Physics The Easy Way PDF

BCl ec mreB ecto ttd Phe ole Om) stunt tat eae octane If you want to learn it BSC eee nea nicer Belhuve wm oct ecun es ciy Comet‘Credit: Figure 8-1 from FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICS by Robert L. Lehrman, copyright © 1965, renewed 1993 by Holt, Rinehart & Winston, reproduced by permission of the publisher. ‘© Copyright 1998 by Barron’s Educational Series, Inc. Prior editions © copyright 1990, 1984 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the copyright owner. All ingtciries should be addressed to: Barron's Educational Series, Inc. 250 Wireless Boulevard Hauppauge, New York 11788 http://www. barronseduc.com International Standard Book No. 0-7641-0236-2 Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 97-35217 Library of Congress Cataloging in- Publication Data Lehrman, Robert L. Physics the easy way / Robert L. Lehrman, — Srd ed. p. em. Inchades index. ISBN 0-7641-0236-2 1. Physics. 1. Title. QC23.L36 1998 530—de21 ‘97-35217 IP PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 19 18171615 1413CONTENTS Chapter 1 The Art of Measurement 1 11 Why Measure? 1 ‘L.2___How Certain Is a Measurement? _________? 13 Significant Digits 3 14 Big Numbers, Little Numbers 5 ithmetic in Scientific Notati 7 1L6___Labels B 1.4 __Dimensionality 9 La__New D oo u 19 Le Systéme Internationale d’Unités 12 Sum: iz 13 Chapter 2__ Notions of Motion 17 2.1___How Fast, How Far? 2000 22 Vectors: Which Way? 19 2.3 Velocity Vectors 23 24 A Vector in Parts 9.4.4.4... 2.5 Acceleration 27 2.6 The Velocity-Time Graph 29 2.7 Speeding Up Steadily 31 2.8 Falling Freely 33 2.9 __The Direction of Acceleration __35. 2.10 More Free Falls 94.4.4... 3G 2.11 Trajectories 37 2.12 Going in Circles 40 213 *Rotation* 42 2.14 It’s Relative \9.4|4 2.15 *Special Relativity* 46, Stem: i 48 Chapter 3 Forces: Push and Pull 54 3.1___ Whar Isa Force? 3.2 Mass and Weight 56 34 Fricti 7 3.4___Some Other Forces 242___________ 40 3.5 *Changing Shapes* 623.6 Action and Reaction 3.7 ___ Balanced Forces 3.8 Components of a Force 3.9 Equilibrium with Several Forces Bi RS 3.11 *Making Things Turn* 73 Summary Quiz 79 Chapter 4 Making Things Move 4.1 __ How To Change a Velocity 2 |€ | 43 Cooperating Forces | 4.6 *Going at Angles* 94 47 *The Ultimate Speed* 96 48 Making Circles 97 49 *Making Things Spin* 99 4.10 *Spinning Is Also Conserved* 101 4.11 _The Moon in Orbit 2. 412 Gravity Is Everywhere 107 4.13 Weighulessness 109 Su i 11 Chapter 5 Energy: They Don’t Make It Anymore 117 5.1 Doing Work uz 5.2 What Is Energy? 119 5.3 Energy and Gravity 120 5.4 Energy of Motion 122 5.5 __ Energy Transformed 124 5.6 *Energy in Space* 127 5.7 *Escape from Earth* 129 5.8 You Can't Get Energy for Nothing 131 59 *Energy of a Spin* 132 5.10 *Energy of a Spring* 134 S11 Power 20. 5.12 Energy and Mass 136 6.18 You Can't Break Even CD Sum: i: 140 Chapter 6 Things That Flow 146 6.1__Phases of Matter dG 62 Density 147 63 Pressure a64 Atmospheric Pressure 150 6.5 Diving Deep 153 66 Buoyancy 155 G7 It Floats! 20 6.8 The Skin of a Liquid 160 6.9 Drag Again 161 6.10 Pipelines 162 6.11 _Bernoulli’s Great Theorem 164 6.12 What Makes It Fly? 167 Sumi i 169 Chapter 7 Heat: Useful and Wasted 175 7.1 Heat and Temperature 175 7.2 Traveling Heat 176 723___What'sa Thermometer? 4 —SSCi TF? 74 A Better Temeprature Scale 179 7.5 Temperature and Internal Energy 181 7.6 __ The Method of Mixtures = CSCSC*d‘'. 7.7 Melting and Boiling 186 7.8 Gases Expand 190 79 *The Size of the Sample* 193 7.10 *The Why of the Gas Law* 195 7.11 *Molecular Energy* 197 7.12 "Heat Engines* 200 Summary Quiz 202 Chapter 8 Making Waves 207 8.1 Good Vibrations COT 8.2 *Calculating SHM* 210 8.3___What Is a Wave? 8 8.4 Traveling Waves 215 85 Sound Waves 4. 8.6 Music and Noise 219 8.7___Diffraction J 88 Shifting Frequencies 204 89 *The Doppler Shift* 225 8.10 Interference 2. 8.11 Standing Waves 230 8.12 Making Music 231 8.13 Pipes 234 6.14 *How Loud?* 237 8.15 Resonance 238 Sum: ia 240Chapter 9 It’s Electric 245 9] Another Kind of Force CC 92 Can You Create Charge? 246 9.3 Charged Conductors 248 94 Charge and Force 250 95 Electric Fields 0D 96 The Field Rules 911111 07 El ic Inductis 256 98 Electricity Has Energy 258 9.9 Potential 260 9.10 The Charge on an Electron 263 9.11 *Charged Spheres* 265 Summary Quiz 268 Chapter 10 The Power in the Wire 274 10.1 Making Electricity Useful 274 10.2 Producing Electric Current 275, 10,3__How Much Current? 4... 10,4 How Much Resistance? 28 10.5 Delivering the Energy 283 10.6 Superconductivity 285 10.7 _*Big Batteries, Little Batteries* 287 1O.8 _Cireits 8D 10.9 _ Circuits with Branch 99] 10.10 Potentials in the Branches __ 202, 0 The Series Cireui 29 10.12 The Paralle! Cireut 205 10.18 _Series-Parallel Combinations 298 Summary Quiz 300 Chapter 11 Magnetism: Interacting Currents 306 11.1 The Mysterious Compass: 306 11.2 Space Magnetism 307 11.3 *Loop Currents* Sil 114 _How Do You Make a Field? ._._._._._._._._._413 11.5 *How Strong Is the Field?* 316 11,6 Permanent Magnets 319 11.7 The Earth Is a Magnet 322 11.8 Currents in Space 323 11.9 Measuring Mass 327 11.10 Magnetism Makes Electricity 329 ILM _ The Law of Induction CBB 1L12 Lenz'sLaw CB Summary Quiz $86Chapter 12 Electricity in Use 342 12.1 Measuring Electricity 342 12.2 Electrical to Mechanical 345 12.3 Manufacturing Electricity 347 124 _WhatIsAC? SO 12.5 The Great Transformation 353 12.6 Power Lines 2002 12.7__The Wires in Your Home 12.8__Shock Protection 4... 12.9 Appliances 360 Summary Quiz ‘362 Chapter 13_ Electrons in Control 367 13.1__Whatis Electronics? _367 19.2 Resistors _________868 13.3 Capcitors 369 13.4 *Capacitance in AC* 371 13.5 *The RC Circuit® 374 13.6__Inductance 376 13.7 “Inductance in AC* 878 * LLC Cireuit® 13.9 *The Power Factor* 382 13.10 *Conductors* 383 13.1 Semiconductors __386 13.12. Transistors 388. Summary Quis 389 Chapter 14_ Energy in Space 394 14.1__Field Interactions 220 14.2 Electromagnetic Waves 396 14.3 *The Energy of the Waves* 399 14.4 Straight Lines or Curves? 402 14.5 Measuring Wavelength 403 14.6 Coherence 407 147 Polarizati 09 14.8 Color 200 149 _*Thin Filme* 13 14.10 Red Hot, White Hot 415 14.11 Photoelectricity 418 14.12. The Energy of Photons 421 {4.13 Photons Are Particles 429 Sui i 425Chapter 15 Rays and Images 431 15.1 What's a Ray? 431 14.2 _Ilumination 15.3 Rays That Bounce 434 15.4 Seeing Things 436 15.5 Bending Rays 438 15.6 Trapped Light 441 15.7 Colors by Prism 444 15.8 Focusing the 445, 15.9 Forming Images 448 15.10 Virtual Imay Lenses 450 15.11__Algebraic Solutions 451 15.12 The Lens in Your Camera 453 15.13 Curved Mirrors 456 15.14 *Making it Big* 459 15.15 _*See Further, See Bigger* 461 Sum ie 463 Chapter 16 Atoms and Electrons 470 16.1 The Discovery of the Electron 470 16.2 Finding the Nucleus 472 16.3. Physics in Trouble—Again 474 16.4 The Big Breakthrough: The Hydrogen Atom 477 16.5 _ Measuring the Energy Levels 480 16.6 Matter Waves 29.2... 16.7__ The Probability Wave 484 16.8 Experiment and Reality 486 16.9 *The New Hydrogen Atom* 487 16.10_*Other Elements* 4... 16.11 _*Making X-Rays* 491 Sumi iz 493 Chapter 17_ The Atomic Nucleus and Beyond —_—-499 V21___Within the Nucleus 09 17.2 Tracking the Particles 500 17.3 Radioactive Elements __ 17.4 How Long Does It Take? 505 17.5 *Rates of Decay* 506 17.6 The Energy of the Rays 507 17.7 __ Increasing the Energy 510 17.8 Accelerating in Circles 512 17.9 __ Transforming the Nucleus 515 17.10__Nuclei That Split 517 1211 The Reactor JD 17.12 Fusion 520 17.13 The Four Forces 52217.14 The Particle Zoo 524 17.15 Inside the Hadrons CS Sum iz, 527 Appendix 1_ Formal Equations 533 Appendix 2 Physical Constants 540 Appendix 3 Values of the Trigonometric Functions iT Appendix 4 Properties of Selected Nuclides 544 Appendix 5 Answers to Try This 546 Appendix 6 Answers to Summary Quizzes 572 IndexPREFACE ‘So you have decided to smdy physics. Anyone who would like to understand the mechanism of the universe and the ways in which we investigate it must come to this decision sooner or later. Physics is the most fundamental of the sciences, the place where the most ubiquitous question— WHY?— NOTIONS OF MOTION Sample Problem 2-15 What is the acceleration of a rocket that speeds up uniformly from rest and travels 650 meters in the first 12 seconds? Solution: In Equation 2-7b, y = 0; solving for a gives ge 25. 21650 m) e (28) a=9.0 m/s? Sample Problem 2-16 Ifa car is going at 12 meters per second, how long will it take it to reach a speed of 26 meters per second if it accelerates at 2.2 meters per second squared? Solution: Solving Equation 2-7a for ¢ gives yy _ 26 m/s- 12 m/s ar" 22 m/e t=645 Sample Problem 2-17 How far does a car travel in speeding up from 4.5 meters per second to 22 meters per second if its acceleration is 8.5 meters per second squared? Solution: Solving Equation 2-7c for s gives. Aub? _ (22 m/s)? - (4.5 m/s)? 2a 2 (3.5 m/s%) s= 66m = Sample Problem 2-18 A car going 19 meters per second jams on its brakes, slowing down to 8.4 meters per second and leaving skid marks 24.6 meters long. What was its acceleration? Solution: Slowing down is also a kind of acceleration; it will have a negative value. From Equation 2-7c, the acceleration isFALLING FREELY 33 ge aE _ (84 m/s)? - (19 m/s)? 2s 2 (24.6 m) a=-5.9 m/s* Problems involving objects that accelerate uniformly, starting or ending at rest, can be solved with a set of three simple equations. ‘Tay THis =—T— ‘What is the acceleration of a rocket-driven sled that travels 360 meters in 8.3 seconds, starting at 22 meters per second? 2.8. FALLING FREELY ‘When something is dropped, its velocity starts at zero and increases. It is accelerated. It is a remarkable fact that in a vacuum all objects—rocks, books, feathers, raindrops, dust particles—have the same acceleration. If dropped together, all will accelerate uniformly and strike the ground at the same time. This rule does not hold in everyday experience only because the resistance of the air tends to hold things back—and it holds feathers more effectively than rocks. The acceleration of an object in free fall (in a vacuurn) does not depend ‘on the nature of the object. It depends only on where the object happens to be. The acceleration is uniform, and its valuc is the acceleration due to gravily, represented by the letter g. On earth, g is about 9.8 meters per second squared, or 32 feet per second squared. The value is far different on other planets—3.8 meters per second squared on Mars, 25.6 meters per second squared on Jupiter; and when our astronauts walked on the moon, anything they dropped accelerated downward ata mere 1,67 meters per second squared, Even on earth, the accel eration due to gravity varies a little, It is about 9.78 meters per second squared at the equator, increasing to 9,83 meters per second squared at the poles. It also decreases with altitude, dropping from 9.80 meters per second squared at the surface (at latitude 40°) to 9.79 meters per second squared at altitude 10 miles. Whatever the local value of g, it can be used in Equations 2-7 to find out how long it takes something to hit the ground or how fast it will be going when it hits, Just remember that for an object in free fall, a = g Sample Problems 2-19 and. 2-20 show how to proceed. A word of caution, however: Tf the object is very light, or if it has a lot of flat surface, or if it falls a great distance, air resistance becomes significant, and use of these simple equations will not be appropriate.34 NOTIONS OF MOTION A high-wire artist missteps and falls 9.2 meters to the ground, What is the acrobat’s speed on landing? Solution: The motion is uniformly accelerated and starts at rest, so 4 = 0 and from Equation 2-7¢ onyfaar=Ve(o8 +) (9.2m) = 13 m/s Sample Problem 2 A cat falls gut of a wee, dropping 16 meters to the ground, How long is the cat in the air? Solution: Since the cat started at rest and accelerated uniformly, 4 = 0, so, from Equation 2-7b gadget Multiply through by 2/gand take the square root of both sides to get 2s aa \ De asm? 185 ‘Sample Problem 2-21 You throw a ball straight up into the air at a speed of 22.0 meters per second, If someone catches it 3.6 seconds later, how fast is it going? Solution: You have to be careful of the signs in this problem. The upward direction is taken as positive, so the initial speed is 422.0 m/s, and a = g = 8.8 m/s?, We can find the final speed from Equation 2-7a: ty= 9 + ad = 22.0 m/s + (9.8 m/s*) (3.6 5) y=-13 m/s ‘The ball was caught on the way down, An object in free fall accelerates uniformly, and the value of the acceleration due to gravity depends only on the object's location in space.THE DIRECTION OF ACCELERATION 35 Try THs —8— You drop a rock from a bridge, and it hits the water 2.3 seconds later. Find (a) the height of the bridge; (b) the velocity of the rock when it hits. 2.9. THE DIRECTION OF ACCELERATION Any change of velocity—speeding up, slowing down, or turning a corner— is an acceleration. We distinguish these different kinds of accelerated motion by assigning a direction to the acceleration. In other words, acceleration is a vector. Ifyou are traveling ina straight line and speed up, your change in veloc ity (Av) is in the direction you are going. Then your acceleration is also in that direction. This is the first rule for the direction of an acceleration: when the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity, the result is an increase in speed. If, on the other hand, you are slowing down, then the change in pour velocity is opposite to the velocity itself; if you are going east at 30 mi/hour and slow down to 20 mi/hour, Av = 10 mi/hour west. Since acceleration is always in the direction of the change in velocity, we geta second rule: when acceleration is in the opposite direction from velocity, the result is a decrease in speed. Now suppose you do not change speed but are making a turn. This is a change in only the direction of velocity; since velocity is a vector, this is surely a change in velocity—an acceleration. Figure 2-12 shows how to find the direction of this acceleration. The dotted line shows what the path of the car would be if its motion were not accelerated—that is, if it traveled at constant speed in a straight line. The arrow is a vector representing the change in the velocity of the car; that is, the vector that must be added to the old velocity to get the new velocity. The acceleration is in the same direction as the change in velocity. When the car turns to the right, its acceleration is to the right, perpendicular to its velocity. FIGURE 2-1236 NOTIONS OF