaa ep 2007 PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOUR vipsie valine hg: boty Kal: Pasolte resis) HG Chapter 2- Chemise and PhysicsMAT ep 2007 METHANE CH, ntti. “oling Pasa) isis \VGbeiynenous fseGi80°S) 15 Coie PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AND SATURATED VAPOUR NOTE 1. hlpy based on zr t-179°C ini pase Te? | "Sa" gma “tag—[Wip [Ta Wap oat fl rd ee alg ‘PROPERTIES OF SUPERIEATED VAPOUR (vapeifc volume ig: enthalpy kali: Pabolt prere) HG Chapter 2- Chemise and Physics 22.9 MOLLIER DIAGRAM The following Mollier diagrams enclosed n-butane propylene © ethylene * ethane HG Chapter? - Chemise and PhysicsWA ~ 10 ~ 1594 ADDO Sep 2007 Ebon aNvang-# LG Chapter 2. Chemin and ProvesWA ~ 10 ~ 1594 ADDO Sep 2007 = aerLuom LG Chapter 2. Chemin and ProvesWA ~ 10 ~ 1594 ADDO Sep 2007 LG Chapter 2. Chemin and Proves2. LG Chapter 2. Chemin and Proves WA ~ 10 ~ 1594 ADDO Sep 2007 PRASSURL inHG Chapter? - Chemise and Physics 7] Te ep 2007Gas Highest Grade Compendium Chapter 3 HEALTH HAZARDS Department/Author: Approved by: Per Zaal Erik Frette Seagull Seagull © 2005 SEAGULL AS All rights reserved No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or otherwise copied without prior written permission of ‘SEAGULL ASMA-TC— DOCUMENT STATUS 94 A220. Sept 2007 Fe:k'S-Trainngt-Manualerog underagiTanker Operation ~ Gas\Revided 20071Gas\New compendiumiNew Chapter Stiazardadoo Iesue No, Datervear Ine. by lsu No Datervear inc. by At 21.02.2006] PZ/EF A2 | 20.09.2007] RB/EF Issue Parra Paragraph Heading! No No esespion of Change Al Updated with LNG. a2 General update HG Chapter — Hath Hazards 4MA~TC— 159 A220 Sept 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section 3. HAZARDS (STCW CODE SECTION A Vit PARA 27,32) 3.1. HEALTH HAZARDS. 3.1.1 3,IN GENERAL 3.4.2 The body. 3.1.3_ The cell. 32” Tissue 3.3 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 3.4 THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS ‘5 THE URINARY ORGANS: 18 THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 7 THE HUMAN ORGANISM AND THE SURROUNDING WORLD, 8 THESKIN 9 THE MMUNE SySTEM 10 THE Booy's MOTION APPARATUS 41 THOUGHT, ACTION, RESULT, F 42 __ FIRST AID TREATMENTS. 3.12.1. First aid 3.42.2 One rescuer. 3.12.3 Two rescuers. 3.424 ABC. 3.125 Heart problems. 3.12.6. Shock injuries, 3.12.7 Head injuries 3.12.8 Poisoning and etch injuries. 3.12.9 Fire injuries... 3.12.10 Frost injuries 3.12.11 Bone, joint & soft part injuries. 31.212 Infections 3.12.13 Intake of poison materials. 3.12.14 The eyes 3.13” REACTIVITY 3.14 INGESTION. 3.15 SKIN CONTACT. 3.18 PETROLEUM GAS 3.17 BENZENE 3.18 HypROGEN SULPHIDE (128). 3.19 Toxic ELEMENTS IN INERT Gas, 3.19.1 Nitrogen Oxides 3.19.2 Sulphur Dioxide.. 3.19.3, Carbon Monoxide. 3.19.4 Oxygen Deficiency 3.19.5. Chemical Reactions 3.19.6 Unsaturated chemicals 3.19.7 Peroxides and inhibitors. 3.20 REACTION WITH OTHER CARGO ANO MATERIALS 3.21 FLAMMABILITY AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS, 3.21.1 True vapour pressure (TVP) 3.21.2 The Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) 3.21.3 Flash Point. 3.21.4 — Burning Point of some hydrocarbons HG Copter Heals Hasards PageMA~TC— 159 A220 Sept 2007 3.21.5 Flammability 3.21.6 Flammable Limits. 3.21.7 Explosion limits in % flammable gas in mixture with air. 3.218 Air. 3.21.9 Hydrocarbon gases. 3.21.10 Density of gas in comparison with density of air 3.21.11 Propane Safety Data Sheet. 3.22 3.23 REPAIRS AND HOT WORK. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN GAS HAZARDIOUS AREAS ... 3.23.1 Gas hazardous areas: 3.23.2 Flameproof proof enclosure. 3.23.3 Inereased safety 3.23.4 Intrinsically safe equipment 3.24 3.25 3.28 327 3.28 3.29 ‘OTHER DESIGNS. CLASSIFICATION OF Ex EQUIPMENT cic PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT. PORTABLE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT. [MAINTENANCE AND INSTALLATION HG Copter Heals Hasards3 HEALTH HAZARDS: (STCW CODE SECTION A V/1 PARA 27,32) Learning Objectives (On completion of this section the trainee should have a good knowledge of: = Health hazards - First aid treatments - Intake of poison materials - Reactivity - Petroleum gases - Hydrogen sulphide (H.S) - Toxic elements in Inert Gas - Oxygen deficiency - Flammability and explosion hazards - Hydrocarbon gases - Repairs and hot work - Electrical equipment in gas hazardous areas For further information please see CBT # 0001 Personal Safety 3.1. HEALTH HAZARDS 3.1.1 IN GENERAL What is health? In short, it is when the physical is in balance with the non- physical, (ying & yang in Chinese terms) and the harmonisation here has a natural function. The result is good health. To maintain this, knowledge about harmonisation is the vital factor in health. Health is different for each one of us based on individual tendencies and external/internal influences that mark (or chooses to mark) our life All crewmembers that signs on a vessel have been through a medical check in order to have a regular status of his/her health condition. Life at sea is a harsh environment, it is important that the general health condition at all times is good. What can be done to maintain a good general health condition on board? ‘The answer is built into the safety and protection of personnel on board. To take care of one another is important. Good leadership is being aware of the risks that may have direct and external effect on health, regarding the special cargoes carried onboard your vessel. Precaution and information is important in this respect Primarily, you can take good care of your own machine, the body, by paying attention to the “fuel’, which contains the nutrients the body needs. It is very important that the “chef” onboard has basic knowledge about anatomy/physiology, in order to assemble the right raw material into the right article of food, in the form of nutrient rich meals.‘Together with good cleanliness and comfortable surroundings in the galley, the best basis is given. If the meals are “spiced-up" with a nice atmosphere, in addition to existence of an inter-human working environment and well-being, the result is solidarity, well-being at work, increased efficiency, less sickness absence and saved costs. A positive mental attitude toward life is also important and, at the same time, improves or maintains health. This is an important factor of the human's total health. For example, one can tum an “I will not, cannot” behaviour pattern into an “I can, | will” attitude. This will increase co-operation between the people onboard. With an attitude change based on positive thinking, the result is noticeable onboard, due to well-being, solidarity, better performance, and a healthier atmosphere for the whole crew. The human resource is the only resource. 3.1.2 The body The doctrine of how the body is built is called anatomy. The doctrine of the body's function is called physiology. This will be roughly illustrated to achieve a synopsis of how the “machine” functions. 3.1.1 The cell This is the smallest, independent unit of the body and the basis for all living organisms. All the processes in the body are caused by the chemical reactions. that take place in the cells. Cells in different tissue and organisms co-operate in their duties. The cell has a water content of approximately 70% in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fat and inorganic material All the cells have the same basic structure and a number of mutually basic qualities. Simultaneously each part of the cell has its function. We all utilise nutrients both to achieve energy and as “building stones’. In new cell components, glucose (grape sugar) is the most important energy source. It is important to have nutrient rich and varying diet. 3.41.2 Tissue Cells that look alike remain liable to form tissue. All surfaces of the body are covered with epithelial tissue (type of tissue that mainly covers all surfaces, the cavity and channels of the body). Connective tissue and support tissue forms the tissue network in the body and keeps tissue and organs together. There is an innumerable of tissues, for example osseous tissue, muscular tissue and nerve tissue. The cell co-operation is controlled by chemical signals. These signals consist of two types, nerve signals and hormone signals. These two systems co-operate for an appropriate reaction. This is fully necessary for our survival. The hormone system controls the activity of many internal organs; the nerve system controls muscles and glands. Several organ systems co-operate to keep the composition of tissue fluid constant. The blood renews this tissue fluid. The blood must circulate the whole time. The duty of the lymph artery is to drain excess tissue fluid.3.1.3 The digestive organs These demolish and absorb nutrient material. It is very important that the nutrient content satisfies the body's need. 3.1.4 The respiratory organs These absorb oxygen and partly carbon dioxide. Respiration is an exchange of gases between the blood arteries and the air in the lungs. The blood absorbs oxygen into the body's cells and partly the excess carbon dioxide that arises. The respiratory organs consist of the bronchia and the lungs. Gas exchange between blood and air takes place in the lungs. 3.1.5 The urinary organs These regulate the composition of the tissue fluid. The urinary organs consist of the kidneys, urinary tract, bladder and the urethra. The kidneys’ most distinct duty is to separate water from waste. The resultant urine is processed in the urinary tract and bladder then empties via the urethra. 3.1.6 The blood circulation The blood circulation carries materials between the organs in the body. The tissue fluid is constantly renewed from the blood in the capillaries. The heart is a pump that makes blood circulating. “Heart valves” help the blood run in the right direction. The heart musculature sends blood through the coronary artery (the heart's arteries). The heart is the most persevering muscle in the body. The blood flows from high pressure to lower pressure. The pulse is thereby a regulator in the blood. The blood pressure is the pressure inside the artery, which is part of the blood circulation. The blood acts, as a sort of, transportation system. Blood sends tissue circulating through the artery system. This contains blood cells floating in a protein rich fluid — blood plasma — with two main types of cells, red and white. The red cells are important for transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the different body tissues, while the white, in different ways, participates in the body's defence against disease. It is important to remember that one cannot mix different blood types. Blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. 3.1.7. The human organism and the surrounding world Our senses tell us about the surroundings. The main senses are sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. There are also important senses in the muscles, the joints and the equilibrium organ in the inner ear. Each sensory organ has its best reaction to a certain type of stimulation, but has a different reaction to long lasting stimulation.3.1.8 The skin ‘The skin forms an essential boundary to the surroundings, and is the body's largest “breathing organ’. The skin consists of different tissue with different qualities and covers the body surface, like an almost impenetrable protective film. The skin is an important sensory organ with large adaptability. 3.1.9 The immune system This system protects the body and consists of several parts. There is no Possibility of living a normal life without this defence, as its duly is to render harmless infective agents or other strange material. In addition to combating infection from outside, this defence system also fights against any internal cell changes. 3.1.10 The Body's Motion Apparatus This consists of skeleton and muscles. The skeleton is the body's framework, consisting of almost 200 large and small bones tied together by link and ties. The muscles can move the bones by shortening (contracting) using an impulse from the nervous system This was a short description of the "human machine". When experiencing something exciting, frightening, unexpected, stressing, surprising or likewise, energy runs through us like an electrical blow. In such situations, one experiences the effect of endocrine hormones. The part of us that consists of feelings, thoughts, vibrations, intuition, ergo not physical parts of us, are also an important part of us (in many cases a decisive part). It is very important to provide stimulation and nutrients to these parts, as discussed below. BMI (Body mass index) is an indication of health condition of an individual The formula is weight/height *. E.g. height 182 cm, weight 80 kg gives BMI of 24. BMI from18-25 is considered ‘normal’. BMI above 25 is considered as overweight (to fat), and below 18 as underweight (skinny). Medical examination of seamen today will include a check of your BMI 3.1.11 Thought, Action, Result, Feeling Positive thoughts and attitudes together with a healthy diet form the basis for good health. We can do a lot ourselves by choosing the right things, as we are free to choose. ‘We now take a look at your work place, onboard a vessel, and the influence this has on your health. We will also discuss what external influences can be found in the atmosphere and the injuries/incidents that may occur on board. Onboard different types of vessels carrying different types of cargo, danger to health from external influences are considered regarding the vessel's protective equipment and routines.This protective equipment is placed practically and can be utilised, as necessary. Familiarise yourself with the equipment onboard your vessel and use it! With a sudden injury or illness on board, medical advice and guidance can be gathered from Radio Medico — the radio medical service for vessels at sea. It is important to have all the important information when help is needed for a serious condition onboard, such as: - Age Sex Weight Duration of the illness Extent of the injury ‘Symptoms Patient's comments (complaints) Clinical findings (sign of a specific illness) How the injury happened Character of the pain (grumbling, stabbing, squeezing) Whereabouts of the pain Face colour, limpness, drowsiness, temperature, pulse, breathing trouble, nausea, blood, mucus, urination, etc. All of the above is important. There is a “hospital” onboard containing ordered equipment for treatment and medication. The vessels medical direction regarding the ships hospital deals with the maintenance, supply, inspection, etc. Itis important to know how to protect oneself against harmful skin contact, skin absorption and respiratory absorption of dangerous gases in the atmosphere surrounding us, such as entering tanks and closed spaces. Help given in the first minutes of an emergency situation is crucial. All must endeavour to have respectable first aid skills. 