Logistics Engineering and Management

| preyouryg ININISVNVA GNV = SNIMFINIONG SOLLSI9OT LOGISTICS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT | FIFTH EDITION Benjamin S. Blanchard A.Cranfield. Presented to Lapre-dov Assoe. Prof. Gast Matos Maj. Assoe, Prof. oan Nicotacsew by the Engineering Systems Department To commemorate their collaboration with Cranfield University at RMCS sis in Systems Engineering 1000 2 Professor bf $ystems Engineering LOGISTICS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENTPRunnice Hats InteRnaTiovAt SERIES IN INDUSTIAL AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING W. 1. Fabrycky and J. H. 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Metis and Ce Sue for Enginccing Designs Mexna a0 Dan Meson and Tne St inroving Prodan, 1 anc. Peo Seung’ Theor Alpin nd Spee Puss Core Enieri nde Vo: Iga Pract nd Proce Orpen PUD Conran Engrg Pendanats Vo bu Pa Tron Sct Bu Gms ra Moat Enns Teche ond npn ‘Tat bration Mong wal SVE Pesaran eri ma us ‘LL plmening Camaro Pes aagore eo Sem Ec, YOR BRAIN Pe Tanetn War Wauas Peincrne Your Pe [WoUIT Soe Modding on he They of Queues FIFTH EDITION LOGISTICS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT BENJAMIN S. BLANCHARD Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University PRENTICE HALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458teary of Congree Culp iPblion Date Blache 8 Logs ener and manages Sh pcm loads eiogapicl referees sande SBN OTSRSSIe8 a8 (oP dua state Acquistion tor Allee Drala Predeton eler:Phadan . 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Sagpore ors Pence Hal do Bras, a, Ri ent } CONTENTS iat 12 B 14 as 4. INTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS silt PREFACE sinc: # conmettgs ‘Mwsimonatieoe 1 staan pence see ae a ene Rao.» eaceee inka sane Sl a snens ‘Reliability (R), 25 ieee = ca iets acs Pn a2. MEASURES OF LOGISTICS 2 24 23 saa 28 29. 210 2a 22 23 Contents Software Engncerng, 30 Produit, 3t Disposals 31 ‘Total Quality Management (TOM), 31 Configuration Management (CM), 52 System Ftfeiveness, 3 Lie-Cyede Cost (LCC), 3 Gost Effectiveness (CE), 34 Questions and Problems 35 Roliabilty Factors 37 Reliability Function, 37 Faure Rate, 39 etibity Component Relationships, 2 ‘Maintainability Factors 46 . “Maintenance Bapsed:Time Factory 48 ‘Maintenance Labor-Hour Facior, 58 Maintenance Frequency cir, 60 [Maintenance Cost Factors, 61 ‘Supply Support Factors 62 Probl of Succ with Sparce Availability Considerations, 63 ‘Probability of Mission Completion 66. ‘Spare-Part Quanity Determination, 66 Inventory Coesiderations, ‘Transportation, Packaging, and Handling Factors 74 ‘Test and Support Equipment Factors 76 Organizational Factors 77 Facility Factors. 78 Software Factors 79 ‘Technical Data and Information System Factors 79 Availability Factors 80 Eiberent Aveta (A), 8 ‘Achieved Availabilty (Aa) 81 (Operations Availabiy (Ao), 8t Beonomic Factors 81 Effectiveness Factors 83 Summary 89 Questions and Problems 91 Contents 3. SYSTEM ENGINEERING PROCESS ” 31 32. 33, 34 3s 36 37 38 39 Definition of Problem and Needs Analysis 100 System Feasibility Analysis 101 ‘System Operational Requirements 101 Mostadon Aira Sytem, 103 Iasteation 2; Comrmusiction System, 106 hater 3: Commercial Aine Requirement 111 ‘Additional Application, 14 Maintenance and Support Concept 1 denttication and Prioritization of Techical "Performance Measures (TPMS), 121 Functional Analysis 126, Funetinal Fle Diagrams, 120 ‘Opertenat Funai, 13h ‘Minteoanee snd Support Functions, 132 ‘Application of Fusctiona Flow Diagrams 133 Allocation of Requirements 139 Reliabity Alocation, 140, Maiatainatty Allocation. 145 ‘Allocation of Logitis Factors, 148 [lloetion of Economic Factors, 149 Synthesis, Analysis, And Design Optimization 149) Summary 156 Questions and Problems 157 ‘4 SUPPORTABILITY ANALYSIS (5A) 160 4a 42 43 ‘The Analysis Process 162 Selection of Evaluation Criteria, 168 Selestion of « Model, 65, Data Generation and Applicaton, 169 Analysis Ress, 72 Analysis Mothods and'Tools | 175. 421 LiteCyele Cost Analyse (LOCA, 173 4152 Palle Mode, Elects, and Oriicaiy Analysis (FMECA), 183 423 Fru Troe Analysis FTA), 187 424 Maitenance Task Analysis (STA), 194 423 Retnbly-Centered Masntenance (RCM), 199 426. Level of Repeir Anais (LORA).204 442.7Evalutionof Design Alternatives, 210 Supportability Analysis Applications 212wi 44 Continuous Acquisition and Life-Cycle Support (CALS) 214 ‘Ouostions and Problems 219 5 LOGISTICS IN THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT PHASE SA The Design Process 229 SALL Conceptual Design, 230 542. Preliminary System Design, 230, S13 Detal Desiga and Development, 222 ‘Application of Design Criteria 236 “Analysis and Trade-Of Studies, 234 nization of Design As, 20 52 Related Design Disciplines. 244 524 Design fr Reb, 244 Relabiy Puncional Analy, 244 Reliability Alcation 245 etabtiy Stoacing 208 Fallre Mode, Eye, and Cotaliy Analysis (FMECA), 245, Faul-Teve Analys (FTA), 285 elabiliy-Cemered Mantenance (RCM), 247 Reliability Prediction, 229 ‘eahiity Growih Modeling 250 Effects of Storage, Packaging, Transportation, and Handling, 250 Fallre Reporing, Analysis and Corrective Action ‘System (PRACAS), 257 522 Design for Maiatsinabitty, 252 Moinainailty Functional Analysis, 252 Maintinailty Aocotion, 254 ‘Maineinabity Prediction, 254 Level of Repair Analysis (LORA), 285 Maintenance Task Analysis (MTA), 256 523 Detign for Human Factors and Safety, 257 ‘Human Faciors Analysis, 259 Personnel and Training Reguremen, 263 $24. Design fr Prosi, 264 525 Desipn for Quality 268 52.6 Design for Economic Feasibility, 267 527 Design forthe Environment 289, 53 Supplier Design Activities 272 54 Design Integration 273 55 Design Review 275 Scheduling of Design Reviews, 278 Design Review Requirements, 2) (Conducting the Design Review, 281 Contents 228 Contents 56 sa ‘Contiguration Change Control 281 ‘Test and Evaluation | 284 Categories of Tet and Evaluation, 285 [spre Tet Planing, 287 Prepiration fr System Test and Balaton, 288 “Tet Pevirmanse aa Evaluation. 289 Systm Modiieations, 290, ‘Questions and Problems 252 6 LOGISTICS IN THE PRODUCTION/CONSTRUCTION PHASE 294 61 62 63 64 65 66 Production\Construction Requirements, 295 commie Orc 38 geome Ceol aoe HEE ems oan 3 pam 3 vase in 3 eatin es Bec es ete ns ‘my on rte 7. LOGISTICS IN THE UTILIZATION AND SUPPORT PHASE 35 ma 12 3 74 SystemiProduet Suppoxt. 326 ‘Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) 327 Data Collection, Analysis, and System Evaluation 329 Requirements, 330 Danan, Developmest, and Implementation of «Dats Subsystem ‘capably, ‘System Evaluation and Corrective Action, 36 valuation of Logistic Support Elements 336 ‘Tost and Support Equipment, 335 Sepply Support. 338, Pettonal and Training, 313 "Techical Data, 34 Summary. 54Contents 75 System Modification 344 (Questions and Problems 345 LOGISTICS IN THE SYSTEM RETIREMENT, MATERIAL RECYCLING, AND DISPOSAL PHASE 387 81 System Requirements 347 82 Material Reeycling and Disposal 349 Questions and Problems 351 Losisrics MANAGEMENT 382 91 Logistics Planaing 353 SLL Logis in the Sytem Life Ce, 83 912 Development of Speifitions, 358 Dealt Maintenance Pan, 32 SupporbilyAvalyis Pon (SAP), $82 Retsil and Maintinabiliy Plan, 32 Supply Support Plan, 308 Testand Support Bape Pan 364 Personnel and Trang Plan, 36 Technea! Dua Plan 305 Packaging, Handling, Storage, and Transporation Pan, 365 Facies Pan, 06, Computer Resoures Pl, 388 Distribution and Customer Support Plan, 367 Posproducton Suppor Plan 367 Syste Reioment Plan, 367 52 Development of « Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) 368 93 Scheduling of Logistics Tasks 368 Bar CharlMiestone Chart, 371 Propram Network Scheduling, 371 94 Cost Estimating and Contzol 380 95 Major Interfaces with Other Program Activities 382 95 Organination for Loginics 206 Consumer, Proer,and Sopplir Relationships, 387 CCastomer Organization and Functions (Consume), 388 Producer Ocsnzation nd Functions (Coatetor). 30 Supplier Orgtnzation and Futons, 5, Sting the Organization 9.7 Management and Control $11 ‘i ‘i icc Contents 98 Summary 414 Questions and Problems 414 [APPENDIX A:_ SYSTEM DESIGN REVIEW CHECKLIST [APPENDIX B: SUPPLIER EVALUATION CHECKUST [APPENDIX(C: MAINTENANCE TASK ANALYSIS (MTA) [APPENDIX D: ANALYTICAL MODELS/TOOLS APPENDIX E: LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSIS (LCCA) [APPENDIX F: SELECTED INTEREST TABLES [APPENDIX G: NORMAL DISTRIBUTION TABLES [APPENDIX Hi: SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX a8 ge 8.8 495 503 506 307PREFACE ‘Through the past few decades, the field of logistics has grown significantly with emp sis in several ferent but related areas. Inthe commercial sector, the “business-or- ented” functions of procurement, material flow, transportation, warehousing, and istribution have been predominant, ad there has been mich attention given 10 supply chain management. These activities have been ditected primarily tothe acquisition and delivery of consumable items, and the functions of product design, maintenance, ‘and support have not been included in most instances. Conversely, inthe defense sec {or the realm of logssuis has been dealing with systems, and (in addition to the pro- ccurement and distribution functions) activites have included product design and sustaining maintenance and support. A system must first be designed to be supportable, produced (or constructed), distributed to the user, and ultimately maintained clfectvely and efficiently throughout its planned life eyele. Tis approach to logistics, hich i lifecycle oriented, has in the past been dtected primarily toward large, com plex, and highly sophisticated defense systems. Yet, the concepts and principles of such ‘may be applied to almost any category of systems whether a communications system, chemical processing plant, an electrical power distribution system, heath care sys, fem, an information processing system, a production system, transportation system, ‘or any comparable type of functional entity. This book is about logtiex at apptiog tosysiems In dealing with systems, experience has indicated that the complexities of such hhave increased in many instances with the introduction of new techaologies, the effec tiveness and quality aspects for many of those in use have decreased, and the costs ‘associated with system operation and maintenance aver the life eyele have increased significantly. When addressing cause-and-effect relationships, a large percentage of the high costs of system operation and support is attributed to the engineering andxiv Preface management decisions made duting the early tages of conceptual and preliminary system design. Early decisions asociated wit the selection of technologies, system/equip- tment packagiag schemes, two versus three levels of maintenance, and the use of “automation versus accomplishing functions manually have a great impact on Togstic Support and total life-cycle cost. Thus, with the current economic dilemma of decteas- ng budgets and upward inflationary trends it has become ever more essential that the ‘Sownstream aspects of logistics (ce, system maintenance and support) be addressed in the eaty stages of the design and development of new systems (or the reengineering lof existing systems). Of specific interest herein isthe design for supportabiliy. Louistis can best be addressed during the early stages of the life eyele through proper Implementation ofthe systems engineering process, commencing with the iden Effcation of a customer need and extending through the carly definition of system fequizements, functional analysis and allocation, synthesis, analysis, design optimization, evaluation, and validation. The maintenance and support infrastructure must be tcomidered 35 2 major element ofthe system ifthe resultant product output is to be ‘osteffective and meet the needs of the customer. Thus, the consideration of “design for supportablity” must be inherent from the beginning “This book addresses logistic from a system's perspective, Chapter I sets the stags by providing introductory material with some key terms and definitions. Chapter 2 Ueseribes some of the measures (ie. metrics) of logistics. Chapter 3 presents the system engineering process and the framework within which logistics is addressed in the ‘Gesign provess. Chaplet 4 covers tho broad spectrum of supportailty analysis, as a. {herent part of the ongoing overall systems analysis effort. This constitutes an iterative process, to include the use of numerous analytical methods/techniques!tools, Sppled with the objective of ensuring that a system is designed such that it an be GHleetvely and efficiently supported throughout its planned lie cycle. Chapter 5 fddresses the many activites that are associated with Togistics in the overall system design and development process. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 cover the many important fogs- tics functions accomplished during the production, operational use, and system retre- tment and disposel phases. Chapter 9 addresses the aspects of lopstics planning ‘rganizaton, management, and contro. Although the echnical aspects of logistics may ‘appear tobe the best ever, the successful implementation of such is highly dependent ‘on the management stracture and an organizational environment that wil allow it to happen. “The presentation of material in ths text is more comprehensive than what fas ‘been provided in the previous editions. Of particular note isthe emphasis on logistics from a systems perspective and the coverage of all phases ofthe life eye (to include ‘yatem retirement and matesal disposal), A new and separate chapter on the systems, “Tigincering process provides a foundation on which to bulld the material for subse~ (quent chapters. A new chapter on supportabilty analysis provides a more integrated Spprosch in meeting the design objectives for either new or reengineered systoms. The ‘design for supportabiliy is emhasized to a greater extent herein, Further, the impor tance of design incegration is highlighted, particularly in view of the trends toward treater “outsourcing” the increased utilization of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) items, and the dealing with many different and varied suppliers from throughout the Preface » ‘world. Although we may not be designing many small components these days the chal Tenges associated with the design of sysiems are even more greater than im the pas "Those familar with the earlier edition ofthis text will note that some of material has been retained, although the organization of such is quite different. This book is designed for use in the classroom (at either the undergraduate or graduate program levels) of for the practicing professional in industry, business, oF ovement. The concepts and technigues presented are applicable to any type of sys fem, and the activities described within may be “tailored” to meet the needs of both Targe- and small-scale programs. Many practical problems are introduced, there are ‘over 235 illustrations and 250 questions, and numerous references have been inludes. Tivaddtion, the text material has been arranged in such a manner as to guide the prac ticing engineer on a day-fo-day basis inthe performance of hs o her job, and to serve san authoritative source for those in management who must direct and contsolJogis- tic support activities. T wish o thank all of you practitioners in the logistics field who have, through the years, provided me with the “feedback” necessary forthe ongoing improvement of this {oxt in progressing from one edition tothe next. Your valuable comments as to what's fing on in the real world of industry, business, and government have been greatly Appreciated. Thank you BEWAMIN S. BLANCHARDLOGISTICS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENTINTRODUCTION TO LOGISTICS CHAPTER 1 ‘A.system may be considered as constituting a nucleus of elements combined in such a ‘manner as to aceomplish a function in response to an identified need, A system may vary inform, fi, and structure. One may be dealing with » group of airraft accom plishing a mission at a specified geographical location, a communication network dis- ‘wibuting information on a workdwide basis, a power distribution eapabilityinvalving ‘waterways and electrical power-generating unit, a manufacturing plant producing x products in a designated time frame, ora small vehicle providing the transportation of ‘satpo from one location to another. A system mus have a funcional purpose, my include « mix of products and processes, and may be contained within some form of hicrarchy (Le. an airplane within an airline, which is within an overall transportation ‘capability, and so on). ‘The elements ofa system include a combination of resources i the form of materials, equipment, software facilities, data, services, and personnel integrated in such a ‘manner a8 fo meet a specified requirement; that is, a Self sufficient entity operating in ‘satisfactory manner, in a defined user environment, throughout is planned life cle Inherent within the context of systems are the functions of materials procurement and flow, the distribution of products and services, and the sustaining maintenance and sup- Port ofa system throughout its intended peried of utilization. These initial product dis- {sibution and sustaming maintenance and support funetions are included within the ‘concept of fogs, ‘Through the past few decades, the fel of logistics has grown significantly with ‘emphasis in several diferent but related areas. Inthe commercial sector, the “business q the types and expres of roms, td hi carci, ae das del a Blend, BS. wd WI tly, Sens Engrg and Arle Ed, Pete Hl Ic, Upper Sa14 SCOPE OF LOGISTICS 2 Introduction to Logists Chap. 1 oriented” functions of procurement, transportation, material flow, warehousing, ad ‘Gstibution have been predominant, ad there has been much atention given 10 Sup> ply-chain management. These activites have been directed