MOTION, ‘When an object speeds up, its acceleration is in the same direction as its velocity; when it slows down, its acceleration is in the opposite direction; when it changes direction with no change in speed, its acceleration is per pendicular to the velocity, toward the side to which the object is turning. ‘Tay THis —8. In each of the following cases, state the direction of the acceleration: 1. Arising elevator is coming to rest. 2. A car going west speeds up. 3. Acar going cast slows down. 4. A bicycle going southward starts to turn left. 2.10. MORE FREE FALLS Te puta rock into free fall, you de not necessarily just drop it. You can also throw it—up, down, or sideways. Whichever you do, the rock is in free fall once it leaves your hand, and it must therefore accelerate downward at the rate of the acceleration due to gravity—9.8 meters per second squared. Suppose, for example, you throw the rock straight upward and it leaves your hand going 25 meters per second. Since its acceleration is downward, oppasite to its velocity, it must slow down, After 1 second, it is going (25 meters per second - 9.8 meters per sccond) = 15.2 meters per second. It loses another 9.8 meters per second of velocity during the next second. Eventually, it comes to rest and starts downward. Then it speeds up, since its acceleration is now in the same direction as its velocity, Look at the graph of Figure 2-15 to see how this accelerated motion takes place. At time 0, the velocity is 25 meters per second. When 2.6 seconds have passed, the velocity has dropped to zero—the rock has come to rest at the top of its flight. From that point on, the velocity is negative, meaning that the rock is now on the way down. It stops at the point from which it was thrown, going 25 meters per second. But through the entire flight, the slope of the graph—the acceleration—has not changed. Even when the rock is at the top of its flight, at rest, its velocity has not stopped changing, at the rate of 9.8 meters per second squared. velocity, ifs FIGURE 2-13TRAJECTORIES 37 Sample Problem 2-22 You throw a baseball straight up, and it leaves your hand at 15 meters per second. What is its velocity 2.0 seconds later? Solution: First, let's find the amount of speed the baseball loses as it rises. From Equation 25, Av=gat Auv= (8) (2.05) = 19.6 m/s s Since this is a loss of speed, it must be subtracted from the initial speed: tinal = 15 m/s ~ 19.6 m/s = -4,6 m/s ‘The negative sign indicates that the ball has reversed its direction of travel. Solution: Equation 2-7a provides the answer: ups 4 + at= 15 m/s + (-9.8 m/s) (2.0 s) y==4.6 m/s ‘The ball is on the way down. The acceleration due to gravity is the same for all objects in free fall, regardless of the direction of their velocities. ‘Try THs —10— A tennis ball is struck with a racket, firing it straight upward at 22 meters ‘per second. After how much time will it be falling at 15 meters per second? 2.11. TRAJECTORIES If a shell is to be fired from a cannon, it would be useful to be able to predict where it will land. The path of a projectile in free fall is called its trajectory. The first thing to understand about the trajectory of a projectile is that, neglecting air resistance, the object is in free fall. That means that its motion isaffected only by gravity; it accelerates ownward at -9.8 meters per second squared. This rule applies whether it is moving up, down, or sideways.38 NOTIONS OF MOTION Suppose you stand on a roof and throw a ball horizontally. You have given it no vertical motion at all, Vertical velocity will be supplied by gravity at the rate of 9.8 meters per second squared, starting at zero, No matter how hard you throw it, the ball will reach the ground in exactly the same length of time as if you just dropped it—as long as the initial velocity is strictly horizontal. Now, how about the horizontal motion? Nothing is acting on the ball except gravity, and that affects only the vertical motion. Whatever speed you give the ball, it will keep on flying horizontally at that speed until grav- ‘ity brings it to the ground. The net result of these two motions is shown in Figure 2-14, The horizontal velocity is constant, and the vertical velocity is accelerated, FIGURE 2-14 Sample Problem 2-23 A ball is thrown horizontally at 25 meters per second from a roof that is 15 meters high. How far does it travel before hitting the ground? Solution: The first step is to find how long the ball is in the air. This depends only on its vertical velocity, which starts at zero and increases at the rate of 9.8 m/s*, From Equation 2-7b, with y = 0, poaf 25 agf 2 3m) & 9,8 m/s? t= 175s It wavels horizontally at its initial speed for this length of time, so s=ut= (25 m/s)(1.75 8) = 44m. Now suppose that ball is not thrown horizontally but atan angle upward. This will surely carry it further. We still have to deal with the two components of its velocity separately. The first step is to separate the initial veloc ity into its vertical and horizontal parts. Then follow pretty much the same precedure as in the previous problem:TRAJECTORIES 39 Sample Problem 2-24 The ball is now thrown with the same speed at an angle of 35” upward. How far does it travel? Solution: The horizontal component of its velocity, which does not change, is (From. Equation 2-4) por = (25 m/s) cos 35° = 20.5 m/s The angle with the vertical is (90° - 35°) = 55°, so the vertical component of its initial velocity is ther = (25 m/s) cos 55° = 14.3 m/s Equation 2-7a tells us how long it takes for the ball to reach its maximum height, where uy = 0: 3 m/s pe SL ees 9.8 m/s* = L46s Now we have to know how high the ball rises. From Equation 2-7b: sm dag? = 4(9.8 m/s%) (1.46 5)? = 10.4: and it has to fall to the ground a distance of 10.4 m + 15 m, so. inte aaa. @5Am) oogs @ 9.8 m/z ‘So the total time of flight, up and down, is 146 s + 2.28 s = 3.74 8, During all that time, it has kept up its constant horizontal speed. Therefore, the horizontal distance it travels is $m vi= (20.5 m/s) (3.74 s) = 77 m. After all that work, you might expect that you now know how far the ball will wavel. You don't unless you are living in a vacuum. Air resistance will surely reduce that distance considerably. At least you know that it cannot be more than 166 meters, Trajectories can he calculated by dealing separately with the accelerated vertical motion and the steady horizontal velocity.40 NOTIONS OF MOTION Try THis A slingshot fires a stone horizontally from a tower $2 meters high, and it lands 135 meters from the foot of the tower. What was the speed with which it left the slingshot? 2.12. GOING IN CIRCLES ‘When an object is traveling in a circular path at constant speed, its direction is constantly changing. Therefore this is an example of accelerated motion. The motorcyclist in Figure 2-15 is going around a circular track of radius r, and his speed is v. The direction of his velocity is tangential; at the moment, he is at the northernmost point of the track and traveling eastward. Let 7'stand for the period of his motion, that is, the length of time it takes him to go around once. Since the distance around the track is 2nr, his speed is 2rr ye Zt (Equation 2-12a) FIGURE 2-15 Sample Problem 2-25 What is the period of the motion of a runner going 9.2 meters per second. on a circular track whose radius is 22 meters? Solution: From Equation 2-12a, 2nr | _2n (22m) uv 9.2 m/s T= = 15.05GOING IN CIRCLES 41 As the motorcyclist travels, he is constantly turning to the right, and his speed. is constant. This means that his acceleration is to the right and perpendicu- Tar to his movon, always toward the center of the circle. The acceleration is said to be centripetal, which simply means toward the center of a circle. The magnitude of centripetal acceleration can be calculated from this formula: a= (Equation 2-12b) ‘See the sample problems for examples. Sample Problem 2-26 What is the acceleration of a motorcycle going 28 meters per second on a circular wack whose radius is 140 meters? Solution: From Equation 2-12b, (88 m/s)? = 2 7 140 m 5.6 m/s a,= Sample Problem 2-27 To dry clothes in a rotary dryer, the clothes should be accelerated toward the center of the tub at 15g, If the tub has a diameter of 80 centimeters, how many revolutions per second must it make? Solution: First, find the necessary velocity of the rim of the tub. The radius of the tub is 0.40 m, and 15g means 15 times the acceleration due to gravity. From Equation 2-12b, v= Var=NC5 x98 m/s?) (0.40 m) = 7.7 m/s From Equation 2-12a, Qnr _ 2m (0.40 m) v 7am/s T= = 0.335 Since the nub goes around once every 1/3 second, it must be making 3 rev olutions per second, When acceleration has constant magnitude and is kept always perpendicular to velocity, motion is in a circle at constant speed and the centripetal acceleration can be calculated: v r 4,542 NOTIONS OF MOTION ‘Try Tas —2— The motorcyclist of Figure 2-15 is on a track whose radius is 150 meters, and he makes one complete circuit every 30 seconds. Find the direction and magnitude of his (a) velocity and (b) acceleration when. he is at the southernmost point of the track. *2.13. ROTATION* When a rigid object such as a flywheel is rotating, different parts of it are going at different speeds, depending on their distances from the center of rotation. It is often convenient to have a system of kinematics that can be used for the rotating object as a whole. We do that frequently, as when we describe the rotation of a motor or a clothes dryer in terms of its revolutions per minute. We could express the same idea by stating what angle the wheel or the motor turns through in each unit of time. One revolution per minute is surely an angular rotation of 360° per minute, or 6° per second. ‘This quantity is called the angular velocity of the object. While it may seem strange at first, using a different form of notation is ultimately simpler. The system we use is based on the radian. Figure 2-16 shows the kind of notation we will use. The distance s has the usual meaning; it is simply the linear distance along an arc of the circumference; r is the radius of the circle; 6 (theta) is the angular distance. When s =, Ois one radian, The complete circle is 2x radians, so a radian is about 57.3°. \\ A \\ FIGURE 2-16 Consider the rotating bicycle wheel in Figure 2-17. There is.a spot on the rim, its distance from the center of rotation is called its radius vector. The spot is moving; at any given moment, its velocity is directed along a tangent to the circle, 30 it is called the tangential velocity (vz) of the spot. The radius vector turns through an angle A@ in time Ag The rate at which this vector turns is the angular velocity (A0/A0 of the wheel, represented by @ (omega).ROTATION 43 FIGURE 2-17 ‘The tangential velocity of the spet depends on two things: the angular velocity of the wheel and the distance of the spot from the center; that is, its radius vector: vp © Or (Equation 2.184) Sample Problem 2-28 A bicycle with wheels 66 centimeters high is moving at 14 meters per second. What is the angular velocity of the wheels? Solution: Since the Gres are firmly sitting on the road, the tangential velocity of the rim of the wheel is the same as the speed of the bike along the road. ‘The radius of the wheel is 33 centimeters, so, from Equation 2-13a: vp 14m/s a= — r 0.33 m = 42 rad/s Note that the units in this problem come out to be per second. An angle is a ratio of two lengths, so it is dimensionless, but you have to call it something. Angular velocity may change; angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity. It is represented by a, the Greek letter alpha. Dividing both sides of Equation 2-134 by a time interval gives the relationship between angular and tangential acceleration: ay = ar (Equation 2-15b) The analogy between linear and rotational motion is so clear that Equa- tions 2-7 can be translated into a set of equations for rotational motion. Just substitute analogous quantities: @ for s, @ for v, and @ for a. Op = ©; + at (Equation 2-13)44 NOTIONS OF MOTION O= a+ lak {Equation 2-184) Of = 0? + 200 (Equation 2-13e) A flywheel with a radius of 15 centimeters starts up and gets to 2 500 revolutions per minute in 1.5 seconds. (a) What is its angular acceleration? (b) How many revolutions does it make while getting up to operating speed? Solution: First, transform its angular velocity into usable units: (2500 2) (4) Ca) = 262 rad/s Its angular acceleration is the rate of increase of the angular veloci aw AY, 262 rad/s 195 cad fst At 158 ‘Use Equation 2-18d, with initial angular velocity zero: Om des? = 4C175 rad/s®) (1.5 8)? = 197 rad. Divide by 2x to get the answer: 31 revolutions. Rotational motions can be analyzed by means of algebraic equations. ‘Tay Tae —13— A top is spinning at 12 radians per second; it is whipped to accelerate at 3.0 radians per second squared. Through what angle will it turn in the next 15 seconds? 