3.12. FIRST AID TREATMENTS, 3.12.1 First aid First aid is used with sudden unconsciousness, stopped breathing and lack of air. (Call for help, but do not abandon the patient, immediately start helping.) A Air: Try to free the air flow, lie the patient on a flat surface, bend the head backwards, remove any dentures, vomit, etc. B Breathing: If the patient is not breathing, start resuscitation with 3-5 breaths/insuffiations. Use the “Pocket Mask’ as an option. Hold the head curved backward, check the pulse on the neck. If pulse is felt, continue with 12 respirations per minute. € Circulation: With deadly paleness and no pulse, give 2-3 powerful knocks over the heart. If this has no effect, start external heart compression once per second.3.12.2 One rescuer Altemate 2-3 respirations and 15 heart compressions, 3.12.3 Two rescuers One respiration for each 5 heart compressions. When compressing, press the breastbone down 4-5cm. 3.124 ABC The method stands for air, breathing, and circulation. The priority of first-aid training and practice is of great importance. The better you are at first aid in an emergency; the chance of a good outcome is greater. 3.12.5 Heart problems Heart problems can be suspected if sudden, strong pain behind the breastbone is experienced. For cardiac arrest, use the ABC. 3.126 Shock injuries Description of shock is acute circulation failure. This may be caused by reduced blood volume from bleeding, shock by drop of blood pressure or reduced pump functions from a cardiac infarction. If a big incident occurs, shock must be calculated. The symptoms are fast pulse, coldness, pail and difficulty in breathing. Supply oxygen, warm blankets and fluids. 3.12.7 Head injuries Al knocks against the head must be taken seriously. The symptoms are headache, nausea and dizziness. Flat bed rest for 2-3 days. Limited fluid intake and be sure to supervise. 3.12.8 Poisoning and etch injuries Refer to the IMCO’s book “Medical First Aid and Guide for use in accidents involving dangerous goods’. This refers to the data sheets on the different cargo onboard. (This is illustrated later on in this part). Poisoning and etch injuries appear in connection with cargo contact, as air absorption, swallowing or skin absorption (skin contact). The symptoms are pink coloured skin, smell of almonds on the breath, headache, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, Remember that in connection with cargo contact, the emergency squad should efficiently use protective equipment, gloves etc. Supply oxygen and follow the instructions on the data sheet for the cargo in question. 3.12.9 Fire injuries In fire injuries, ensure a stabile lateral position for the patient, if possible. Supply oxygen and fluid. With fire injuries, quick help is double the help.m7 St Quickly cool for at least 20 minutes. Estimate the extent of the injury. The patient mustn't freeze. Provide warm blankets and abundant fluid. The patient should rest, be under supervision, and have their pulse checked. Check the medical box for proper use of medication and bandages. Both as first aid and during healing process the ‘Jelly pads’ are probably the most efficient remedy at injured areas of the body. Normally, today various sizes of ‘Vaseline soaked’ blankets and bandages (Jelly pads) are standard inventory in ship's medical locker. 3.12.10 Frost injuries A localised frost injury on the skin's top layer begins with a prickling feeling, and then ascends to white spots on the skin. Careless handling of pipeline and cranes onboard vessels, which carry strongly cooled gases, can lead to localised frost injuries. Important: Frozen hands and feet must not be warmed up actively with warm water. Cover frozen skin parts with a soft woollen garment. Do not massage or rub. It helps a lot to warm up frozen skin with warm skin. 3.12.11 Bone, joint & soft part injuries A lot of injuries are sprains, fracture and soft part injuries. Use the ICE method, as the proper first aid, in such injuries. ICE means ice, compression and bandage, and elevation’ I- stands for ice. Ice the injury in order to lower the injured spot's temperature. By doing so, the bleeding is reduced in the underlying tissue. Swelling and pain will also be reduced, - stands for compression bandage or compression. If cooling the injury is not sufficient, compression around the injured spot is recommended in order to counter the pressure from haemorrhage and reduce swelling and pain. Confer with the patient regarding the tightness of the bandage. E — stands for elevation and rest. To decrease the blood pressure and reduce the seepage of blood on and around the injured place, raise an injured arm or foot to approximately heart height and rest for 1-2 days. 3.12.12. Infections Refer to the vessels medical cupboard regarding remedies for infection. 3.12.13 Intake of poison materials Poisonous materials can be absorbed through different means, such as inhaling (gas, dust), skin penetration, skin absorption (gas and liquid) and swallowing (gas and fluid). If any of this occurs, different reactions will occur depending on the kind of material, how much, etc. Refer to the material's data sheet regarding treatment. Blood is most important, since it is the higher brain centre that is first affected from lack of oxygen.‘A poisonous material emerges quickly to the brain cells and deprives them of oxygen. This may cause unconsciousness, at worst death. By inhaling small concentrations, we are exposed to localised effects (nasal, throat, and lung) or Poisonous gas absorption into the blood Through skin penetration, gases and fluids are quickly absorbed into the blood and the effects depend on the characteristic of the material, the velocity of the penetration and poisonous elements. If material is swallowed, this is easily absorbed by the mucous membrane in the mouth. 3.12.14 The eyes The eyes are very exposed to any spill or contact to cargo. There is normally irritation, burns and tears from harmful exposure. It is of utmost importance with a very fast first aid and abundant rinsing with water. With all injuries and illness it is of the utmost importance to administer first aid and contact competent medical help if any doubt of the outcome exists. Enclosed is a data sheet for Propane, which illustrates the layout and the content of information. There are such sheets for all types of dangerous cargo, which are made readily available and visible onboard. The data sheets tell us about the cargo's character, the emergency procedure for a cargo fire or cargo spill. There is also information about health hazards, fire, explosion, chemical data, reaction data, physical data and the condition of the material in freight. Information regarding the quality of material is required with the freight of the material. 3.13 REACTIVITY The toxic hazards to which personnel are exposed in tanker operations arise almost entirely from exposure to various kinds of gasses. TLV (Threshold Limit Value) has been in use within the industry for a number of years, and is often expressed as a “Time Weighted Average” (TWA). The use of the term "PEL" (Permissible Exposure Limit) is becoming more commonplace and refers to the maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by an appropriate regulatory body. The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged over an eight hour period for a number of years, or as a “Short Term Exposure Limit’ (STEL), normally expressed as a maximum airborne concentration averaged over a 15 minute period. The values are expressed as parts per million (ppm) by volume of gas in air. 1 ppm corresponds to one-millionth part by volume pollution in air. Compared with a value quoted in percent by volume, we find that 1% by volume = 10000 ppm List of TLV (PEL) are adjusted from time to time, so take into consideration the experience gained. Keep the list up to date at all times. 3.14 Ingestion There is a very slight risk of swallowing significant quantities of liquids during normal tanker operations. The oral toxicity from petroleum is low, but if swallowit causes acute discomfort. Liquid petroleum may be drawn into the lungs during vomiting resulting in serious consequences. 3.15. Skin contact Petroleum products cause skin irritation and remove essential oils from the skin, leading to dermatitis. Oil can also cause serious skin disorders from repeated and prolonged contact. The effects of a gas mixture from crude oil include headache, eye irritation, reduced sense of responsibility and dizziness similar to drunkenness. Higher concentrations may lead to paralysis, numbness and death. To avoid direct contact, always wear appropriate protective clothing and equipment. 3.16 Petroleum gases The toxicity of petroleum gases has a wide variation depending on the major hydrocarbon constituent of the gas. For a short period of time the human body can tolerate a somewhat higher concentration than the corresponding TLV. Toxicity can greatly be influenced by the presence of some minor compounds, such as benzene and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV of 300ppm, corresponding to about 2% LEL is established for gasoline vapours. Such a figure may be used as a general guide for petroleum gases, but must not be used for gas mixtures containing benzene or hydrogen sulphide. The following are typical effects found at higher concentrations: Concentration % LEL Effects 0,1% vol. 10% Irritation of the eyes within one (1.000ppm) © lhour. Irritation of the eyes, nose and Cocosem) 20% throat, dizziness and PP lunsteadiness within half an hour. (0,7% vol. ‘Symptoms as of drunkenness (7.000ppm) 70% within 15 minutes. [Rapid onset of “drunkenness” 1.0% vol. which may lead to (10.000ppm) 199% unconsciousness and death if lexposure continues. 2,0% vol Paralysis and death occur very (20.000ppm) rapidly 3.17 Benzene Aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene, toluene and xylene. These substances can be found in varying amounts, in many typical petroleum cargoes, such as gasoline’s, naphtas, special boiling point solvents, turpentine, substitutes, white spirits and crude oilBenzene primarily presents an inhalation hazard. It has poor warning qualities. Benzene can be absorbed through the skin and is toxic if ingested. For handling cargo that contains benzene, use the described operation procedures for this kind of hydrocarbon. 3.18 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) If the vessel is carrying sour crude, it is absolutely essential to check the tank(s) atmosphere for hydrogen sulphide before entering. A [ot of crude oil comes out of the well with high levels of hydrogen sulphide, but is usually reduced by a stabilisation process before the crude oil is delivered to the vessel. This stabilisation may, however, decrease over time. The nose has no trouble detecting the smell from hydrogen sulphide at low concentrations, which is like the smell of rotten eggs, but the sensory cell in the nose is immediately put out of function if higher concentrations are inhaled The effects of the gas at concentrations in air in excess of the TWA (Time Weighted Average) are, as follows: Concentration Effects 150-100 ppm Eye and respiratory tract irtation after exposure of one hour. 1200 - 300 ppm Marked eye and respiratory tract initation after exposure of one hour. Dizziness, headache, nausea etc. Within 15 minutes, loss of 500-700 PPM consciousness and possible death after 30-60 minutes exposure 1700 - 900 ppm Rabid unconsciousness, death occurs a few minutes later. 1000-2000 —_ Instantaneous collapse and ppm cessation of breathing. Persons over exposed to H2S vapour should be taken to clean air, as soon as possible. The adverse effects of H2S can be reversed and the probability of saving the persons life improved, if prompt action is taken. For handling cargoes containing hydrogen sulphide follow the operation procedures described for such a cargo. 