Jedruszczak

LookingAtTheInterfaceBetweenAVideoGameAndItsPlayersThroughThe
PragmaticLens

Videogameshavebeenastapleinmodernsocietyfordecades,startingwitharcade
gamesinthe70sandmovingtohomeconsolesthroughthe80s.Astechnologyhas
progressed,videogameshavegrownmoreandmoreelaborate,butattheircore,video
gameshavealwaysbeenandalwayswillbeabouttheconnectionbetweenthegameand
theplayer.Gamesareauniquemediumcomparedtonovels,television,orthelikebecause
theyrequireinputasSquiresaysin
VideoGameNarratives
,Withouttheplayer,thereis
literallynogame.Thisleadstoacorechallenge[...]:Howdowestudyaphenomenonthat
cannotexistwithoutitsplayers?
Thoughdiscourseisusuallydefinedasamodeofcommunicationbetweentwoor
morepeople,videogamesalsoconstituteadiscourse.Thisissomewhatsimilartohow
linguisticsasawholewouldconstituteadiscourse;itisitsownsubjectmatter,withitsown
particularrulesofcontent,itsownspecificjargon,anditcreatesauniquemannerand
perspectivethroughwhichpeoplecommunicate.However,thediscoursethatvideogames
constituteisnotbetweenpeople,butrather
betweentheplayerandthegame
.Because
videogamesnecessitateinputfromtheplayerandalsosimultaneouslycreateanoutput
back
totheplayer,theresultingfeedbackloopiscommunicativeinnature.Furthermore,
withadvancesintechnology,gamesarerelyingmoreandmoreheavilyonverbal
communication,boththroughtext(e.g.,instructionstotheplayer,ingameinformationand
dialogue,etc.)andthroughvoiceacting.

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Aconversationoccursatthepointwherethespeakersandhearerseffortsmeet,
regardlessofhowmucheffortisbeingputinbyeitherparty,andwithinthevideogame
discoursemodel,thisconversationendsupbeingthegameplayitself.Atthespace
betweenaplayersinputandanalysisofthegame,andthegamesinputandanalysisofthe
playerexiststhegameplayitselftheactionsandchoicesaplayermakeswiththetools
theyaregiveninavideogame.Thesetoolscanbeas(relatively)simpleaschoosinga
dialogueoptionoras(relatively)complexasaimingacrosshairpreciselyatthe
onepixelwidecriticalhitspotonanenemy;thismirrorsnormalconversationswhere
thetoolscanrangefromaphonemetoacomplexgrammaticalstructure.Therefore,it
wouldfollowthatGricesCooperativePrincipleandtheconversationalmaximswould
applytotheconversationsbetweentheplayerandthegame.Thefourmaximsof
Quantity,Quality,Relation,andMannercanapplytoanyconversationwhethertheplayer
orthegameisthegivenspeakerorhearer,andwhetherthismaximisobserved,violated,
flouted,oroptedoutofaffectsthegameplay.
Oneofthemostfundamentalinteractionsbetweenagameanditsplayercomesin
theformofinstructionsandcommands.Thefirstthingaplayerexperiencesinavideo
gameisalmostalwaysacommand:performanactiontostartthegame.

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Fig.1:ThestartscreenforBorderlands2forthePC.
Theabovestartscreencontainstwothings:thelogoofthegame,
Borderlands2
,anda
commandtotheplayertopressanykey.TotakethisexamplethroughtheGricean
maxims,thisutteranceobserveseachofthem;thegamesaysenoughwithoutsayingtoo
much,itisrelevant(itisanactionneededtostartthegame),anditisclearand
unambiguous(infact,Iwastakentothestartmenubypressingmyscreenshotkey,F12,
which,liketheWindowskey,isusuallyexemptfromallkeysinstructions).Theonly
maximwhichisdifficulttoapplytothissituationisthemaximofQuality,sincethequestion
ofwhethermachinescanlieismoreaphilosophicalonethanapragmaticone;itcanbe

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assumedthat,insofarasthegamessoftwareandprogrammingisconcerned,itisnever
lyingtotheplayer1.InstructionsfromavideogamethatobservetheGriceanmaximswill
createabetterplayerexperience,justasconversationsthatobservetheGriceanmaxims
will,attheveryleast,createacoherentconversationalexperience.
Bycontrast,unclearinstructionscanmakeagameutterlyunplayable.Justasone
persongivinganotherunclearinstructionisaviolationofthemaximofManner(atthevery
least),sotooareunclearinstructionsfromavideogame.However,therearesomecasesof
unclearinstructionsthatseemtoflouttheGriceanmaxims(again,attheveryleastthe
maximofManner,ifnotothers)ratherthanviolatethemoutright.