primarily tothe acquisition End delivery of consumable items to the customer ina timely effective, and efficient ‘manner. Functions associated with product design, maintenance and support have Rot ‘been include! jn moe stances. Conversely, when dealing with systems, the team of logistics has been expanded to include thore activities pertaining to product design and support, in addition to the procurement and distribution functions mentioned earlier. & system must frst be Utsigned to be supportable, produced (or constructed), distributed tothe use, and ult imately maintained effectively and efficiently throughout is planned lifecycle. The ele iments of logistics, in this instance, include supply support (spares, repair parts, and ttsociated inventories), test and support equipment, maintenance personae, training, (cansportation and material banding, facilites technical data, and computer resources (hardware and software). This approach to logistics, which i ite-eyele oriented, has been implemented by the Department of Defense through the years and, although the ‘cmphasi has been directed prinariy toward complex and highly sophistionted defense ‘Systems, the concepts and principles may be applied to any type ofa system Tn evaluating these basie areas of thrust, one can see that there is strong inter- relationship between the two. To fulfil the logistics objectives for systems requires a ‘ood distribution network withthe implementation of strong business practices in the Handling of the many relatively small products needed for the design, production, and support of those systems. Further, in the interest of economy, there it a need to incor porate, to the maximum extent practicable, the commercally-oriented business processes for the handling of constimables within the logistics structure for systems. ‘Thus, one ean not separate these areas as being independent entities “The objective ofthis text is to address the subject of logistics inthe context of systems, from a broad lifecycle perspective, and to include referenes to those business Telated activities associated with the transportation and distribution of consumables. “The purpote of this chapter is to provide the reader with a basic understanding of i ‘cope of logistics, the need for logistics, logistics inthe system lifecycle, and some the terms most commonly used in the language of logistics Historically, the concept of Ingietrs stems from specific facets of activity efense and commercial sectors of management. Webster defines logistics as ‘The aspect of mitary science dealing with the procurement, mxintnance, and ta portation of military materi, fcies, and personnel* > Weber's Ninth New Cole Dieonary, Meise Webster, In, Spring, Mas 1988. Sec. 1.1 Scope of Logis 3 and in the American Heritage Dictionary, iis defined as ‘The procurement, distribution, maintenance, and replacement of material and personnel? In the defense sector, the emphasis on logistics has evolved through the concept ‘of integrated logistic suppor (8), which may be defined as Disciplined, unified, and iterative approach to the management and technical activi’ rnocemsary to (1) integrate support considerations into system and equipment design (2) ‘develop suppor: requirements that ate related consistently to readiness objectives, (0 asign, an to each otbe, (3) acquire the required support nd (8) provide the required Support during the operational phase at minimum cost Inherent within the context of this definition isthe current requirement dealing with the design for supportabilis. This relates to the degree to which a system can be ‘supported, both in ferms of the built-in design characteristics of the prime mission~ Telated components ofthe system and the characteristics of the overall maintenance and support infrastructure and its elements (eg, supply support, test equipment, main tenance faites ete.). It pertains to such characteristics as standardization, inter- ‘changeability,accesiblty, diagnostics, functional packaging, and compatibility among the various elements of support and between the elements of support and the prime nission-related elements of the system. The emphasis is on system design, the fist wo itoms in the above definition, In the commercial sector, where the emphasis is onthe “businessoriented” activities associated withthe distribution of consumables, logistics may be defined as° ‘The proces of planing, implementing, and controlling the efficient, ost-effecive low spd worage of r20 material in proses ventory fikshed goods, and alate informa tion from point of origin vo point of consumption forthe purpose of conforming to es- ‘omer requirements” Although the orientation here is somewhat different, the concopts and principles are ‘not limited tothe commercial sector alone. There are materials handling, physical supply and distribution, warehousing and inventory control, and transportation activites, Across the board and in the defense sector as well. Additionally, the activities assoei- ated with the design, maintenance, and support of defense systems can be effectively 2 reine Heiss ft rg amg Dot Pain Gr Now Yo 1% TB va ig DSME iat Leptes Sppo Guide, Dees Secs Manages: Clee, Fo Da, "This defnon was develope tough the Counc of Logis Management (CLA), Oak Brook, {tas nd eth he vr tp of peared duo, amr acho ‘noma tenn ad pcan apes To onl cee () Ginko, N/A; D. I Huda, ad RM. ve, Buess Logis, 3d a, Te Doyen Pres, Harcourt Brace Hommes Ot Msn @) Bower D.C aK Heer, Loa Mane‘ Introduction te Logites chap. 1 pplied to aondefens systems such asin commercial transportation, power generation anu dstibuton healthcare, and aisaufacuigg® The activities associated with “business” logis inthe commercial sector have Jn the past been directed primsrily toward production operations andthe paysiel di tribution of goods and services by the produces. On the ether kang, emphasis n the Sefense environment has been placed’ on the sustaining life-cycle maitensnce and support ofa system or preduet while being uiized by the customer (ie, user). These {wo areas ofsctivity have basically been addressed on a relatively independent basis through the years. Further, in both situations, logistics has been considered a8 "downstream” effort, adressed “after the-fact” wil egard to design and production, and the overall requirements for logistics have not been Very well defined or integrated. In recent years, systems have been increasing in complesity with the oa-going introduction of new technologies the industrial base has heen changing and the aval ability of resources has heen dwindling the costs of scquisng new systems and maintaining and supporting existing systoms have been increasing, and competition has ben increasing worldwide. At the same time, the requirements for logistics, im both sectors. have been increasing at an alarming rte. Given the current ssonomie dima ‘of decreasing budgets with upward inlaonary tends, there willbe even Tee rexourees available for doing business in the future Tn view ofthese trends, on ofthe greatest challenges facing businesses, indus- tries, government agencies, and the geveral consumer of prcts and services aay isthe growing nced fora more effective and ecient method forthe managing of Out ‘valuable resourees. The requirement to increase overall produetvty ima highly com- Peltveresource-constrained environment has placed a great del of emphasis on sy ‘ems, in general, and on all aspects ofthe system life cyele. Logistics needs to be recognized a a significant factor troughout th ifeeysle and assume & major role comparable to research, design, production. and system performanee during oper ea ined ans on fc cn en fhe sor ha procurement or acquisition is even, and experince has shown that ogists an havea major impact on overall Iie- Sopnty Flow Faure 12. Sytem suppor latasteruea Introduction to Logistics Chap. 1 i Pd Figure 13. "The basic eemeus of oie snp Referring to Figure 12, the elements of logisis required at each level of main: tenance may be included under the eategories noted in Figure 1 3, These elements are described below! 41, Maintenance and support planning. This includes all planning and analysis associated with the establishment of requirements for the overall support of «system throughout its life cycle. Maineance planning constitutes a sustaining level of activity commencing withthe development of the maintensnee concept and eon tinving through the accomplishment of supportabilty analyses during system design and development, the procurement and acquisition of support items, the system utilization phase when an ongoing mainteaance and support capability is ‘required to sustain operations, and during the retirement phase when materials are being recycled ar phased out for disposal. Maintenance planning should. ‘result in the integration of the various facets of support with each other, with the prime mission-elated elements ofthe systom, and should lead to the definition ‘and development of the inirastructue illustrated in Figure 12 2 Supply support (sparc/oepair parts and associated inventarice), This ichides all spares (repairable units, assemblies, modules, et.) repair parts (non-repairable components), consumables (liquids, lubricants, disposable items), special supplies, and related inventories needed to maintain the prime mission-related he steer presented here represent only example of aw ane may wih to rec dows th ‘ssoutes eid for mem maintenance and spor Alaagh te paar xepry desig ay ‘any fos one organization totes, the ele ie ocr ta alo the appa anes requirements ate nue some, Sec. 1.2 Elements of Logistics ° ‘equipment, computers and software, test and support equipment, transportation and handling equipment, training equipment, and facilities. Also included ae the provisioning and procurement activities and documentation associated with ‘material acquisition, handling, distribution, recycling, and disposal. 3. Maintenance and support personnel. Personnel required for the iastallation, checkout, and sustaining maintenance and supper af the system, its prime mis sion-rlated elements and the other elements of support (eg. test equipment, ‘tansportation and handling equipment, and facilities), ate included inthis cate gory. This includes personnel at all levels (refer to Figure 1.2) mobile teams, and ‘operators a test facilities and ealbration laboratories. A. Training and training support. Ths includes all personne, equipment, facilites, ops eget. ges suport mae, Be " ovisoning and ponent ofthe varoa lesa spond the sus opp oh ED Semgut lad period fe,Although the overall spectrum of logistics includes many additional functions (eg, ‘procurement, distribution, transportation, maintenance, and so on), the emphasis here “ Introduction to Logis chap. | { Won be deg or upporubi | ‘Acquisition Logistics Acquistion logistics, a term currently being emphasized in the defense sector, can be Gerinea as “a multitunecionat technical management diseipline associated with the design, development, test, production, fielding, sustainment, and improvement modi fications of cost-effective systems that achieve the user’s peacetime and wartime readi ness requirements. The principal objectives of acquisition logistics are to ensure that support considerations are an integral part of the system's design requirements, that the system can be cost effectively supported throughout is lifecycle, and that the infra structure elements necessary to the initial fielding and operational support of the system are identified and developed and acquired.” This definition is included in MIL-HDBK-50?, “Department of Defense Handbook —Acquistion Logistics.” May 1997, and constitutes those activites that the author has included under “Logistics Engineering”: . ‘Supportability Analysis (SA) ‘The supportabilty analysis (SA) isan iterative analytical process by which the logistic. support necessary for a new (or modified) system is identified and evaluated. The SA constitutes the application of selected quantitative methods to (1) aid in the initia determination and establishment of supportability criteria as an input to design; (2) aid in the evaluation of various design alternatives; (3) aid in the identification, provision= ing, and procurement of the various elements of maintenance and support and (4) sid inthe final assessment of the system support infrastructure throughout the utilization phase. The SA constitutes a design analysis process, which is part ofthe overall system ‘engineering analysis effort, applied during the early phases inthe life cycle and often. includes the maintenance task analysis (MTA), level of repair analysis (LORA), FMECA/FTA, reliability contored maintenance (RCM) analysis, transportation analysis, lfe-eyele cost analysis (LCCA), and logisties modeling. An output ofthe SA is the ‘Mentification and justification of the logistics resource requirements described in See tion 1.2. The SA is described further in Chapter 4. ] rm the year thre have been any diferent tems used to describe to the sae eel of ‘ifort. These acta he logs upport ena (LSA) a eosep inate a 197 and sil bengali ‘Se manyprogstns tay. Aol, what crreatly eigen win the soe ofthe SA ha ee ‘vere in he pat unde a mainenace engnering ana (MEA), maintonance lee ana (MLA). ‘maintenance tsk tls (MTA), mainonance engineering ana record (MEAR), maintenance nal ‘lu stom (ADS), ands on. Indepeadeat of what 8 cl the concepts a pricpes remain Sec. 1.5 Related Terms and Definitions 2s Continuous Acquisition and Life-Cycle Support (CALS) CALS pertains to the application of computerized technology to the entire spectrum of logistics. Of particular emphasis in recent years is the development and processing ff data, primarily ina digital format, with the objectives of reducing preparation and processing limes, eliminating redundancies, shortening the system acquisition process, land reducing overall program costs. Specific applications thus far have included the ‘automation of technical publications, the preparation of digital data for spares/repair parts provisioning and procurement, and in the development af desion data defining products in a digital format.” Reliability (B) Relibilcy can be defined simply as the probability that a system or product will perform in a satisfactory manner for a given period of time when used under specified ‘operating conditions. This definition stesses the elements of probability, satisfactory performance, time, and specified operating conditions. ‘These four elements are ‘extremely important, since each plays significant role in determining system/product reliability. Probability the first clement in the reliability definition, is usually stated as a quantitative expression representing a fraction or a percent signifying the number of times that an event occurs (succestes), divided by the total number of ils. Fur instance, a statement thatthe probability of survival (P,) of an item for 80 hours is 0.75 (or 75%) indicates that we can expect thatthe item will function properly for atleast ‘80 hours, 75 times out of 10 trials. ‘When there are a number of supposedly identical items operating under similar ‘conditions it can be expected that failures will occur at different points in time; thus, failures are described in probabilistic terms. In essence, the fundamental definition of reliability is heavily dependent on the concepts derived from probability theory. ‘Satisfactory performance, the second clement in the reliability definition, indicates that specific criteria must be established that describe what is considered to be satisfactory system operation. A combination of qualitative and quantitative factors {defining the functions thatthe system or product isto accomplish, usually presented in the context ofa system specification, are required. “The third element, time, is one of the most important since it represents a measure against which the degree of system performance can be related. One must know the “time” parazmeter in order to assess the probability of completing a mission or a siven function as scheduled, Of particular interest is being able to predict the probability ofan item surviving (without failure) for a designated period of time (sometimes ‘designated a R ot P). Also, eliability is frequently defined in terms of mean time between failure (MTBF), mean time to failure (MTTF), or mean time between maintenance (MTEM); thus, the aspect of time is critical in reliability measurement, °MIL-HDBK:SP, Computer-Aided Acqiiton and Logie Suppor (CALS) Program Inplemen atom Gade, Depart of Detene, Washngion, DS26 Introduction to Logists Chap. 1 “The specified operating conditions under Which we expecta system or product to function constitute the fourth significant element of the basic reliability definition, ‘These conditions include environmental factors such as geographical location where the system is expected to operate, the operational profile, the transportation profile, femperature cycles, humisity, vibration, shock, and so on. Such factors must not oaly address the conditions for the period when the system or producti operating, but the conditions fo the periods wen the system (or a portion thercof) is in a storage mode or being transported from one location to another. Experience has indicated that the transportation. handling. and storage modes are sometimes mare ertical from a rlia- bility standpoint than the conditions experienced during actual system operational use. ‘The four elements discussed above are critical in determining the reliability of & system or product. System reliability (or unreliability) isa key factor in the frequency ‘of maintenance, and the maintenance frequency obviously has a significant impact on logistic support requirements, Reliability predictions and analyses are required as an ‘put to the supportability analysis. ‘Reliability isan inherent characteristic of design. As such, itis essential that rei- ability be dequstely considered at programincepion and that elabity be wrested throughout the system life cycle Maintainability (M) Maintainabilty, tke reliability, i an inherent characteristic of system or product design. It pertains to the ease, accuracy, safety, and economy in the performance af ‘maintenance actions, A system should be designed such that tea be maintained with- ‘out large investments of time, cost, or other resources (eg, personnel, materials, ities, test equipment) and without adversely affecting the mission of that system, Maintainabilt isthe ability of an iter to be maintained, whereas maintenance constitutes series of actions to be taken to restore or retain an item in an effective oper. ational state. Maintainabilit is a design parameter, Maintenance i a result of design Maintainability ean also be defined as a characteristic in design that ean be expressed in terms of maintenance frequency factors, maintenance times (i. elapsed times and labor hours), and maintenance cost. These terms may be presented as different figures of merit; therefore, maintainability may be defined on the bass ofa com bination of factors such as ‘A characteristic of design and installation which is expressed as the probability that an item will be retained in or restored to a specified condition within a given period of time, when maintenance is performed in accordance with preseribed procedures and resourees. 