3.19 Toxic Elements in Inert Gas Inert gas's low oxygen content is the main hazard. Inert gas produced by combustion, either in a steam boiler or in an inert gas generator, contains a various amounts of toxic gases, which may increase hazard to the personnel exposed to it. Follow the precautions to protect personnel against toxic hazards. These precautions do not include the requirements for direct measurement ofthe trace flue gas element's concentration. This is because when gas that is freed from a tank, the hydrocarbon gas concentration is about 2% by volume to 1% LEL. Until there is a steady 21% by volume oxygen reading, itis sufficient to dilute these elements to below their TLV's. 3.19.1. Nitrogen Oxide Flue gas contains approximately 200ppm (0,02%) by volume of mixed nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) is generally removed in the water scrubber in the inert gas plant. The NOx gas is colourless with a weak smell at its TLV of 25ppm. Nitrogen dioxide is even more toxic with a TLV of 3ppm. 3.19.2. Sulphur Dioxide Flue gas produced by the combustion of high sulphur content fuel oils typically contains about 2,000 ppm of sulphur dioxide (SO2). Inert gas system water scrubbers remove this gas with an efficiency, which depends upon the design and operation of the scrubber, giving inert gas with sulphur dioxide content usually between 2 and 50 ppm. Sulphur dioxide produces irritation of eyes, nose and throat and may also cause breathing difficulties in sensitive people. It has a distinctive smell at its TLV of 2 Ppm 3.19.3, Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is normally present in flue gas at a level of only a few arts per million, but at abnormal combustion conditions and slow running it can give rise to levels in excess of 200ppm. This gas is an odourless gas with a TLV of SOppm. It is insidious in its altack, restricting the blood to absorb oxygen, causing a chemically induced form of asphyxiation, 3.19.4 Oxygen Deficiency For several reasons the oxygen content in enclosed spaces may be low. On oil tankers the most obvious one is that the space is in an inert condition. Also it can be due to a lack of oxygen based on chemical reactions, such as rusting or the hardening of coatings. When the available oxygen decreases below 21% by volume, breathing tends to become faster and deeper. Symptoms indicating that an atmosphere is oxygen deficient may not give adequate notice of danger. Most persons would fail to recognise the danger until they were too weak to be able to escape without help. This is especially so when escape involves the exertion of climbing, Entry into spaces with oxygen less than 20.8% by volume should never be permitted without SCBA.New products are continuously made in the petrochemical industry by allowing hydrocarbon compounds participate in chemical processes and reactions. 3.19.6 Unsaturated chemicals Unsaturated chemical compounds contain one or more double or triple bonding between the carbon atoms. They can easily saturate the vacant valences in a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction may take place: - by mixing unsaturated compounds with another product. - by increasing the temperature and pressure in the chemical compound, alone or together with other compounds. To visualize an unsaturated compound, a solvent bromine and water can be used. If you mix bromine (Br) with a saturated oil, the bromine-colored water will disappear, because the double bonding is opened and bromine appear in every vacant valence. A chemical reaction has appeared between two compounds, and a new compound is created. If you combine ethylene and bromine, this chemical reaction will take place: -@ @¢ When unsaturated chemical compounds are heated under pressure, the molecules react with each other and form large molecules, so-called macromolecules. This is called polymer in. To start the reactions or to increase the velocity of reaction, a catalyst is often used. A catalyst is a material that increases the velocity of reaction in a chemical process without changing its own state. Linear polyethylene is a plastic raw material, which is a polymer of ethylene produced by polymerising ethylene with a peroxide catalyst. Benzol peroxide is, an example of peroxide used as a catalyst for production of polyethylene. Other types of polymers are made of ethylene or together with other hydrocarbon E.g. polymerized butadiene looks like popcorn. These popcorn will ‘pop’ off ( explode) when crushing them. The properties are different, and the plastic raw materials are used alone or together with others when producing plastic products. Most plastic raw materials are produced like this. Molecules or mixture of molecules, which is capable of, polymerise, are called monomers. The number of monomers taking part of a polymerisation may be many thousand. A linear polyethylene has a molecular weight of more than 6000, others areconsiderably smaller. The molecular weight is controlled by temperature, concentration of catalyst or amount of ethylene. It is not only the unsaturated hydrocarbon compound that may polymerise. In 1907, Baekeland managed to control three-step polymerising with phenol and formaldehyde. The product “Bakelite” was the first synthetic polymer that was produced, and has great significance even today The following list demonstrates some of the most common plastic materials today, and how they are produced: Polymer Monomer Polymerisation: Polyethylene (CHz)n Ethylene Polvietatuoratiyiens | (CzFa)s Tevranuoretyiene (PTFE) Polyvinylcoride (PVC) (H,CCHF), Vinyicloride Polypropylene (Cs Propyene Polystyrene (CeHsCHCH2)n_ ‘Styrene monomer 3.19.7. Peroxides and inhibitors Peroxides are highly explosive, and can form into unsaturated compounds, as for example butadiene and VCM if oxygen is present. They can appear as powder in pipes and tanks and are very unstable and can easily explode. The formation of peroxides in butadiene can entail polymerising with powerful heat generation. To avoid such a chemical reaction, the content of oxygen in the tank atmosphere is kept as low as possible. To assure that all oxygen is removed, an inhibitor is added to the individual cargo. An inhibitor is a material that itself, in low concentrations, reacts with the oxygen. Some types of inhibitors have the capability to react with radicals so that the velocity of reaction reduces or to cease up. Most inhibitors are very dangerous to our health, and must therefore, be handled with the utmost care. 1,3 Butadiene and VCM are examples of cargo that are added inhibitors Approximately 5 ppm hydroquinon is added to VCM to prevent polymerisation. US Coast Guard requires that one add 100 ppm TBC (Tertiary Butyl Catechol) to 1,3 butadiene to prevent a polymerisation with strong heat generation Humidity and water will reduce the effect of inhibitors, in some cases water will accelerate a chemical reaction, Cargo that is inhibited must have a certificate with: = name and amount - inhibitor date and for how long the inhibitor is efficient - precautions, if the voyage lasts longer than the effect of the inhibitor - eventual temperature limitation The above mentioned inhibitors are only present in the liquid phase. In all probability, dangerous peroxides will be formed inside the lines of the cooling plant's “condensate” system. It is recommended that these parts of the system are checked regularly, when the inhibited cargo is cooled. Further, it isrecommended to circulate some inhibited liquid through the part of the system where “condensates” remains without the inhibitor. Introductorily, we have said that polymerising can occur if the temperature is high enough. The following restriction of maximum outlet temperatures from the compressor is required: = maximum 60°C for butadiene = maximum 90°C for VCM 3.20. React other cargo and materials ‘Some cargo can react strongly with other cargo. This makes great demands for cleaning, before loading and full segregation against other cargo. Whenever cargo segregation is required, spool pieces must be used. It is important that all materials are compatible with which the cargo can come in contact. The material must, for example, in all gaskets that can be in contact with propylene oxide be of PTFE or a similar approved material type. 3.21 FLAMMABILITY AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS 3.21.1 True vapour pressure (TVP) All petroleum products and crude oil are essentially mixtures of a wide range of hydrocarbon compounds. The boiling points of the compounds range from — 162°C (methane) to well in excess of +400°C, and the volatility of any particular mixture of compounds depends primarily on the quantities of the more volatile elements. The volatility is characterised by the vapour pressure. When transferring a petroleum product to a gas-free tank it begins to vaporise, that is, it liberates gas into the space above it. This gas has also a tendency to re- dissolve in the liquid. The pressure exerted by this gas is called the equilibrium pressure of the liquid, usually referred to simply as the vapour pressure. The vapour pressure of a pure compound depends only upon its temperature. With a mixture of compounds, the vapour pressure depends on the temperature, elements and the volume of the gas space in which vaporisation occurs, The true vapour pressure (TVP) or bubble point vapour pressure is the equilibrium of vapour pressure of a mixture when the gasiliquid ratio is effectively zero. The highest vapour pressure is possible at any specified temperature. As the temperature of a petroleum mixture increases, its TVP also increases. If the TVP exceeds atmospheric pressure, the liquid begins to boil The TVP of a petroleum mixture gives a good indication of its ability to give rise to gas, but unfortunately it is a property which still is extremely difficult to measure. 3.21.2 The Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) Testing is a simple and generally used method for measuring the volatility of petroleum liquids. Measurement of the RVP is conducted at 37.8°C (100°F).The greater the RVP value, the more volatile is the oil. Normally crude oil has a RVP of between 0.1 and 0.8kg/cm2. A sample of liquid is put into the test container at atmospheric pressure. The volume of liquid should be one fifth of the container’s total volume. Then the container is sealed and immersed in a water bath, which is heated to 37.8°C. The container is then shaken in order to mix the liquid properly and the rise in pressure due to vaporisation can be read on the attached pressure gauge. This pressure gauge gives a close approximation in bars. Because the liquid’s vapour pressure is at 37.8°C, RVP is useful for generally comparing the volatility of a wide range of petroleum liquids. However, it has, small value as a means of estimating the likeliness of gas evolution in specific situations, mainly because the measurement is made at the standard temperature of 37.8°C and at a fixed gas/liquid ratio. For this purpose TVP is much more useful. As mentioned, in some cases, correlation exists between ‘TVP, RVP and temperature. For safety measures against fire on ships, the Norwegian Maritime Directorate in the Regulation of December 3rd1979 uses 61°C as limit value for flash point and 2.8kg/cm2 for vapour pressure at 37.8°C. The oil referred to in this regulation is: - Mineral oils with a flash point below 61°C, such as kerosene, benzene, gasoline and crude oil or other flammable liquids with a flash point below said limit. = Mineral oils with a flash point of 61°C or higher, such as marine gas oils, fuel oil, diesel oil, lubricating oil, which give off flammable gases when heated. - Oils and fats of animal or vegetable origins, such as whale oil, groundnut oil, linseed oil etc., which give off flammable gases when heated. The liquid chemicals referred to are: Chemicals with an absolute vapour pressure lower than 2.8kg/cm2 at 37,8°C. The condensed gases referred to are: Chemicals with an absolute vapour pressure of 2.8kg/cm2 or higher at 37.8°C. 3.21.3 Flash Point The flash point for an oil product is the temperature at which it is possible to ignite the vapour above the liquid. In other words, the flammable gas concentration above the liquid is close to the lower explosive limit. Determination of the flash point is done with a special apparatus and according to specific rules. A sample of liquid is gradually heated in a special pot and a small flame is repeatedly and momentarily applied to the surface of the liquid. The temperature is recorded when a small flame initiates a flash or flame across the liquid surface, thereby indicating the presence of a flammable gas. In this test the space above the liquid is kept closed except for the brief moments when trying ignite the liquid’s surface. This test is called “Closed cup Flash Point”. When we do the test with the liquid surface permanently open to the atmosphere, the result of such a test is called ‘Open cup Flash Point’Because of the greater loss of gas to the atmosphere in the open cup test the open cup flash point is always a little higher (about 6°C) than the closed cup flash point. The restricted loss of gas in the closed cup apparatus also leads to a much more consistent result than can be obtained in open cup testing. For this reason, the closed cup method is generally favoured. However, open cup test figures, still may be found in the registration of various national administrations, in classification society rules and other such documents. If the temperature is increased further beyond the flash point, the liquid will obtain a temperature so high that the evaporation will take place fast enough to support a flame. This is called “The Burning Point™ 3.21.4 Burning Point of some hydrocarbons Burning point in Product degree Celsius [Asphalt 42060 ~C~*~<“CS:*S Gasoline [0 [Benzene 14 [Butane =—s-85 '-10/+30. +70 Ethan 425 Fuel oi(no, 182) +38 Fuel oil (no.4&5) +54 Fuel oil (no.6) +65, HHexene 28 Methane (LNG) 175 Mineral ol +193 [Naphtha (mixtures) [+3860 Perafin wax +320 Pentane 40 [Luboi (motor of -1497+232 Propylene 108 [Ethylene __ 180 For refined products, the flash point increases from light to the heavy hydrocarbons, for gasoline it is about -50°C and for kerosene over +60°C. The flash point for liquids is used in rules and regulations for transportation and storage. Crude oil from various sources may have quite different flash points, usually between —10°C and +30°C.3.21.5 Flammability The burning process means that hydrocarbon gases react with the oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water. This reaction gives enough heat to form a flame which goes through the mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air. When the gas above a liquid hydrocarbon is ignited, the heat that is produced is usually enough to evaporate sufficient fresh gas to maintain the flame and the liquid is said to bum. In fact, itis the gas that is burning and continuously being replenished by the liquid. 