2.14. IT’S RELATIVE You are in a train going 40 miles an hour, playing a game of catch. You throw a ball forward to your friend, at 30 miles an hour. How fast is the ball. going? Well, that depends. To someone watching from the station, the ball is going 70 miles an hour. Your friend, however, does not have to cope with such a fast ball. To him, it is traveling 30 miles an hour, whether the train is moving or not. Whether the ball is going at 30 or 70 miles an hour depends on whether the frame of reference is attached to the train or to the station.ITS RELATIVE 45 Now suppose the object in question is not a ball but a toy rocket, which accelerates from you to your friend, In the frame of reference attached to the train, the forward velocity of the rocket when your friend catches it is 4at®. The viewer from the station sees it as v, + 4at®. The two viewers dis- agree on the forward velocity, but they agree on the amount of acceleration, While velocity is relative, acceleration is invariant, which simply means that it is independent of the frame of reference. Now suppose the ball is dropped out of the window. What is its path as it falls? The rules governing the trajectory of a falling object are invariant. When the person inside the train drops the ball, the ball is initially at rest. From that frame of reference, the ball falls straight down. The person in the station sees the ball in horizontal motion when it drops, so the path is curved (actually, it is a parabola—see Sect. 2.11. on page 37). While the laws governing the motion of the ball are invariant, the actual path of the ball is relativistic. What is the true path of the ball? Must we take into account the rotation of the earth and its revolution around the sun? We would find a different path from each frame of reference. All these paths are true, each in its own frame of reference. A guiding principle of twentieth-century physics is the rule that the faws of nature ave equally true in every frame of reference. This relativity principle is now considered to be a fundamental criterion in the decision as to whether a statement or an equation is in fact a general law of nature. A simple equation can transform the value of a velocity from one frame of reference to another. If wand v’ are the velocities. in two different frames of reference and w’ is the relative velocity of the two frames, then the Galilean vetocity transformation is veveu (Equation 2-14) Note that it is a vector equation Sample Problem 2-30 Suppose you throw that ball across the width of the wain. What is its speed in a frame of reference attached to the station? Solution: Add v and u vectorially. They are at right angles, so v We? + u? = (30 mi/hr)? + (40 mi/hr)? = 50 mi/hr Velocities transform from one frame of reference to another; accelerations do not, ‘Try THs —4— An elevator is moving upward at a speed of 3.0 meters per second. A pas- senger in the elevator drops a watch. Find the velocity and acceleration of46° NOTIONS OF MOTION the watch in a frame of reference attached to (a) the elevator; and (b) the building. *2.15. SPECIAL RELATIVITY* Young Albert Einstein wondered what it would be like to travel at the speed of light. He did all the necessary mathematics and found that it could not be done, He then went over all the mathematics again, making the one simple assumption that created a revolution in physics, called the special theory of relativity. Here is the assumption: ‘The speed of light is invariant. ‘This assumption called for a modification of the Galilean velocity transformation, Imagine there is a lighthouse, doing its duty and sending out a beam. Someone in the lighthouse measures the speed of the light in the beam and comes up with 3.0.x 108 meters per second, which is (to two significant digits) the canonically recognized value. Now imagine you are in a super fast rocket ship, approaching the lighthouse 2 x 10 meters per sec- ‘ond. If you measure the speed of the light coming to you from the lighthouse, what will you find? Equation 2-14 says the answer is 5 x 108 meters per second. ‘Wrong. The speed of light is invariant. In any frame of reference and regardless of the source of the light, light in a vacuum (or air) always tray els at 3.0 X 108 meters per second. "s analysis produced a correction in the velocity transformation. ‘This is what it now looks like: The speed of light is an extremely large number. In that equation, unless vand «are somewhere near ¢, the equation reduces to the Galilean equation, Also, ifsomething (light, for example) is going at the speed of light, so that v= the equation reduces to ¢’ = c The speed of light is invariant. ‘The special theory of relativity profoundly changed the physicist’s con- ception of space and time. Space and time are now known to be relative to the frame of reference. If someone in the rocket ship measures how long ittakes to dress, the result will be some value Af. If the lighthouse keeper watches and measures the time, that result will turn out to be a larger value, call it At, This value, Ag, is the time interval measured from a frame of ref erence in uniform motion with respect to the event being measured. The lighthouse keeper can calculate the difference with the relativistic ime dilation equation:SPECIAL RELATIVITY 47 (Equation 2-150) Problem 2-31 If the clock in the rocket ship indicates that it took 10 minutes to dress, what time interval was measured by the lighthouse keeper's watch? Solution: From Equation 2-15a, ape bo . 10 minutes 1-2 A x 108 m/s)? 2 (3.0 « 108 m/s)? If the lighthouse keeper looks at anything happening in the rocket ship, it will seem to be going slow. The clock in the rocket ship, seen from the lighthouse, is running slow. Conversely, the rocket pilot, looking into the lighthouse, will see everything there slowed down, including the clock. From the frame of reference in the rocket ship, the lighthouse is the moy- ing frame. Space also transforms relativistically. The pilot can measure the length of the rocket ship and geta value Asy. If the lighthouse keeper measures it, the rocket ship will be found to be shorter than it was before it took off. ‘This is the equation for the relativistic space contraction: = 13.4 minutes As=Aty (Equation 2-15b) Sample Problem 232 The architect who designed the lighthouse made the tower cylindrical and 12 meters wide. What will be its horizontal dimensions as viewed by the rocket ship pilot? Solution: From the frame of reference connected to the rocket ship, the lighthouse is in motion. The space contraction takes place only in the direction of travel, so the new thickness of the lighthouse is . ee ~ (20x 10% m/s? _ Ase dy Yl --5-= 02m) Vier oom Since space contraction occurs only along the direction of the relative velocity, the lighthouse will have an elliptical cross-section 12 meters by 8.9 meters.48 NOTIONS OF MOTION In everyday life, no one needs to figure in the time dilation and space contraction in solving problems since the corrections are far too small to matter. They are important in particle physics, where speeds can and do approach the speed of light. Experience has shown that in this kind of research, neglecting the corrections of the special theory of relativity will lead to outrageously wrong answers. Systems viewed in frames of reference moving with speeds approaching the speed of light demonstrate dilation of time and contraction of space. ‘Try THs —16— How fast would a system have to be moving in order for the space in it to contract by 1 percent? SUMMARY QUIZ Fill-In’s For each of the following, fill in the missing word or phrase: 1, Distance traveled divided by elapsed time gives 2. The SI unit of velocity is the 3. A quantity that has magnitude but no direction is called a(n) 4. A(n) has magnitude and direction. 5. Depending on their relative directions, the vector sum of two vectors 6 meters and 2 meters long must be somewhere between meters and ___ meters long. 6, Ifan airplane is flying in a direction. 30° west of north, the northward component of its velocity is the velocity times the of 30°. ” . The rate of change of velocity is called 8. The SI unit of acceleration is the : 9, Ifa car starts at rest and accelerates uniformly, the distance it travels is proportional to the of the time it travels. 10, All objects in free fall at a given place have the same . 11. Ifa car is going northward and the driver jams on its brakes, the direction of its acceleration is , 12. If a car is going northward and starts to turn left, the direction of its acceleration is“19. +20. Multiple Choice 1 sal SUMMARY QUIZ 49 |. For a baseball hit on a fly to center field, the methods of calculation of this chapter assume that only the component of its velocity will change. . The assumptions used in Question 13 will give the wrong answer because they neglect to take into account. . When an object is going in a circular path at constant speed, the direction of its acceleration is . The acceleration of the moon is toward the . There are radians in a circle. . Ifa wheel is turning, the ratio between the linear acceleration of a point on its circumference and the angular acceleration of the wheel is ‘The most fundamental principle of the special theory of relativity is the invariance of , An observer in frame of reference X looks at a meter bar in frame of reference Y and finds it to be shorter than a meter. If an observer in Y looks at a meter bar in X, he will find it to be - Tf a body is moving at constant speed in a circular path, its (1) velocity is constant and its acceleration is zero (2) velocity and acceleration are both changing direction only (3) velocity and acceleration are both increasing (4) velocity is constant and acceleration is changing direction (5) velocity and acceleration are both constant. Which of the following quantities is not fully specified unless its direction is given? (1) time — (2) veloci (3) temperature (4) mass (5) speed. A flowerpot dropped from a window and fell for 3.3 seconds to the ground. How high was the window? (1) 16 meters (2) 32 meters (3) 50 meters (4) 100 meters (5) 2.1 meters . Arock is thrown straight up and reaches a height of 12 meters before ‘starting to fall, When it is at rest at the top of its path, its acceleration is ayo (2) L2 meters per second squared (3) 9.8 meters per second squared (4) 11 meters per second squared. (5) 20 meters per second squared.50 NOTIONS OF MOTION = . Ifa velocity of 3 meters per second is added to another of 5 meters per second, the sum is (1) 2 meters per second (2) 4 meters per second (3) anything over 3 meters per second (4) 8 meters per second (5) between 2 meters per second and § meters per second. i. A graph is plotted showing the velocity of'a car as a function of time. If the graph is a straight line, it means that (1) the car started at rest (2) acceleration was constant (8) acceleration was increasing (4) velocity was constant (5) velocity was increasing. . The acceleration of an object will be 9.8 meters per second squared if the abject is falling freely (1) near the surface of the earth (2) anywhere (3) waveling straight down (4) traveling upward (5) anywhere within the earth's gravitational pull. . Ifa car is traveling north on a straight road and its brakes are applied, it will (1) have no acceleration (2) accelerate to the south (3) accelerate to the north (4) accelerate cither east or west (5) maintain a constant acceleration. |. An artificial satellite is cireling the globe at the equator, going eastward at constant speed. Its acceleration is (1) zero (2) eastward (3) northward (4) downward (5) upward, . A tennis ball is struck into a high lob. As it travels, it will have a constant (1) horizontal velocity (2) vertical velocity (3) horizontal acceleration (4) net velocity (5) net acceleration,SUMMARY QUIZ 51 Problems GROUP A 1. A bieyele averages 4.5 meters per second while traveling for 10 minutes. How far does it travel? 2. What is the average speed of a car that travels 4.6 x 104 meters in 1 hour? Give your answer in ST units. 8. You are on an ocean liner that is going eastward at 12.0 meters per second, and you run southward at 3.6 meters per second. Find the magnitude and direction of your resulting velocity. 4. A pilot wanis to fly a plane directly eastward when the wind is from the north at 55 miles per hour. If the air speed is 230 miles per hour, in what direction must the plane be headed? 5. You walk 2.0 miles north, then 4.5 miles east, then 6.2 miles south. What is your displacement from your starting point? 6. You drive a car 45 miles in a direction north 30° W. How much farther west are you? 7. A sailor's compass says that the ship is traveling N 55° W, and the ship sextant says that at the end of 6.0 hours the ship is 35 miles farther north. How fast is he going? 8, What is the acceleration of a car that speeds up from 12 meters per second to 30 meters per second in 15 seconds? 9, Ifa car can accelerate at 3.2 meters per second squared, how long will it take to speed up from 15 meters per second to 22 meters per second? 10, How far does a motorcycle travel if it starts at rest_and is going 22 meters per second after 15 seconds? 11. What is the acceleration of a car that gets to a speed of 18 meters per second from rest while traveling 240 meters? 12. A ball is dropped from a window 24 meters high. How long will it take to reach the ground? 13. An arrow is fired straight up, leaving the bow at 15 meters per second. If air resistance is negligible, how high will the arrow rise? 14. A firefighter drops from a window into a net. Ifthe window is 34 meters above the net, at what speed does the firefighter hit the net? 15. A tained acrobat can safely land on the ground at speeds up to 15 meters per second, What is the greatest height from which the acrobat can fall? 16. An elevator descending at 4.4 meters per second is accelerated upward at 1.5 meters per second squared for 2.0 seconds. What is its velocity at the end of that time?$2 NOTIONS OF MOTION 17, 20, 21. 2 A toy train is traveling around a circular track 2.0 meters in radius, and it makes a complete circuit every 4.5 seconds. Find (a) its velocity; (b) its acceleration. . A carousel is considered safe if no rider is accelerated at more than 3.0 meters per second squared. What is the greatest permissible speed of a rider at the outer edge of a carousel that is 6.5 meters in radius? . A car will skid if its acceleration as it makes a turn is more than 3.5 meters per second squared. If the car is traveling at 20 meters per second, what is the radius of the smallest circle it can travel in without skidding? In the spin cycle of a washing machine, the clothes must be accelerated at 75 meters per second squared to squeeze the water out of them. If the radi it make per minute? s of the basket is 30 centimeters, how many revolutions must A baseball is thrown horizontally from a window that is 22 meters high. If the initial speed of the ball is. 18 meters per second, find (a) how long the ball takes to reach the ground; (b) how far from the building it lands. A train going north at 22 meters per second passes a second train going south at L4 meters per second. A child in the second train fires a paper airplane eastward at 8.0 meters per second, What is the velocity of the aiplane in the frame of reference of the first train? *GROUP B* 23. 24. 25. 26. A thief snatches @ purse and runs due west, going 6.0 meters per second. A policeman, 15 meters to the east, sees the event and gives chase. Ifthe officer is a good sprinter, going at 8.5 meters per second, how far does he have to run to catch the thief? In a test race, an automobile must complete a L+kilometer run in 4 minutes, If the car goes at 36 meters per second for the first half of the wack, what must its speed be for the second half? A bullet is fired from a rifle, emerging from the muzzle at 340 meters: per second. It strikes a sandbag some distance away, having lost 10) percent of its velocity due to air resistance. If it penetrates the sandbag to a depth of 12.0 centimeters, how long did it take for the bullet to come to rest in the sandbag? Acar going at 24 meters per second passes a motorcycle at rest. As it passes, the motorcycle starts up, accelerating at 3.2 meters per second squared. If the motorcycle can keep up that acceleration, haw long will it take for it to catch the car?32. 