2. A characteristic of design and installation which s expressed asthe probability that ‘maintenance will not be required more than x times in a given period, when the system is operated in accordance with prescribed procedures, This may be anslo~ {gous toretiabilty when the latter deals withthe overall frequency of maintenance: 3. A characteristic of design and installation which is expressed as the probability that the maintenance cost fora system will nt exceed y dollars per designated Sec. 1.5 Related Terms and Definitions 2 period of time, when the system is operated and maintained in aecordance with prescribed procedures Maintainabilty requites the consideratioa of many different factors involving all aspects of the system, and the measures of maintainability often include a combination of the following: LL MTBM: mean time between maintenance, which includes both preventive (Gcheduled) and corrective (unscheduled) maintenance requirements. It includes consideration of reliability MTBF and MTBR. MTBM may also be considered as ‘a reliability parameter 2, MTBR: mean time between replacement of aa item duo toa maintenance action (asually generates a spare par requirement), ‘3, Mmean active maintenance time (a function of Met and Mp}, 4, Wit: mean corrective maintenance time. Equivalent tomean ime to repair (MTTR), ‘5, Mptz mean preventive maintenance time. 6, Mct: median active corrective miaintenance time. 7, Mpt: median active preventive maintenance time. '& MTTR,: goometric mean time to repair. 9. Mag: shaximum active corrective maintenance time (usually specified atthe 946 and 95% confidence levels) 10, MDT; maintenance downtime (total time during which a system is not in condition to perform its intended function). MDT includes active maintenance time (1), logistics delay time (LIDT), and administrative delay time (ADT), 41. MLIVOH: maintenance labor hours per system operating hour. 12, Cost]OH: maintenance cost per system operating hour 13. CostMA? maintenance cost per maintenance action. 14, Turnaround time (TAT): that element of maintenance time needed to service, repair, and/or check out an item for recommitment. Ths constitutes the time that it takes an item to go through the complete cyele from operational installation ‘through a maintenaiee shop and iat the epares inventory ready for use 1S, Self-test thoroughness: the scope, depth, and accuracy of testing, 16, Fault isolation accuracy: accuracy of system diagnostic routines in percent Maintainability, as an inherent characteristic of design, must be properly consid ered in the early phases of system development, and maintainability activities are applicable throughout the life eyele® *hnchad B.S. D, Vern and, 1 Ptern, Maabbiiy: A Key 1 Rtv Service a arena Managemen, Jon Wey & Sons, Ie, New Yor, NY, 1995.Ey Introduction to Logistics Chap. 1 Maintenance ‘Maintenance includes all actions necessary for retaining a system or product in, or restoring it to, a serviceable condition. Maintenance may be categorized as corrective ‘maintenance or preventive maintenance, 1. Corrective maintenance: includes all unscheduled maintenance actions performed, as a result of system/product failure, to restore the system to a specified condition. The corrective maintenance cycle includes failure identification, local- ization and isolation, disassembly, item removal and replacement or repair in place, reassembly, checkout and condition verification. Also, unscheduled maintenance may occur asa result ofa suspected failure, even if further investigation indicates that no actual failure occurred. 2. Preventive maintenance: includes all scheduled maintenance actions performed to retain a system or product in a specified condition. Scheduled maintenance includes the accomplishment of periodic inspections, condition monitoring, crit- {cal item replacements, and calibration. In addition, servicing requirements (¢-, lubrication, fueling, ete.) may be included under the general category of sched uled maintenance, Maintenance Level Corrective and preventive maintenance may be accomplished on the system itself (or ‘an element thereof) atthe site where the system is used by the customer, in an inter- ‘mediate shop near the customer's operational site, and/or ata depot, supplier or man- ‘ufacturer’s plant facility. Maintenance level pertains to the division of functions and {asks for each area where maintenance is performed. Task complexity, personne!-skill- level requirements, special facility needs, economic criteria, and so on, dictate to a reat extent the specific functions to be accomplished at each level. In support of further discussion, maintenance may be classified as organizational, intermediate, and depot. Maintenance Concept ‘The maintenance concept (as defined in this book) constitutes a series of statements and/or illustrations defining criteria covering maintenance levels (ie, two levels af maintenance, three levels of maintenance, etc), major functions accomplished at ea level of maintenance, basic support policies, effectiveness factors (e.g, MTBM, Met. MLHIOH, cost/MA, etc.) and primary logistic support requirements. The mainte nance concept is defined at program inception and isa prerequisite to system/produet design and development, The maintenance concept is also a required input to the supe portability analysis Sec. 1.5 Related Terms and Defini 2» Maintenance Plan ‘The maintenance plan (as compared to te maintenance concept) is a detailed plan specifying the methods and procedures to be followed for system support throughout the life cycle and during the uilization phase. The plan includes the identification and use ofthe required elements of logistics necessary forthe sustaining Support of the system. The maintenance plan is developed from the supportability analysis (SA) data, and is usually prepared during the detail design phase. ‘Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) ‘Total productive maintenance (TPM) isa Japanese concept involving an integrated, top. down, system life-cycle approach to maintenance, withthe objective of maximizing productivity. TPM is directed primarily to the commercial manufacturing environment, ‘utilizing many ofthe principles inherent within the ILS concept. More specifically, TPM 1, Aims to maximize overall equipment effectiveness (to improve overall efficiency). 2. Establishes a complete preventive maintenance program for the entire life eyele ‘of equipment. 3. Is implemented on a team basis and involves various departments, such as engineering, production operations, and maintenance. 4. Involves every employee, from top management to the workers on the floor. Even equipment operators are responsible for maintenance of the equipment they operate 5, Isbased on the promotion of preventive maintenance through motivational man- ‘agement (autonomous small-group activities) “TPM, often defined as productive maintenance implemented by all employees, i based on the principle that equipment improvement must involve everyone in the arga- ization, from line operators to top management. The objective is to eliminate equip ‘ment breakdowns, speed losses, minor stoppages, and so on. It promotes defect-fee Drauctio, just in-time (JIT) production, and automation. TPM includes continuous Improvement in maintenance." 2 Refer to Nakajna,S. (Ba), TPM Development Program, Proucivity Pras, Poctind, Or as Jntdito English 1888. Sobsoquely, there have been putcroos edna peblatons on the sujet, bo pushed by Productivity Press. Te coucopt of TPM was fst invodoced in Japan nthe ary 1705, ‘ands being mplerente throughout industry unde the guidance ofthe Jopaese Lest for Pat Mai {nance (IPN) The concept became popular in the Unted Stats, the American Instat of Tost Po ‘ucive Mastenance (ATTPM) was established, and there are many companies cere applying the inp of TPM ae form or abe,30 Introduction to Logistics Chap. 1 Human Factors Human factors pertain to the human element of the system and the interface(s) between the human being, the machine, facilities, and associated software. The objective isto assure complete compatiblity between the system physical ad functional ‘design features and the human element inthe operation, maintenance, and support of the system. Considerations in design must be given to anthropometric factors (eg, the physical dimensions ofthe human being), human sensory factors (eg, vision and hear- Ing capabilities), physiological factors (eg. impacts from environmental forces), pey- chological factors (eg, human needs, expectations, attitude, motivation), and their interrelaionships. Human factors (ike reliability and maintainability) must be considered early in system development througia the accomplishment of functional analysis, operator and maintenance ask analysis, error analysis, safety analsis, and related design support activities. Operator and maintenance personnel requieements (i, per~ sonnel quantities and skill levels) and training program needs evolve from the task analysis effort, Maintenance personnel requirements are also identified in the sup- Portability analysis» Software Engineering ‘With today’s tends and the continuing development of computer technology, software 's becoming (if not already) a significant element in the configaration of many systems. (Current experience indicates that software considerations are inherent in more than 50% of the system design and development efforts in being. Software may be viewed in three areas. 3 1, Software that is included as 4 mission-related component of the system and is required for the operation ofthat system. From a logistics perspective, there isa requirement to maintain this software throughout its planed life eycle, 2 Software that is required to accomplish maintenance functions on the system (ea, diagnostic routines, condition monitoring programs). A logistics engineer ing function includes the inital development and the subsequent maintenance of this software. : ‘3 Software that 1s required mn support of program-oriented activities (e4, the sot- ‘ware associated with various computer-based models used for design analyses, the software associated with the preparation and processing of various categories. ‘of design data such as required to meet the requirements for CALS). ‘The development of software must be properly integrated with the development ‘of the hardware, human, and other elements ofthe system. Further, these activities, Sthiearen tei sho ince sade sich general ems ax on neg egomom stm pchlog. Refers te blogphy it Apps See. 1.5 Related Terms and Definitions Eo they apply to system support, must be properly integrated with the activities aecomplished in logistics engineering Producibility Producibilty is « micasute of the relative ease and economy of producing a system or 1 product. The characteristics of design must be such that an item ean be produced eas- ily and economically, using conventional and flexible manufacturing methods and ‘processes without sacrificing function, performance, elfectiveness, or quality. Simplic- lny and fleibifgy are the underlying objectives, and itis the goal to minimize the use of critical materials and ertial processes, the use of proprietary items, the use of spe~ ial production tooling and facilities, the application of unrealistic tolerances in fabri- ‘cation and assembly, the use of special test systems, and the use of high petsonnel skill in manufacturing. Additionally, production and procurement lead times should be min- Iimized to the extent possible, Producbility objectives should apply to the elements of Togistic suppor, as well ss fo the main components ofthe system.* 7 Disposability Disposabilty pertains to the degree to which an item ean be recycled for some other tse or disposed of without causing any dogradation (othe environment. the gener- tation of solid waste toxie substances (air pollution) water polation, noise pollution, fadiation, and so on, Should this area not he addressed in the design the requirements for logistics may tura out to be rather extensive and costly in order to comply with the environmental requirements exrrently being imposed. For example, a large incinera- tioa facility may be required for material decomposition. This, in turn, may include large amounts of capital equipment which requires maintenance and could be very costly to support. ‘Total Quality Management (TOM) Total quality management (TQM) can be described as a total integrated management approach that addresses system/produet quality during all phases of the lifecycle and ft cach level in the overall ayetem hierarchy. It provides a before-the-fact orientation to quality, and i focuses on system design and development activities, as well as pro- ‘duction, manufacturing, assembly, construction, logistic suppor, and related functions, ‘TOM is a unification mechanism linking human capabilities to engincering, produc. tion, and support processes. Some specific characteristics of TOM are noted. = Reer othe biblogapy in Appendix H. Two good ferences ae (1) Both, BW. Sonare “Exinering Feonemic, rote Hal ne, Upper Sade Rivet, NJ. SI an (2) Shere, K.D, Sofware nsinring and Managment, retice Walle Upper Sale River, N18, "Design for produit and density ae essed in Bloch BS and W.J Fabre. ‘Sytem Dagiringand Anal iE, Prostce Hall Tae, Upper Sade Ris, WJ 938,32 Introduction to Logistics Chap. 1 1. Total customer satisfaction i the primary objective, as compared tothe practice ‘of accomplishing as litle as possible in conforming to the minimum requirements, 2, Emphasis is placed on the iterative practice of “continuous improvement” a applied o engineering, production, and support processes. The objective is to seck improvement on day-to-day bass, as compaed tothe often-imposed last- minute single thrust initiated to force compliance with a standard (the Japanese version of this approach, known as Kaizen, is increasing in popularity). ‘3 Insupport of item 2, an individual understanding of processes, the effects of va ation, the application of process conteol methods, and #0 on, ie requited, If ind vidual employees are tobe contributors relative to continuous improvement, they ‘must be knowledgeable ofthe various processes and their inherent characteristics. 4. TOM emphasizes a total organizational appioach, involving every group in the organization, aot just the quality control group. Individual employees are moti- ‘ated rom within and are recognized a eng kes contributors to meting TOM objectives, As part of the initial system design and development effort, consideration must be given 0 (1) the design of the processes that will be used to produce the system and ts components, and (2) the design of the support capability that wil be used to pro vide the necessary ongoing maintenance and support for that system, As illustrated in Figure 15, these facets of program activity intoract, and the results (in terms of uti mate customer satistaction) will depenct heavily an the level of quality attained. Configuration Management (CM) Mis a management approach used to identify the functional and physical character: istics of an item in the early phases of is life cycle, control changes to those characteristics, and record and report change processing and implementation status. CM. involves four fanctions to include (1) configuration identification, 2) configuration, control, (3) configuration status accounting, and (4) configuration audits. CM is base- ‘ne management (ce. the planning, design, and providing logistic support fora system with a given and known baseline configuration Versus attempting to provide a support infrastructure for many different and constantly changing baselines which can be very expensive ss conveyed in Figure 1.11) The big issue isthe coatrol and justification of ‘hanges. CM is 2 major factor in the implementation af system engineering requite ments and functional, allocated, and product baselines ace usually established as the system design and development effort evolves. System Effectiveness ‘System effectiveness can be expressed as one or miore figures of merit representing the extent to which the system is able to perform the intended function, The figures of “Two reereess are (2) DOD SIONSIG, “Taal Qoalty Management A Guide or Implement ‘im Department of Defense, Washigtoa, D.C, sod) RACSOATC-A Guide or lagleeatng Tt (usity Managemen.” Rome Air Development Center, New York, S¥. 