3.21.6 Flammable Limits ‘A hydrocarbon gas mixture and air cannot be ignited and bumed unless its composition lies within a range of gas-in-air concentrations, known as the “flammable range’. The lower limit of this range is known as the “LEL” (lower explosive limit). The “LFL"” (lower flammable limit) is also used. This level means that hydrocarbon concentration has an insufficient amount of hydrocarbon gas to support and propagate combustion. The mixture is ‘too lean”. ‘The upper limit of the range known as the “UEL" (upper explosive limit), or also known as “UFL” (upper flammable limit). This level means that the hydrocarbon concentration has an insufficient amount of air to support and propagate combustion. The mixture is “too rich”. Between these two areas, the mixture is flammable and results in a fire or explosion, if ignited. With hydrocarbon gases from crude and sediments, it is usually assumed that the upper explosion limit lies at about 10% by volume of hydrocarbon gas-in-air and the lower explosion limit at about 1% by volume of hydrocarbon gas. 3.21.7 Explosion limits in % flammable gas in mixture with ai PRODUKT | volume % | volume % Methane (LNG) 5,3 140 Ethan 3,1 12.5 Propane 2A 95 Butane 15 eg Pentane 15 7.8 Hexane 12 76 Hepthane 1.2 67 (Octane 1.0 3.2 INonthane 08 29 [Dechane 08 54 Hydrogen 44,0 [75,0 Woger gas arbre 12,5 74,0St (Crude oil 1,512.5 _(8,0/11,0 [Benzene 1,4 7,6 INaphtha o.9/1,1 _(6,0/6,7 [Propylene 2 12 [Ethylene 2.5 34 ICM a 31 3.21.8 Air The mixture of gases found in the atmosphere is given the name air. The ratio of mixture between various gases is the same, independent of time and place, except for the water vapour content, which can have great variations. 3.21.8.1 ELEMENTS in air INitrogen, N2 [78.09% (Oxygen, 02 f20,93% lArgon, A 93% [Carbon dioxide, CO2 (0.08% = [Other gases: 02% lair froo% There may be a significant amount of water vapour in the air. Different results are measured depending on whether water or moisture is removed or not. The amount of water vapour, which the air may contain, will depend very much on the temperature. The air is saturated with water vapour when the air contains a maximum amount of water vapour at a certain temperature. Saturated air being cooled will release the excess water in droplets At high humidity and high temperature, there will be a reduction of oxygen and other gases that is caused by the increased water vapour content. The atmospheric pressure will influence the measurement result when using gas measure instruments. For example, when using a portable oxygen analyser that is calibrated to read 21% oxygen by volume in clean air at atmospheric pressure, the reading will increase as the atmospheric pressure increases. To compensate for the changes in atmospheric pressure, the instrument has to be calibrated with clean air from time to time. The instruments used for measuring hydrocarbon gases will also be influenced by the atmospheric pressure, depending on the instrument's measuring principle.m7 St WATER VAPOUR TEMPERATURE CONTENT 20° (0.4 volume % o"c (0.9 volume % 20% 2.8 volume % 40°C 7.3 volume % is0°C 19,7 volume % is0°c 46,7 volume % i100 100 volume % The risk of fire or explosion is drastically increased if air is replaced by pure oxygen. As known, oxygen leakage during welding has resulted in several fatal accidents. However, when reducing the oxygen below 21% by volume, the fire and explosion hazard is reduced. When reducing the oxygen content to below 10.8% by volume, fire and explosion cannot take place even though both hydrocarbon gas and ignition sources are present. 3.21.9 Hydrocarbon gases Crude oil is formed from plants and animals residues and contains several thousand different chemical compounds. Most of these materials consist of only the element hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) called by the common name hydrocarbons. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, which is the main element of natural gas. Butane, propane and ethane are also composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms and they are all called hydrocarbon gases. For example butane, C4H10 means that this gas contains a total of 4 carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons with up to 4 carbon atoms are liquefied gases at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. From § to 16 carbon atoms the hydrocarbons are liquids, and above 16 carbon atoms, the hydrocarbons are solid materials such as wax and asphalt. When the crude oil is taken out of a well, hydrocarbon gases and solid materials are dissolved in the oil. When reducing the pressure, gases will bubble out. To separate these liquefied gases the crude must pass through one or more processing units (stabilisers). The crude oil is called “stabilised crude”, but even stabilised crude oil will give off hydrocarbons from the surface Methane gas is lighter than air. Ethane gas has approximately the same density as air. The gases butane and propane from higher hydrocarbons are heavier than air. The gas mixtures given off from crude oil, sludge and sediments are all heavier than air. Until such gas mixtures have been mixed with air inside inert gas, the highest hydrocarbon concentration will appear near the bottom. "Spiked crude oil" (also called “enriched or “tailored” crude) is crude oil, which has had hydrocarbons, added in gas or liquid form. The spiked crude may contain rather large amounts of added hydrocarbons and therefore emit heavy gasses under certain conditions (during loading, crude oil washing, discharging).MA = TO~ 1594 -ABTaO Rep d007 3.21.10 Density of gas in comparison with density of air Density of gas in comparison with density of air (At the same temperature and pressure) “I Ce s ey Sy ee) seo eee HG Chaplers Meath Hacarde3.21.11 Propane Safety Data Sheet a ioe : one Odour ae ONT inca a awd ee cei eee Ean ‘The Main Hazard FLAMMABLE EMERGENCY PROCEDURES SOPGuS PH Doreen lime g ends Meee ace iene hgan ya ae hot Cas ae ee scone noes rye soo tons wn ae ows hs rea oben rowtare mes onee Seema ren emma ates ae eaioscmanemece & GHEE enGmmenetoNiet Personal pratedtion OXSED Toor arTOTRE ress omar ria ARMM erative TN Pre NRE meser esa arene. rere Sse tc HG Chaplers Meath HacardePropane — Limits of flammability The interpretation of a.m. diagram: If Oxygen contents below 12' . propane cannot ignite.In clean air, the Lower Flammable( Explosive) Li UEL 10% propane., Presence of a mixture of air and 2-10% propane in a tank contai air constitutes a potential fire or explosion risk. , LEL, about 2%, g clean 3.22 REPAIRS AND HOT WORK Prior to commencement of any hot work on board an LNG tanker, a separate check list must be completed and signed by responsible officer and the person(s) performing the hot work. An example of such list: HOT WORK PERMIT CHECKLIST This permit to work relates to any work involving temperature conditions which are likely to be of sufficient intensity to cause ignition of combustible material, gases, vapour of liquids in or adjacent to the area involved. Before completing this form, refer to the company's hot work procedures. GENERAL Location of hot work This permit is valid From hrs Date. To hrs Date Description of hot work: Is the hot work in an enclosed space? Yes / No Ifyes, has an enclosed space entry permit been issued? Yes / No Reason if 'No'SECTION 1 1. All combustible material removed or covered. 2. Refuges (beams, walls, isolation, pipes) checked for ‘combustible materials. Electrical lines checked for cracks or holes and protected. 4. Working space is clean and all precautions are taken regarding wetting down the surroundings if necessary. 5. Required fire fighting equipment is at hand where the hot work is to be carried out. 6. Equipment and tools are free of faults, a heat resisting glove and a valve spanner are easily available. 7. The fire watchman has a complete understanding of the possible dangers involved when hot work is going on. 8. Sufficient after-control arranged and maintained. 9. Gas measuring results are satisfactory (0% LEL). (Gas measuring must be taken with NOT more than 3 hours interval during the work periods). 10. Proper and adequate ventilation arranged. 11. Unauthorised personnel kept away from the workspace. 12. Fire watchman established on opposite side of hot work site 13. In Port, permit from proper Authorities obtained 14, Equipment or pipeline been gas freed 15. _ Equipment or pipeline been blanked 16. _ Equipment or pipeline free of liquid Special conditions/precautions. Name (block letters) Signature Person performing hot work (in charge of hot work team) Responsible officer Chief Engineer / Chief Officer In the circumstances noted it is considered safe to proceed with this hot work MasterSECTION 2 The work has been completed and all persons under my supervision, materials and equipment have been withdrawn Responsible officer Time Date 3.23 LECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN GAS HAZARDIOUS AREAS Electrical equipment should be of a type that eliminates the chance of fire or explosion when carrying flammable cargo. Precautions must be made to exclude spark sources from areas where flammable gases may appear. On shore one operates with different zones of explosive areas, as you found in the following table. Zone 0 __ | Explosive gases are present continuously or in Tong periods. Zonet __ | Explosive gases are present in periods during normal operating conditions. Zone 2 | Explosive gases are rarely present and occur only in short periods. If applying these criteria to ships, zone 0 includes cargo tanks with cargo handling equipment, zone 1 includes the remaining part of a gas hazardous area and zone 2 includes the remaining part of the cargo area. Rooms containing cargo-handling equipment, for example, cargo compressor rooms must also be treated as zone 1. 3.23.1 Gas hazardous areas Gas hazardous areas are defined onboard as the areas in the cargo tank area that have no approved arrangement ensuring that the atmosphere has, at all times, no content of flammable mixtures. The areas are clearly specified in the regulations. Areas outside the specified gas hazardous areas are considered as gas safe. The electric motor room and/or the Cargo control are gas safe. These rooms are considered as safe in all circumstances provided that the ventilation system prevents flammable mixtures penetrating into the rooms. Normally this is arranged with the suction pipe for the ventilation to the rooms are located outside defined flammable areas and the room has always an overpressure. Access to the room is through an airlock, and the room is made “dead” in case of a failure in the ventilation system:The ventilation requirement for ‘gas safe compartment’ within the cargo area says that such ventilation shall be of positive type, i.e. supply fans and mechanical exhaust. Overpressure shall be maintained in such compartments, e.g. electric motor room and cargo control room, both separated from gas dangerous areas by an ‘air-lock’ A differential pressure switch between air lock and CCR/motor room ensures overpressure is maintained in the gas safe compartments. Should this differential pressure disappear, ESD will be released; all cargo machinery will stop, and ESD valves on cargo pipelines shut. Ventilation supply to gas safe compartments must then be running for 15-20 minutes prior to restarting cargo machinery. This is a precaution governed by an electrical interlock in the power supply to cargo machinery. If entrance doors to e.g. air lock (from deck) and door into CCR are left open simultaneously, ESD will also be released ( after a preset delay) . Philosophy here is that leaving these doors open will cause the a.m. differential pressure to disappear as described above. Note: Ventilation in gas dangerous compartments ( all compartments, e.g. ‘compressor room) within cargo area shall be of negative type, e.g. exhaust fans, mechanical inlet. GAS HAZARDOUS