33. 34. 35, 37. 3B, SUMMARY QUIZ 53 '. You are driving along at a steady speed of 22 meters per second when you suddenly sce a child in the road, 82 meters in front of you. Your brakes can produce an acceleration of -8.6 meters per second sqauared, but it takes time to get your foot from the gas pedal to the brake pedal. How much time do you have if you are to avoid hitting the child? . A jogger runs 650 meters north, then makes a turn of 30° to the right, runs another 540 meters, then makes a right angle left turn and goes another 120 meters. What is the net displacement of the jogger? A pitcher throws his fastball horizontally at 42.1 meters per second. How far does it drop before crossing the plate, 18.8 meters away? ). A rock is thrown horizontally from a cliff overlooking the ocean. If the cliff is 45 meters high and the rock is thrown at 18 meters per second, what is the angle at which it strikes the ocean? . What is the centripetal acceleration of a point on the earth's equator? The radius of the earth is 6 400 kilometers. A race car on a circular track with circumference 1 200 meters speeds up from rest with an acceleration of 1.2 meters per second squared. After how much time will its linear and centripetal accelerations be equal in magnitude? What is the angular velocity of the second hand of a clock? A grindstone with a radius of 22 centimeters tums 0 revolutions per second. When the mator is turned off, the grindstone comes to rest in 4.5 seconds. Find (a) its angular acceleration; and (b) the tangential acceleration of a point on its edge. A bicycle whose wheels have a radius of 33 centimeters starts at rest and speeds uniformly to a speed of 12 meters per second in 15 seconds. What is the angular acceleration of the wheels? A record on an old-fashioned turntable is rotating at 78 revolutions per minute. When the motor is wurned off, it comes to rest in 6.5 seconds. How many revolutions dacs it make before stopping? Arocket ship from Mars flies over Earth, going east at 1.8 x 108 meters per second. The little green person inside looks down at Interstate Route 10, which is 2 900 miles long. If the alien measures the length of the road, what answer does it get? The halflife of a subatomic particle is listed in tables as 4.5 x 104 second. If it is in a particle accelerator and its half-life is measured at 5.9 x 10°14 seconds, how fast is it going?CHAPTER 3 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL 3.1. WHAT IS A FORCE? Every now and then, the whole structure of physical theory has to be rear- ganized. This happens when the theory comes into conflict with observa- tions of the real world. Then someone with an analytical mind looks at the theory and says, “That can’t be right!” It happened in the sixteenth century, when the Italian professor Galileo examined the accepted answer to the question of what makes things move. ‘The Greek philosopher Aristotle had given the answer centuries before: things keep moving, he said, as long as there are forces acting on them, When the horse stops pulling, the wagon stops moving, The harder the horse pulls, the faster the wagon goes. The spear was a problem. What keeps it going after it leaves the soldier's hand? Aristotle said that a current of air displaced by the spear and coming back behind it keeps pushing the spear forward. Galileo looked at this theory and said, “That can't be right.” The theary could not account for the endless motion of the planets through airless space. By adopting a whole new set of assumptions, Galileo was able to calculate, for the first time, the flight of a cannonball. The trouble, said Galileo, is that the problem has not been correctly stat- ed. We do not have to explain why something keeps on moving, once start ed. Anything in motion will keep on moving in a straight line forever, unless something is done to it. The thing we have to explain is the change in velocity, and the “something” we have to apply to cause the change is called a farce. This is surely a much more reasonable proposition today than it was in Aristotle's time. When you take your foot off the gas pedal, your car does not suddenly come toa stop. It coasts on, only gradually losing its velocity. Ifyou want the car to stop, you have to do something to it. That is what your brakes are for: to exert a force that decreases the car's velocity. A spacecraft illustrates this point vividly. When a planetary explorer is launched, its rockets burn out quickly as it enters outer space, From that moment on, it simply coasts. Voyager coasted through the solar system for years, studying the surfaces of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Pluto before it wandered out of the solar system. Nothing pushed it all that distance. While it was exploring, signals from Earth could fire its control rockets to change its velocity, making it speed up, slow down, or change direction. These firings produced the forces that accelerated the spacecraft.WHATISA FORCE? 55 ‘The weight of an object depends, in part, on its mass, An elephant has more mass than a mouse, and that makes the elephant weigh more, Mass and weight are so closely interconnected that students tend to confuse them. One reason for the confusion is that the English system unit, the pound, is ambiguous; sometimes it means weight, and sometimes it means mass. It is essential that you learn the difference. Let's invent a parable to eliminate the confusion, Imagine you are holding two dinner parties to celebrate the first colonization of Mars. One is on Earth, and the other is on Mars, and 100 guests are at each party. Both parties have the same menu, involving 30 pounds of potato salad. The potato salad weighs 80 pounds on Earth but only 10 pounds on Mars; gravity is much weaker on Mars. However, both batches of potato salad will still feed the same 100 people; both have the same mass. The weight of the potato salad is different. However, the amount, its mass, is the same. ‘One of the nice features of the SI is that this confusion does not exist. The potato salad weighs 133 newtons on Earth and only 40 newtons on Mars; its mass is 14 kilograms on Earth, on Mars, or anywhere else, Weight and other forces are measured in newtons; mass is measured in kilograms. ‘The weight of anything depends on its mass, but there is more to it. Weight depends on where the object is in space. As you climb a mountain or fly high above the earth in an airplane, your weight gets smaller. At the surface of the earth, the earth's gravity pulls on a 60-kilogram rocket with a force of 588 newtons. If the rocket rises to a height of 2 600 kilometers, it weighs half as much, only 294 newtons. ‘We can think of the earth as being surrounded by a region of space in which any object feels a pull downward, toward the center of the earth. The force of that pull depends on where in that space the object is located. That space is called the earth's gravitational field. At any given point in that space, the field has a certain strength. The strength of the field diminishes as you go further from the earth, approaching zero in the outer reaches of space. Since the gravitational field strength has direction, always toward the center of the earth, it isa vector quantity, The weight of any object is found by multiplying the gravitational field strength, at the object's location, by the mass of the abject. we mg (Equation 3-2) One of the simplifying features of the SI is that the force unit is defined so as to make the earth's gravitational field strength equal to the acceleration due to gravity. Thus, at the surface of the earth, where the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 meters per second squared, the gravitational ficld strength is 9.8 newtons per Kilogram. In the SI, N/kg = m/s?. In using Equation 32, when the mass is in kilograms and the gis in meters per second squared, the weight comes out in newtons. When an object has no forces acting on it, like that Voyager space cap- sule, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium. In this state, its velocity docs not change. If it is moving, it continues to move at constant speed in a straight$6 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL line. If it is not moving, it stays right where it is. An object with more than one force acting on it can also be in equilibrium, provided that all the forces act so as to cancel each other out. In a tugofwar, the repe may remain at rest because the two teams are equally matched. As they pull wich equal force in opposite directions, the two forces they exert on the rope cancel each other. The direction at which a force is applied matters, and this shows that force is a vector quantity. The spring scale of Figure $1 is a device for measuring force. The FIGURE 3-1 pull on the shackle is measured in force units: pounds or (in SI} new fons. Anewton (abbreviated as N) is a fairly small unit of force; it takes 4.45 newtons to equal one pound. A force is a vector quantity that can change the velocity of an object. If no force acts, or if all forces cancel each other, there is no change in velocity and the object ia in equilibrium. ‘Try THis —1— What is the evidence that force is a vector quantity? 3.2. MASS AND WEIGHT Probably the first law of physics that everyone learns is this: If you drop something, it falls. Since its velocity keeps on changing as it falls, there must be a force acting on it all the while. That is the force we call gravity. You can measure gravity by balancing it off with a spring scale. When you hang something on a spring scale and read the scale in pounds or newtons, you usually call the force of gravity acting on the object by a special name. ‘You call it the weight of the object. Sample Problem 5-1 1€a hammer has a mass of 2.5 kilograms, how much docs it weigh (a) on earth; (b) on Mars?FRICTION 57 (Solution: (a) Equation 3-2 tells us that w= mg and we know that gon earth is 9.8 m/s. Therefore m w= (25 tg (0.8-—F) weds HEM 2945 2 (b) On Mars: m = (2.5 kg) (33-2) -83N we (2. i) ( =) Sample Problem 3-2 A 62-kilogram astronaut lands on a strange planet. He drops his phasor, and finds that it falls the 3.5 m from his doorway to the ground in 1.6 s. Find (a) the acceleration due to gravity; (b) the astronaut's weight. Solution: (a) From Equation 2-7b, 2s _2(35m) “e (1.6 5)? = 2.73 m/s? tb) w= mg= (62 kg) (2733) = 170 82 =170N Weight, the force of gravity, is the product of mass and the acceleration due to gravity: we mg Try THis Des What is the mass of a girl who weighs 340 newtons on carth? 3.3. FRICTION Consider the brick resting on a table top and being pulled with a spring scale, as in Figure 3-2. At first, the brick does not move; it stays in equilibrium. This means that the force being exerted by the spring scale must be balanced by some other force, pulling in the opposite direction. This force is called static friction. It results from the interaction between the surface of the brick and the surface on which it rests.58 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL FIGURE 3-2 As the spring scale pulls harder, the static friction also increases. At some point, the brick starts to move; the brick has then gone out of the equilibrium state. The force that is just sufficient to break out of the static condition is known as the starting friction. Once the brick is in motion, it can be kept in motion with a much smaller force than the starting friction. If it is pulled along at constant speed, it is in equilibrium. Therefore the force exerted by the spring scale must be just equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to a force that holds it back. The force that holds it back, opposing the motion, is called sliding (friction. As the brick moves along at constant speed, the spring scale regis ters the magnitude of the sliding friction. Sliding friction is a force that is generated whenever two surfaces rub against each other. It always acts in such a direction as to oppose the motion. The amount of sliding friction depends very critically on the kind of surfaces, Rubber, for example, is a high-friction material, which is why it is so useful for automobile tires and tennis shoes. On the other hand, if you want to make a closet door slide easily, make the skids out of a low-friction material such as nylon. Also, make the surface smooth; sliding friction is greater when the surface is rough. At ordinary speeds, sliding friction does not depend on speed, Also, it does not depend on the amount of surface area in contact. If the brick in Figure 3-2 were placed on end, the amount of surface in contact with the table top would be much less, but the force on each unit area would be proportionally greater. The result would be ne net change in the friction. Sliding friction depends on the total normal force pushing the two surfaces together; that is, on the force perpendicular to the surface. The frictional force, Fj, is proportional to the normal force, Fyo,: Fig = Moe (Equation 3-3) The proportionality constant (the Greek letter mu) is called the coefficient of friction, It depends only on the nature of the two surfaces. Sample Problem 3-3 Acardboard carton weighing 165 newtons is resting on a marble floor, If the coefficient of friction between cardboard and smooth marble is 0.20, how much force would it take to keep the box sliding along at constant speed?FRICTION 59 ‘Solution: Since the box is on a horizontal surface, the normal force is the weight of the box. If the box is to slide at constant speed, it is in equilibrium, so the force needed to push it is equal to the friction holding it back. Then Fry = fF yyy = (0.20) (165 N) = 33 N Sample Problem 3-4 A girl is pressing a 1.8-kilogram book against a vertical wall, as shown in Figure 3-3. If the coefficient of friction between the book and the wall is 0.35, how hard would she have to push in order to allow the book to slide down at constant speed? FIGURE 3-3 Solution: If the book is to slide down at constant speed, it is in equilibrium. Then the frictional force holding it back must be equal to the gravitational force (weight) pulling it down, Its weight is w= mg=(1.8 kg) (9.8 m/s?) = 17.6 kg» m/s? = 17.6. N The force the girl exerts is the normal force, which is60 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL Friction is a retarding force that acts whenever two surfaces move against each other. Sliding friction is independent of speed and surface area and is proportional to the normal force. Try Tus. What is the coefficient of friction between a 65-kilogram chair and a floor if the chair can be pushed at constant speed with a force of 220 newtons? 