190 Sec. 1.5 Related Terms and Definitions 32 merit used may vary considerably depending on the type of system and its mission requirements, and should consider the following 1 System performance parameters, such as the capacity of a power plant, range oF ‘weight of an airplane, destructive capability of a weapon, quantity of letters processed through a postal system, amount of cargo delivered by a transportation system, and the accuracy of a radar capability 2. Availabil, or the measure ofthe degree a system isin the operable and commit. lable state atthe start of a mission when the mission called fort am unknown random point in time. This soften calles operational readiness. Availabilty isa function ‘of operating time (ceiabilty) and downtime (maintainabiltysupportabiliy). 3. Dependability, or the measure ofthe system operating condition at one or more ‘points during the mission, given the system condition atthe start of the mission G., availabilty). Dependability isa function of operating time (reliability) and downtime (maiatainability’supportabilty). ‘A combination of these (and perhaps other) measures represents the technical characteristic ofa system, as opposed to cost and the economic aspects, By inspection, ‘one can see that logistics affects the various elements of system effectiveness toa sig nificant degree, particulary with regard to availabilty and dependability. System operation is highly dependent on support equipment (handling equipment), operating personnel, deta, and facilities. Maintenance and system downtime are based on the Evailabilty of test and support equipment, spareirepatr parts, mamntenance personne!, data, and facilities. The effect of the type and quantity of logistic support is measured through the parameters of system effectivenest Life-cycle Cost (co) LOC involves al costs associated with the system life eyee, to include the following: 1. Research and development (R&D) cost. The cost of feasibility studies; system analyses; detail design and development, fabrication, assembly, and test of engi- ‘neering models; intial system test and evaluation; and asociated documentation. 2. Production and construction cost. The cost of fabrication, assembly, and test af ‘operational systems (production modes); operation and maintenance of the pro- ‘duction capability; and assoclated indir Iogistic support requirements (e.g, test ‘and support equipment development, spare/tepair parts provisioning, technical data development, raining, entry of items into the inventory, facility construction, et). 3 Operation and maintenance cost. The cost of sustaining operation, personnel and ‘maintenance support, sparelrepait parts and related inventories, test and support equipment maintenance, transportation and handling, facilities, modifications and technical data changes, and so on. A. System retirement and phaseout cost. The cost of phasing the system out of the inventory due to obsolescence or wearout, and subsequent equipment item recycling, disposal, and reclamation 3s appropriate.3” Introduction to Logistis Chap. + Life-cycle costs may be categorized many diferent ways, depending on the type of system and the sensitivities desired in costeffeciveness measurements: Cost Effectiveness (CE) ‘The development of a system or product that is cost-offective, within the constraints specified by operational and maintenance requirements, isa prime objective. Cost- effectiveness relates to the measure ofa system in terms of mission fulfillment (system factiveness) and total life-cycle covt, Cost-effactivencas, which ie similar to the stan- ‘dard cost-benefit analysis factor employed for decision-making purposes in many industrial and business applications, can be expressed in various terms (ie., one or ‘more figures of merit), depending on the specific mission or system parameters that ‘one wishes to measure, The prime ingredients of cost-ffectivoness are illustrated in Figure 1.14. Although there are different ways of presenting cost-effectiveness, this illustration is used for the purposes of showing the many influencing factors and their ‘elationships. Further discussion of cost effectiveness is presented in Chapters 2 and 4, and in Appendix E, Figure 116 asc ingedens of cont etectivenes ‘Upper Sadie River 199, Refer ote cox beau sacar in Chapter 4a in Appendix ister. Also, there ae adtnal ferences in Append : ‘chap. 1 Questions and Problems 35 I8_QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What is meant by a system? What are its characterises? Give some examples 12 Would you consider the maintenance nd sopport infrastructure as an element ofa stem? Iso, why! Lenot, why 201? ‘3. What is meant by system Alerarhy? “4 Describe the system if ele and its phases. How might this be diferent frm the life eye ‘ofa given technology (fatal)? |S. Define system engineering. How dost ifr from system science a sytem analysis? Wh isystem enylacerng important? 6. How would you define logscs? What are the basic diferences between logistic a its practiced inthe business oriented commercial sector and lopstis a8 iti practiced inthe Sefense sector? Identify some ofthe funetions that are common across the Board 17, Meaty the elements of logistics (as defined in this text). 8 What is lopses engineering and how does it eat to system engineering? ‘9. Whatismeant by design for suppor? When shout be considered? Why isitimportant? 40, Whatis meant by the maintenance nd support infrastructure? Selecta sytem of your choice tnd provide an illustration. 14, Refer to Figure L5, Deserie some of the iatezrelationships between the four ie cycles. 12. What isthe relationship (impact of onc on another) between reliability and maintainability? [Relabilty and human factor? Maintainabity and human factors! Reliability and logstic support? Maintainability and logistic support Human factors and Joist supper 14 Describe the interelationsips and some of the trade-offs tht ay be required in deter. ‘mining spareirepair parts and test equipment? Test and suppor equipment an faites? Personne! training an technical dats? Sparestepir pars and transportation? Files and personnel? Information systems, sparesrepair parts, and transportation? 14, What isthe diffrence between marainabilty and maintenance? 18, What is the dierence Botweca the malmtenance concept an the maintenance plan? What ‘ype of information may be included in each? 16, Refer to Figute 1.3. Identify nd describe the Jopstis activites associated with each of the blocks. 17, Define integrated logistic support (1S). 18, Define supporabity analysis (SA). What i included? When is it accomplsied inthe 5+ tem ile cyte? 19, Descrte CAI. What iit, and when sit appiioe? 20, Describe concurent engineering: How docs it relate to system engineering and logistics? 21. Descrte total quality management (TOM), How does it eats to ogists? 22, Whats configuration management (CM)? Why sit important regarding Logistics? 228 How does the desi for producibity (ot lac of affect maintenance and logistic suppor”? Provide some examples 2. How docs the desig for dsposnbilty (or lack of) affect maintenance and lgise suppor? Provide sone exampies. 2S, What is meant by ife-cyle cout (LOC)? What is included? When inthe system life eye should LCC analysisbe epplicd? %, Describe total productive maintenance (TPM). What ae some of the characterises of 17M? ‘What i Kaizen? Compare TPM with TLS.CHAPTER 2 | j THE MEASURES OF LOGISTICS |, sd) i Logistics may be viewed as the composite of ll considerations necessary to assure the effective and economical support ofa system throughout its ife eyelet san integral part of all aspects of system planning, design and development, est and evaluation, production and/or construction, customer utilization, and System retirement. The ele. ‘ments of logistics, as depicted in Figure 1.3, must be developed on an integral bass with all other segments of the system, To ensure that ogists is properly addressed throughout the Hie eye, one must stabs the appropriate logic sppon retirement fn ine early sages of concept ‘design (refer to Figure 1.6). Logistis requirements must be initially specified, both in {quantitative and qualitative terms. As systom development progress, the configu tion defined must be evaluated against the specified requirements, and modifications | for improvement mast be incorporated as necessary to ensure effective results, Ths «valuation task, which is an iterative process, is accomplished through a combination Of prections, analyses, nd the ase of physi models for conducting tes aa Intuitive within the process of requirements definition, specification, and systems ‘evaluation isthe aspect of idemifying the appropriate quantitative measures of log tics fora piven system configuration, These measures msy. of course, vary from system tosystem, asthe customer need and mission requirements will vary from one applic tion to the next, Further, there may be multiple factors for ay given situation. This itis impossible to cover all conditions and certsialy not feasible within the confines of this text. Nevertheless, the qualitative measures of logistics mast be addressed The intent of tis chapter is to introduce some of the more comsmonly employed ‘quantitative factors applicable ia the development and evalnation of the maintenanes and logistic support infrastructure for systems, OF particular significance are reliable 3% Sec. 2.1 Reliability Factors 27 and maintainability factors, supply support factors, test and support equipment factors, “organizational factors, transportation and handling factors, facility factors, effective= ress and ecrnomie factors, and so on. Knowledge of the material presented inthe var fous sections of this chapter is esential if one isto plan for, design, produce, and implementa logistic support capability in an effective and efficient manner. Because ‘mach of the material included herein is presented in terms of an overview, the review ‘of additional text material as liste in Appendix Fis recommended for more dealled coverage’! 2.1 RELIABILITY FACTORS In determining system support requirements, tho froqueney of maintenance becomes a significant parameter. The frequency of maintenanes fora given item is highly depen tient on the teiability ofthat item. In general, as the reliability of a system increases, the frequency of maintenance will decrease and, conversely, the frequency of mainte ance will increase as system reliability is degraded. Unreliable systems will usually require extensive maintenance. In any event, logistic support requirements are highly {influenced by reliability factors. Thus, abasic understanding of reliability terms and ‘concepts is required, Some ofthe key reliability quantitative factors used inthe system Reem 1 Operating Tine °8 = Mean Tne Between Flee 06 04 Relay, R= Relabay of Poti of Suva ‘when the yer operting ae den ote MTB. the 002 aa oe on 0 42 0# 6 18 20 ‘Nowmaleed Tine —e Figure 21 Esponeatlelabty function. Upper Sade Re, 199). Sec.21 Reliability Factors 9 Failure Rate ‘The rate at which failures occur in a specified time interval is called the faifure rate dur- {ng that intorval. The failure rate (A) is expressed as umber of failures erating hours "The failure rate may be expressed in terms of failures per hour, percent failures per 1,000 houts, of failures per million hours, As an example, suppose that 10 compo- ents were tested under specified operating conditions. The components (which are not repairable) failed as follows en (Component 1 failed after 75 hours. ‘Component 2 failed after 125 hours. ‘Component 3 filed after 130 hours. ‘Component 4 failed after 325 hours. ‘+ Component $ failed after 525 hours. “There were five failures and the total operating time was 3605 hours. Using Equation @27) the calculated failure rate per hour is ‘Asa second example, suppose thatthe operating cycle fora given system is 169 ‘hours, as illustrated in Fig. 22. During that time six failures occur atthe pointsindicated. ‘A failure is defined as an instance when the system is not operating within a specified set of parameters. The failure rate, or corrective maintenance frequency, per hour is Fst ste aatar cote “i uo scat} LL _I System Operon Geto 462 Hous Figure 22. Operations eye40 ‘The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 see.24 number of failures __6 Total mission de ~ 142 ~ “072535 ‘Assuming an exponential disteibution, the system mean life or the mean time between failure (MTBF) is 14 MIBE =~ 9322535 igure 94 presents reliability nomopraph (forthe exponential failure distribu tion) which facltates calculations of MTBF, R(). and operating time. For example, ifthe MTBE is 200 hours (A = 0.005), andthe operating time is2 hours, the aomograph ves a reliability value of 0.98. ‘When determining the overall face rate, particularly with regard to estimating corrective maintenance actions ie, the Frequency of corrective maintenance), one faust ates al system failures o include failures resulting iron primary defects fail tes duc to manufacturing defets, failures due to operator and maintenance eros, fd So 00. The overal failure rte should cover all actors that wil cause the system to be inoperative ata time when satisfactory system operation is required. A combined failore rate is presented in Table 2. TABLE 21 Combined Fale Rate = 23.6667 hows Consideration (isancoou) (9) Imereti fare te ‘omer (by Manaintring Stes ‘tsar {@) Weuout ene ‘on000 (epee ft te ‘ootcor2 (6) Oper induced fale rte ‘coms [B Nntensce duced foe rae O12 (Eamon damage ate ‘ons "Tosa cid fete ‘mass ‘When assuming the negative exponential distribution, the failure rate is const cred to be relatively constant during normal system operation ifthe system design i mature, That, when equipment is pred and the system js initially distributed for @ ‘operational use, there are usualy a igher number of failures due to component tations and tsmatches, manufacturing processes, and so on. The initial faikue rate higher than anticipated, but gradually deereases and levels of durin the debugging >urn-in period a illustrated in Figure 2. Similarly, when the system reaches a cof tain age, there is a wear-out period where the failure rate inreases. The relatively portion of the curve in Figice 2 is the constant failure rate region where the ex ‘ental filuce law applies. ‘Figuce 2.4 illustrates certain relative relationships. Actually, the curve may ‘considerably depending on the type of system and its operational profile. Further, the system is continually being modified for one reason or another, the failure rat Reliability Factors Mean Time | Host Faesbe | Rate 00001 coos oon Given Equipment Mean Tine wo Fal or Hous 0958995 099399 099995 09999 a9ms 09% 09s 095 50 os o worn eg Fare ate and Operating Tye, Soe fot Stag ine Reed. Pobiity of Suv 0 Sao. a“ Operating Tne oor oo 03 005 o Figure 23 Relay amogrep forthe sxponetl lore dsbuon,(VAVAIR UISUACKS, Rely Engcering and, Nal Ai Systems Comin US Navy, Wiashiagion, BC, 1977), ‘ot be constant. In any event, the illustration does provide a good basis for consider ‘ng failure sate trends on a relative bass Ti the world of software uilures may be related to calender time, processor time, ‘the number of transactions per period of time, the number of faults per module ofchap. 2 The Measures of Logistics g E : Tae Gar bans Tegan a A i aN i é @ ‘Breton Bs ‘Mechwaia Egipmont Figure 24 Typical ade ure relsenitipe code, and so on, Expectations are usually based on an operational profile and crit lay o the mission. Thus, an accurate description of the missioa scenario(s) is requires ‘As the system evolves from the design and development stage to the operational ui lization phase, the ongoing maintenance of software often becomes a major ist Whereas the failure rate of equipment gencraly assumes the paves in Figure 2.4 ti ‘maintenance of software often has a negative effect on the overall system reliabil ‘The performance of software maintenance on a contiauing basis, along with the in poration of system changes in general, usually impacts the overall failure rate, a5: in Figure 25. When a change or modification is incorporated, “bugs” are usally i duced and it takes a while for these to be “worked out” of the system. Reliability Component Relationships Given the basic reliability function and the measures associated with failure rate, appropriate to consider their application in series networks, parallel networks, ‘combinations thereof. These networks are used in reliability block diagrams a Sec 2.1 Reliability Factors a ofan Moray sett ie Pood ‘Debeaging) ‘Manianc) Friar rate vest Figure 25. Paluresate cave wth maintenince (softreset), ‘models employed fo reliability prediction and analysis. Reliability prediction is nec- ‘sreary input for supportbilty analyee, 1, Series networks. The series relationship, as illustrated in Figure 2.6, is probably the most commonly used and isthe simplest to analyze. In a series network, al components must operate in a satisfactory manner if the system is to function propery. Assuming that a system includes Subsystem A. Subsystem B, and Subsystem C, the reliability ofthe system is the product ofthe reliabilities forthe individual subsystems and may be exprossed 28, Reliability (R) = (Rq)(Ra)(Re) 28) As an example, suppose that an electronic system includes a transmitter, a -eceiver, and a power supply. The transmitter reliability is 0.8521, the receiver reliability is 0.9712, andthe power supply reliability is 0.9357. The overall reability for the electronic system i R, = (08521)(0.9712) (0.9357) = 0.7743 fa series system configuration is expected to operate fora specified time period, ‘ts required overall reliability can be derived. Substituting Equation (2.5) into Equa: ‘un (28) givos eteearnerade fs e9 Input 2 je ouput Figure 26. Sarcs etext.