AREAS SPECIFIED IN THE REGULATION ARE, AS FOLLOws: * All cargo tanks and rooms containing cargo tanks or pipes. ‘* Pump room, compressor room and other rooms where gas appears. + A radius of 4,5 meters around ventilation outlet from the compressor room and pump room. + Aradius around the ventilation outlet from cargo tanks at 9 metres. ‘+ A zone on open deck in the cargo tanks area up to 2.4 metres above deck and 3 metres ahead and aft of the cargo tank area, + Aradius of 3 metres around pipelines for cargo. All vessels are issued with a drawing that indicates these areas. The drawing normally named, “Hazardous Areas’, is posted around the vessel for the crew to familiarise themselves with these hazardous areas.The conditions onboard and around operation of gas carriers are special, and the rules are more restrictive than ashore. The equipment onboard is exposed to hard strains, the maintenance is often more complicated, and none the less, consequences of fire or explosion are very seriously. Ashore there are individual national rules. For gas carriers and other ships the Flag State, Class Society and IMO rules apply. Terminals and Charters also have individual rules that have to be followed. Special rules exist for pump room, compressor room, pipe tunnels, control room in the cargo tank area, electric motor room and the area on the forecastle. Access to electric motor room and cargo control room occurs through an airlock. These rooms must have a mechanical positive pressure system. The doors must be equipped with alarms and if both doors are left open too long and the pressure drop, the rooms automatically render “dead. This is normally arranged by a DP-cell (differential pressure cell) that measures the pressure difference inside the room and the surroundings. Compressor room, pipe tunnels and pump rooms must be equipped with explosion-proof lights. Cargo control, monitoring and automation equipment must be independently secure in a flameproof enclosure. The light arrangement disperses over at least two switchers, and all switches and protection equipment must be placed in a gas-safe area. Electrical cables are not allowed to be open exposed throughout the room. Explosion-proof and independently secured equipment are approved to be used in gas hazardous areas on deck. Automation and communication equipment must on the other hand be of independently secure enclosure THE FOLLOWING LIST GIVES A SUMMARY OF APPROVED ENCLOSURES WITHIN THE SPECIFIED FLAMMABLE AREAS Area’ ‘Approved enclosur Pump room and compressor room. | Electric motor and ighting fixture must be Ex d [Alarm , automations and communication equipment must be Exia. Cargo tanks. General demand for Exia ‘Open deck area, Exd, Exe, Exiaand Exib are all approved. The above-mentioned different types of electrical equipment characterise “explosion proof equipment’. This equipment is divided into three groups; each of them approved for its stated area. One must not fail to believe that if the equipment is “explosion proof’, it can be used in all flammable areas onboard. 3.23.2 Flameproof proof enclosure English: Flameproof enclosure American: Explosion proof German: Druckfeste kapslung CLC symbol: dFlameproof equipment does not secure against penetration of vapour. The enclosure must be mechanical and strong enough to resist the inner pressure that can arise because of an explosion. Eventual spurt of flame and warm gases will be sufficiently chilled to prevent ignition of the same gas mixture outside the equipment. Manufacturing longer openings with the help of threads and fissures constructively solves this. ‘As we can see, the safety of this equipment depends upon whether the equipment can resist an interior explosion or not, and that warm gases and flashes maintain a long enough distance to be chilled. The weakness in this type of equipment is also here. The equipment with threads and fissures are especially exposed to corrosion and salt deposit. If the small passages are blocked or corroded, the safety is lost and the equipment cannot be used. Equipment for high effect, like for example electric motors for pumps, has this, design, Two different types of methods are used for cable inlet to explosion safe equipment - direct or indirect inlet. The nipple that is used to direct the cable inlet for explosion proof motors consists of many parts that must be installed right to maintain safety. This type of cable inlet is mainly used on English or ‘American equipment. This type of equipment is delivered finished bored and threaded. There are big problems in locating the right compensation if nipples need to be changed, because the replacement must be the same type as the exchanged. It is not allowed to make adjustments for a new nipple, as such a modification may weaken the strength of the enclosure. Bulkhead pipes from a flammable to a gas proof area must be compressive. Special cable boxes filled with a special expanding type compound must be used for this purpose. At the indirect cable inlet to explosion proof equipment a connection box of an intrinsically safe design is used.3.23.3 Increased safety Increased safety : _ Ethohte sicherheit CLC symbol: This design secures against high temperatures and formation of flame/sparks in the equipment during normal operation. The design is mostly used on illumination and connection boxes and in combination with other types of enclosures. Explosion proof electrical motors of type d are normally equipped with an indirect cable inlet of increased safety type. Increased safety can be used in some flammable areas. This is approved for zone 1 ashore. The special condition onboard limits the user areas some for this equipment. 3.23.4 Int CLC symbol:i During normal operation or by error, an intrinsically safe enclosure will not be able to produce spark or heat by such a character that ignition of a flammable gas mixture is operative. Current and voltage limits by transistor relays or zener batteries maintain the safety. Intrinsically safe equipment only uses voltage of 8-12 V and current of about 5 milliampere. Test equipment that produces high voltage can not be used on intrinsically safe areas. The circuits can be destroyed and at worst form sparks in the hazardous area. All intrinsically safe equipment must be delivered with certificate from an approved test institution. Installation of the equipment must be executed with care. To secure misconnection or interference of the equipment, the cables must lie in their own canals, their own terminal blocks and preferably of blue colour. The distance to other cables should be at least 50mm to protect the intrinsically safe circuit. Intrinsically safe relays and barriers must be placed in a gas proof area, ically safe equipment Intrinsically safe enclosure divides into two categories: la Equipment not capable of causing ignition of flammable mixture in any combination of two imaginable errors with the equipment, The whole circuit is approved. ib Equipment not capable of causing ignition of a flammable mixture regardless of what simple error arises. Only the barrier is approved. In many industrials processes, the presence of flammable materials (gases, vapours, liquids, dusts, fibres and flyings) requires the adoption of safety practices to protect both, plant and personnel, from the risk of fires and explosions. An explosion or fire can occur when, in certain areas at certain times, an explosive or flammable mixture and a means of ignition, thermal or electrical, are present. Flammable materials are grouped according to the ignition energy (Gas Groups) and classified for their minimum. ignition temperature (Temperature Class), while Area classification ("Zone in Europe, "Division" in the USA) takes into account the probability of the presence of an explosive mixture. Electrical equipment, in Hazardous Areas ("Locations” in theUSA), constitute potential sources of danger because they may generate arcs or sparks or hot surfaces which could ignite the explosive atmosphere. Protection method Basic safety concept is to avoid the simultaneous existence of a dangerous atmosphere and a source of ignition by: © Containing the explosion within a well-defined space where it will not cause any harm. © Physically segregating the sources of energy from the explosive mixtures, © Preventing the release of sufficient energy to ignite any explosive mixture. According to the safety concept and the way to apply it, there are different explosion protection methods to enable electrical equipment to be used in hazardous Area. All these techniques are ruled by national and international standards, as well as codes of practice, that define how to design and install the equipment, while recognized authorities issue the conformity certificates of the apparatus or systems. Among the protection methods, the simplest and most effective, applied to the electrical and electronic instrumentation is: Intrinsic Safety. The basic principle, on which intrinsic safety works, is to limit, under normal conditions, the amount of electrical energy in Hazardous Area circuits such that any sparks or arcs or high surface temperatures cannot ignite the explosive atmosphere Electrical equipment, in Hazardous Area, as well as the interconnected instrumentation in Safe Area, must be designed to reduce the open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc) to values that cannot cause ignition by opening, closing or earthing the circuit or by heating of any parts belonging to the circuit. Resistive Circuits A circuit is considered as resistive when the reactive part, inductance and capacitance, is zero or negligible (figure A). The energy released by this type of circuit depends essentially on the power supply source V and the current limitation due to the presence of resistor R. In this case, itis difficult to correlate the minimum ignition energy (MIE) with a circuital situation that generates the spark. The experimental tests on this type of circuit have demonstrated that the capacity for igniting a dangerous mixture depends on the open-circuit voltage (Voo=V) and the short-circuit current (Isc=V/R). The ignition curve for resistive Circuits is shown in Figure B. The above graph shows the ignition curve relative to the group of gases that are considered by the standards. By the trend of the curve, note that the lower the open-circuit voltage, the greater the amount of power that can be used safely. This characteristic allows process instrumentation that works with voltages on the order of 20-30 V to be used efficiently in intrinsic safety applications.OF a Figure A ‘Figure 8 The inherent lo power involved, even in unfavourable circumstances, gives some advantages that can not be obtained with other techniques: Intrinsic Safety is the only method accepted for the most Hazardous Areas (Zone 0). Maintenance and calibration of field equipment can be carried out while the plant is in operation and the circuit "live". Low voltages are also safe for personnel. No special mechanical protection of field wiring is required but ordinary instrument cabling is acceptable. In Intrinsically Safe applications three basic parts have to be considered Hazardous Area devices (Simple Apparatus), or equipment (intrinsically Safe Apparatus) Safety interfaces (Associated Apparatus) Interconnecting cables. ple Apparatus Passive components (switches, resistive sensors, potentiometers), simple semiconductor (LEDs, phototransistors) and simple generating devices (thermocouples, photocells) are regarded as Simple Apparatus if they do not generate or store more than: 1,5 V, 100 mA, 25 mW. Simple Apparatus can be used in Hazardous Area without certification; they have to be assessed for the temperature classification on the basis of the matched output power of the interface device. Intrinsically Safe Apparatus Transmitters, /P converters, solenoid valves and any other "energy-storing” devices must be certified as Intrinsically Safe Apparatus suitable for use in Hazardous Area, according to the zone classification and gas characteristics (group and temperature class).Associated Apparatus Interfaces between field and control room equipment, usually called "Barriers", protect the Hazardous Area circuits by limiting the voltage and current in normal and in fault conditions. ‘Two types of intrinsically safe interface exist: "Zener Barriers” and "Galvanic Isolator Barriers"; they basically differ on the way the potentially dangerous energy, from control room equipment, is diverted to prevent it from passing through to the Hazardous Area circuits. Barriers must be designed and certified as Associated Apparatus suitable for connection to intrinsically safe or simple apparatus in hazardous Area. Associated apparatus are the key to any intrinsically safe system because they define maximum allowable safety parameters of the circuits connected the Hazardous Area terminals of the barriers. Interconnecting Cables Low voltage and current, in intrinsically safe circuits, allow the use of ordinary instrumentation cables provided that capacitance and inductance are taken into account in assessing the safety of the system; cable parameters seldom are a problem and long distances can be easily achieved, The risk of an ignition of an air/gas mixture depends on the probability of the simultaneous presence of the following two conditions: mA I 2000 ‘nana ining applicable to elects Spparaus with endian, Formation of flammable or explosive vapours, liquids or gases, or combustible dusts or fibres with ‘1900 hoe atmosphere or accumulation of explosive or flammable material; 500 Presence of an energy source - electrical spark, arc or surface 200 temperature - that is capable of igniting the dangerous mixture present. 