CHAPTER 4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJTs)

Chapter Outline
4.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation
4.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics
4.3 BJT Circuits at DC
4.4 Applying the BJT in Amplifier Design
4.5 Small-Signal Operation and Models
4.6 Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations
4.7 Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits
4 8 Discrete-Circuit
4.8
Discrete Circuit BJT Amplifiers

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4.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation

Physical structure of bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
Both electrons and holes participate in the conduction process for bipolar devices.
BJT consists of two pn junctions constructed in a special way and connected in series, back to back.
The transistor is a three-terminal device with emitter, base and collector terminals.
From the physical structure, BJTs can be divided into two groups: npn and pnp transistors.

Modes of operation
The two junctions of BJT can be either forward or reverse-biased.
The BJT can operate in different modes depending on the junction bias.
The BJT operates in active mode for amplifier circuits.
Switching applications utilize both the cutoff and saturation modes.

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Mode

EBJ

CBJ

Cutoff

Reverse

Reverse

Active

Forward

Reverse

Saturation

Forward

Forward

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Operation of the npn transistor in the active mode

Electrons in emitter regions are injected into base due to the forward bias at EBJ.
Most of the injected electrons reach the edge of CBJ before being recombined if the base is narrow.
Electrons at the edge of CBJ will be swept into collector due to the reverse bias at CBJ.
Emitter injection efficiency () = iEn / ( iEn + iEp)
Base transport factor (T) = iCn / iEn
Common-base current gain ( ) = iCn / iE = T < 1
Terminal currents of BJT in active mode:
iE(emitter current) = iEn(electron injection from E to B) + iEp(hole injection from B to E)
iC(collector current) = iCn(electron drift) + iCBO(CBJ reverse saturation current with emitter open)
iB(base current) = iB1(hole injection from B to E) + iB2(recombination in base region)

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Terminal currents:

A qD n 2

Collector current: iC iCn AE qDnB dnB ( x) / dx AE qDnB nB (0) / W E nB i ev /V I S ev /V

N BW
Base current:
AE qD pE ni2 v
Hole injection into emitter due to forward bias: iB1 AE qD pE dpE ( x) / dx
e
BE

BE

BE

/ VT

N E L pE

Eelectron-hole recombination in base: iB 2

AE qWni2 vBE /VT

1

Qn / n AE q nB (0)W / n
e
2
2 N B n

D pE N B W 1 W 2 vBE /VT iC

)e

DnB N E L pE 2 DnB n
1
i
I
iC C S e vBE /VT
Emitter current: iE iC iB

Total base current: iB iB1 iB 2 I S (

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Large-signal model and current gain for BJT in active region

Common-emitter current gain
(1)

iC

iB

(+1)

iE

iC

iB

iE
1

Common-emitter current gain:

Common-base current gain

D N W 1 W 2 1
iC
( pE B

) /(1 )
iB
DnB N E L pE 2 DnB n

Common-base current gain: /( 1)

The structure of actual transistors

In modern process technologies, the BJT utilizes a vertical structure.
Typically, is smaller and close to unity while is large.

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Operation of the npn transistor in the saturation mode

Saturation mode: both EBJ and CBJ are forward biased
Carrier injection from both emitter and collector into base
Base minority carrier concentraiton change accordingly leading to reduced slope as vBC increases
Collector current drops from the value in active mode for negative vCB
For a given vBE, iC drops sharply to zero at vCB around 0.5 V and vCE around 0.2 V.
BJT in saturation: VCEsat = 0.2 V
i
Current gain reduces from to forced: forced C saturation
iB

np0exp(vBE/VT)

np0exp(vBC/VT)
vBC increases

np0

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Ebers-Moll model
In EM model, the EBJ and CBJ are represented by two back to back diodes iDE and iDC.
The current transported from one junction to the other is presented by F (forward) and R (reverse).
EM model can be used to describe the BJT in any of its possible modes of operation.
EM model is used for more detailed dc analysis which can not be performed by the simplified models.
The diode currents: iDE I SE (ev /V 1) iDC I SC (e v /V 1) F I SE R I SC I S
iC iDC F iDE
iB iE iC
The terminal currents: iE iDE RiDC
BE