“ ‘The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 Suppose that a series configuration consists of four subsystems and is expected to operate for 1000 hours. The four subsystems have the following MTBFs: Subsystem ‘A, MTBF = 6000 hours; Subsystem B, MTBF = 4500 hours; Subsystem C, MTBF = 10,500 hours; Subsystem D, MTBF overall reliability ofthe series network where 0.000167 faiture per hour 1000222 failure por hour 4 Fo. ~ 2000095 failure per hour 1000313 failure per hour ‘The overall reliability of the series network is found from Equation (2.9) as R= eH = 0.4507 ‘This means that the probability ofthe system surviving (Le., the reliability) for 1000 hours is 45.1%, Ifthe requirement were reduced to SO0 hours, the reliability would increase to about 67%, 2. Parallel networks. A pure parallel network is one where a number of the same ‘components are in parallel and where all the components must fail in order to cause total system failure, A parallel network with two components is illustrated in Figure 2.1. The system will function if either A or B, or both, are working, and the reliability is expressed as Reliability (R) = Ry + Ry ~ (R,)(Ru) 210) Consider next a network with three components in parallel as shown in Figure 2.8. The network reliability is expressed as aby b+ output = Figure 27, Paral network aK Input Be ouiout ¢ J Figure 2 Paral netwoe with tee component 1200 hours. The objective is to determine the | Sec.2.1 Reliability Factors 45 Reliability (R) = 1 ~ (1 ~ R,)(1~ Ry)(L = Red eu) If components A, B, and C are identical, then the reliability expression for a system with three parallel components can be simplified to Rotiabity () = 1 — R) For a system with identical components, the reliability s Reliability (R) = 1 ~ (1 ~ RY" (2.12) Parallel redundant nctworks are used primarily to improve system reliability as [Equations (2:11) and (2.12) indicate mathematically. For instance, assume that a system includes two identical subsystems in parallel and that the reliability of each subsystem is 0.95. The reliability ofthe system is found from Equation (2.10) as Reliability (R) ~ 095 + 095 ~ (0.95)(0.95) = 09975 Suppose that the reliability of the system above needs improvement beyond (09975. By adding a third identical subsystem in parallel, the sytem reliability is found from Equation (2.12) tbe Relbilty(R) = 1 ~ (1 ~ 095)° = 0999875 [Note that this sa rliblity improvement of 0.002375 over the previous configuration, oF thatthe unreliability of the sytem was improved from 0.0025 to 0.000125. ifthe subsystems are not identical, Equation (210) ean be used, For example, a parallel redundant network with two subsystems with R, = 0.75 and Ry = O82 gives a System reliability of Reliability (R) 75 + 082 ~ (0.75)(0:82) 955 3. Combined seriey-parallel networks. Various levels of reliability can be achieved through the application of a combination of series and parallel networks. Consider the ‘Oxee examples illustrated in Figure 2.9, ‘The reliability ofthe first network in Figure 2.9 given by the equation Reliability (R) = Ry(Ry + Ro~ ReRe) (2.13) For the second network, the reliability i given hy the eqation Reliability (R) = (I~ (L~ RA) ~ RIM (= RA=Ryy} 14) ‘And for the third network the reliability i given by the equation Reliability (R) = [I~ (1 ~ R,)(1~ Ry)(t ~ Re Ro) X IR Re (RVR) (2.15) Combined series-paralel networks such as those in Figure 2.9 require thatthe analyst frst evaluate the redundant (parae}) elements to obtain 2 unit reliability, and then combine the unit(s) with other elements ofthe system. Overall system reliability is then determined by finding the produet of al series reliabilities.4s ‘The Measures of Logistics chap.2 Sec.22 Malntanablty Factors HL - fet i ® SHE » r{ = Inper abheyo bh Output Ly © Figure 29 Some coined sero poral networks, F Subeytem E Reliability block diagrams are generated, evolving from the functional block dia ‘gram for the system (refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.6) and leading through progressive ‘expansion to individual system components, This process i illustrated in Figure 2.10, ‘Asa system design progresses, reliability block diagrams are used in reliability analy- sos and prediction functions. 2.2 MAINTAINABILITY FACTORS Maintainability is aa inherent design characteristic dealing with the ease, accuracy, safety, and economy in the performance of maintenance functions. Maintainability, defined in the broadest sense, can be measured in terms of a combination of elapsed times, personnel labor-hour rates, maintenance frequencies, maintenance cost, and related logistic support factors. The measures most commonly used are described in this section, panna , t Figure 2.10. Progresive book diagram expansion.“a ‘The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 Maintenance Elapsed-Time Factors Maintenance can be classified in two categories; 1. Corrective maintenance. The unscheduled actions, initiated as a result of failure (ora perceived failure), that are necessary to restore a system to its required level ‘of performance. Such activities may include troubleshooting, disassembly. repair, remove and replace, reassembly, alignment and adjustment, checkout, and so om, Additionally, this includes al software maintenance that isnot intially planned; x, adaptive maintenance. perfective maintenance, and so on 2 Preventive maintenance. The Scheduled actions necessary to retain a system at & specified lev! of performance. This may inlude perio inspections, servicing, al. ‘bration, condition monitoring, and/or the replacement of designated critical tems, Maintenance constitutes the act of diagnosing and repairing or preventing, system failures. Maintenance time is made up of the individual task times associated with the required corrective and preventive maintonance actions fora given system or product, ‘Maintainabilit isa measure of the ease and rapidity with which a system ean be main. tained, and is measured in terms of the time required to perform maintenance tasks. A {ow of the more commonly used maintainability time measures are defined subsequently. 1. Mean corrective maintenance time (Met). Each time that a system fails, a series of steps is required to repair or restore the system toils full operational stats. These ‘steps include failure detection, faut isolation, disassembly to gain access to the faulty item, repair, and so on, as illustrated in Figure 2.11, Completion of these steps for & given failure constitutes a corrective maiatenance cycle, ‘Throughout the system use phase, there will be a number of individual maintenance actions involving the series of steps illustrated in Figure 2.11. The mean eorree- tive maintenance time (Met), or the mean time to repair (MTTR) which is equivalent, isa composite value representing the arithmetic average of these individual main nance eycle times, For the purposes of illustration, Table 2.2 includes data covering a sample of 50 corrective maintenance repair actions accomplished on atypical equipment item. Each of the times indicated represents the completion of one corrective maintenance cycle illustrated in Figure 2.11. Based on the set of raw data presented, which constitutes & random sample, a frequency distribution table and frequency histogram may be prepared a illustrated in Table 23 and Figure 212, respectively Referring to Table 2.2, the tange of observations is between 97 and 30 minutes, (or a total of 67 minutes. This range can be divided into class intervals with a class inte. val width of 10 assumed for convenience. A logical starting point i to select class intervals of 20-29, 30-39, and so on. In such instances, it is necessary to establish the dividing point between two adjacent interval, such as 29.5, 39.5, and so on Given the frequency distribution of repair times, one can plot a histogram show ing time valves in minutes and the frequency of occurrence asin Figure 2.12. By determining the midpoint of each class interval, a frequency polygon can be developed us illustrated in Figure 2.13. Ths provides an indication of the form ofthe probability distribution applicable to repair times for this particular system, sec.22 Maintainabilty Factors Faire Ocers———- ‘Becton Fre Conrmed ‘oieton) Pepratin for Nainterace I Asie Mantas Coens Toalaton wma tein LT Fay to ed “en — Renomiar | [ Repairot Feat tn || exerment + Testalation of ‘SpaeRepir cs teem “Contin Veietion (Grekout) Repse Completed Figure 2.11 Coresive maintenance ey50 “The Measures of Logistics chap.2 ‘TABLE 22 Corrective Maintenance Times Minutes) o 8 8 6 6 8 6 & 0 @ n 2 S & 9 @ 2 9 % 1 s * # » #8 7 © 9 & 6 7 4 * » S «© 8 8 ® @ » os 0 2 9 9 7 8 8 8 TABLE23_ Frequency Distribution Cnc Regma ee eames 3 wee 5 esas = . oes a osm ° news 7 om ® io 2 “f ], pie ., By oss BS WS 95 @S Sw 95 Conese Maintenance Tie, Minutes Figue 212 Hhtogtam of aintenane non. ‘The probability distribution function for repair times can usually be expected to take one of three common forms: ‘a. The normal distribution, which generally applies to relatively straightforward ‘maintenance tasks and repair actions, such as simple remove and replace tasks ‘which consistently require a fixed amount of time to accomplish with very It- tle variation. See.2.2 Maintainaility Factors st Frequeiy of Ossurene ot RT as aT ae Hs os onrstine Maintenance Te, Minutes Figue213. Frequency pve. b. ‘The exponential distribution, which generally applies to equipment with an excel- lent builtin test capability and a remove and replace repair concept. The main- ‘enanoe rate i constant «& The log-normal distribution, which applies to most maintenance tasks and repair actions where the task times and frequencies vary. Experience has indicated that in the majority of instances, the distribution of maintenance times for complex systems and equipment is log-normal me [Referring to Figure 2.13, a additional corrective maintenance actions occur and ata points are plotted forthe system in questoa, the curve may take the shape ofthe formal distribution. The curve is defined by the arithmetic mean (X or Met) and the standard deviation (¢) From the maintenance repair times presented in Table 2.2, the arithmetic average is determined as follows: Ser, Mot = = 308 61.9 (assume 2) 236) 30 “where Metis the total active corrective maintenance eyele time for each maintenance fetion, and mis the sample size, ‘Thus, the average value forthe sample of 50 mainte- mance actions is 62 minutes. "The standard deviation (o) measures the dispersion of maintenance time values. ‘When « standard deviation is caleulatod, itis convenient to generate a table giving the vintion of each tark ine ftom the mesn ef 62. Table 2. illustrates this for only four Individual task times, although all 50 tasks should be treated ina like manner. The total value of 13,013 does cover all SO tasks. ‘The standard deviation (¢) ofthe sample normal distribution curve ean now be determined as follows = 163 minutes (assume 16) (2.17)2 ‘The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 TABLE2A. Variance Data Ma Mey —Mat Qa, Maye * “2 ws poet Figure 214 Norma! trib, Assuming normal distribution, the characteristics displayed in Figure 2.14 will hold true. It can be stated that approximately 68% of the total population sample falls within the range 46 to 78 minutes, Also, it can be assumed that 99.7% of the sample ‘population lies within the range of Met > 3, or 14 to 110 minutes. ‘As an example ofa typical application, one may wish to determine the percent of total population of repair times that lies between 40 and $0 minutes. Graphically, this is represented in Figure 2.15. The problem is to find the percent represented by the shaded area. This can be calculated 28 flows ‘8 Convert maintenance times of 40 and 50 minutes into standard values (7), the ‘number of standard deviations above and below the mean of 62 minutes: Sec.22 Maintainabily Factors 83 Frequency nue Fleure215- Norma strbation samp. ‘The maintenance times of 40 and 50 minutes represent 1.37 and 0.75 standard deviations below the meaa sie the values are negative. b, Point 2\(Z = ~137) represents an area of 0.0853 and point X3(Z represents an area of 0.2266, as given in Appendix G. Table G: ‘& The shaded area A in Figuee 2.15 represents the difference in area, or area LX — Xj = 0.2266 ~ 0.853 = 0.1413, Thus, 14.13% ofthe population of maintenance times are estimated to le between 40 and 50 minutes, 015) Next, confidence limits should be determined. Since the 50 maintenance tasks represent only a sample of all maintenance actions on the equipment being evaluated, itis possible that another sample of 50 maintenance actions on the same equipment ‘could have a meat value either greater or les than 62 mioutes. ‘The original 50 tasks were selected at random, however, and statistically represent the entire population Using the standard deviation, an upper and lower limit ean be placed on the mean value (Mct) ofthe population. For instance if one i willing to accept a chance of being, ‘wrong 15% ofthe time (85% confidence limit), then limit = et + 2(<-) 220) srr em where 0/ VV represents the standard exror factor “The Z vate i obtained from Appendix O. Table G-, where 0.8508 is lose to 9m and vecis Zot 108 Ths, voor 2 109( 38) = 6.38 ‘This means thatthe upper limit is 644 minutes at a confidence level of 85%, oF that there isan 85% chance that Met willbe les than 64.4. Variations in sk and upper limits are shown in Table 25. Ifa specified Met limit is established forthe design of an equipment (based on mission and operational requirements) and itis known (oF assumed) that maintenance times are normally distributed, then one would have t0se The Measures of Logistics chap.2 ‘TABLES _Rik/Upper Unit Variations sk Consaence Zz Upper Lint * oe 16s 6s 7aminaee 10 om 126489 miner 15 se oe 5tsSmimuae 2 oe 0M G80 mince ‘compare the results of predictions and/or measurements (e.g, 64.35 minutes) accomplished during the development process with the specified value to determine the degree of compliance. ‘As indicated eatlicr, the maintenance task times for many systems and equip- ‘ments do not fit within the normal curve. There may be a few representative mainte~ ‘nance actions where repair times are exteasive, causing a skew to the right, This is particularly true for electronic equipment items, where the distribution of repair times ‘often follows a log-normal curve, as shown in Figure 2.16, Derivation of the specific slistribution curve for a set of maintenance task times is scoomplished using the same ‘procedure as given in the preceding paragraphs. A frequency table is generated and a | histogram is plotted. ‘A sample of 24 corrective maintenance repair actions for «typical clectronie ‘equipment item is presented in Table 26. The arithmetic average provides a good early estimate ofthe mean. Using the data inthe table, the arithmetic average is determined 8 follows: Freuency Mote Medan or Geometis Mean gure 216. Lop nonma dtietion ‘TABLE 26 Corrective Maintenance Repl Tne (inte) s 8 om 7 8 8 6 ® a 0 @ % mo MS #8 o 2 9 & s 8 % 6 Sec,2.2 Maintainability Factors 55 Se 1637 So = 68.21 minutes Met ‘When determining tke mean corrective maintenance time (We) for a specific sample poptlation (empirically measured) of maintenance repair actions, the use of [Equation (2.16) is appropriate. However, Equation (2.21) has wider application sines this equation has the individual task epair times weighted by the frequency with which each individual task is aecomplished. ‘Thus, this equation measures the “weighted” ‘moan, which isthe preferred method. Mor = LAdMet,) we ea where 4 the failaé rate ofthe individual ith) element of the item being measured, ‘sally expressed in failures per equipment operating hour. Equation (2.21) calculates, ‘Met as a “weighted average” using reliability factors, Tt should be noted that Met considers only active maintenance time or that time “which is spent working dzectly on the system. Logistics delay ime and administrative ‘lay time are not included. Although all elements of time re important, the Met factor is oriented primarily to a measure of the supportability characteristics in equipment design. 2, Mean preventive maintenance time (Mpt). Preventive maintenance consists of the actions required to retain a system at a specified level of performance and may include such fonetions as periodic inspection, servicing, scheduled replaceasent of critical items, calibration, verbal, and soon. Mptis the mean (or average) elapsed time to perform preventive or scheduled maintesance on an item, and is expressed 2s pt = Str) omy where fpf, is the frequency of the individual (jth) preventive maintenance action in actions per system operating hour, and Mpt,is the elapsed time requited for the ith preventive maintenance action, Preventive maintenance may be accomplished while the system Is ful opera tion, or could result in downtime. In this instance, the concern is for preventive msin- tenance actions whieh result in system downtime. Again, Mpt includes only active system maintenance time and not logistic delay and administrative delay times. 