400 It is possible to draw an ignition characteristic for each type of fuel. The 50 characteristic curves of hydrogen and propane are illustrated in the previous Closet page. A minimum ignition energy (MIE) 20 Grates exists for every fuel that represents the i ideal ratio of fuel to air. At this ratio, the 10 ——+ mixture is most easily ignited. Below the 10 20 50 100 200 MIE, ignition is impossible for any concentration. For a concentration lower than the one corresponding to the MIE,m7 St the quantity of energy required to ignite the mixture increases until a concentration value is reached below which the mixture cannot be ignited due to the low quantity of fuel. This value is called the lower explosive limit (LEL). In the same way, when increasing the concentration the energy requirement increases, and a concentration value is identified above which ignition cannot occur due to the low quantity of an oxidizer. This value is called the upper explosive limit. (UEL) 3.24 Other designs On installations ashore other explosion proof designs are used. Equipment can be filled with oil or sand to prevent penetration of flammable gases. This type of equipment is marked Ex o for oil and Ex q for sand. Excess pressure design, Ex p, prevents penetration of the surrounding atmosphere with help of a protective gas with higher pressure than the environment. Such equipment requires surveillance of the pressure. If the pressure falls below a precise limit the equipment dies. A complete electrical plant with this design is not relevant. But the principle used, as for example, for an electric motor on a gas vessel. Special design, Ex s, appears in combination with another design. Ex sis not a 3.25 Classification of Ex equipment IEC, International Electro technical Commission, is an assembly with the task to make standardised recommendations about electrical equipment. This recommendation is published as IEC Recommendations. CENELEC, The European Committee for Electro technical Standardisation, has the task from IEC to make a standard for electrical equipment in hazardous areas. Equipment classified and marked by this standard will be approved in all of EU. The standardisation of flameproof equipment will in time ease the work by choosing the right equipment at installation and replacement, plus execute necessary control on installed equipment. The equipment in use today is marked by a number of different standards. We will concentrate on the three most relevant CLC that signifies the European standard VDE ___ that signifies the former West-German standard USA __ that signifies the USA's standard Flameproof equipment is tested and classified considering the different gases. The gas ignition energy, spontaneous ignition temperature and explosion progress are the primary factorsMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 THE DIFFERENT GAS QUALITIES ARE DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING EXPLOSION GROUPS: cic [ voE | USA Example of gas: I fl Gr_D [Methane (pit gas) TA [1 Gr. D__ [Methane (industrial) 1A 1 Gr_D__[n-Pentane WA [4 Gr. D [Petroleum gases 1B 2 Gr_C__ [Ethylene 1 [3b [Gr. 8 _| Carbon disulphide ic [3n _[Gr. A__[All gases Equipment marked explosion group “| for use in the industry. The different flammable gas mixtures have different spontaneous ignition temperatures. To secure electrical equipment, which comes in contact with the relevant gas mixtures and has a surface temperature lower than the gas mixture spontaneous ignition temperature; the equipment is marked with a temperature class. is used in mines. The other equipment is Spontaneous [3.26 CLC|VDE [USA Example of gas: ignition Temp: >450°C ia er [m1 Acrynoiitrie (481°C) 3300°C 72, G2 [ra n-Pentane (309°C) 520°C 73 G3__[T2D__[Acrolein (278°C) 3135°C 14 Ga__ [73 (Acetaldehyde 310°C 5 G5_[T4A___ [Carbon disulphide 385°C Té ii For CLC-classes, the maximum surface temperature follows the spontaneous ignition temperature of individual gas. The former West-German VDE-classes operate with both a spontaneous ignition temperature and a maximum surface temperature of the equipment. The surface temperature is stated a bit below the spontaneous ignition temperature. As an example, a gas that falls under the temperature class G1 is allowed a maximum surface temperature of 360°C. From the European Standard, all electrical equipment in hazardous areas must be marked, for example Eex d IIB T3 where: EEX The equipment is tested and classified according to the European Standard for utilisation in hazardous areas. d The enclosure is flameproof, 1B. The equipment falls under explosion group IIB. 73 The equipment is tested and will at maximum have a surface temperature of 200°C.3.26 PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT Installation of electrical equipment must be of a precise strength and resistant to the environment it is exposed to. Demands are made on the equipment from classification companies. A normal demand is that the equipment must bear the effect of 1 kg that falls down on the equipment from a height of 0.7 meters. Tests are also executed regarding chemicals. If the equipment is on open deck and lacks resistance to sun and rain, a cover must be installed above. Normally electrical equipment is constructed to bear a surrounding temperature of between 40°C and -25°C. A table indicating what the different protection extents imply: Grad: | Physical Protection against dust Protection contact: and foreign objects: against water penetration: IP.00_|Noprotection | No protection No protection IP 20 [Against contact [Against constant particles] No protection. with fingers. larger than 12 mm in diameter. IP 41 [Against contact | Against constant particles _ | Runny waler. with tools larger than 1 mm in diameter 1P 43 |Against contact | Against constant particles _| Water spray. with tools larger than 1: mm in diameter. IP 54 [Against contact _| Against damaging dust. Water jet. with tools 1P55 [Against contact | Against damaging dust Waterjet with tools. IP 56 Against contact | Complete protection Water jet. with tools. Most classification companies require that equipment on open deck must have a protection that corresponds to IP 56. As it may be difficult to obtain all electrical equipment with this protection, exception for equipment used ashore is made. A minimum protection of IP 44 is required. This equipment must be covered with, for example, a tarpaulin when the vessel is sailing. 3.1.12 Portable electrical equipment Demands on portable electrical equipment for use in hazardous areas are the same as for fixed installations. 3.1.13 Maintenance and installation Ex-material must not, as a rule, be repaired onboard. A flameproof enclosure with damaged wards must be scrapped. One must not be tempted to make newand larger wards. There is no control of the mechanical strength of the enclosure after such a repair. Repair of flame splits must not be executed. The best way to look after, and thereby to extend the length of life for this expensive equipment, is regular inspection. External protection against corrosion is of importance. Flameproof electric motors where end covers or bolts are wrecked by rust, are not safe and will entail duty of replacement at inspection. The flame splits are opened for cleaning and application of special “grease” that protects the surface against corrosion. Rejection of large electric motors often occur in connection with the ordered 5-year control where the flame splits are so corroded that it is no longer proper to repair these. A fiameproof enclosure does not prevent gas, and thereby water, from penetrating into the equipment. Pay special attention to the accumulation of water in such equipment in regions with large temperature variations. Choose Ex e in cable insertion to Ex d equipment if possible. A normal PG nipple is then sufficient and installation/control/maintenance is much easier. Deck light in hazardous areas is flameproof, which increases safety. This equipment is cheaper, easier to maintain, and easier to control than a flameproof lighting fixture. All electrical equipment must be grounded. Indirect cable insertion forms no problems, since all earth connection takes place inside the connection box. ‘When dismantling equipment, the cables must be disconnected at the feed line end’s connection box or the exposed ends should be terminated temporarily at the connection box of the same design as the dismantled equipment. New installation or changes of electrical equipment demand approval from classification companies. If the equipment is removed from its area, the same rule is regarded. Electrical motors that are coiled normally must have new certification.2007 Gas Highest Grade Compendium Chapter 4 RULES AND REGULATIONS Department/Author: Approved by: Per Zaal Erik Frette Seagull Seagull © 2005 SEAGULL AS All rights reserved No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or otherwise copied without prior written permission of SEAGULL AS ayMA-TC— DOCUMENT STATUS 94 A220. Sept 2007 Fe k'S-Trainngt-Manualerog underag\Tanker Operation ~ Gas\Revided 20071Gas\New compendiumiNew Chapter ‘4 Rulos and Regulations. doo Iesue No, Datervear Ine. by lsu No Datervear inc. by At 21.02.2006] PZ/EF A2 | 20.09.2007] RB/EF (CHANGES IN DOCUMENT tesue Paragraph Paragraph Heading! }__No. | No __|___escripton of Change __| Al Updated with LNG. General update. HG Chaptrd— Res and repute DMA~TC— 159 A220 Sept 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page 4 RULES AND REGULATIONS(STCW CODE SECTION A-V/1-PARA 24,28). 4.1. INTERNATIONAL ANO NATIONAL CODES AND REGULATIONS 4.4.4 Legislation and rules 4.2.” INTERNATIONAL RULES 4.2.1 SOLAS. 4.2.2 MARPOL. 4.23 _ ISPS Code - Intemational Ship and Port Facilities Security Code. 4.3 INTRODUCTION 4.3.1 Within the Intemational Marttime Organisation (IMO). 4.4 GAS CARRIER CODES 44.4 Local rules. 44.2 Publications 4.5.” CERTIFICATION AND SURVEYS 4.5.1 Cerificates and documents related to MARPOL 73/78 required to be onboard according to SOLAS 92 appendix 3: 45.2. Cortiicates and documents related to STCW 78/96, according to SOLAS 92 appendix 3: 45.3 Certificates and documents according to SOLAS 74/92 appendix 3: 4.54 Rules for Classification of LNG FPSOs 4.6 SPECIFIC SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS. 4.6.1 General Safety Principles 4.6.2 Formal Salety Assessment 4.8.3. Hydrocarbon Production Plant including Liquefaction Plant. HG Chapterd Rats and regulations 4MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 4 RULES AND REGULATIONS. (STCW CODE SECTION A-V/1-PARA 24, 28) Learning Objectives (On completion of this section the trainee should have a good knowledge of: - Rules and regulations - Intemational and National Codes and Rgulations - SOLAS = MARPOL - ISPS Code — International Ship and Port Facilities Security Code - IMO ~ International Maritime Organisation - Gas Carrier Code - Certification and Survey - Specific Safety considerations For further information please see CBT # 0004 SOPEP and # 0092 MARPOL. 4.1 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL CODES AND REGULATIONS. 4.1.1 Legislation and rules Al transportation of liquefied gas is governed by international and national legislation. The international legislation is set up by IMO, which is the UN's maritime division. All new laws and legislations updated when the old rules are no longer appropriate for its original intent. As more experience and knowledge is gained about accidents, regulations are regularly updated accordingly. The various cargoes allowed for transport on gas carriers and the types of gas carriers designed to carry them are updated along with knowledge about the products. All actual cargoes are being continuously monitored with regard to health hazards , flammability or environmental impact . For some cargoes the TLV has been reduced from 400 ppm to 1 ppm. The reason for this is the experience we have got with the cargo, and it is very seldom that new products come into the market with 100% guaranty that they are safe in all manners. What kinds of cargoes we can carry and which types of gas carriers that may carry the various cargoes depend on the toxicity of the cargo. The toxicity ratings of the various cargoes will always change over time as we gain more information about their potential health hazards. One example is VCM "Vinyl Chloride Monomer’; The TLV was 50 ppm until the early 1970s, when cancer research results caused the TLV to drop to 0.5 ppm.‘What types of cargoes a gas carrier may transport, depend on what precautions have been taken in the vessel's design and construction, to prevent cargoes from pollute the environment. In order to ratify IMO rules and legislation’s a given number of the IMO member states must ratify them. All flag and port states may have their own set of rules and legislation that differ from the IMO rules. The IMO has set up a minimum of standards that all gas carriers must be constructed and classed according to. 4.2, INTERNATIONAL RULES ‘There are three international conventions aiming to protect the environment and those are SOLAS (1974) with protocol of 1978 and appendixes to 1991, MARPOL 73/78, and STCW 78/95. 