3.4, SOME OTHER FORCES Awide variety of forces act to make things move, to slow them down, or just to distort their shapes. Here are a few: Hlastic recoil The special property of solids, as opposed to liquids and gases, is that they resist changing their shape. When you push on a solid, it pushes back. Look at the plank in Figure 3-4. The plank exerts an upward force against the hand because the hand is changing the shape of the board. The floor pushes you up when your weight pushes down on it because your weight changes its shape. A feather resting on your desk changes the shape of the desktop—but not much. Tension This is a special form of elastic recoil, resulting from stretching something. In a tug-of-war, the rope is under great tension, so it pulls back on the teams at the opposite ends. The spring scale of Figure 3-] is actual ly a tension-measuring device. The harder you pull on both ends of the spring, the more it stretches, and the harder it pulls back. Compression This is the opposite of tension. Pushing on a window pole shortens the pole—a littke—and the pole pushes back. Actually, the bending board of Figure 3-4 exerts its recoil because its upper surface is com- pressed and its lower surface is tensed. Buoyancy Anything submerged in a liquid or a gas experiences an upward force. A rock under water feels lighter than the same rock in the air. Lf buoyancy is greater than weight, as fora cork under water or a helium-filled balloon in the air, the object rises. FIGURE 3-4SOME OTHER FORCES 61 Ifyou are under water, you can rise to the top until part of you emerges into the air. Then, buoyancy and gravity are equal, and you float. Viscous drag (That's VIS-kus, not vicious!) Anything moving through a liq uid or gas feels a retarding, frictionlike force. That is why a boat needs an engine, why you cannot swim fist enough to get into the Olympies, why automobiles are streamlined, and why a parachute is advisable if you plan to fall out of an airplane. Magnetism There is a lot more to Magnetism than little red horseshoes: picking up nails. This topic is covered in Chapter 11. There are many other kinds of force, including buoyancy, which act upward on anything submerged in a liquid or a gas. ‘Try THs —4— Figure 3-5 shows a boat that has sunk to the bottom of a lake and is being dragged out by a man pulling on its painter. There is also a diagram indi- cating eight directions of space. From these eight, select the one that indicates the direction of each of the following forces acting on the boat: (a) friction; (b) viscous drag; (c) buayancy; (d) weight; (e) elastic recoil of the rope; (1) elastic recoil of the lake bottom. 54 FIGURE 3-562 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL *3.5. CHANGING SHAPES* For an engineer designing a bridge, quantitative knowledge of the clastic properties of steel and concrete is a matter of life and death, Not the engi- necr’s life, yours. Putting a rod or a wire under tension will stretch it. It is important that the engineer know how much its length increases. Figure $6 is a way to imagine how this elastic property is determined; in practice, this is done by a standard engineering machine. The machine measures the tension applied (F) and the increase in the length of the rod (AL). FIGURE 3-6 When the rod is stretched, the tension is the same throughout the rod; every centimeter of the rod stretches by the same amount. If the rod were half.as long, the same tension would streteh it by half as much, A given tension will produce the same fractonal increase in the length of the rod regardless of haw long the rod is. This fractional increase is proportional to the tension: AL/L= F Of course, a thick rod will stretch less than a thin one. The amount of stretch is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the rod: AL/ Lee F/A The amount of stretch depends on the nature of the material. The expression above can be turned into an equation by incorporating a constant that depends on the nature of the material: SpE) atm(CHANGING SHAPES 65 The constant ¥ is called Young’s modulus. It could just as well have been written as its reciprocal and placed in the numerator, but Young decided to do it this way. The unit of Young’s modulus is the newton per square meter. This has other uses, which we will meet later, The unit is called a pascal (Pa) ‘Sample Problem 35 A steel wire in a piano is 2.2 meters long and 0.70 millimeters thick. If it is tensed at 430 newtons, how much does its length increase? Solution: ‘We need the crosssectional area, in square meters: Im Asatte (0.85 mm)? 5 TF = 3.84% 1077 m? We also need Young's modulus for steel, which can be found in standard tables, Then. 22m 430 N AL= | ———————_ 12x10) () G )e (reson 100 N 384x107 m m ‘Young's modulus can also be used when a member is under compression, Sample Problem 3-6 Acylindrical aluminum pedestal 12 centimeters in diameter and 1.5 meters high is used to support a 45-kilogram stone statue. How much does the pedestal shrink? Solution: The weight of the stame is (45 kg) (9.8 N/kg) = 441.N ‘The cross-sectional area of the pedestal is (0.06 m)? = 1.13. 107 m2 So the change in the height of the pedestal is L F 15m 441N ate (F) (a) (rox) irate)" StI ‘These calculations are good only for fairly small changes. If you stretch awire hard enough, it will pull completely out of shape, and ultimately it will break.G4 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL Changes in length of materials resulting from tensile or compressive forces can be calculated. Try Tos. —5— Acopper wire 15 meters long and 0.50 square millimeters in cross section is stretched by 6.0 centimeters to make it reach a terminal. How much force was usedl? (Young's modulus for copper is 11 x 10! newtons per square meter.} 3.6, ACTION AND REACTION The batter steps up to the plate and takes a healihy swing, sending the ball into left field. The bat has exerted a large force on the ball, changing both the magnitude and the direction of its velocity. But the ball has also exerted a force on the bat, slowing it down, The batter feels this when the bat hits the ball. Sometimes this reaction force breaks the bat. Next time up, he strikes out, He has taken cxactly the same swing but exerts no force on anything. (Air doesn't count.) The batter has discovered that it is impossible to exert a force unless there is something there to push back, Forces exist on/y in pairs. When object A exerts a force on object B, then B must exert a force on A. The two forces are sometimes called action and reaction, although which is which is often rather arbitrary. The two parts of the interaction are cqual in magnitude, are opposite in direction, and act on different objects. Each of the six forces acting on the boat of Figure 3-5 is half of an interaction pair. Friction of the lake bottom pulls the boat in direction 6; the boat pulls the sand of the lake bottom in direction 2. Elastic recoil of the lake bottom supports the boat; elastic recoil of the boat depresses the lake bottom. The viscous drag of the water pulls the boat in direction 6, and the boat pulls some water along with it, in direction 2. Tension in the rope pulls the boat in direction 2; the boat stretches the rope in direction 6. The weight of the boat is also one-half of an interaction. It is the gravitational influence of the whole earth that pulls the boat down. If the law of interaction is valid, the gravity of the boat must be pulling the earth up. This effect cannet be detected in the context under discussion, but that does not invalidate the law. If we calculated the effect the force has on the earth, we would find that it is far too small to detect. The law of action and reaction Icads to an apparent paradox, if you arc not careful how it is applied. The horse pulls on the wagon. If the force of the wagon pulling the horse the other way is the same, as the law insists, hew can the horse and wagon get started? The error in the reasoning is this: Ifyou want to know whether the horse gets moving, you have to consider the forces acting on the horse, The force acting on the wagon has nothing to do with the question. The horse startsBALANCED FORCES 65: ‘up because the force he exerts with his hooves is larger than the force of the wagon pulling him back. And the wagon starts up because the force of the horse pulling it forward is larger than the frictional forces holding it back. To know how something moves, consider the forces acting on it. The action and reaction forces neveract on the same object. Forces exist only in pairs, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, acting on different objects. ‘Try THis —6— When you jam on the brakes, friction with the pavement brings your car to a screeching halt. What is the other half of this interaction? 3.7, BALANCED FORCES Ifa single force acts on an object, the velocity of the thing must change. If two or more forces act, however, their effects may climinate each other. This is the condition of equilibrium, in which there is no net force and the velocity does not change. We saw such a condition in the case in which gravity is pulling an object down and the spring scale, used for weighing it, is pulling it upward. ‘An object in equilibrium may or may not be at rest. A parachutist, descending at constant speed, is in equilibrium. His weight is just balanced by the viscous drag on the parachute—which is why he put it on in the first place. A heavier parachutist falls a little faster; his speed increases until the viscous drag just balances his weight. Balancing the vertical forces is not enough to produce equilibrium. An airplane traveling at constant speed, as in Figure 3-7, is in equilibrium under the influence of four forces, two vertical and two horizontal. Vertical: gravity (down) is just balanced by the lift produced by the flow of air across the wing. Horizontal: viscous drag is just balanced by the thrust of the engines. Both the vertical and the horizontal velocities are constant, FIGURE 3-766 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL The brick of Figure 3-2, resting on a tabletop and being pulled along at constant speed, is another example, Vertical: the downward force of gravity is balanced by the upward force of the clastic recoil of the tabletop. Horizontal: the tension in the spring scale, pulling to the right, is balanced. by the friction pulling it to the left, opposite to the direction of motion. If an object is in equilibrium-—at rest or moving at constant speed in a straight line—the toma force acting on it in any direction is exactly equal in magnitude to the force in the opposite direction. Tay Tre 7 The mass of the brick in Figure 3-2 is 1.6 kilograms, and the spring scale reads 4 newtons. Find (a) the force of friction on the brick; (b) the elastic recoil of the tabletop. 3.8. COMPONENTS OF A FORCE The crate of Figure 38 is being dragged along the floor by means of a rope, which is not horizontal, The rope makes an angle @ to the floor. FIGURE 3-8 The tension in the rope, acting on the crate, docs two things to it. First, it drags the crate across the floor. Second, it tends to lift the crate off the floor. The smaller the angle 8, the larger the effective force that is dragging the crate, and the smaller the effective force that is lifting it. When 6 = 0, the entire force is dragging and there is no lifting at all, Conversely, when 9 = 90°, the entire force is lifting the crate. How can you find out how much force is being used to drag the crate? Force is a vector, and it obeys the same mathematical rules as velocity vectors and displacement vectors, which you used in Chapter 2. ‘The dragging force is the component of the tension in the rope acting parallel to the floor, that is, the horizontal component. According to Equation 24, it is found as follows: Fons = Fos 8COMPONENTS OF AFORCE 67 Suppose, for example, that the tension in the rope is 250 newtons and the angle the rope makes with the ground is 25°. Then the dragging force, as shown in Figure 3-9, is Fhorie = (250 N} (cos 25°) = 227 N 250N Frent = ° 250 NX sin 25 Fhoris = 250.N X cos 25" FIGURE 3-9 The vertical component is (250 N) {cos 65°); but remember, cos 65° = sin 25°. Therefore: Fee: = (250 N) (sin 25°) = 106.N This is not enough to get the crate off the floor, but it relieves the floor of some of the weight. How much is the friction in this situation? If the crate is moving at constant speed, the force pulling the crate to the right must equal the friction holding it back. Since the force pulling to the right is the horizontal component of the tension in the rope, the friction must be the same—227 newtons. And how much is the elastic recoil? The upward forces must equal the downward forces. The only downward force is the weight of the crate, say, 500 newtons. The ‘ofal upward force must then be 500 newtons. But 106 newtons of this is provided by the upward component of the tension in the rope. The rest—394 newtons—is the elastic recoil of the flaor. Sample Problem 3-7 Using a window pole that makes an angle of 23° with the window, you push up on the pole with a force of 85 newtons to close the window. Find (a) the effective force that is pushing the window up; (b) the force pushing the window against its sash, Solution: (a) Since the force makes an angle of 23° with the vertical, its vertical component is (85 N)(cos 23") = 78 N. (b) The horizontal component is (85 N)(sin 23°) = 33 N. The effect that a force has in any direction can be found by calculating its component in that direction.68 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL ‘Tay THis —8— ‘You push a lawn mower with a force of 160 newtons, exerted directly along its shaft. The shaft makes an angle of 30° with the ground. Find (a) how much force is moving the lawn mower; (b) how much force is pushing the lawn mower into the ground. 