3. Median active corrective maintenance time (Kiet). "The median maintenance time is that value which divides all ofthe downtime values so that SO% are equal {oof less than the median and 50% are equa to or greater than the median, The median will usu ally give the best average location of the data sample. The median for a normal distibution is the same as the mean, whilo the median ina log-normal distribution is the same asthe geometric mean (MTTRg) illustrated in Figure 2.16. Met i calculated as: eee eas eee “Met, LogMet, (Lope) ‘Met, LogMct, —— (LogMet,)* ‘s 0 3.008 o 1806 328 no ees a ea [ite eg cess cee | ace s 1.74 297 | 2 Las 348 Par oe a oe cool |e cosa See aRS8a ha monn sia a a cena Ber ag stag EAIOEED — gay DA, tive purposes, the maintenance time values in Table 26 are presented in the format illustrated in Table 2.7. The median is computed as follows: - DiosMet, Met = atts 55 43015 = antlog “27> = antilog L805 = 63.8 minutes 4. Median actve preventive maintenance ine (Hip), Tie mean active preventive maine metering hea aon fog Mt Np ip = anlog 2 Mr Eigen) on Sec.22 Maintainabilty actors 37 5, Mean active maintenance time (M). Mis the mean or average elapsed time required to perform scheduled (preventive) and uascheduled (corrective) maintenance. excludes logistics delay time and administrative delay time, and is expressed as w= ed) 225 jure rate, and pe a the preventive ‘6, Maximum active corrective maintenance ime (Myg)- Mau Can be defined as that talue of maintenance downtime below which a spesibed percent of al maintenance tetions can be expected to be completed. May. is related primarily tothe log-normal distribution, andthe 9kh or 95th percentile point is generally taken asthe specified ‘alc, as shown in Figure 216, lis expressed as Max = atilog 19RME + Zoya) 026) swnere logMétis the mean of the logarithms of Met, Zsthe value corresponding to the “Spesfic percentage point at whicb M,,< is defined (ae Table 25, +1.65 for 95%) and 13 const? ~ (3 oes) oe a roun= : or te standard deviation of the sample lpaithms of average epi times, Me, For example, determining M,,, at the 95th percentile for the data sample in ‘Table 2.6 is accomplished as follows! Mugs = antilog flogMet + (1.65) guia (228) ‘where, referring to Equation (2.27) and Table 2.7, (R785 — SSIS) IIA Sasa” BIT «a 365 Substituting the standard deviation factor and the mean value into Equation (228), fone can obtain ez Mou, = antilog log Met + (1.65)(0.163)] = antilog(1.805 + 0.260) If maintenance times are distributed log-normally, Mya, cannot be derived sel 00 ‘These examples illustrate the computations used ia determining system success = - ‘ith spare parts for three simple component configuration relationships, Various combinations of operating components and spares ean be assumed, and the system suscess factors can be determined by using 1 ante | Qaye | Ma (ae + + One ass) a | nw 3 nl . A Equation 2.34) can be simplified into general Poisson expression f $0) WE 235) / i j ‘The objective isto determine the probability of x filures occurring if an item is placed in operating for‘ hours, and each flare corrected {through item replace ‘ent asi occurs, With items inthe system, the number of failures int hours will be ‘ni, and the general Poisson expression becomes (nue a a $00 036) 0999 os 0.001 2.0001 To facilitate calculations, «cumulative Poisson probability graph is presented in savnyeg 7130140 AONE Figure 2.19 derived from Equation (2.36), The ordinate value can be viewed asa co ical 3 The Poison and exponential stration ae oguiaest ect rt coco the random veal oct xponetal pe random vara rhs ie fo flr, were sth mane ues per aes ne pero forthe Poison. The expocei vas cones ad the Psu eae ete6 The Measures of Logistics Chap.2 fidence factor. Several simple examples willbe presented to illustrate the application of Figure 2.19. Probability of Mission Completion ‘Suppose that one needs to determine the probability that a system will complete @30- ‘hour mission without failure when the system has aknown mean life of 100 hours. Let A= failure per 100 hours or 0.01 failure per hour 1 = Whours ne Leystem me = (1)(0.01)(30) = 03 Enter Figure 2.19 where nr is 03. Proceed tothe intersection where requals 20r0 ‘and read the ordinate seale, indicating a value of approximately 0.73, Thus, the probability of the system completing 30-hour mission is 0.73, “Assume that the system identified above is installed in an airerat and that LO aircraft are scheduled fora 15-hour mission, Determine the probability that atleast 739 tems will operate forthe duration of the mission without failure. Let + mdr = (10)(0.01) (15) = 15 1 = 3 failures or les (allowed) ‘Eater Figure 2.19 when nr equals 1S. Proceed tothe intersection where r equals 3, and read the ordinate scale indicating 4 value of approximately 0.92. Thus, there is 492% confidence that atleast 7 systems will operate successfully out of 10. If an 80% ‘operational reliability is specified (ie., 8 systems must operate without failure), the confidence factor decreases to about 82%, Although the graph in Figure 2.19 provides simplified solution, the use of Equa- sion (234) is preferable for accurate results, Additionally, there are many textbooks. that contain tables covering the Poisson expansion, ‘Spare-Part Quantity Determination Spare-part quantity determination is a function ofa probability of having a spare part. available when roquited. the reliability of the item in question, the quanity of ems ‘sed in the system, and So on. An expression, derived from the Poisson eistibation, useful for spare part quantity determination is p= fBemey @37) where P = probability of having a spare of a particular item available when required See. 2.2 Supply Support Factors o ‘5 = oumber of space parts cari in stock FR compost abit (probability of surely ® 1 = quanty of pan used ofa particular ype In > natral part of In determining spre pat quai one should conser the level of protection dese (fey fair). The poeta level the Pvc in Equation (237), Tae = the protabty of havig a spare avaiable when required. The higher the proestion Tove the prester he guanity of spre equed. Ths esos in higher cos foritem ceases en entry tnintonane. The proto level ney Tat. edge agin the rao stock oct : “When Jtermiing spare pat quanti, one shoal consider system operational roquinments (stem eflecivenens, vai) and exaish the appropriat= ici ar cach lesion where conectve maintenance i accomplished. Diflerentevls tsi mite my appetite Fri, aes states t support pam equipment components which are era to te sczs o ‘Nom may Bo Be on on aco, pve or hight tems maybe handled ‘ferent than low-cost ems and soo. fv any even, am optimum balan Between Siok eve! a ons equ. ures 2208 and 2200 presenta nomograph which simplifies the deteina- sion of pe part quanties wing Pauation (237, The somoraph not only ips ‘Stoson for ase pare pert vet qusstions but proves information that cn Sainthe caustic ef wcvmtve design aprons im terme a pars aod inthe sermon of provisonny cpl The fleeing examples state the we othe aie that a piece of equipment contains 20 paris of a speciic type with a fail- cera (0) of 01 fare pr 1000 hours of operation. The equipment operates Stour aay, andspates fe procured and stocked at month neva. How many Spare shoul be cared in inventory to este 498% chance of having a spare ptt when required? Let K= 2 part A= 041 failure per 1000 hours P= 3 months KAT = (20)(0.0001)(24)(30)(3) = 432 P= 95% Using the nomograph in Figures 220A and 2208 a illustrated, approsimately 8 spares are required, "As a second example, suppose that a particular par is used in three different equipments (4, B, C). Spares are procured every 180 days. The aumber of parts used the part fafure rate, and the equipment operating hours per day are given in Table 2.8, “NAVSHIPS 4524, Maintain Design Ceri HondBook for Deir of Spar Hlecronic Euipmens, Navel Ship Spe Canad, Departent ofthe Novy, Wetingon D.C. 1964‘The Meatures of Logistis Chap. 2 Sec.23 Supply Support Factors ow ° 2 6 6 kor Inaex a mr q o or os ’ HoursCtentar { Tine Frie100 he 1 a mtr of Spres Protebiity 1000 100 00 #0 fot > 8 So FA aot 3 3 0995 wot * % 3 “ts * 099 mt 19 od 20 0 | sof 30 : co ‘ af ew ‘. os of @ : sof 100 > 00 » 200 2 oss 30 ie oxo wot 1 SF 04. son os of 88 08 5 35 3 os 3] 200 FF monte 03 000 | ens 2 bst00 Foun oz soca 0004 1 yer " ‘ on 005 4 0.05 t (yn 9-0) one ; Shans") oo j a (sna 002 } 002 oot oot 12 of 2). (NAYSHIPS Figure 22010) Spare part eqiemestaomogagh Get 2 of 2. @ seer see aaly sn Cine Hanehat for Besser of part crn Yaar US Nev, Washington, B.C) Figue 2203) Spare part eeguiceeat nomograph (sheet 1 f).7 ‘The Measures of Logistics chap.2 TABLE 28 Data fr Spates Inventory Frilwerper Operating Hous em KWo How (ay pee Dag er) Equipmenta 25 oxo 2 Egupmest 28 un 1s guests tus ‘The number of spares that should he carried in inventory to ensure a 90% chance ‘of having a spare available when required is calculated as follows 1. Determine the product of K, and Tas A= (25)(0.0001)(180)(12) = 540 (28)(0.00007)(180)(15) = 529 © = (85)(0.00015)(180)(20) = 18:90 2 Determine the sum of the KAT values as ZKAT = 540 +529 + 1890 = 29.59 3. Using sheet 2of the nomograph (Figure 2.20B), construct a line f¥om KAT value ‘of 29.59 to the point where P is 0,90. The approximate number of spares required is 36. Inventory Considerations ‘In progressing further, one needs to address not only the specific demand factors for spares, but to evaluate these factors in terms of the overall Inventory requirements, ‘Too much inventory may ideally respond tothe demand for spares. However, this may bbe costly, with a great deal of capital ied up in the inventory. In addition, mach waste «ould occur, particularly if system changes are insplemeated and certain components become obsoete. On the other hand, providing too litte support results inthe proba. bility of causing the, system to be inoperative due to stock-out, which also canbe costly In general itis desirable 10 obtain an economic balance between the quantity of items in inventory a any given point in time, the frequency of purchase order transactions, and the quantity of items per purchase order. Figure 2.21 presents a graphical portrayal of an inventory cycle. The ilustration assumes a constant lead time and a constant item demand (e.. failure vate). Stock ‘depletions are represented by the sloping consumption line. When the stock is depleted 10-8 designated level, additional items are ordered (represented atthe order point) in enough time to allow for supply replenishment before a stock-out condition occurs, ‘The terms identified inthe igure ae briefly defined as follown® *nvesory cmceps may vary. A fited review me ath when inventory i vow a ied tie nee ad depleted tame are eodered in alae quan) ord Peorer pn method (stad ‘ters age insted when the vestry dete ocala ee) ay be employed. However ‘omic order pipe should gover no stances, Sec.23 Supply Support Factors n Procure 00 om je Reon Cte «£92 uatty of en In Stack tel = * ‘Zero Stock [rete Figure 2.21, Theoretical neato eye 1. Operating level—deseribes the quantity of material ites required to support nor ‘mal system operations in the interval between orders and the asrval of successive shipments of material 2, Safety sock—aduitional tock required to compensate for unexpected demands, repair and recycle times, pipeline, procurement lead time, and unforeseen delays. 3 Reorder eycle—interval of time between successive orders, A. Procurement lead time—the span of time from the date of order to receipt of the shipment ta the inventory. This includes (a) administrative lend time from the date that a decision is made to initiate an order to the receipt ofthe order at the supplier: (b) production ead time or the time from receipt of the order by the supplier to completion ofthe manufacture ofthe item ordered; and (c) delivery Jead time from completion of manufacture to receipt ofthe item in the inventory. Delivery lead time includes the pipeline ‘5. Pipeline—the distance between the supplier and consumer, measured in days of ‘supply. Ia constant flow is assumed with a transit time of 30 days and the con= sumption rate is one item pee day, then 30 items would be required in the pipeline fatal times. An increase in the demand would require more in the pipeline. 6 Onder point (O.P.)—the point in time when orders aro initiated for additional {quantities of sparelrepair paris. This point s often tied to a given stock level {after the stock has been depleted to that level). Figure 221 isa theoretical representation of an inventory eyele for a given item, ‘Actually, demands are act always constant and quite often the reorder cycle changes ‘with time, Figure 222 presents a situation that is more realistic. Refetring to Figure 2.21 (ce, the theoretical inventory cycle), theultimate goal is to have the correct amount and type of supplies avilable forthe lowest total cost.cod Pea) n The Measies of Logistics Chap. 2 Note: fo loventry at goose as be Quantity of Henan Stock : 5 q a igo 222 Representation fa cil nventory ce Procurement costs vary with the quantity of orders plated. The economic inventory | principle involves the optimization between the placing of many orders resulting in | high material acquisition costs and the placing of orders less frequently while maintaining a higher level of inventory, causing increasing inventory maintenance and ear- sying costs. In other words, ordering creates procurement cost while inventory creates ‘carrying cost The economic order principle equates the costo order to the costo hold ‘ind the point at which the combined costs are ata minimum indicates the desired size of order. Figure 2.23 graphically illustrates this concept. Figure 223. Ezonomic vestry ext ‘onmertons (Soe: Blasard, BS, sn W.1 Faby, Stes Engering ‘aut Anas, Sede, Prete Hal, Upp So Rives, I, 1998) ‘Sec. 23 Supply Support Factors B Referring to the figure, the illustration forms the basis for the size of orders placed, which is known asthe economic order quantity (EQ)! The total cost curve in FFiguro 2.23 is expressed as G2, GP Total cost (TC) = GD + GE 4G 038) ‘where = acquisition cost of inventory , = average cost of ordering in dollars per order (Includes cost of setup. processing orders, receiving, ete.) G, cost of carrying an item in inventory (percent of the item price multiplied by the total aoguisition price forthe item) ‘D = annual item demand ({his is assumed to be constant forthe purposes of discussion) @ = snost economical quantity Differentiating and solving for Q, which represents the quantity of units ordered, gives the following equation for EOO: = 239) ‘Where Equation (239s the expression for determining the quantity. the number of purehase orders por year, N, canbe determined Tom the equation D n= eb5 40) ‘The FOO model is generally applicable in insianoes where there ate selatively large quantities of common spares and repair parts. However, it may be feasible to employ other methods of acquisition for major high-value items and for those items onsired to be particulary critical to mission succes. "High-ralue items are those components with a high unit acquison cost, and should be purchased on an individual bass. The dollar value of these components is ‘usualy significant and may even exceed th total value of the hundreds of othe spares land repair pars inthe inventory. In olber words, a relatively small numberof tems ‘may represents large percentage ofthe total inventory value, Because of this, t may be preferable to maintsin a given quantity ofthese items nthe iveatory to compen- ste for repair and recycle times, pipeline and procurement lead tists, and s0 00, and ‘order new ies on & one-for-one bess as failures occ and spares withdrawn from the inventory. Tas, where it may appear to be economically feasible to purchase many Q° = E00 ‘mye B00 concep presi lied representation ofthe major consiaation in establish ing an ventory, Hower tre ae tonnyvriains and adSkional materi shoud be reviewed before taking docion on pci polation” The Measures of Logistics Chap.2 ‘ofthese items in a given purchase transaction, only a small quantity of items i actually procured because of the risks involved relative to tying up too much capital and tho resultant high inventory maintenance cost.” | ‘Another consideration in the spares acquisition processis that of criticality. Some items are considered more critical than others in terms of impact on mission success. For instance, the lack of a $100 item may cause the system to be inoperative, while the lack of a $10,000 item might not cause a major problem. The criticality of an item is generally based on its function in the system and not necessarily its acquisition cost, "A thind factor influencing the procurement of spares isthe availabilty of euppli cers and the likelihood that the supplier(s) selected will be producing spares for the centre duration ofthe system life eele. If ony a single sole source of supply exists and itis anticipated thatthe supplier may not continue to provide the spares as needed, the purchase may be in terms of expected lifecycle needs. Conversely, if there are mult: pile sources available, periodic reprocurements can be expected. : ‘As final point, the spares acquisition process may vary somewhat between items ‘of a comparable natute ifthe usage rates are significantly different. Fast-moving items ‘may be procured locally near the point of usage, such as the intermediate maintenance ‘hop, whereas slower-moving items stocked at the depot, or a central repair facility, may be acquired from a remotely located supplier as the pipeline and procurement lead times are not as critical, 2.4 TRANSPORTATION, PACKAGING, AND HANDLING FACTORS [Referring to Figures 1.1 and 12, itis evident tha the area of transportation constitutes ‘4 major ingredieat in the maintenance and logistic support infrastructure. Transporta- | tion requirements include the movement of humans and material resources, in support ‘of both operational and maintenance activites, [rom one location to another. When ‘evaluating the effectiveness of transportation, one must deal with such factors &s 1. ‘Transportation route, both national and international (distances, number of nationalities, customs requirements, political and social factors, and so on) 2. ‘Transportation capability or capacity (volume of goods transported, number of, Toads omnes et yen etecy of transportation, modes of anspor, legal forms, and 50 08) ‘3. Transportation time (short-haul versus long-haul time, mean delivery time, time ‘per transportation leg, and so on) 4, Transportation cost (cost per shipment, cost of transportation per milekitome- ‘ter, cost of packaging and handling, etc) “The basic modes of transportation include raroad, highway, waterway, air, and Pipeline. Additionally, there aro various combinations of these modes that can be cat- ie asian of hgh value tems wil vary withthe propa, and may bo established atm cs tain de vale (ll ompoacas whos inal bt cost evened dels ate conse a igh wae em}. ‘Sec.24 Transportation, Packaging, and Handling Factors, B “Tasporation Modes Tove Tarspoaion Rai nensporation aro ETON “Ter on-fitear ea, Coane on tea “Fea TN Rokowoat consinhip Tabwaieh Taicoatip continonatip Seat ckewainea Palos comin aera exsporation Figure 2.24. ‘Te vriow forme of ransportaion gorized as itermodal, a8 shown ia igure 2.24. Depending on the geographical locs- tion of aystem elements and the applicable supplier (ie. the ned for transportation), the degree of urgency in terms of deliverytime requirement, etc alternative routing requirements can be identified. Through the proces of conducting trade-offs consid cing ime factors, available modes, and cost, a recommended transportation route is ‘stablshed. This may incude transportation bya spect mode or through the use of am intermodal approach? ‘Given the possible modes of transportation and the proposed routes that have ‘een identiied to suppor the ourard and reverse ows pertaining to operational and maintenance activities (Fler to Figure 1.1), along vith the ¥anious environments in which an item may be subjeted when being transported from one location to another, the Key issue becomes Uat of packaging design or the design of an item for trans portaitiy or mobil. Products that are tobe tansported must be designed in such ‘Tis a ovrsngction ofthe transportation se. One sould conse many ferent factors a detesnniag apie tasporation ote fo feu he mate and trod possible, the lel fou of tersporstion comion, conta, private), the various ate sueturs, the nay geting Sltve acs ad olatons, athe oral rca of he raesportaton eds pura. A Boor ‘soos Glakomaiy NLA DR Hoon and R. MI, Basin Laps, ed Ed, Tho Dien Pres, “areet Brace Jonaovicl Publishing Co, Orlando F192. ls, refer ote erature ca bis hog ‘is ied in Appendix% The Measures of Logistis Chap. 2 ‘way to climinate damage, possible degradation, and so on. The following questions should be addressed? 