4.2.1 SOLAS «Safety of Life at Sea» contains rules and legislation’s on safety certificates such as: Safety Construction Certificate, Safety Radio Certificate, and Safety Equipment Certificate. These three certificates cover the safety of crew, ship and safety equipment. 4.2.2 MARPOL «international Conference on Marine Pollution» contains rules and regulations designed to protect the environment against pollution on a short and long term basis. MARPOL specifies what is allowed to pump or throw overboard, and also What equipment we must have onboard to prevent pollution of the environment. MARPOL defines clean water as water with less than 15 ppm content. 4.2.3. ISPS Code - International Ship and Port Facil ies Security Code. This novelty is purely a direct result of Sept. 11 attacks on the Twin Towers in NYC, and the ISPS code was implemented in the entire shipping community July 1* 2004. 43 INTRODUCTION Recent events have shown that no country in the world is immune from terrorism. Whatever the reasons behind them, acts of terrorism can be committed at any time and in any place. Shipping is no exception.4.3.1. Within the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Work on maritime security began within the IMO in February 2002, culminating on 12 December 2002 at the IMO Diplomatic Conference with the adoption of an amendment to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS Convention) and an International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (IsPs), Hitherto, the SOLAS Convention only addressed aspects relating to the security of maritime transport. The purpose of amending it and adopting the ISPS Code is to take into account maritime transport issues in connection with ships and port facilities5. The amendment of the SOLAS Convention and Part A of the ISPS Code consist entirely of mandatory provisions; Part B of the ISPS Code is made up of recommendations which Contracting Governments are requested to implement. These provisions apply to passenger ships, cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, mobile offshore drilling units and port facilities serving international traffic. The mandatory provisions are indispensable to the improvement of maritime security. They concer a requirement for ships to be permanently marked with their identification number fitted with an automatic identification system (AIS) and a ship security alert system for spreading the alarm in the event of hostile action against the ship, and to be issued with a continuous synopsis record (CSR), a kind of identify document recording the history of the ship. They also provide for a set of active and passive security measures based on three security levels (normal, increased, high),i.c. MARSEC levels 1-2-3( US terms yellow, orange and red) Their impiementations are linked to a risk assessment. They include the requirement to appoint people responsible for carrying out the security measures (ship, company and port facility security officers), to prepare security plans taking account of the risk assessment (ship and port facility) and to issue an international ship security certificate, as well as arrangements for personnel training and exercise. ‘The implementation of the ISPS code in short terms means: Appointment of Company Security Officer(CSO), Ship Security Officer(SSO), Assessment of vessel security by Recognized Company , issuance of Ship Security Certificate, which consists of one Confidential and One ‘public’ part. (by Classification Societies or by “Recognized Safety Company’) Installation of CCTV (Closed Circuit Television), i.e. TV-monitoring the entire ship and vicinity in 360 degrees radius. In addition steering gear, engine rooms are monitored on the system. There has been quite some discussion about what the term ‘security’ actually means. (One way to describe the difference between safety and security may bem7 04 Safety of vessel, equipment and crew is an internal matter, limited by the physical borders of the ship, while security is external matters, beyond the vessel, involving a number of extemal interests, such as ports, terminals, and the whole shipping community. 44 GAS CARRIER CODES IMO «IMO Gas Code», which is an ‘enhanced’ extract of SOLAS, contains rules and regulations for safeguarding the transport of liquefied gases for persons onboard as well as the environment. There are three gas codes issued by IMO. ~ Code for existing ships carrying Liquefied gases in bulk, - Code for construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk. - IGC code: Intemational code for construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk. The gas codes contain requirements for the construction of gas carriers. This includes requirements on stability, leakage after collision/ grounding and cargo compartments. In the gas code we also find a list of products that are classified as liquefied gases, as well as the requirements covering how those cargoes are to be transported. The gas code also covers toxic cargo and what types of safety devices are required to carry those cargoes. The vessels Certificate of Fitness for Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk states which cargoes the vessel is permitted to carry. Vessels must have onboard the personal safety protection equipment for the type cargo we are carrying, such particular safety and personal protection equipment is specified in IGC tables. Especially important are instruments for atmospheric measurements and personal safety equipment. 4.4.1 Local rules ‘Some port slates have local rules thal are stricter than the IMO rules and are designed to protect local waters. All countries try to protect own teritorial waters against pollution. Local rules may be stricter on clean water, shoreline pressure, and navigation after sunset etc. There are three countries that have especially strict rules and have large amounts of import and export of liquefied gases and those are: USA, Italy and Japan. In the USA the US Coast Guard issue a Certificate of Compliance on all gas. carriers that are to load or discharge in US waters. According to US rules and regulations, all gas carriers that visit US waters are to be inspected by the US Coast Guard in accordance to the vessels Certificate of Compliance (COC). This Certificate is valid for 2 years, subject to annual examination Gas carriersfailing the US Coast Guard inspection will receive ‘deficiencies’ on the COC’; if such deficiency is of serious nature, the vessel may be denied entry until the vessel has rectified the faults. Although the vessel may complete its port call; the wording of deficiencies will read " Prior to next entry of U.S. port, repairs to be made to the satisfaction of Classification Company (if applicable). A main difference between IMO and USCG is that in US they have a stricter standard regarding strength on pressure vessels. That means that most of the gas carriers have one safety relief valve setting according to IMO and a lower one according to USCG. Gas carriers that are built according to IMO gas code have no problem in obtaining a Certificate of Compliance, The owner of the vessel must send the USCG diagrams of the mid ship section, GA plan, fire and safety plan. Those drawings and plans must be sent to the USCG in due time before the vessels first arrival US waters, if possible when the vessel is new. Italian authorities (Registro Italiano Navale) issues a RINA certificate for gas carriers calling at Italian ports. This certificate is renewed and surveyed together with the vessels IMO Certificate of Fitness, Japan has their own rules and certificates on gas carriers. Those rules cover for the most part measurements of vessels. That means there are other net and gross weights on the vessel in Japan than on the IMO load line certificate. Japanese authorities (NKKK) will survey all gas carriers trading on Japan. If the documentation on the vessel is found unsatisfactory by the authorities, they can require that the vessel must go in dock for new measurements, In Norway it is the Norwegian Maritime Directorate making all the local rules, those rules are applicable for all vessels in NOR or NIS. The Norwegian Maritime Directorate normally employs the Class Companies to issue certificates and to conduct surveys on those vessels on their behalf. A daylight restriction, particularly for the arrival of vessels, is frequently encountered, particularly in US and Japan. The ship/ shore checklist must state if there are any restrictions on wind speed or the height of waves. Information about the terminals is found in the “Guide to port entry” or from the agents, terminals or your own company. B.A publications (List of Radio Signals Vol.6) also contain valuable information about port regulations and_ pilot services, 4.4.2 Publications We required to always have onboard the latest edition of publications related to cargo, cargo handling, SPM, ship to ship transfer etc, The most important publications we must have onboard are: SOLAS 74/92 latest edition, MARPOL 73/78 latest edition, STCW 78/95 latest edition, the latest IMO gas code for the type of gas carrier we are on, ICS Tanker safety guide liquefied gas, and ICS Ship to ship transfer guide for liquefied gases.MAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 Vessels that are registered in either NOR or NIS must have the latest edition of the Norwegian Maritime Directorate rules. In addition we must have the guidelines and publications from SIGTTO, ICS, OCIMF and USCG. In the Exxon vessel inspection guide we can find references to all publications they require us to have onboard. 4.5 CERTIFICATION AND SURVEYS Vessel's Classification Certificate and Safety Construction Certificate are the ‘two major certificates ‘governing’ the ‘ Class ‘period’. This indicates that the Class and SOLAS are the main ‘bodies’ in all survey- and certification matters. See list below ‘Example of Certificates on an LNG tanker’ 4.5.1 Certificates and documents related to MARPOL 73/78 required to be onboard according to SOLAS 92 Appendix 3: International Oil__—Pollution MARPOL 73/78 annex | Prevention Certificate regulation 5 Oil Record Book MARPOL 73/78 annex | regulation 20 Dangerous goods manifest or MARPOL 73/78 annex ll stowage plan regulation 4 STCW 78/95 «Seafarers’ Training, Certification and Watch keeping» contains rules and regulations on qualification certificates of officers and rating onboard vessels. STCW 78/95 was implemented 1" February 1997 and is based on two parts. Part A contains the minimum standard requirements for qualification of all Personal on various types of ships. Part B contains the minimum requirements of what all personal need to know in order to receive a certificate for their various ranks on all types of ships. 4.5.2 Certificates and documents related to STCW 78/95, according to SOLAS 92 Appendix 3: Certificate for masters, officers or STCW 78/95 article VI ratingsMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 45.3. Certificates and documents according to SOLAS 74/92 appendix 3: Intact Stability Booklet SOLAS 1974 Regulation I-1/22 Minimum safe Manning SOLAS 1974/89 Regulation document ViN3b Cargo Ship Safety Construction SOLAS 1974 Regulation I/2 as Certificate amended by GMDSS amendments. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment —_ SOLAS 1974 Regulation 1/2 as Certificate amended by GMDSS amendments. Cargo Ship Safety Radio SOLAS 1974 Regulation /2 as Certificate amended by GMDSS amendments. Document of compliance with the SOLAS 1974 regulation |-2/54.3, special requirements for ships carrying dangerous goods Dangerous goods manifest or SOLAS 1974 regulation VIN/5(3) stowage plan Example on List of Certificates on an LNG tanker: Certificate of Nationality Safety Management Certificate (ISM) Document of Compliance (ISM Company) Environmental Management Certificate (ISO 14001) International Ship Security Certificate (ISSC) Air pollution prevention Certificate Certificate of Fitness for Carriage of LG in bulk (IMO) Safety Equipment Certificate Safety Radio Certificate 10 Radio station License 11 GMDSS shore based maintenance agreement 12 International Load Line Certificate 13 Safety Construction Certificate 14 IOPP Certificate 15 Supplement to |OPP certificate (OWS) 16 International Tonnage Certificate 17 Certificate of Entry (P & |) 18 erating exemption certificate 19 USCG Certificate of Compliance 20 Certificate of Financial Responsibility (COFR) USCG CovonronsMAW TC — 1504 A220 Sepe-2007 21 Classification Certificate 22 Appendix to Classification Certificate 23 CTMS cerfificate 24 — Cargo tank Safety Valves Certificate 25 Cargo Gear Certificate (Record book) 26 — Manning Certificate 27 — CO2 installation certificate (fixed) 28 Dry powder installation certificate (fixed) 29 Portable fire extinguishers certificates 30 SCBA certificates 31 Emergency escape set certificate 32 AciOx-installation certificate 33 _Liferaft Certificates incl. HRU's 34 Liferaft Davit certificate 35 Lifeboat Certificate 36 Lifeboat Davit Certificate 37 MOB boat certificate 38 MOB boat davit certificate 39 Loading computer certificate 40 Anchor certificate 41 Anchor chain certificate 42 Anchor chain calibration record 43. Personal Lift Certificate 44° Crew Accommodation Certificate 45 Suez Canal Tonnage Certificate 46 — Sanitary Certificate 47 Crew accommodation Certificate (ILO) 48 ITF agreement certificate (n/a for NIS vessels) 49 — Magnetic Compass Certificate 50 