3.9. EQUILIBRIUM WITH SEVERAL FORCES For the purpose of making a complete analysis of the forces acting on an abject, a vecter diagram is a useful device. Figure 3-10 is a vector diagram showing the forces on a brick being dragged along a tabletop. Four forces act: gravity (weight), friction, elastic recoil of the tabletop, and tension in the cord. Each force is represented by a vector, drawn at the correct angle and with its length proportional to the force. For the purpose of analysis, all vectors are represented by components along a pair of axes perpendicular to each other. In this case, we elect to use horizontal and vertical axes, since three of the forces are already on these axes, To do the analysis, we have to resolve the tension vector into its components on the vertical and horizontal axes. Then we can write two equations: one says that there is no net vertical force, and the other says that there is no net horizontal force. FIGURE 3-10 Problem $8 The 2.5-kilogram brick of Figure 3-10 is being pulled by a cord that makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal and has 7.0 newtons of tension in it. Find (a) the force of friction; (b) the elastic recoil of the tabletop. Solution: (a) On the horizontal axis, the friction must be equal to the horizontal component of the tension, soEQUILIBRIUM WITH SEVERAL FORCES 69 F = (7.0 N)(cos 20°) F=6.6N (b) On the vertical axis, the downward force (weight) must equal the sum. of upward forces, 80 mg=E+T sind E=mg-Tsin? E= (25 kg) (8 3) = (7.0 N)(sin 20°) E=245N-24N222N Another example is the lawn mower. In: this case, there are four forces acting: gravity, friction, the force along the shaft, and the elastic recoil of the ground. The force exerted by the poor fellow doing the work is resolved into vertical and horizontal components. Q)aun FIGURE 3-11 Sample Problem 3-9 ‘The lawn mower of Figure 3-11 has a mass of 22 kilograms, and is being pushed at constant velocity against a frictional resistance of 150 newtons, with the shaft making an angle of 30°. Find (a) the compression in the shaft; and (b) the elastic recoil of the ground. (Solution: (a) The compression in the shaft is the push (P) force, and its horizontal component must equal the frictional resistance (F): FePcos 6 F_ __150N cos@ cos 30° P=I73N70 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL (b) Now we can use the value of the push force to find the elastic recoil: E= mg+P sind E= (22g) 8 5) + (175 N) (sin 30°) E=216N+87N = 300N Here is one more example; What is the tension in the rope holding up the sign in Figure 3-12? This can be found by analyzing the forces acting on the bar, The rope pulls the bar up and to the left; the weight of the sign pulls it straight down; the elastic recoil of the wall pushes it to the right. If the weight of the bar itself is too small to worry about, the solution to the problem is as shown in Sample Problem 3-10. FIGURE 3-12 Sample Problem 3-10 Ifthe sign of Figure 3-12 weighs 240 newtons and the angle the rope makes with the bar is 55°, how much is the tension in the rope? Solution: One equation is enough to get this answer. On the vertical axis: ng=Tsin @ pa 7S. 240N sin @ sin 55" T=290N To calculate the forces acting on an object, first analyze them into components along two axes at right angles to each other.THE INCLINED PLANE 71 ‘Try THs 9. A helium-filled balloon weighs 25 newtons, and is acted on by four forces, as shown in Figure 3-13. These forces are its weight, the buoyant force of the air, the wind pushing the balloon to the right, and the tension in the rope that is holding it down. The rope makes an angle of 20° with the vertical, and the tension in it is 16 newtons. Find the buoyancy and the force exerted by the wind. a w wy T =16N mg =25.N FIGURE 3-13 3.10. THE INCLINED PLANE A wagon rolls downhill, propelled only by its own weight. Bur gravity pulls straight down, not at an angle downhill. What makes the wagon go is a component of its weight, a part of its weight acting downhill, parallel to the surface the wagon rests on, A component of a force can aet in any direction, not just vertically or horizontally. On the inclined plane, the weight of the wagon has two dif ferent effects: it acts parallel to the surface of the hill, pushing the wagon downhill; and it acts perpendicular (or normal) to the surface, pushing the wagon into the surface, As the hill gets steeper, the parallel component becomes larger and the normal component decreases. Figure 3-14 shows the wagon and a vector diagram of the components of its weight. Geometrically, the components are found by dropping perpen- diculars from the end of the vector to the two axes, one parallel to the surface and the other normal. The angle marked 6 in the vector diagram is ‘equal to the slope of the hill. This can easily be shown by a litle geometry; both angles @ are complements of the twa angles marked $. Sample Problem 31 shows how the two components of the weight are calculated. Sample Problem $-11 ‘The wagon of Figure 3-14 weighs 40 pounds, and the angle that the hill makes with the horizontal is 35°. Find (a) the force pushing the wagon downhill; (b) the force pushing the wagon into the surface.72 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL FIGURE 3-14 (a) Parallel (downhill) component of weight: Fpr=wsin @ Fp= (40 Ib) (sin 35°) Fp=23 Ib (b) Normal component of weight: Fy =w cos 8 Fy = (40 Ib) (cos 35°) Fy =33 Ib Sample Problem 3-12 AwelLoiled, frictionless wagon with a mass of 75 kilograms is pulled uphill, ‘using a force of only 110 newtons. What is the angle that the hill makes with the horizontal? Solution: As before, the component of weight parallel to the plane is the weight times the sine of the slope of the plane. The weight of the wagon (Equation 3-2) is mg = (75 kg) (9.8 m/s?) = 735 N Then - iON @ sn O° 735 N and @ = 86° Sample Problem $15 A plank will break ifa force of 350 newtons is applied to its center. What is the largest weight it can support if it is tilted to an angle of 35°?MAKING THINGS TURN 73 Solution: Atthe breaking point, the normal component of the weight is 350 N, which is equal to the weight times the cosine of the angle. Then Fy=weos 8 F, 350 N =—_e = 430N wos @ cos 35° When the wagon is resting on the surface, the elastic recoil of the surface is just enough to cancel the normal component of the wagon’s weight. Tf the wagon is to stay in equilibrium, you have to pull on it, uphill, to prevent it from running away. If there is no friction, the uphill force needed is the same whether the wagon is standing still, or going either uphill ar downhill at constant speed. The situation is different if the wagon is moving and there is friction. If the wagon is going uphill, you have to pull harder, because the friction is working against you, holding it back. The total force you need io keep the wagon going is then equal to the parallel component of the weight plus the friction. On the other hand, if you are lowering the wagon down the hill, holding the rope to keep it from running away from you, friction is acting uphill, helping you to hold the wagon back. Then the force you must exert is the parallel component of the weight minus the friction. propelled down the plane by a force equal to w sin 6, and a force w cos 8 pushes it into the surface. When an object is on an inclined plane, ‘Try THs —10— 1. The 120-kilogram wagon of Figure 3-14 is being pulled up a 20° slope. Find (a) the tension in the rope; (b) the elastic recoil of the surface. 2.A 60-kilogram crate is resting on a ramp that slopes at 82°. A rope is attached to it that pulls, uphill, just hard enough to keep the crate sliding downhill at constant speed. If the tension in the rape is 40 newtons, what is the coefficient of sliding friction between the crate and the ramp? *3.11. MAKING THINGS TURN* A force, properly applied, can make something rotate. Consider the wrench being used to tighten a nut in Figure 3-15, Te get the nut tight, you want to use a large force (F) and to exert that force at the largest distance (7) from the paint of rotation, You might even rig up an extension of the wrench to increase the value of r. The torque you apply to the nut is the product of the force and its distance from the axis. Torque is the product ofa force and a distance, so it is measured in newton-meters (N-m).74 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL FIGURE 3-15 Tn Figure 3-16, you cannot get your arm just where you wantit. Your arm makes an angle @ with the radius. It is only the tangential component of your force that is turning the nut. This componentis Fsin @ If @were zero, you would be pulling directly into the nut and would get no torque at all, Combining these facts leads to a mathematical definition of torque, represented by the Greek letter tau): t=rFsin @ (Equation 3-11) FIGURE 3-16 The radius of the wheel of fortune in Figure $17 is 1.2 meters, and the operator applies a force of 45 newtons tangentially to get it spinning. What torque has he supplied? FIGURE 3-17MAKING THINGS TURN 75 Solution: ter sin 90° T= (45 N)(1.2 m) t254N-m Sample Problem 3-15 A 32kg child sits. on a seesaw, If she is 2.2 meters from the pivot, what is the torque that her weight exerts, making the seesaw rotate around the pivot? Solution: Her weights a vertical force, perpendicular to her distance from the pivot, so 1 = 0F = mgr = (32 kg) (9.8 m/s*)(2.2 m) = 690 Nem Sample Problem 3-16 The 52-kilogram boy in Figure 3-18 is standing on the pedal of his bicycle ata moment when the crank arm, which is 54 centimeters long, makes an angle of 30° with the ground. How much torque is turning the pedal arm? FIGURE 3-18 The radius vector is half the crank arm, or 0.27 meters, The force is vertically downward, at an angle of 60° with the radius vector. Therefore, the torque is t= 1 cos 0 = (0.27 m)(52 kg) (9.8 N/kg) sin 60° = 120 Nem Torques may balance each other in such a way that they do not produce rotation, In that situation the object is said to be in rotational equilibrium, In Figure 3-19, three people are sitting on a seesaw. Their weights produce downward forces. All radius vectors are horizontal; one side can be desig- nated positive and the other negative. With vertical forces and horizontal radius vectors, sin @= 1 and can be left out.76 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL FIGURE 3-19 Sample Problem 3-17 The seesaw of Figure 3:19, balanced in the middle, is 4.0 meters. Georgie weighs 240 newtons and is at one end; Sally weighs 170 newtons and is 1.0 m from Georgic. If Daddy weighs 620 newtons, how far from the pivot must he sit? Solution: Add up all the torques, using radius vectors as measured from the pivot (240 N) (2.0 m) + (170 N)(3.0 m) + (620 Npr from which r= 1.6m. Daddy has to sit 1.6 m on the other side of the pivot. Here's one more example. A pile of books rests on a plank that is supported on either end by a chair, as in Figure 3-20. The books are notin the center. How much of the weight of the books is supported by each of the chairs on which the plank rests? You solve this by imagining that the right-hand chair is pushing up on the plank, making it try to turn counterclockwise around the left-hand chair. The counterclockwise torque produced by the elastic recoil of the righthand chair must be canceled by the clockwise torque, which comes from the weight of the books. Sample Problem 3-18 ‘The mass of the books of Figure $20 is 35 kilograms; the plank is 3.7 meters long, and the books are centered 1.2 meters from the left-hand chair. What is the elastic recoil of each chair? FIGURE 3-20MAKING THINGS TURN 77 Solution: Consider the left-hand chair to be a pivot around which the whole plank is trying to turn. Then the weight of the books is producing a clockwise torque around that pivot, and the elastic recoil of the other chair is producing a counterclockwise torque. These two torques produce rotational ‘equilibrium, so they must be equal to each other. Then (787) books = (EY sighthand chair (95 kg) (9.8 Z) (1.2m) = (8.7 marie 412. Nem = (3.7 m) Eight Exige = VN To get the elastic recoil of the left-hand chair, note that the books are also in translational equilibrium, so the total upward force must equal the total downward force: mg = Fright + Bete mm u (35 kg) (es 3) =1IN+ Beg Fen 7 230.N ‘The seesaw and the plank might have considerable weight of their own. An every object, a single point can be used to calculate the torque produced. by the weight of the object around any pivot. That point is called the center of gravity of the object. This is not a very good name, because gravity acts over the entire object, not just at a point. However, if all the torques produced by gravity on every part of the object are added, it is possible to designate a single point from which to calculate the torque produced by the weight of the whole object. The system works because if you know where the center of gravity is, you can use it to find the torque produced by the weight of the object around any pivot. Ifan object is uniform and has a regular geometric shape, the center of gravity is at its geometric center. That is why the weight of the seesaw produces no torque; the pivot is at its center of gravity, so its radius vector is zero. The plank supporting the books is another matter. To find the actual forces on the supports, you would need to know the weight of the plank and the location of its center of gravity.78 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL Sample Problem $19 The house painter in Figure 321 is raising a ladder against the wall. The ladder is 5.2 meters long and weighs G00 newtons. Its center of gravity is 2.0 meters from the top. If the angle the ladder makes with the ground is now 55°, how hard is the painter pushing at a distance of 1.8 meters from the ground? FIGURE 3-21 ‘Solution: The painter will surely select his angle to get maximum torque and will push perpendicularly to the ladder, so his torque as measured from the pivot on the ground is just (1.8 m) 7. The torque produced by the weight of the ladder can be calculated from the center of gravity; it is (3.2 m)(600 N)(sin 35°) = 1 100 Nem. The weight vector, as always, is straight down and the ladder is at 35° from the vertical. These two torques add to zero, so T= 610 N. An object is in rotational equilibrium when the counterclockwise torques acting on it are equal to the clockwise torques. ‘Try Tas = A horizontal plank weighing 80 ncwtons and 3.5 meters long rests with one end on a rock and the other ona seale, A woman is standing on the plank, 1.0 meter from the rock, and the scale reads 160 newtons. How much does the woman weigh?SUMMARY QUIZ 79 SUMMARY QUIZ Fill-In’s For each of the following, fill in the missing word or phrase: 1. Application of a force changes the of an object. 2. The direction of the force of sliding friction is always to that of velocity. 3. An object moving at constant speed is in a state of. 4. The SI unit of force is the____. 