4. Does the package (in which the item being ransported is contained) incorporate the desired strength and material characteristics? 2. Can it stand rough handling or long-term storage without degradation’? 3. Does the package provide adequate protection against various environmental conditions such as rain, vibration and shock, temperature, sand/ust, salt spray? | 4. Is the package compatibie with existing transportation and handling methods? Does it possess good stacking qualities? S, Has the package been designed for safety (ie, to discourage pilferage or theft)? 6. Can the packaging materials be recycled for additional use. If not, will the mate rials meet the requirements for disposabilty? 2.5 TEST AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT FACTORS ‘The general category of test and support equipment may include a wide spectrum of items, such as prevsion electronic test equipment, mechanical test equipment, ground | handling equipment, special jgs and fixtures, maintenance stands, and the ike. These items, in varying configurations and mixes, may be assigned to different maintenance locations and geographically dispersed throughout the couatry (or world). However, regardless ofthe nature and application, the objective is to provide the right item for the job intended, atthe proper location, and in the quantity required. Because of the likely diversification ofthe test and support equipment for any siven system, it is difficult to specify quantitative measures that can be universally applied, Certain measures are appropriate for electronic test equipment, other med sures are applicable to ground handling equipment, and so on. Further, the specific location and application of a given item of test equipment may also result indifferent ‘measures. For instance, an item of electronic test equipment used in support of on-site ‘organizational maintenance may have diferent requirements than a similar item of test ‘equipment used for intermediate maintenance secomplished in a remote shop. Although al of the test and support equipment requirements at each level of ‘maintenance are considered to be important relative to successful system operation, the testers ot test stations in the intermediate and depot manufacturer maintenance facilities are of particalar concern, sine these items ate likely to support a aumbsr of ‘stem elements at different customer locations. Tha is, aa intermediate maintenance facility may be assigned to provide the necessary corrective maintenance support for a large number of system elements dispersed throughout a wide geographical area, This ‘means, of course, that a yariety of items (all designated for intermediate-level maintenance) will arrive from different customer sites at diferent times. ° isnot uncommon to Sad ta «pact n rs wl bse to harsh or igoroas cv ‘onmest—one thats mre rigorous than wl be experienced froughou the ccahent fs oper ous miso). See.26 Organizational Factors n ‘When determining the specific test equipment requirements for a shop, one must define (1) the type of items that will be returned to the shop for maintenance; (2) the test functions to be accomplished, including the performance parameters to be mea sured as well asthe accaracies and tolerances required for each item; and (3) the antic. ipated frequency of test functions per unit of time. The type and frequency of item returns (ie, shop arivals) is based on the maintenance concept and system reliability data. The distribution of arrival times for a given item is often a nogative exponential ‘with the number of items arriving within a given time period following a Poision distribution, As items arrive inthe shop, they may be processed immediately or there may bbe waiting line, or queue, depending on the availability ofthe test equipment and the personnel to perform the required maintenance functions. A servicing policy, with pri orities, must be established. ‘When evaluating the test process itself, one should calculate the anticipated test equipment utilization requirements (i.e, the total amount of on-station time required per day, month, or year). This can be estimated by considering the repair time cistrib- tions for the various items arriving ia the shop. However, theultimate elapsed times ‘may be influenced significantly depending on whether manual, semissttomatie, or auto- malic test methods are employed. Given the test equipment utilization needs (Erom the standpoint of total test station time required for processing shop arrivals), it is necessary to determine the anticipated reliability and maintainability of the test equipment configuration being considered for the application. Thus, one must consider the MTBM and MDT values for the test equipment itself. Obviously, the test equipment configuration should be ‘more reliable than the system component being tested. Also, in instances where the ‘complexity of the test equipment is high, the logistic resources requized forthe support of the test equipment may be extensive (eg, the frequent requirement to calibrate an stem of est equipment against a secondary of primary standard in a “cleanroom” envi ronment) In essence, here is a roquirement to determine the time thatthe test equip: ‘ment will be available to perform is intended function. The final determination ofthe requirements for test equipment ina maintenance facility is accomplished through an analysis of various alternative combinations of arrival rates, queue length, est station process times, and/or quantity of test stations Basically, one is dealing with a single-channel or multichannel queuing situation using queuing techniques. As the maintenance configuration becomes more complex. involv: ing many variables (some of which are probabilistic in nature), then Monte Carlo analysis may be appropriate. In any event, there may be a number of feasible servie- ing lternatives, and a prefersed apyoaul is song 2.6 ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS The measures associated with a maintenance organization ate basically the same as those factors which are typical for any organization. OF particular interest relative to logistic support are:n ‘The Measures of Logistics Chap.2 1. The tet mintnanc labor tine foreach personel tego, o kil eve, expended in the performace of tm maintenance ees, Lib ie may tetroken down cover bh umcheded and shedeled metatenoce ina sally and maybe expressed in (@) Maintenance lor hours per sytem operating hour (MILHVOU). (0) Maintenanee labor hours per mon ce (remem oon). {©} Mastonane itor hours fer mon’ (LEU ont). (@ Muienans lor hours per mainctance action (SLHIMA) 2 The ins labor tne reuited fo spor sytem maintenance sctvies Ge ‘overhead factor). pera « 3. The personae! atton rte turnover ie in percent 44 thepesonel ting rateo th Worker days of oma ini per easy tem operation ar sport '. The number of maintenance work onders processed per unit of time (e, week, ‘month, or year), and the average tine required for work order processing. 6 Tho average administrative delay time, or tbe wvetsye tte from when an em 5 initially received for maintenance to the point when active maintenance on that ite actuslly begins. . When addressing the total spectrum of logistic (and the design for supportability), the organizational element is critical to the effective and successful life-cycle sup port of a system. The right personnel quantities and skills must be available when ‘required, and the individuals assigned to the job must be properly trained and moti ‘vated. As in any organization, itis important io establish measures dealing with organizational effectiveness and productivity 2.7 FACILITY FACTORS Facts are required to suport activites pertining tthe accomplishment of ative Iainenaee tans, providing watelusing factions fox spares an tepat pas, sed roving hing edad cons tug hci ate tive measures sociated with fate may vary sipiicany fem one tem othe ne the allowing acts ar osiered tobe retin mst nace 4, Mem process time or turnaround time (TAT) (ie, the elapsed time necessary to process an item for maintenance, returning i to full operational status). 2. Facility utilization (the rato of te time utilized tothe time available for use, percent utilization in terms of space oecupaaey, and 50 on), 3. Energy utilization in the performance of maintenance (i.e. unit consumption of ‘energy per maintenance action, cost of energy consumption per inerement of time or per maintenance action, and s0 oa). 4, Total facility cost for system operation and support (i. total cost per month, ost per maintenance action, and s0 on). ‘Sec.2.9 Technical Data and information System Factors n 2.8 SOFTWARE FACTORS ‘For many systems, softwate has become a major element of support. This is partiou- Jarly true where automation, computer applications, digital databases, and the like are ted in the accomplishment of maintenance and logistics functions. Software may be ‘evaluated in terms of language levels or complexity, number of programs, program Tength on the basis of the number of source code lines, cost per maintenance subrou- tine, or something of a comparable nature. ‘AS with equipment, reliability, maintainability, and quality are significant considerations in the development of software. Although software does not degrade in the sane Way as equipment, the reliability of software is still important and must be mes sured. There has been a great deal of discussion on how software reliability is to be ‘measured, and there stills not complete apreement as tothe specific measures or ev els of acceptable performance. However, one definition of software reliability is “the probability of failuro-free operation ofa Software component or system in a specified ‘environment fora specified time.” A failure is defined as “an unacceptable departure ff program operation from program fequirements,” and faut is “he software detect that causes a failure. In any event, erors occur in the initial development of software, and software reliability is funtion of the number of inherent ereors contained within the software ‘that have not been eliminated, Sueh rors may be classified as faulty or omitted logic, ‘kessabilty errors misting commentary, regression or integration problems, count {ng or calculation problems, or goneral decumentation problems. Usually, the overall ‘measure isin terms of the number of errors per 1000 source code lines. Higher-evel languages will probably contain less error since fewer lines of code are required (as, ‘compared with assembly languages). Conversely, language complexity may be into ‘duced in the proooes. In the specification and development of system software, applicable measure ‘ment factors must be identified and the system must be evaluated to include not only ‘coverage of equipment and personnel factors, but software factors 2s well! The logistic support resource requirements for the overall system includes consideration of equipment, personnel, facilities, data, consumables, and software, 2.9 TECHNICAL DATA AND INFORMATION SYSTEM FACTORS In recent years. the maintenance and logistic support infrastructure has been going through a significant evolution wit the advent of computers and associated software, the availabilty of information networks (LANs and WANS), the implementation of ‘CALS, the introduction of electronic data interchange (EDI) and electronic eommerce (EC) methods, and elated technologies. The objectives have included (1) simplifying Vie, €.R, nC. V.Ramamoorty, Handbook of Sefwar Enincering Van Nota Reino Company ne, Nem York, NY, 584 Refer Append H for ational eeeucs cover the ject tsa,0 The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 the task of generating and processing technical data tbrough better packaging, by eliminating redundancies, redueing processing times, and making the information more accessible to all organizations in need: (2) providing an expeditious means fr the itro- dluction of design changes and for better implementation of configuration management requirements; (3) providing a mechanism for greater asset visibility relative to the traceability of components in transit and the location of items in inventories; and (@) enabling factor, timely, secarate, and more reliable communications between mul: tiple locations on @ current basis. In essence, the information age bas had a major impact on logistics. With this in mind, some of the messures that may be applicable include the following: 1. Logistics reponse times, the ine hat scored fro the point when a sy8- tem suppor requtemen first Mdealifed ual that requirement has beens fed (Uhmaytcde the ime required forthe provining and procurement of ante ime tat a tn oven he atone he tie requed to ae the acesary personnel rts eipmea for maa nance, ndsoon). vee “ape 2. Data access ime; the time to locate and gin sco othe dataiaformation element needed. 4. te location imei, the ime reuited to locate a gven amet whether in we, transit or in we inventory (set vsti). Information proctsig tine; the tne reqited fo the processing of mestages CChangeimplemenation ine; the time to proce andimplement den change Cost Lethe cost of tranemision per bit of dita, the cost per data ees inc deat, ands. ame 2.10 AVAILABILITY FACTORS, The term availability is often used as a measure of system readiness (ie. the degree, pereent, oF probability that a system wili be ready or available when required for _use—refer to system effectiveness factors ia Chapter 1). Avsilabilty may be expressed differently, depending on tho systom and its mission. Three commonly use! figures of ‘merit (FOMS) are described subsequently. Inherent Availability (4,) Inherent availability is the probability that a system or equipment, when used under stated conditions in an ideal support environment (ie., readily available tools, spares, ‘maintenance personnel, etc), will operate satisfactorily at any point in time as required. Itexcludes preventive or scheduled maintenance actions logistics delay time, and administrative delay time, and is expressed as MTB MTBF + Met ean) sec 211 Economic Factors a where MTBF isthe mean time betsicea failure and Metis the mean corrective main tenance time, as described in Sections 21 and 2.2. Achieved Availability (A,) “Achieved availabilty isthe probability that a system or equipment, when used under Gated conditions in an idea! support envionment (i. realy available toot spares, personnel et), will operate satisfactorily at any point in time. This definition is sim Tar to the definition for A, except that preventive (ie. scheduled) maintenance is included. It excludes logistics delay time and administrative delay time and is expressed by MTBM. = MIBM 2.40 MreM + Mt oa wwhece MIBM is the mean time between maintenance and Nis the mean ative main {nance time. MTBM and Mare a function of corrective (unscheduled) and prove tive (echeduled) mainionance actions and tines. Operational Availabilty (4,) Operational aati isthe probably that a system or equipment, when wed under se condiionsin an actu operational environment, wil operat satisfactorily when talled upon. Irs expresed 38 MerBM 5 oa IBM + MDT ee) ‘where MDT is the mean maintenance downtime. ‘fone were (o impose an availabilty figure of merit a a design requirement for ‘a given equipment supplier, and the supplier has no contro over the operational envi~ fonmient in which that equipment isto function, then A, or A, might be appropriste Figures of merit against which the suppliers equipment ean be properly assessed, Con- versely, if one is to assess a system in a realistic operational environment, then A, isa preferred figure of merit to employ for assessment purposes. Further, the term avail- Ubilty may be applied at any tine in the overall mission profile representing a point ‘stimate, or may be more appropriately relates toa specific segment of the mission Woere the requitements are different from other segments. Thus, one must define pre- Ssely wha is meant by avalabity and how Its wo be applied 2.11 ECONOMIC FACTORS “The recent combination of economic trends, rsing inflation, cost growth experienced for many systems and prodocts, the continuing reduction in buying power, budget lim- itations, increased competition, and so on, has created an awareness and interest ina ‘The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 q total sytem/product cost. Not only are the acquisition costs associated with new sys ‘ems rising, but the costs of operating and maintaining systems already in use are | increasing a alarming rates The net results that less money is available to meet ew requirements, as well as maintaining systems that are already in being, In essence, ‘many ofthe systems/products in existence today are not truly cost-effective In dealing withthe aspect of cost, one must address total fe-cyle cost. Tn the | Pst, total systom cost has not alten eon too visible, particularly those costs asoctated ‘with system operation and support. The cost visibility problem can be related to the “iceberg effect” ilustrated in Figure 1.9. One must consider not only system acquis. tion cost, but other costs as well Further, when addressing total cost, experience has shown that a major portion of the projected life-cycle cost fora given system or prod. 