BC

Application of the EM model

The forward active mode:

iC I S e vBE //VVT I S
1
R
1
I
1

iB S e vBE / VT I S
F
F R

I
1

iE S e vBE /VT I S 1
F
F

iDE

RiDC

iC I S e vBE /VT I SC e vBC /VT

iE I SE e

ISe

iC

iE

The saturation mode:

vBE / VT

iDC

FiDE
iB

vBC / VT

iB I SE (1 F )e vBE /VT I SC (1 R )e vBC / VT

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The cutoff mode

ICBO (CBJ reverse current with emitter open-circuited)
ICBO = (1RF)ISC
Both EBJ and CBJ are reverse-biased.
In real case, reverse current depends on vCB.
ICEO (CBJ reverse current with base open-circuited)
ICEO = ICBO /(1F)
F is always smaller than unity such that ICEO > ICBO.
CBJ current flows from (C to B) so CBJ is reverse-biased.
EBJ current flows from (E to B) so EBJ is slightly forward
forward-biased.
biased.

(3) RISC

(3) iDE

iB
C

iC

iE = 0
(2) RISC

iE

iC

iC = ICBO = (1RF)ISC (5)

FiDE (4)

(2) RISC

RFISC (4)

ISC (1)

ISC (1)

iB = 0

iB = (R)ISC + ( F)iDE = 0 iDE = ISC ( R) / ( F) (5)

iC = ISC + FiDE = ISC (1RF)/ (1F) ICEO = ICBO / ( F) (6)

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The pnp transistor

Transistor structure:
emitter and collector are p-type
base is n-type
Operation of pnp is similar to that of npn

Operation of pnp in the active mode

Collector current: iC I S ev
Base current: iB iC /
Emitter current: iE iC iB

EB

/ VT

L
Large-signal
i
l model
d l and
d currentt gain
i for
f BJT in
i active
ti region
i
Common-emitter current gain
(1)

iC

iB

Common-base current gain

(+1)

iE

iC

iB

iE
1

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4.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics

Circuit symbols, voltage polarities and current flow
Terminal currents are defined in the direction as current flow in active mode.
Negative values of current or voltage mean in opposite polarity (direction).

Summary of the BJT current-voltage relationships in the active mode

The values of the terminal currents for a BJT in active mode solely depend on the junction voltage of EBJ.
The ratios of the terminal currents for a BJT in active mode are constant.
The current directions for npn and pnp transistors are opposite.
npn transistor

pnp transistor

iC I S evBE /VT
i
I
iB C S e vBE / VT

iC I S e vEB /VT
i
I
iB C S e vEB /VT

iE

iC

IS

e vBE /VT

iE

iC

IS

e vEB /VT

iE iC iB

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Current-voltage characteristics of BJT

The iC-vCB characteristics

The iC-vCE characteristics

The Early effect

As CBJ reverse bias increases, the effective base width Weff reduces due to the increasing CBJ depletion.
For a constant junction voltage vBE:
The slope of nB(x) increases iC increases
nB (0)
VZ
Charge storage Qn reduces iB decreases
VY
Current gain and increases
VX
Early voltage (VA) is used for the linear approximation of Early Effect.
Linear dependence of iC on vCE: iC I S ev / V (1 vCE / VA )
nB0
BE

i
Exhibit finite output resistance: ro C
vCE

V
A
vBE constant
IC

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WX WY WZ

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Common-base output characteristics

Early effect

breakdown

iC versus vCB plot with various iE as parameter is known as common-base output characteristics
The slope indicates that iC depends to a small extent on vCB Early effect
iC increases rapidly at high vCB breakdown
BCJ is slightly forward-biased for 0.4V < vCB < 0
No significant change is observed in iC
The BJT still exhibits I-V characteristics as in the active mode
BCJ turns on strongly and the iC starts to decrease for vBC < 0.4V
I-V characteristics in the saturation mode and vCEsat is considered a constant ( 0.2 V)
Current gain (): large-signal iC/iE and small-signal (incremental) iC/iE

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Common-emitter output characteristics (I)

iC versus vCE plot with various vBE as parameter.
Common-emitter current gain is defined as = iC / iB
The BCJ turns on with a positive vBC at low vCE
BJT operates in saturation mode
The iC curve has a finite slope due to Early effect
The characteristics lines meet at vCE = VA
VA is called the Early Voltage (~ 50 to 100 V)

Common-emitter output characteristics (II)