Fig.2:AningamescreenshotfromDarkSoulsforthePC.

Though,ofcourse,whetherthenarrative(oraspecificcharacterwithinthegame)liestoaplayerisanentirely
differentmatter.

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Here,theplayerisinstructedtohittheAbuttoninordertoreadthemessage.Atfirst
glance,thismaynotseemtobeanundulyunclearcommand;thisisagameonthePC,and
thereisanAbuttononaPCkeyboard,usuallylocatedbetweenSandcapslock.
However,theinterpretationofthiscommandisgreatlycomplicatedoncecommon
groundknowledgeisfactoredintohowtheplayerashearerinterpretsthegames
utterance.
Onavideogameconsole,suchastheXboxOneorPlaystation4,playersusethe
controllertointeractwiththegame;thecontrollerforbothsystemshastwothumbsticks,a
Dpadwithfourarrowsincardinaldirections,andasetoffourbuttons,anyofwhichcanbe
usedduringagame.

Figs.3&4:Xbox360controller,left,andPlaystation4controller,right.
Bycontrast,PCgamesmakeuseofakeyboardandamouse.Whereaconsolegamewould
useoneofthethumbstickstomovethecharacteraroundtheworldandtheothertolook

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around,thatsamegameonthePCwouldusetheW,A,S,Dkeystomoveandthemouseto
look;thisisthestandard.

Fig.5:AningamescreenshotfromBorderlands2.
Intheabove
Borderlands2
screenshot,theplayerhastheoptiontopresstheEbuttonin
ordertotalktoacharacter;this,alongwithusingthespacebarforjumpingandRfor
reloadingaweaponisalsostandard.
Ifaplayergoesintothegame
DarkSouls
(Fig.2)withonlytheknowledgeofhowPC
gamecontrolswork,thentheyplayerwouldlogicallyhittheAkeywiththeintentionof
readingthemessage,andinsteadfindtheircharactermovingtotheleft,andthiswouldbe
aclearcutcaseofbadinstructionsandaviolationofthemaximofManner.However,

Jedruszczak

someonewiththecommongroundknowledgeoutlinedabovewouldknow,first,that
hittingtheAkeywouldonlymovetheircharactertotheleftandtherefore
not
readthe
message;second,thattheimageofanAinsideagreencirclecorrespondstotheAbutton
onanXboxcontroller(fig.3);third,thattheAbuttononanXboxcontrollerisusuallyused
forinteractingwiththegameworld;fourth,thatthegameisaskingtheplayertopressa
keyinordertointeractwiththegameworld;fifth,thatthatkey,asseeninFig.5,isusually
E;andfinally,theplayerwouldarriveattheconclusionthattheyshould(atleasttryto)
pressEinordertoreadthemessage.2 Thisiswherethedifferencebetweenfloutingand
violatingamaximbecomesrathermurky.Thehearerdoesindeedunderstandthatthe
maximinquestion(here,mostlikelyMannerorRelation)isbeingviolated,butthe
definitionoffloutingrequiresthatthespeakerbeviolatingthemaxim
intentionally
,which
isnotthecaseinthissituation.Thisisneitheraviolation,sinceaviolation,bydefinition,is
intendedtobedonesothatthehearerwillnotbecomeawareoftheviolation.
TheabovebreakdownisverysimilartoSearles10stepprocessofcalculation,and
indeed,theseinstructions
are
aspeechact,thoughanotentirelyfelicitousone.Perhapsit
wouldbebettertoclassifytheabovesituationassuchanotentirelyfelicitousspeechact,
ratherthanacaseofanotquiteflouted,notquiteviolatedmaxim.Tooutlinethe
conversationinFigure2asSearledoes:

Step1,factsabouttheconversation:
Thegameisgivingmeinstructions.
Step2,CooperativePrinciple:
Iassumethatthisinstructionisrelevanttomy
gameplayexperience.

DarkSouls
wasoriginallyreleasedfortheXbox360andPlaystation3in2011,andthePCversionwasreleased
ayearlater.However,thegamewassimplyportedfromtheconsolestothePC(ratherthanrebuiltand
recodedforthePC)withlittlechangestoitscodingotherthanwhatwasnecessaryforitrunonaPC,resultingin
comparativelyatrociousgraphicsalongwithglitchesliketheinteractionpromptinFigure2.
2