5. It takes about 4.45 newtons to equal a 6. The force that retards a solid moving through a liquid is called 7. The force of gravity acting on an object is called the object's 8. The amount of material in an object is called the object's . 9. Mass times acceleration due to gravity equals . 10. One kilogram-meter per second squared = 1 . 11. When the shape of a solid is distorted, it produces a force called 12, When a rope is stretched, the in it results in an clastic recoil force at each end. 18, A solid submerged in a liquid experiences an upward force called 14. If you stand next to a wall and push it northward with a force of 30 pounds, it will push you with a force of pounds, 15, When you stand on a floor, your weight is balanced by the force of the floor. 16. If'a 50-pound girl on roller skates stands on a hill where the slope is 30°, the gravitational force pushing her down the hill is . 17. To find the component of a force on any axis, multiply the force by the of the angle the force makes with the axis. 18. If it takes a force of 200 newtons to move a wagon up a frictionless hill at constant speed, the force needed to let the wagon roll downhill at constant speed is *19. When a rod is put under tension, the amount of stretch is inversely proportional to its -0 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL. "20. #21. 422, Multiple Choice 1 The unit for Young's modulus is the Maximum torque is obtained when the force is perpendicular to the When all torques balance each other, the object in question is in a state of, 4 If an object is in a state of equilibrium, (1) itis at rest in accelerated motion: (5) may be more than one of the above. . The direction of the force of elastic recoil depends on the direction of 1) gravity (2) velocity (3) applied force (4) acceleration (5) friction, |. A fish is swimming upward at an angle of 30° with the horizontal. The direction of the force of gravity acting on it is (1) upward (2) downward (3) horizontal (4) at an angle upward. (5) at an angle downward. On the moon, g= 1.6 meters per second squared. If an astronaut has a mass of 100 kilograms on earth, his mass on the moon will be (1) 100 kilograms (2) 980 newtons (3) 160 newtons (4) 160 kilograms (5) 63 kilograms. A.50-newton bowling ball is placed on a surface inclined at 20° to the horizontal. The force propelling it down the slope is (1) 50 newtons (2) (50 newtons),/ (cos 20°) (3) (50 newtons) /(sin 20°) (4) (50 newtons) (sin 20°) (8) (50 newtons) (cos 20")SUMMARYQUIZ 81 In the SI, weight is measured in (1) grams (2) kilograms (3) newtons (4) pounds (5) more than one of the above. 7. Ifa boat is moving along at constant speed, it may be assumed that () a net force is pushing it forward (2) the sum of only vertical forces is zero (3) the buoyant force is greater than gravity (4) the sum of only horizontal forces is zero (5) the sum of all forces is zero. 8. The force of sliding friction depends on the coefficient of friction and the (1) weight of the object (2) slope of the surface (3) mass of the object (4) force perpendicular to the surface (5) kind of surface. 9. Daddy is pulling a child along on a sled by means of a rope. The reaction force to the force he exerts on the rope is (1) the friction of the sled against the snow (2) the rope pulling on the sled (3) the rope pulling on Daddy (4) the sled pulling on the rope (5) Daddy's feet pushing on the snow. 10. The sled of Question 9 is being pulled uphill. The direction of the friction acting on the sled is (1) uphill (2) downhill (3) straight down, vertically (A) straight up, vertically (5) horizontal. Problems GROUP A 1. What is the mass of a dog that weighs 75 newtons? 2. An astronaut with all her equipment has a mass of 95 kilograms. How much will she weigh on the moon, where the acceleration duc to gravity is 1.67 meters per second squared? 3. A rope is attached to a 35-kilogram rock to lifi the rock from the bottom of the Take. If the buoyancy on the rock is 50 newtons and the viscous drag is 25 newtons, how much is the tension in the rope?82 FORCES: PUSH AND PULL. 4. ™ 10. u. 12. 13. 14. How much is the viscous drag acting on a rocket-driven sled that is going at constant speed against a frictional force of 22 000 newtons when the thrust of the engine is 31 000 newtons? . Asled is being pulled along a horizontal road at constant speed by means of a rope that makes an angle of 25* with the horizontal. If the friction between the sled and the snow is 85 newtons, how much is the tension in the rope? On a camping trip, you stretch a rope between two trees and hang: your knapsack from the middle of it, ta keep it safe from bears. The mass of the knapsack is 32 kilograms, and each half of the rope makes an angle of 40° with the horizontal. Find (a) the amount of weight supported by each half of the rope; (b) the tension in the rape, A 35-kilogram child is on a swing supported by two ropes. A baby-sit- ter is holding the swing back so that the ropes make an angle of 25° with the vertical, How much is the tension in each rope? Ina sign supported as shown in Figure $12, the tension in the rope is $50 newtons. How much does the sign weigh if the angle between the rope and the wall is 40°? A20-kilogram pile of books is resting on a plank tilted so that it makes an angle of 20° with the ground. How much force do the books exert normally against the plank? A force of 40 pounds is needed to push a wagon up a 35° slope. How much does the wagon weigh? (Neglect friction.) A.7.0-kilogram bowling ball is placed on a ramp sloped at 15°. Find (a) the force that propels the ball down the ramp; (b) the force that compresses the surface of the ramp. How much force is needed to keep a 62-kilogram crate moving across a floor at constant speed if the coefficient of friction between the floor and the crate is 0.18? A heavy trunk rests on the floor, George pulls at it with a rope, using a force of 85 newtons. Janet pulls with another rope at right angles to George’s, with a force of 62 newtons. How hard must Henry pull on another rope to put the trunk inte equilibrium? A 45-kilogram table can be pushed along the floor at constant speed with a force of 170 newtons. What is the coefficient of friction between the table and the floor? . A heavy picture, with a mass of 18 kilograms, is 45 centimeters wide. Awire 62 centimeters long is stretched across its back. If the picture is suspended in the center of the wire by a nail in the wall, find (a) the force on the nail; (b) the tension in the wire.SUMMARYQUIZ 83 16. On a strange planet, a 65-kilogram astronaut steps on a scale and finds that the scale reads 240 newtons. If a survival pack is dropped a distance of 8.5 meters to the ground, hew fast will it be going when it lands? *GROUP B* 17, A crowbar 2.0 meters long is used vo pry a rock out of the ground, by pivoting the crowbar 0.5 m from the rock and pushing dewn on the other end. The end is pushed with a force of 250 newtons. Find (a) the torque being applied to the crowbar by the person doing the job; {b) the force being applied to the rock. 18. A light scaffold is supported by a rope at each end, and a painter is standing 1.0 meter from the left end. IF the painter weighs 600 newtons and the scaffold is 2.5 meters long, how much is the tension in each of the ropes? 19. Awinch, consisting of a crank that turns a shaft with a repe wrapped around it, is being used to lift cargo inte a boat. The shaft has a diameter of 3.0 centimeters, and the crank is 45 centimeters long. Ifa load of cargo weighs 1 200 newtons, how much force is needed to lift it? 20. You have a rope attached to a cart that weighs 450 newtons, and you are lowering the cart down a 25° slope. If the friction is 75 newtons, how hard do you have to pull on the rope to prevent the cart from running away from you? 21. A plank 4.0 meters long has its left end resting on a rock and the other supported by a rope, in a horizontal position. If the greatest tension the rope can stand without breaking is 350 newtons, how far from the rock can a 55-kilogram girl walk out on the plank before the rope breaks? 22. A 45-kilogram crate is on a ramp inclined at 38° to the horizontal, and the coefficient of friction between the crate and the ramp is 0.26. Find (a) the force that would be needed to push the crate uphill if there were no friction; (b) the normal force that the crate exerts on the ramp; (c) the force of friction; (d) the actual force that would be needed to move the crate up the ramp. 23. A rope is attached to tree A at a height of 2.0 meters and to tree B, 16 meters away, at a height of 5.0 meters. When a 28-kilogram bag of goodies is attached to the rope 4.5 meters from tree A, segment A of the rope (attached to tree A) is horizontal. Find the tension in each. of the two ropes. 24. An instrament weighing 85 newtons is being towed under water, by a boat. The line, attached at the boat’s waterline, is 17.0 meters long, and the instrument is 5.6 meters deep. If the buoyancy on the instrument is 22 newtons, how much is the viscous drag on it?CHAPTER 4 MAKING THINGS MOVE 4.1, HOW TO CHANGE A VELOCITY When one of those space exploration machines is traveling in outer space, it keeps on going in a straight line at constant speed, unless otherwise instructed, The instructions sent by radio take the form, “Fire rocket efor tseconds.” The purpose of the firing is to change the velocity of the spacecraft—to speed it up, slow it down, or change its direction. How much does the velocity change? That depends on which rocket fires, and for how long. Rockets vary according to the amount of force they exert on the spacecraft. A powerful rocket fired for a short burst might produce the same amount of change in velocity as a weak rocket fired gently for a long time. The amount by which the velocity changes depends on the product of the force exerted by the rocket and the length of time for which it is exerted. ‘This product is called the impulse, represented by P in the definition P=FAt In the SI, impulse is expressed in newton-seconds (N-s). The amount that the velocity of an object changes depends directly on the amount of impulse applied to it. An impulse of 500 newton-seconds, for example, could be produced by a force of 100 newtons operating for 5 seconds, or by 500 newtons operating for I second. In either case, it produces twice as much change in the velocity of a given object as would an impulse of 250 newtan-seconds. This relationship is expressed in the proportionality Ave: FAt Sample Problem 4-1 To slow down a car, a braking force of 1 200 newtons is applied for 10 seconds. How much force would be needed to produce the same change in velocity in 6 seconds ? Solution: To produce the same change in velocity, the same impulse is needed. Thus Fah = A atHOW TO CHANGE A VELOCITY 85 (1 200 N)(10 s) = Fs(6 5) F,=2000N Sample Problem 4-2 A frictionless wagon is pushed, from rest, with a force of 60 newtons for 14 seconds. If it then strikes a wall and comes to rest in 0.15 second, how much average force docs the wall exert on it? Solution: The impulse that puts the wagon in motion must be the same as the impulse that stops it and in the opposite direetion: (60 N)(145) = Fy(0.15 s) Fy =5 600 N Sample Problem 4-3 A spacecraft has two rocket engines, one producing a thrust of 300 newtons and the other 750 newtons. Firing the smaller engine for 10 s speeds the ship up from 80 meters per second to 95 meters per second, and the large engine is then fired for 12 seconds. How fast is the ship then going? Solution: The two impulses are impulse, = F Ai = (300 N)(10 s) = 3.000N-s impulsey = F At = (750 N)(12 8) = 9.000.N-5 So the second impulse must produce three times as much change in velocity as the first. The first change was 95 m/s — 80 m/s = 15 m/s, so the second impulse increased the velocity by 45 meters per second , from 95 meters per second to 140 meters per second. Change in velocity of an ebject is proportional to the product of force and the time during which the force acts: dy ec F Ag ‘Try THis —i— A spacecraft is going 350 meters per second; a retro rocket that provides a force of 520 newtons for 10 seconds slows it down to 300 meters per second. Then another retro rocket fires, with a force of 130 newtons for 4 sec- ands. How fast is the craft then going?86 MAKING THINGS MOVE 4,2, INERTIA How much change in velocity does a given force produce? An impulse of 50 newton-seconds would send a billiard ball moving rapidly across the table bur would barely nudge a bowling ball. Every object has a tendency to resist changes in its velocity, a tendency that we call the inertiaof the object. A bowling ball has a lot more inertia than. a billiard ball. Equation 4-1b tells us that F « Av/At In other words, the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied to it. However, the acceleration also depends on the inertia of the object; the more inertia, the less acceleration, The concept of inertia can be made quantitative by using it as, the constant of proportionality between force and acceleration: Feia Applying this relationship to an object in free fall reveals the basis of the dual nature of that mysterious quantity called g It is both the acceleration due to gravity (in meters per second squared) and the strength of the gravitational field (in newtons per kilogram). It is an accepted fact, suggested by careful reasoning and confirmed by repeated investigations, that all objects in free fall have the same acceleration. The force on such an object is its mass times the gravitational field, Applying the equation above, then, mx gravitational field = ix acceleration due to gravity Since both gravitational field and acceleration due to gravity are constant, it follows that mee i. The mass of an object tells how gravity acts on it. The inertia of an object tells how a force makes it accelerate, whether or not there is any gravity acting on it. However, if a bowling ball has 15 times the mass of a billiard ball, it also has 15 times the inertia. Since this relationship always works, it is convenient to express both mass and inertia in the same u the kilogram. With this agreement, we can write m = i, Now we can write the definition of inertia in its more usual form. Newton's law of inertia, one of the mest fundamental equations in all of physics, is Fema (quation 42) It is this choice of units that makes m/s? = N/kg. Sample Problem 4-4 What force is needed to accelerate a 60-kilogram wagon from rest to 5.0 meters per second in 2.0 seconds?INERTIA 87 Solution: First, find the acceleration