Plot of iC versus vCE with various iB as parameter
BJT in active region acts as a current source
with high (but finite) output resistance
The cutoff mode in common-emitter configuration
is defined as iB = 0
Current gain: large-signal dc iC/iB and ac iC/iB

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Early effect

breakdown

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Saturation of common-emitter configuration

In saturation region, it behaves as a closed switch with a small resistance RCEsat
The saturation IV curve can be approximated by a straight line intersecting the vCE axis at VCEoff
The saturation voltage VCEsat VCEoff + ICsatRCEsat
VCEsat is normally treated as a constant of 0.2 V for simplicity regardless the value of iC
Incremental in saturation is lower than that in active region: forced ICsat / IB <
Overdrive factor / forced

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Transistor breakdown
Transistor breakdown mechanism:
Avalanche breakdown: avalanche multiplication mechanism takes place at CBJ or EBJ
Base punch-through effect: the base width reduces to zero at high CBJ reverse bias
In CB configuration, BVCBO is defined at iE = 0.
The breakdown voltage is smaller than BVCBO for iE > 0.
In CE configuration, BVCEO is defined at iB =0.
The breakdown voltage is smaller than BVCEO for iB > 0.
Typically, BVCEO is about half of BVCBO .
Breakdown of the BCJ is not destructive as long as the power dissipation is kept within safe limits.
limits
Breakdown of the EBJ is destructive because it will cause permanent degradation of

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4.3 BJT Circuits at DC

BJT operation modes
The BJT operation mode depends on the voltages at EBJ and BCJ
The I-V characteristics are strongly nonlinear
Simplified models and classifications are needed to speed up the hand-calculation analysis
Mode

EBJ

CBJ

Active

Forward

Reverse

Cutoff

Reverse

Reverse

Saturation

Forward

Forward

Inverse

Reverse

Forward

npn transistor

pnp transistor

vBC

vCB

Inverse Mode
vBE 0, vBC 0

Saturation Mode
vBE 0, vBC 0

Cutoff Mode
vBE 0, vBC 0

Active Mode
vBE 0, vBC 0

vBE

Inverse Mode
vEB 0, vCB 0

Saturation Mode
vEB 0, vCB 0

Cutoff Mode
vEB 0, vCB 0

Active Mode
vEB 0, vCB 0

vEB

Simplified models and classifications for the operation of the npn BJT
Cut-off mode:
iE = iC = iB = 0
vBE < 0.5 V and vBC < 0.4 V
Active mode:
vBE = 0.7 V and iB : iC : iE = 1: : (1+)
vCE > 0.3 V
Saturation mode:
vBE = 0.7 V and vCE = 0.2 V
iC/iB = forced <
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Equivalent circuit models

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DC analysis of BJT circuits

Step 1: assume the operation mode
Step 2: use the conditions or model for circuit analysis
Step 3: verify the solution
Step 4: repeat the above steps with another assumption if necessary

Example 4.4

Example 4.5

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Example 4.9

Example 4.11
4 11

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4.4 Applying the BJT in Amplifier Design

BJT voltage amplifier
A BJT circuit with a collector resistor RC can be used as a simple voltage amplifier
Base terminal is used the amplifier input and the collector is considered the amplifier output
The voltage transfer characteristic (VTC) is obtained by solving the circuit from low to high vBE
Cutoff mode:
0 V vBE < 0.5 V and iC = 0
vO = vCE = VCC
Active mode:
vBE > 0.5 V and iC = ISexp(vBE/VT)
vO = VCC iCRC = VCC RCISexp(vBE/VT)
Saturation:
vBE further increases
vCE = vCEsat = 0.2 V
vO = 0.2 V

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Biasing the circuit to obtain linear amplification

The slope in the VTC indicates voltage gain
BJT in active mode can be used as voltage amplification
Point Q is known as bias point or dc operating point
IC = ISexp(VBE/VT)
The signal to be amplified is superimposed on VBE
vBE(t) = VBE + vbe(t)
The time-varying part in vCE(t) is the amplified signal
The circuit can be used as a linear amplifier if:
A proper bias point is chosen for gain
The input signal is small in amplitude

The small-signal voltage gain

The amplifier gain is the slope at Q:
Av

dvCE
dvBE

v BE VBE

IC
RC
VT

Voltage gain depends on IC and RC

Maximum voltage gain of the amplifier
Av

V VCE VCC
IC
RC CC

| Av max |
VT
VT
VT

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Determining the VTC by graphical analysis