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Step3,theoryofspeechacts(?),theoryofgaming(?):
Arelevantinstructionis
giveninsuchawaythatIamabletofollowitwiththecontrolsIhaveviamy
keyboardandmouse.
Step4,Inferencefrom1and3:
Theliteralinstructionisnotgiveninsuchaway
thatIamabletofollowitwiththecontrolsIhaveviamykeyboardandmouse,and
isthereforeirrelevant.
Step5,inferencefrom2and4:
Therefore,theillocutionarypointthegameis
makingisdifferentfromtheinstructionthatisliterallygiven.
Step6,sharedknowledge:
ThegreenAbuttonlogoiswhatappearsonXbox360
games,andthisbuttonisusedtointeractwiththegameworld.
Step7,inferencefrom6:
Thegameprobablywantsmetopressabuttonto
interactwiththegameworld.
Step8,theoryofspeechacts(?),theoryofgaming(?),sharedknowledge(?):
TheEbuttonisoftenusedinPCgamestointeractwiththegameworld.
Step9,inferencefrom1,7,and8:
Therefore,thegameistellingmetopressthe
Xbox360greenAbutton,wheninsteaditmeansformetopressthecorresponding
actionbuttononmykeyboard.
Step10,inferencefrom5and9:
IshouldpressEtoreadthemessage.

Steps3and8areparticularlyproblematic.Normallythesestepsoutlinewhata
speechactissupposedtoconvey;astheutteranceinquestionisacommand,thatwould
makeitaspeechactwithitsownrules,butinthissituation,itsnatureasacommand
withinavideogameismoreimportantthanitsnaturesimplyasacommand.Furthermore,
categorizingthistypeofglitchasadirectorindirectspeechactisalsodifficultbecauseit
isbynatureadirectspeechact(i.e.,it
i s
,atitsbase,acommand),butbecauseitisa
glitchedcommand,itmustbeinterpretedinthesamewayasanindirectspeechact.
Therefore,rulessuchasthetheoryofspeechacts(ortheplaceholdertheoryofgaming)
maynotbeapplicableorrelevant,either.
Inavideogame,thecommongroundknowledgemakesupacrucialcomponentof
thecontext(orrather,discoursemodel)inwhichanygivenutteranceshouldbe

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understood.Thissharedknowledgeconsistsnotonlyofwhatwasbrieflyoutlinedearlier
withregardstocontrollers,butalsocoversaratherinterestingaspect:thattheplayeris
almostalwayscommunicatingwiththegameviaanavatar.Therearecertainlyexceptions,
namelygamesthathingeonconstruction(
TheSims,RollerCoasterTycoon)
orpuzzlegames
(
Bejeweled,Tetris
),buttodaysbestsellerstendtobegameswheretheplayercontrolsa
character(specificallyknownastheplayercharacter)andexperiencesthegamethrough
theeyesoftheplayercharacter.Ingameswithafirstpersonperspective,thisisquite
literal;
Borderlands2
rarelyshowstheplayertheirplayercharacterduringgameplay,and,
asseeninFigure5,alltheplayerseesisallthatthecharactercansee.Inagamewith
thirdpersonperspective,theplayermayseealloralmostalloftheplayercharacteras
theyrecontrolled.
Regardlessofvisualperspective,alloftheingamedialogueisspokentotheplayer
characterbyothercharacters,andthisoftenincludesinstructionsforhowtocompletean
objective.
Mordecai:
YoubeenlisteningtothoseHyperionnewscaststhatsayyou're
killingkidsandkickingpuppies?Ifoundtheguywho'srecording'emhe'sin
theAridNexus.Payhimavisitandsettherecordstraight.

Inthisquote,anonplayercharacter(NPC)in
Borderlands2
isgivingtheplayercharacter
(theVaultHunter3)asetofinstructions.Thisisessentiallyaconversationbetween
MordecaiandtheVaultHunter,andyettheplayerwillalwaysassumethattheinstructions
weregivento
them
,andwillfollowthoseinstructionsasiftheyweredeliveredtothe

PlayerscanchooseoneofsixVaultHuntersastheiravatar(Maya,Axton,Salvador,Zer0,Gaige,orKrieg),thus
theneedforatitleratherthananame.

Jedruszczak

playerthemselves.Videogamesasaninteractivemediumhingeupontheplayer
interpretinganyconversationtheiravatarhasasaconversationthatismeanttoinclude
theplayer,ratherthantheavatar;functionally,theplayerandtheiravatarareaoneperson
unitasfarasthediscoursemodelisconcerned.
HandsomeJack:
IknowyouthinkI'mamonster.YouthinkIenslavedAngel.
Butyoudidn'tseewhatshedidtohermother.IhadtorestrainAngel's
power.Yougetthat?Ihadto.
Lilith:
AndImsurehehadtoexploitherforprofitandpower,too.Dont
listen,VaultHunterhekilledAngellongbeforeyoupulledtheplug