from Equation 25: 2 20 m/s « 2 Dos 2.5 m/s’ Av aw St At Then apply Equation 4-2: F= ma = (60 kg) (2.5 m/s*) = 150 kg m/s? = 150 N Sample Problem 45 A frictionless wagon going at 2.5 meters per second is pushed with a force of 380 N, and its speed increases to 6.2 meters per second in 4.0 seconds. ‘What is its mass? Solution: The acceleration of the wagon is _ Av _ 62m/s-25 m/s = 0.93 m/s? At 40s From Equation +2, F___380N = — 5s ————_ 5 110k a 093 m/s 5 Sample Problem 4-6 What acceleration would be given to a 7.5-kilogram bowling ball being swung with a propelling force of 120 newtons? Solution: From Equation 42, Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma), Tay Tres —2— What is the mass of a frictionless sled that will be accelerated at 5.0 meters per second squared by a force of 130 newtons?88 MAKING THINGS MOVE 4.3. COOPERATING FORCES Spaceships in outer space and things falling freely have one thing in com- mon: Each has only a single force acting on it. We rarely deal with this sort of situation. When we push something, there are other forces acting as well. The F in Equation 42 is not any one of these forces; it is the vector sum of all of them. If they all add up to zero, then the object will not accelerate; it will be in equilibrium. F is the net forceon the object. Consider, for example, a 350-kilogram rocket about to take off vertically from its launching pad. You decide that you would like it to zoom upward with a substantial acceleration—say, a= 8 meters per second squared. So you apply Equation 4-2 to this acceleration and conclude that you need an engine with a thrust of ma = 2 800 newtons. If you design your rocket engine that way, you will be severely disappointed. Your rocket weighs mg= 3 430 newtons; 2 800 newtons will never get it off the ground. The thrust you need is 2 800 newtons more than the weight of the rocket. Sample Prob- lem 4-7 shows how the needed thrust must be calculated. ‘What thrust is needed to fire a 350-kilogram rocket straight up with an acceleration of 8.0 meters per second squared? Solution: The net force needed to preduce this acceleration is F= ma= (350 kg) (8.0 m/s?) = 2 800 N However, there is a downward force acting on it as well, equal to w = mg = (350 kg)(9.8 m/s?) = 3 430 N The net force is the thrust minus the weight, or thrust - 3 430 N = 2 800 .N so the rocket engine must product a thrust of 6 280 N. Here's another example: The child and sled of Figure 4-1 have a mass of 40 kilograms. The acceleration of the sled is produced by the net horizontal force. The horizontal component of the tension in the tow rope pulls the sled to the right, while friction is pulling it to the left. The net force is the difference—and that is what accelerates the sled.COOPERATING FORCES. 69 FIGURE 4-1 Problem 4-8 What is the acceleration of the child on the sled, with combined. mass 40 kilograms, if the friction is 60 newtons and the rope is being pulled with a force of 170 newtons at an angle of 35° with the ground? Solution: ‘The horizontal component of the force pulling the sled forward is (from Equation 2-4) Thoriz = T cos @= (170 N)(cos 38°) = 189N To get the net force, subtract the force to the right from the frictional force to the left: F=139N-60N=79.N = 79 kg > m/s? From Equation 42, . 2 ae ooo mst 40 kg Sample Problem 46 A2.0-kilogram weather balloon is released and begins to rise against 6.5 new: tons of viscous drag. If its buoyancy is 32 newtons, what is its acceleration? Solution: First, we have to find the net force on it, Its weight is mg = (2.0 kg) (9.8 m/s*) = 19.6 N. Since it is rising, the viscous drag is another downward force, so the total downward force is 19.6 N + 6.5 N = 26.1 N, Since the buoyancy pushing it upward is 32 N, the net upward force is 32 N - 26.1 N = 5.9.N. Now that we know the net force, we can find the acceleration:90 MAKING THINGS MOVE Acceleration must be calculated from the vecter sum of all forces acting on the object. Try Tus —3— What is the acceleration of a 1 200-kilogram boat if its motor produces 8 500 newtons of forward. thrust and the viscous drag is 6 200 newtons? 4.4, MOMENTUM Which docs more damage in striking a trec, a Cadillac or a Toyota? If both hit at the same speed, the Cadillac, with its larger mass, will surely exert more force on the tree. But suppose the Toyota is going much faster than the Cadillac, Now is there any way to figure it out? ‘Well, maybe we can. We might start by rewriting Equation 42 like this: Fe mS at Now multiply both sides by AL: FAt= mv and we recognize the lefi-hand side of this equation as the impulse that stops the car. Remember, as you learned in Chapter 3, that the force the tree exerts on the car has to be the same in magnitude as the force the car exerts on the tree. Both are damaged in the collision. And the amount of damage depends on the product of the mass of the car and the speed at which it was going before the tree abruptly brought it to rest. ‘The quantity mv—mass times velocity—is called. momentum. In bringing the car to rest, the tree suddenly reduced the momentum of the car to zero, And the amount by which the momentum changed is equal to the impulse applied to the car: F At = A(my) (Equation 44) Or: The impulse applied to anything is equal to the amount by which its momentum changes. ‘This equation says nothing that we have not already used in Equation 4-2, but it is often more convenient. In some problems, it saves us the trouble of calculating the acceleration as a separate step. Sample Problem 4-10 What braking force is needed to bring a 2 200-kilogram car going 18 meters per second to rest in 6.0 seconds?MOMENTUM 91 Solution: Using Equation 44, we have F(G.0 8) = (2 200 kg) (18 m/s) - 0 which says that the momentum is changing from mv to 0. This gives F = 6 600 N. Sample Problem 4-11 A. 650-kilogram rocket is to be speeded up from 440 meters per second to 520 meters per second in outer space. If the thrust of the engine is 1 200 newtons, for how long must the engine be fired? Solution: The change in the momentum of the rocket is (650 kg) (520 m/s) — (650 kg) (440 m/s) = 52 000 kg - m/s. This must be equal to the impulse, so (1 200 N) (At) = 52000 kg - m/s At= 435 There are some situations in which it is either difficult or impossible to use Equation 4-2, but Equation 44 comes to the rescue. This happens when the mass of the object is changing. In that case, even with a constant force, the acceleration is changing, and the problem becomes complex. Here is a case in point: A rocket ship traveling in outer space speeds up by turning on. its engines. How much does its velocity change? You would have to know the thrust of the engine (F) and the period of time for which the engine burned (Ad). But if the fuel consumed is any substantial part of the mass of the rocket, the mass of the rocket is also changing. The impulse gives you the change in the momentum of the rocket ship, and you can use this to deter- mine the final speed only if you know how much fuel was consumed. Sample Problem 4-12 A rocket ship in outer space has a mass of 650 kilograms, including 120 kilograms of fuel, and it is going 140 meters per second. Burning all the fuel produces a thrust of 1 200 newtons for 25 seconds. How fast is the ship then going? Solution: The impulse applied to the ship is P=PAts (1 200.N) (255) =30000N-s and this must equal the increase in the momentum of the ship. Its original momentum is mu = (650 kg) (140 m/s) = 91 000 kg - m/s92 MAKING THINGS MOVE Note that, since N = kg - m/s®, the impulse and the momentum are expressed in the same units and can be added, The final momentum is the initial momentum plus the impulse, or mj, = 91 000 Ns +30 000N- 5 Since the fuel has been burned up, the final mass is only 530 kg, so Upnat(530 kg) = 121 000 kg - m/s Yinal = 228 m/s A study of Equation 44 will explain why trapeze artists keep a net under them as they work. IF they fall, they will have a certain definite momentum when they hit the ground. They must lose all this momentum; the impulse applied to their bodies will be F At. The purpose of the net is to increase the value of Af, the time it takes them to come to rest. The hard, unyield- ing ground brings them to rest within a fraction of a second. The net spreads out the impulse over a much longer period of time, so that the force is proportionally smaller. Impulse equals change in momentum: FAtsA(mv) ‘Tay Tus 4 A pitcher throws a ball whose mass is 0.30 kilogram, bringing it from rest toa speed of 35 meters per second. If the motion of his arm while holding the ball lasts 0.50 second, find (a) the momentum of the ball; (b) the impulse the pitcher applied to it; and (c) the force the pitcher used in throwing it. 4.5, MOMENTUM ENDURES The greatest value of the concept of momentum is in the calculation of what happens when two or more objects interact. It turns out that we can often find out the results of a collision, for example, without knowing anything at all about the forces involved or how long they persist. ‘The explanation is this: Think of two objects, A and B, colliding. Object Aexerts a force Fon object B, and B exerts a force —Fon A. The negative sign indicates that the twe forces are in opposite directions, They have equal magnitudes. Since the duration of the impact, At, is the same for both, the impulse that B exerts on A is the negative of the impulse A exerts an B,MOMENTUM ENDURES 93 Now, impulse is equal to change in momentum. It follows that, in the collision, the change in the momentum of A is the negative of the change in the momentum of B. The sum of the two changes is thus zero. In other words, during the collision, the total momentum does not change! The increase in the momentum of one object is exactly equal to the decrease in the momentum of the other. This gives us the very fundamental and important law of nature called the law of conservation of momentum: In an iso- lated system, the total momentum does not change. You should think of using this rule whenever you have to deal with an interaction between two objects. For example, a litle girl is standing on a wagon, and jumps off to the rear of it. To do so, she has to kick the wagon so that it moves forward. Before she jumped, the total momentum of the system was zero, so (if friction is small enough to ignore) it must continue to be zero afterward. Her momentum backward must equal the wagon’s momentum forward. Samp! ‘3 The 35-kilogram girl is standing on a 20-kilogram wagon and jumps off, giv- ing the wagon a kick that sends it off at 3.8 meters per second. How fast is the girl moving? Solution: Total momentum is initially zero, and must remain zero. Therefore, the momentum acquired by the wagon in one direction equals the momentum acquired by the girl in the other: (12) get = (8 wagon (35 kg) (ri) = (20 kg) (3.8 m/s) Yin # 2.2 m/s Now suppose the girl is running and jumps into the wagon. If you know how fast she is going, you can figure out how fast she and the wagon will be traveling together when she is in it. Before she hit the wagon, her momentum was the total momentum of the system, and that value does not change. Sample Problem 4-14 The same 35-kilogram girl is now running along at 5.2 meters per second and jumps into the 20-kilogram wagon. How fast is the wagon moving with the girl in in?94 MAKING THINGS MOVE Solution: At first the girl has all the momentum, and it must be equal to the rotal momentum of the girl and the wagon after she lands in it. So (70) pefore = OM after (35 kg) (5.2 m/s) = (35 kg + 20 kg) tafier 3.3 m/s= Ue In dealing with problems of this sort, be careful to take the direction of the momentum into account; it isa vector. In one dimension, it is enough to call one direction negative and the other positive. Thus, if a ball hits a wall perpendicularly, going 20 meters per second, and bounces off at 15 meters per second, the change in its velocity is 20 meters per second - (-15 m/s) = 35 meters per second. Sample Problem 415 A12kilogram basketball traveling at 7.5 meters per second hits the back of a 12-kilogram wagon and bounces off at 3.8 meters per second, sending the wagon off in the original direction of travel of the ball. How fast is the ‘wagon going? Solution: The momentum of the ball before it hit has to equal the sum of the momenta of the two objects after the collision. Let's call the original direction of travel of the ball positive. Then the equation becomes (12 kg) (7.5 m/s) = (1.2 kg) (=3.8 m/s) + (12 kg) (x) Lim/s=v Ina closed system, the total momentum does not change, Try THs == A 2 000-kilogram limousine going east at 22 meters per second strikes a 1 200-kilogram sports car going west at 30 meters per second. How fast are the two cars going together after the collision? *4.6. GOING AT ANGLES* Momentum is a vector quantity. If colliding objects are not in line, all components of momentum must be conserved. In solving such problems, set up a separate equation for conservation of each component of momentum on these two axes.GOING AT ANGLES 95 Sample Problem 4-16 A. 95cAilogram hockey player going north at 12.0 meters per second collides with a 120-kilogram player coming from 40° east of north at 4.0 meters per second, and they stick together. Find the direction and magnitude of their velocity after the collision. Solution: Designate north as the x-direction. Then (mv) y = (95 kg) (12.0 m/s) ~ (120 kg) (4.0 m/s}(cos 40°) = 772 kg m/s (110). = 0 = (120 kg) (4.0 m/s) (sin 40°) =-309 kg-m/s ‘The momentum is the same after the collision. Then the momentum of the two players is mye © W772? + 3092 = 831 kg+m/s ‘To find their speed, divide by their total mass to get 1.4 meters per second. The direction is arctangent 309/772 = 22* west of north, Sample Problem 4-17 A 2 500kilogram car going east at 22 meters per second is struck by a 1 600- Kilogram car going northeast at 18 meters per second, and the two vehicles stick together, Find the direction and magnitude of the cars after the collision. Solution: The components of the momentum of the two vehicles together are (iv) y= (1 600 kg) (18 m/s) (cos 45°) = 28 800 kg-m/s (mu) ¢ = (2 500 kg) (22 m/s) + (1 600 kg) (18 m/s) (sin 45°) ='75 300 kg + m/s Dividng both components by the combined weight of the two vehicles gives wy = 7.0 m/s and vp = 18.4 m/s. Therefore the speed of the two vehicles together is V7.0 + 18.42 = 20 m/s. The direction is arctangent 7,0/18.4 = 21° north of east. Momentum isa vector, and each component must be conserved through any interaction.

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