Provides more insight into the circuit operation
Load line: the straight line represents in effect the load
iC = (VCCVCE)/RC
The operating point is the intersection point

Locating the bias point Q

The bias point (intersection) is determined by properly choosing the load line
The output voltage is bounded by VCC (upper bound) and VCEsat (lower bound)
The load line determines the voltage gain
The bias point determines the headroom or maximum upper/lower voltage swing of the amplifier

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4.5 Small-Signal Operation and Models

The collector current and the transconductance
The total quantities (ac + dc) of the collector current:
vBE VBE vbe
iC I S e vBE / VT ( I S eVBE / VT )e vbe /VT I C e vbe / VT

Small-signal approximation: vbe << VT

v
I
iC I C ic I C 1 be I C C vbe
VT
VT
i
I
g m C iC I C C
VT
vBE

The transconductance indicates the incremental change of iC versus change of vBE

Th transconductance
The
t
d t
gm is
i determined
d t
i d by
b its
it dc
d collector
ll t currentt IC
General, BJTs have relatively high transconductance compared with FETs at the same current level.

The base current and the input resistance at the base

The total quantities (ac + dc) of the base current:
iB

IC

IS

e vBE / VT

IS

eVBE /VT e vbe / VT I B e vbe / VT

Small-signal approximation:
v
I
iB I B ib I B 1 be I B B vbe
VT
VT
VT
v
r be

ib
gm I B

Resistance r is the small-signal input resistance between base and emitter (looking into the base)
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The emitter current and the input resistance at the emitter

The total quantities (ac + dc) of the emitter current:
iE I E ie

IC

IC

ic

Small-signal approximation:
I
IC
vbe E vbe

VT
VT
v
V
1

re be T

ie
I E gm gm

ie

ic

gm

vbe

Relation between r and re:

re
r

gm

r (1 )re

gm

Output resistance accounting for Early effect

Use the collector current equation with linear vCE dependence:
v
iC I S e vBE / VT 1 CE
VA
1

iC
V
ro
A
vBE constant
IC

vCE

The output resistance ro is included to represent Early Effect of the BJT

The resulting ro is typically a large resistance and can be neglected to simplify the analysis
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BJT small-signal models

Two models are exchangeable and does not affect the analysis result
The hybrid- model
Typically used as the emitter is grounded

Neglect ro

The T model
Typically used as the emitter is not grounded

Neglect ro

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4.6 Basic BJT Amplifier Configuration

Three basic configurations
Common-Emitter (CE)

Common-Base (CB)

Common-Collector (CC)

Characterizing amplifiers
The BJT circuits can be characterized by a voltage amplifier model (unilateral model)
The electrical properties of the amplifier is represented by Rin, Ro and Avo
The analysis is based on the small-signal or linear equivalent circuit where dc components are not included
vo
RL

Avo
vi RL Ro
RL
Overall voltage gain: Gv vo Rin Av Rin
Avo
Rin Rsig RL Rso
vsig Rin Rsig

Voltage gain: Av

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The common-emitter (CE) amplifier

Characteristic parameters of the CE amplifier
Input resistance: Rin r
Output resistance: Ro RC || ro RC
Open-circuit voltage gain: Avo g m ( RC || ro ) g m RC
Voltage gain: Av g m ( RC || RL || ro ) g m ( RC || RL )
Overall voltage gain: Gv

r
r
g m ( RC || RL || ro ) g m
( RC || RL )
r Rsig
r Rsig

CE amplifier can provide high voltage gain.

Input
p and output
p are out of phase
p
due to negative
g
gain.
g
Lower IC increases Rin at the cost of voltage gain.
Output resistance is moderate to high.
Small RC reduces Ro at the cost of voltage gain.

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The common-emitter (CE) with an emitter resistance

Characteristic parameters (by neglecting ro)
Input resistance:
Rin (1 )(re Re ) r (1 ) Re

Output resistance:
Ro RC

Open-circuit voltage gain:

Avo

g m RC
g R
m C
1 Re / re
1 g m Re

Voltage gain:
Av

g m RC
RL
g ( R || RL )
m C
1 g m Re RL RC
1 g m Re

Overall voltage gain:

Gv

r
g m RC
RL
r
g m ( RC || RL )

r Rsig 1 g m Re RL RC
r Rsig 1 g m Re

Emitter degeneration resistance Re is adopted.