Indialogueliketheabove,alsofrom
Borderlands2
,theplayerismeanttointerpretthe
dialoguehereassomethingthatisbeingspoken
totheplayer
,regardlessofthefactthat
LilithspecifiesthatsheisspeakingtotheVaultHunter.Thisispartofthetypeofdiscourse
thatvideogamesare;theynecessitateaspecificmethodofinputfromtheplayer,andalso
giveaspecifictypeofinput
to
theplayerinsuchawaythatinorderforeachutteranceto
befelicitous,theplayer
must
knowthatanythingspokentotheplayercharacterisalsoa
messagetotheplayerthemselves.Allspeechacts,therefore,asoutlinedabovewiththe
Searles10stepprocess,mustbecalculatedbytheplayerinsuchawaythatfactorsinthe
filteroftheavatar.
Borderlands2
alsotoyswiththisideainthefollowingquote,spokenat
theendofamissionearlyinthegame:
Claptrap:
Eventhoughyoudidn'tbringmewhatIaskedfor,I'vedecidedto
letyouusethatstashtoshareweaponsbetweenmyminions!Specificallythe
onesthat,uh,thatyoucontrol.
(beat)
Look,it'sfortwinkingitemsbetween
yourcharacters.

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Inthelastline,Claptrapbeginsspeakingtotheplayercharacter,butthen
directlyaddresses
theplayer
,givingtheminformationpertainingspecificallytogameplay4
.
Thisisdirectlyrepresentativeofadualityinthewayinwhichaplayermust
interpretinstructionsasspeechacts;inoneregard,theplayermustknowtointerpret
anythingspokentotheiravatarassomethingspokentotheplayerthemselves,andin
another,theplayermustknow,asinFigure1,thatthegamewillalsosometimesgive
instructionsdirectlytotheplayer(andintheClaptrapquote,thislineisintentionally
crossed).Thisseemstocreateasituationinwhichtheplayer
must
acquirethis
commongroundknowledgebeforeplayingavideogame.Gamesareaninteractive
medium;thisissharedknowledge.However,couldthedetailsusedinSearles10step
methodbeconsideredcommonknowledge?Tocertainmembersofthediscourse,perhaps,
butifso,thenitmaynotcountastrulycommonknowledge.
Furthermore,what
does
countascommonground,inthiscase?Isitsimplythe
knowledgeofacertainstandardthatvideogamesadhereto?Ifthatisthecase,thenthe
enormousvarietyinvideogamesleaveonlyonethingascommonground:interactivity.If
commongroundisacquired,ratherthanassumed,thenisittrulycommonground,orisit
skillacquisition?Ifavideogameisbasedonskillacquisition,thencanpragmaticrulesand
theoriestrulybeappliedtoeffect?Inthissense,videogamesrathertoethelinebetween
beingadiscourse,towhichtherulesofdiscourseandconversationapply,andbeinga
literacy,withlevelsofskillandanalysisthatarerequiredinordertofullyparticipate.
Pragmaticrulesandtheoriescanabsolutelybeappliedtothegamesnarrative(insofaras

Theentire
Borderlands
seriesis
incredibly
tongueincheek,andoftendoesthingslikethistohumorouseffect.

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thereisdialoguetowhichitmayapply),buttheycannotbeappliedascleanlytotherather
nebulousconversationalspacebetweentheplayerthemselvesandthegameitself,so
perhapsinthiscaseavarietyofinterdisciplinaryperspectiveswouldmakethebest
analysis.

WorksCited:

Birner,BettyJ.,andIncBooks24x7.
IntroductiontoPragmatics
.24.;24;Vol.Chichester,
WestSussex,U.K;Malden,Mass;:WileyBlackwell,2013.Web.

Borderlands2
.GearboxSoftware.2KGames.18September2012.VideoGame.

ClaptrapsSecretStash/Transcript.
BorderlandsWiki.
n.d.n.p.Web.11December2015.

"DualShock3controller."
Wikipedia
.WikimediaFoundation,n.d.Web.12Dec.2015.

Plunkett,Luke."DarkSoulsonPCLooksLikeCompleteS**t(ButThere'saFix)[Update]."
Kotaku
.N.p.,23Aug.2012.Web.6Dec.2015.

Squire,Kurt.VideoGameLiteracy:ALiteracyofExpertise.
HandbookofResearchonNew
Literacies.
Ed.JulieCoiro,MicheleKnobel,et.al.Mahwah:LawrenceErlbaum,2008.63570.

"Xbox360Controller."
Wikipedia
.WikimediaFoundation,n.d.Web.12Dec.2015.

Ingameimagesfrom
Borderlands2
collectedviaSteam,aclientforPCgaming.