Navigation Light certificate 51 Medicine locker certificate 52 Drug & alcohol test certificate 53 Medical oxygen resuscitator certificate 4.5.4 Rules for Classification of LNG FPSOs Classification of oil producing FPSOs has been widely used in the industry for ensuring a cost effective independent verification of quality and safety. From a mere 12 units in 1985, the growth in the world fleet of FPSOs has now reached 70 FPSOs in operation world-wide. The Classification Societies have gained considerable experience with FPSOs in this period, which have been incorporated into the rules for classification. In the late 70's, tentative rules for LNG FPSOs were developed by DNV. The industry was however, not yet ready for these concepts. The new classification rules for LNG/LPG FPSOs is based on the extensive experience gained in LNG/LPG transportation, FPSO concept studies and risk assessments as well as knowledge from ‘conventional’ FPSOs design and construction. ‘The new classification rules covers the basic class notations LNG or LPG production unit/Installation and LNG or LPG Storage Unit/installation withadditional special facility notation PROD (LNG or LPG), ref. 9], [10], [11]. A Classification Certificate according to the rules is a confirmation that the object has been built in compliance with the Classification Rule requirements for an identified class notation and will be maintained according to this standard, Important issues covered by the new rules are: - Release of cryogenic liquids - Spread of fire that may threaten tank integrity - Safe gas disposal = Offloading concepts and operation = Mooring during offloading - Drainage of cryogenic liquid spills - Fire fighting - LNG cartier rules for tank design and cargo handling 4.6 SPECIFIC SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 4.6.1. General Safety Principles The main principles of the rules are that systems and structure shall be designed with suitable functionality and survivability for prevention of accidental events affecting the unit. Effective escape, shelter and evacuation facilities shall be provided to safeguard personnel Based on experience with offshore designs and results obtained by various risk assessments for offshore units, a set of generic accidental loads may be applied for standardized designs. However, novel designs like LNG/LPG FPSOs will require more comprehensive safety assessments. The rules are based on a safety assessment being carried out in order to conclude requirements for protection from: + release of cryogenic liquids - offloading concepts and operation - spread of fire that may threaten tank integrity Solutions for quick disconnection of mooring lines between the shuttle tanker and the producing/storage unit shall be found if the safety assessment assumes or recommends such actions as a consequence reducing means. Additional hazards common for all types of floating production installations will come in addition to the ones above specific for LNG.4.6.2 Formal Safety Assessment The rules require the use of Safely Assessment as a decision support and design tool. Safety Assessment is an effective tool for identification of risk factors with corresponding accidental design loads, screening of alternative solutions and assessment of the implication of detailed altematives. Safety Assessment refers here to a design tool that provides input to design and ensures that minimum safety levels are met through systematic consideration of: - the hazards that can occur - tole and performance of structure and facilities in preventing and protecting against hazards - the effects of hazards on safety of personnel 4.6.3. Hydrocarbon Production Plant including Liquefaction Plant Technical requirements and guidance on design and construction for assignment of additional class notation PROD are identified for installations with hydrocarbon production facility including gas liquefaction plant. The objectives of these requirements are to provide an intemationally acceptable standard of safety for such plants by defining minimum requirements for the design, materials, construction and commissioning.2007 Gas Highest Grade Compendium Chapter 5 Ship Design and Cargo Containment Department/Author: Approved by: Per Zaal Erik Frette Seagull Seagull © 2005 SEAGULL AS All rights reserved No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or otherwise copied without prior written permission of SEAGULL AS Céagull)MA-TC— DOCUMENT STATUS 94 A220. Sept 2007 Fe k'- Training t-Manualerog underag\Tankor Operation ~ Gas\Revided 20071Gas\New compendiumiNew Chapter 5 Ship Design and Cargo Contarment do Iesue No, Datervear Ine. by lsu No Datervear inc. by At 21.02.2006] PZ/EF A2 | 20.09.2007] RB/EF (CHANGES IN DOCUMENT tesue Paragraph Paragraph Heading! }__No. | No __|___escripton of Change __| Al Updated with LNG. General update. HG Chapter Ship Desen and Cargo Continent 1MA~TC— 159 A220 Sept 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page 5 SHIP DESIGN AND CARGO CONTAINMENT. 1 5.1. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS, 1 5.2 SHIP ARRANGEMENTS. 3 5.2.1 Types of gas carriers 3 522 Fully pressurised carriers. 5 5.2.3 Fully prossurised LPG carriers. 5 5.24 _ Fully pressurised chlorine C2 carrier. 6 5.3 SEMI PRESSURISED GAS CARRIERS 8 5.3.1 Semipressurised LPG/LEG carriers .ssssssssnosssnnennn . 8 5.3.2 Semi pressurised tankers (Combined gas/chemnical) 10 5.4.” FULLY REFRIGERATED CARRIERS . oe 14 5.4.1 Fully refrigerated LPG carriers. 1 54.2 Fully refrigerated LNG carriers. 13 5.5 CARGO CONTAINMENT 14 5.5.1 Cargo compartment systems. 4 5.5.2 Integrated tanks 14 5.5.3 Membrane tanks 4 5.5.4 Membrane tank system. 15 5.5.5 Sketch on membrane tank. 18 5.5.6 Semi- membrane tanks. 18 5.5.7 _ Example of semi-membrane tank 19 6.6 INDEPENDENT TANKS, 19 5.6.1 Independent tanks type A... ae nnn 20 5.6.2 Example of “anti float” brackets 20 5.6.3 Independent tanks type B... ssn nnn 20 5.6.4 Independent tanks type C. 21 8.7. INSULATION AND INSULATION MATERIAL «00.0. Snunsnennnnsneane 5.7.1 Polyurethane 25 5.7.2 Polystyrene 26 5.7.3 Isolation of LING ships with spherical tanks 26 5.7.4 Mineral wool 26 5.7.5 _ Expanded Perlite 26 5.8 SHIP TYPES AND SURVIVAL CAPABILITY ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. 5.9. __ REGASIFIGATION AND OFFSHORE DISCHARGE 29 5.9.1 The Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) carrier option. 29 6.10 CNG TANKER MODELS: 30 5.10.1 FLOATING PRODUCTION AND OFF-LOADING OF LNG...ssscnnoane 34 5.10.2 Safety issues 31 5.11 SAFETY CONCERNS AND ALTERNATIVE TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS wssnssnsnnsnnnsnennsneane 2 5.11.1 Design challenges 33 5.11.2 Fatigue considerations 33 5.11.3 Sloshing loads 33 8.12" DESIGN CHALLENGES. 34 5.12.1 Sloshing damages: 34 5.12.2 LNG Cargo Transfer in open seas: 34 1H Chapter — Ship Design and Cargo Containment 05 SHIP DESIGN AND CARGO CONTAINMENT Leaming Objectives (On completion of this section the trainee should have a good knowledge of: - Construction and Equipment requirements. - Ship arrangements - Types of Gas Carriers - Semi Pressurised Gas Carriers - Fully refrigerated Gas Carriers - Cargo containment - Independent tanks - Insulation and insulation material = Regasification and offshore discharge - CNG tanker models - Safety concerns and altemative technical solutions - Design challenges For further information please see CBT # 0032 Liquefied Cargo properties and # 0099 Low temperature, insulation, Gas Carriers. 5.1 CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS IMO divides the cargo tanks into 4 main groups: | Integrated tanks 1 Membrane tanks | Semi - Membrane tanks \ Independent tanks, type A, B, and C The characteristics of integrated, membrane and semi membrane tanks is that they all transfer static stress in the form of tank pressure to the hull around the cargo tank when this is loaded. Independent tanks only transfer the weight of the cargo tank and the cargo to the hull fundamentals, but not transfer static pressure. Cargo tanks built for fully refrigerated gas carriers, and tanks with MARVS less than 0.7 bars, must have full or partly secondary barrier. Secondary barrier is a tank or hull construction built outside the cargo tank itself, either in the insulation between cargo tank and hull, or in the hull around the cargo tank. If the hull around the cargo tank is used, this will be the ballast tank, ships side or cofferdams serving as secondary barrier. When utilise the hull around the cargo tank as the secondary barrier the vessel is limited to carry cargo no colder than -55°C.Table showing connection between cargo temperature and type of compartment and secondary barrier requirement Cargo =10°C and | Below -10°C Below 55°C temperature | above down to -55°C at atmospheric pressure Basic tank [No secondary | Hull may act as ‘Separate type barrier | secondary barrier | secondary barrier required where required integral Tank type not normally allowed Membrane ‘Complete secondary barrier ‘Semi- ‘Complete secondary barrier membrane Independent Type A ‘Complete secondary barrier Type B Partial secondary barrier Type C No secondary barrier required Internal insulation Type 1 Complete secondary barrier Type 2 ‘Complete secondary barrier is incorporated Secondary barrier shall prevent cargo liquid from any possible leaks coming from the cargo tank damaging the environment outside the cargo tank, for example the shipsides. The secondary barrier must be able to, at a minimum, keep the cargo liquid away from the surroundings for at least 15 days and maintains its full function at static list of 30° Alll cargo tanks on gas carriers are constructed to a specified excess pressure and vacuum. The safety valve maximum allowed set point, called MARVS, is, stated in accordance to specification and pressure test, stated by the manufacturer of the cargo tank. The tolerance of vacuum on the cargo tanks is stated in bars, kg/cm? or percentage of vacuum. MARVS and vacuum for each cargo tank must be specified in the vessels “Certificate of Fitness for carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk’. US Coast Guard has more stringent rules for safety margins on pressure tanks than IMO, this indicates that cargo compartment on gas carriers have different MARVS pressures for IMO and USCG. In hold spaces and inter barrier spaces there are demands for an own bilge system that is independent from the vessel's other bilge systems. This is arranged with independent ejectors or bilge pumps in the spaces and usually one in each side of the space. Inter barrier space is the space between the cargo tank and the secondary barrier.The bilge arrangement is designed to pump out the cargo if there has been a leakage from the cargo tank. The system can also be utilised to remove water from the hold space or inter barrier space if there is accumulation of condensed water. If we have to pump water we must be sure that all connections to the loading system are disconnected. On atmospheric pressure tankers, hold space and inter barrier space should at all times have a neutral atmosphere, either by dry inert or nitrogen when loaded with flammable cargo. However, dry air is permitted in hold spaces on LPG and LING vessels with Independent tanks (A). Nitrogen or dry air must be utilised when the cargo content is Ammonia or non- flammable cargo. When the cargo is Ammonia one must under no circumstance utilise inert containing CO, in the spaces, because Ammonia will react with CO2 and form a solid substance (Ammonium Carbonate) (Caustic Soda). 5.2 SHIP ARRANGEMENTS 5.2.1 Types of gas carriers Gas carriers are tankers constructed for transporting liquefied gases in bulk IMO defines liquefied gases as products with a vapour pressure exceeding 2.8 bar absolute at a temperature of 37.8°C. Gas carriers are built according to IMO's Gas Codes. There are three versions of gas codes; the first deals with existing gas carriers and passes for gas carriers delivered before 31° of December 1976. The next code passes for gas carriers delivered on or after 31° of December 1976, but before 1° of July 1986. The third gas code, IGC Code passes for gas carriers started or the keel set after the first of July 1986. The latest gas code is for gas carriers that keel is laid and 1% of the construction mass is used on 1" October 1994. The gas code has content in demands for damage stability, gas tankers cargo handling equipment, cargo tanks, steel qualities in cargo tanks, pipe systems for cargo handling, personnel protection, safety valves, etc. Gas carriers are divided into three main groups and four types. The gas carrier owner decides which group and type the carrier should have, according to the freight the vessel will trade. The three main groups are: + Fully pressurised carriers: designed for excess pressure in the cargo tank above11 bar. + Semi-pressurised carriers: designed for excess pressure the cargo tank on 0.5 - 11 bars, the pressure is normally 3 - 5 bars. + Fully refrigerated carriers: designed for excess pressure in the cargo tank below 0.7 bars, the pressure is normally 0.25 — 0.3 bars. Each of the groups is again divided into ship types dependent on the cargo's hazardous properties (i.e. toxicity, flammability, reactivity etc.). It is the ship owner's specification of the gas carrier, the international rules determined by IMO, national rules and class companies rules that decide to which group and ship type the carrier belongs.