Input resistance is increased by adding (1+)Re.
Gain is reduced by the factor (1+gmRe).
The overall gain is less dependent on .
It is considered a negative feedback of the amplifier.

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The common-base (CB) amplifier

Characteristic parameters of the CE amplifier (by neglecting ro)
Input resistance: Rin re
Output resistance: Ro RC
Open-circuit voltage gain: Avo g m RC
Voltage gain: Av g m ( RC || RL )
Overall voltage gain: Gv

re
g m ( RC || RL )
re Rsig

CE amplifier can provide high voltage gain.

Input
p and output
p are in-phase
p
due to ppositive ggain.
Input resistance is very low.
A single CB stage is not suitable for voltage amplification.
Output resistance is moderate to high.
Small RC reduces Ro at the cost of voltage gain.
The amplifier is no longer unilateral if ro is included.

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The common-collector (CC) amplifier

Characteristic parameters of the CC amplifier (by neglecting ro)
Input resistance: Rin (1 )(re RL )
Output resistance: Ro re Rsig /
Open-circuit voltage gain: Avo RL /( RL re ) 1
Overall voltage gain: Gv

Rin
RL
( 1) RL

1
Rin Rsig RL re ( 1)( RL re ) Rsig

CC amplifier is also called emitter follower.

Input resistance is very high.
Output resistance is very low.
The voltage gain is less than but can be close to 1.
CC amplifier can be used as voltage buffer.
It is noted that, in the analysis, the amplifier is not unilateral.

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4.7 Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits

DC bias for BJT amplifier
The amplifiers are operating at a proper dc bias point.
Linear signal amplification is provided based on small-signal circuit operation.
The DC bias circuit is to ensure the BJT in active mode with a proper collector current IC.

The classical discrete-circuit bias arrangement

A single power supply and resistors are needed
Thevenin equivalent circuit:
VBB = VCCR2/(R1+R2)
RB = R1||R2
VBB VBE
BJT operating point: I C
RB / RE (1 1 / )

RC is chosen to ensure the BJT in active (VCE > VCEsat).

A two-power-supply version of the classical bias arrangement

Two power supplies are needed
Similar dc analysis
VEE VBE
BJT operating point: I C

RB / RE (1 1 / )

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Biasing using a collector-to-base feedback resistor

A single power supply is needed.
RB ensures the BJT in active (VCE > VBE 0.7 V)
BJT operating point: I C

VCC VBE
RB / RC (1 1 / )

The value of the feedback resistor RB affects the small-signal gain.

Biasing using a constant-current source

The BJT can be biased with a constant current source I.
The resistor RC is chosen to operate the BJT in active mode.
The current source is typically implemented by a BJT current mirror.
mirror
Current mirror circuit:
Both BJT transistors Q1 and Q2 are in active mode.
Assume current gain is very high:
I I REF

VCC VEE VBE

R

When applying to the amplifier circuit, the voltage

V has to be high enough to ensure Q2 in active.

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4.8 Discrete-Circuit BJT Amplifiers

Circuit analysis:
DC analysis:
Remove all ac sources (short for voltage source and open for current source)
All capacitors are considered open-circuit
DC analysis of BJT circuits for all nodal voltages and branch currents
Find the dc current IC and make sure the BJT is in active mode
AC analysis:
Remove all dc sources (short for voltage source and open for current source)
All large capacitors are considered short-circuit
Replace the BJT with its small-signal
small signal model for ac analysis
The circuit parameters in the small-signal model are obtained based on the value of IC
Complete amplifier circuit

DC equivalent circuit

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AC equivalent circuit

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The common-emitter (CE) amplifier

The common-emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance

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The common-base (CB) amplifier

The common-collector (CC) amplifier

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The amplifier frequency response

The gain falls off at low frequency band due to the effects of the coupling and by-pass capacitors
The gain falls off at high frequency band due to the internal capacitive effects in the BJTs
Midband:
All coupling and by-pass capacitors (large capacitance) are considered short-circuit
All internal capacitive effects (small capacitance) are considered open-circuit
Midband gain is nearly constant and is evaluated by small-signal analysis
The bandwidth is defined as BW = fH fL
A figure-of-merit for the amplifier is its gain-bandwidth product defined as GB = |AM|BW

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