'act stems from the consequences of decisions made during the early phases of program planning and system conceptual design. Referring to Figure 2.25, while the steatest | proportion of costs may resalt from activites occuring downstream in the system life «yee (e.g. system operation and support), the greatest opportunity for iniluencing these costs i realized during the early phases of a program, as reflected by the cross hatched area, Decsons relating to the evalaton of alterna 2 alternative operational ise les, maintenance and suppor polices, htman machine allocations equipment ‘packaging schemes, level of repair concepts, and so on, have a great impact on total ost. Tis, in dealing with economic factors, life-cycle approach is required." In developing cost data, one of the inital steps isto define the system lfe cycle, {and to project the various aetivties applicable for each phase. As defined in Chapter 1, life-eyele cost includes the costs associated with all system activities pertaining to ‘esearch and development, design, test and evaluation, production, construction, prod. Opportulyfr Le yeh Cost Sigs som 8 ’ g 1 um i a g Fula |e © om | eros | A 3 ' z ' v i AA eagitans hele) “Seaby, W Jo and, 5. Blanch, Life Cle Cosa Boonie Andy, Price Ha a. [oer Sdite River, N18 Adon eres on Mel cng a edn Sopa ia Appencie oneness ™ See. 2.12 Effectiveness Factors cy ‘uct distribution, system operation, sustaining maintenance and logistic suppor, and system retizement and material disposal. Although this information may change as one progresses through a program, a baseline needs to be established. With this informa- ton at hand, atvity-generating easts may be derived. In support of developing life-cycle cost factors, one of the first steps is to construct a cost breakdown structure (CBS), as illustrated in Figure 2.26. The CBS links ‘objectives and activities with resourees, and constitute a logical subdivision of cost by functional activity area, major element ofa system, and/or one or more discrete lasses ‘of common or ike items, ‘The next steps to estimate costs, by category inthe CBS, foreach yearin the sys tem lifecycle. Cos estimates must consider the effets ofnfation, leering curves, and any other factors tha are likely to cause changes in cost, upward or downward, Costest- Inates are derived from 2 combination of accounting records (historieal data), project cost projections, supplier proposals, and predictions. When cost data are not available, cost estimates are often based on analogous andlor parametric estimating methods, dividual cost factors, estimated for each year io the fife cycle in terms of the ‘actual antisipated cot for that yoar (0 inflated cot), are totaled and projected inthe context of a cost profil illustrated in Figure 2.27. Figure 2.28 provides a summary of casts by each applicable category in the CBS, The figures presented reflect future life- cycle cost budgetary requirements forthe system, ‘The life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) process is conveyed ia Figure 2.29. Cost ta gets may be initially established as design-t0 cost (DTC) factors, predictions and asaly- Ses are accomplished as the system development progresses, and assessments are made later on. From these assessments, high-cost contributors can be identified (refer tothe “peteent of total” values in Figure 2.28), cause-and-effect relationships may be esab- lished, and recommendations for improvement may be initisted as appropriate; ic, the implementation of a continuous productiprocess improvement approach with cost reduetion as @ major objective, ‘The entire life-cycle cost analysis process, including the detailed steps involved, is covered further in Section 4211 and in Appendix E. The information presented in this section is very basic in nature, withthe objective of briefly covering the economic side of the balance showin in Figute 1.14. 2.92 EFFECTIVENESS FACTORS "The aspect of effectiveness introduced in Chapter I can be quantified in terms of one ‘or more figures of merit (POMS), depending an the specific mission or sytem characteristics that one wishes to specify and measure. Effectiveness must consider 1, System performance and physical parameters: capacity, dlivety rate, power out- Pt, ange, accuracy, volume, speed, weight, and soon 2 System operational and suppor factors: availability, dependability, capability, ‘operational readiness, reliability, maintainability, usability supportabiity rans” portability, produciilty,disposability, and so on 3. Tota life-cycle cost: esearch and development cost, productioneonstrustion cost, ‘operation and maintenance ens, retirement and disposal cost, and 30 08‘The Measures of Logistics (cost exTEGORY cui | Sah ial 1. Res and devlpmenten Gp (@ Syearodic matagenent Cu) soon | 98 (©) Proc lasing Ce) stom | 1s {© Brgiergdesan Co) anos | 94 (a) Daig da Go) ‘aus | 19 ) Sy to oation Ce) woe | 27 Sina (@) Tovantanypen opp sasm | 13 (6) Tipton ad handing Cy) [30 | 0 — 7501 | 508 “Gd oa [snc [00 Figure 228 Life-yle cost sunmay Establishing a relationship between 2 performance or an operational parameter | and cost may constitute a desirable cost-effectiveness FOM. Other relationships may ‘be equally as important. Some example FOMs are — = avai iveness FOM = fits eye cost ineness OM = —2bity_ Le FOM = Gteeyee cost chap. 2 (48) 9) - 1 feoeaeat ee sre 2.29. System Mee procts with esonomieconieatons 1 (eteence Fige 1). ‘As Fabyaky, Sem Engen and Anas, ede, Pre {ie al, Upper Sole Rave, 188) (Source Blaha, B.S a« The Messrs of Logics chap.2 Bifecivnes Foo = Ssemsaesty e250) sven Rona = Poi Eetvenes FOM = wept est ele nt os Eilectiveness FOM = Ty eee 252) Figure 2.30 illustrates @ relationship between reliability (MTBF) and total lifes yee cost, where the objective is to design a system to meet a specified set of values (MTBF and a budget limitation) and yet be cost-effective. Through allocations, pre Gictions, assessments, and so on, system design characteristics are evaluated in terms of reliability and cost. Design changes (as required) are recommended to the extent that the system configuration is represented stor near the miniosum-cost point on the curve in Figure 2.30, ‘The use of effectiveness FOMs is particularly appropriate in the evaluation of two or more alternatives when decisions involving design andr logistic suppott are necessary. Each altornative is evalusted ina consistent manner employing the same crite- ‘ia for evaluation. In situations where the risks are high and available data for prediction are inadequate, one may wish fo employ the three-level estimate approach ‘sing a pessimistic value, optimistic value, and expecied value for performance, oper ational, and/or cost factors as appropriate. Using thi approach, the cost-eflectiveness relationship forthe evaluation of two alternatives assumes the situation illustrated in Figure 2.31, Referring tothe figure, two alternatives are being evaluated on a comparable basis, and it appears that alternative Bis the most costelfective in the end, Pri tO arriving ata final decision, however, one must address both the aspect of cost effectiveness (in terms of some quantitative FOM) and the point in time where alternative B becomes more costeffective than alternative A. Thus, a break-even analysis i ‘required to determine this point in time. Figure 232 ilustrates an ap g aa etait MTBF 1000 Fue 230 Reliy venus sec 213 summary Fgwe 231. Rene of einates for 0 | Operation and Maintenance Cost Tot Cot of 4 otal Coa ofB cnt 8) Fowe 222. eakoten aati, ‘even analysis where the cumulative costs for two programs (alternatives A and B) are ‘estimated and projected 1s te break-even point realistic terms of expected system life or in view of possible obsolescence? The answer to this question will, of couse, vary depending.on the system and its intended mission, In te ilvstration, alternative B may be more cost- ‘Hfeetive in the long run, but the advantages may be unrealistic in terms of time. This {san atea that must be addressed in any analysis where two or more alternatives are being evaluated. 2.43 SUMMARY Figure 2.33 (which is an extension of Figure 1.1) presents a basic activity low (the blocks shown may or may not represent a separate physical location and will vary depending on the type and mission of the system). Development is accomplished andOperational Ste Syaiem Goa Totaion Comaion aw Marea component Pats arraesSovare Replnttent ‘Se --------- EL Figue 233 Opersinaimintenan: Sow (Chap. 2 Questions and Problems o the results are translated into production/construction and the dstibution or delivery ‘of an operational system. Logistic support in the design process (block 1} is primarily reflected through the incorporation of reliability, maintainability, human factors, sup portability, and economic factors in the design. In production andlor construction, aw material and component parts (block 2) are transported to the plant (block 3), inspected, assembled, tested, and a finished product is delivered Tor operational use (block 5). Test and support equipment, Sparesirepair parts and associated inventories, technical data facilites, and personnel are required to support produetionfconstruction and distribution functions. ‘When operational (block 5), the system in performing its mission requires operators, trained personnel, transportation and handling equipment, data, compute resourees, and facilities. These elements of logistic support are necessary fr success al mission fulfillment [As the sytem progresses through its life eycle, corrective (unscheduled) and preventive (scheduled) maintenance actions are necestary to restore or retain the equip. ‘ment in full operational status, Thus, Figure 2.33 presents the maintenance flow, including on-site oF organization maintenance (block 5). intermediate maintenance (block 6), and depot or manufacturer support (blocks 3 and 4). Test and support equip- ‘ment, spareepalr parts, maintenance personnel, data, computer resources, and facil ities are requited to aesomplish the maintenance functions at each level. ‘When dealing with total logistic suppor, the entire flow process mast be treated san entity. Each block represented in the figure impacts on the others, The treatment ‘of any single function must include consideration ofthe effets on other functions. For Instance, asystom is required to moot a particular operational effectiveness goal (¢ availabilty of 99%). Considering that the system wil fail at some point in time, a spares inventory is necessary atthe organizational level (block 5) to ensure thatthe right spare item is avsilable when needed. Assuming that the faulty item is repairable, one has to determine the spares required atthe Intermediate level (block 6) or depot level (block 4) to support the necessary repair actions. Also it s necessary to determine the test and support equipment required to accomplish the fault isolation and checkout to ‘tho system indenture level desired. The goal isto develop an overall optimum logistic support capability by evaluating alternative configurations, including various mixes of the logistic support elements at each level. ‘Accomplishnient ofthis goal requires an understanding of the various logistic support measures presented in this chapter. These measures are closely interrelated, fand each area must be addressed inthe context of the system as an entity (he, the activities represented in Figure 233), QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1 Define relay, What ate the major characteris? 2 Refer to Figure 21. Wht iste probability of sucoes fora system ifthe system MTBF is (00 hous and the mission operating ime is 420 hours? (Assume exponential distribution) ‘3. A jtem consists of foursubasembles connected in series. The individal subassembly tet bites ae 8 flew‘The Measures of Logistics Subassembly A = 098 Subassembly & = 085 Subusembly C= 090 Sabassembly D = 0.58 Determine the over sytem reliability ‘4 A ystems consists of thre subystems idoa subsystem elles ae fa Subsystem A = 098 Subeystem B = 085 Subeystem C = 088 Determine the overall system reliability § Refer to Figure 29(¢). Determine the overall network reabilty ifthe individual rela tos ofthe subestems are follows Subeystem A = 195 Subsystem 8 = 097 Subwystem € = 092 Suteystem D = 094 Subsystem £ = 0.90 Subeysiem F = 08 scm consis of fve subsystems with the following MTBF: Subsystem A: MIBF ~ 10540 hours Subsystem B: MIBF = 16220 hours Subsystem C: MIBF = 9500 hours Subsystem D: MTBF = 12,100 Rours Subsystem E: MTBF = 3600 hours ‘The five subsystems are connected in eeien Deter ‘operating period of 1000 hours 7A tot contains 10000 mechanial components. A satnple of 1000 components was selected ‘am that lo. During an inspection ofthe sample twas learned that Ue sanple coves 90 defective units. Determine the upper and loner lini of sampling eve Fox basi sytem configurations are ilratedin Figure 2.4, Determine the relay of ‘gh and rank them in order (.., the contiguration withthe highest relsblty fs) Pe Inivial reliability values foreach of the configuration coms ponents ate: Subsystem A = 095 Subsystem B = 0.90 Suteystem C= ass Subsystem D = 0.95 Subsystem £ = 089 GAs ve ke probability of survival for an 9. What statistical distibution is applicable in the prediction of reibiity? 1. Define maintanabiy. What are some of the characteristics? 11, Assume that maintenance rep ‘minutes, What peroent of that o= 15). limes ae distributed nomally and that the MTTR is SO ‘he total population lies Between 30 and 40 minutes? (Assure Chop. 2 | sn parallel (assume operating redundancy). Th ind. 93 (Chap.2 Questions and Problems times were observed: 12. The following corective maintenance task . Tosk Tine Qa) Frequeny | Tok Tne (Oe) equency » 3 3 0 3 5 3 7 é = © 2 S _s_|ea The Measures of Logistics Chap. 2 (2) What isthe ange of observations? () Using class interval width of 4, determine the numberof clas intervals Plo he data ‘and construct curve. Wha (ype of diebution is indicated by the curve? (6) What iv the er? 4d) Whats the geometric mean ofthe rep times? (6) Whats the standard doviation ofthe sample data? (0, Whats the Moor vale? (Maouine 2F} 18, The following corrective-maintnance ask tines were observe Tak Tine (iis) —_‘Fewueny | Twa Tine (Mo) Frequency [os > | 2 7 . |» om @ 2 2 2 6 2 2 1B ” 1 » . Q n ‘0 8 a 4 B 5 = 1 7 a 6 = ~ (2) What isthe ange of observations? (©) Assuming? classes wih a clas interval width of plot the data end construct a curve, ‘What type of dsteibution is indicated by the care? : (©) Whats the mean repair ums? (@ What the standin deviation ofthe semple data? {) The jstem i required to meet a mean repair tne of 25 minutes ata sated confidence level of 985%, Do the data reveal tha the specification requirements wil be met? Why? | Asystem is operate for 22000 hours, andthe demonstrated MTBF was SOO hour. For each ‘maintenance action two technicians were assigned to accomplish corrective maintenance, and the Met was 2 hours. Determine the MLIVOHT expended 1S, Assuming that single component with elit of 85 wed ina unique application in the system and that one backup spare componcat purchased, detemine the probability of | ‘succes by having a spare available in time, when required. : 16, Assuming thatthe component in Probl 15 i supported with two Ickup spares. deter ‘mine the probability of succes by having two spares avatable when needed Deicmine the probability of sucess for a conigration consisting of to operating components backed By {wo spares. (Assume tat the eomponent reliably i 0875) 17. There are 10 sistem located a a site scheduled to perform a 20-hour mission. The system ‘as an expected MTBF of 100 hours. What isthe probability tht a east # of thes systems will operate forthe duration ofthe mision without failure? 1K An equipment contains 30 puts ofthe same type. The part asa preictd mean fre fre= ‘queney of 10.000 hours. The equipment operates 24 hours @ day and spares ae provisioned chap. 2 Questions and Problems 9 st ay intervals. How many spares should be caried in the inventory fo ensure a 95% probability of having a spare avilable when required? 19, Determine the economic order quantity ofan tem fo sparesinventory replenishment, where: (@) The cost per units $100. (0) The conto! preparing fra shipment and seading a ruck to the warehouse $25 {0 The cxtimated cos of holding the inventory, eding capital ied up 25% ofthe ii Hab ventny value (@) Te annual Jemand is 200 ais, Assume thatthe cost per order andthe inventory ca ying charges Bxed. 120, Refer to Fgute 221, What happens tothe EOO when the demand increases? What happens when there ar outstanding bickordrs? What factors re ncnded in procurement ead time? 21, Does the FOO pricipe apply in the procurement of al spars? IF not, desribe some exceptions. 22, Calculate as many ofthe following parameters as you can from the information piven: Determine: Giver: eran 4 = 68 MTBF Tota operation time ~ 1.000 hours a ‘Mean dowatime ~ 50 hours Mot MTTR, Total number of maintenance ations = 50 ‘Mean preventive maintenance time = 6 ours Mean lgistix pls ministrative time ~ 30 hours 28 Sclet a ster of our choice ad cons 3 fowchat detiying basi operations nd snstonace funtion sina to that presented in Figure 88 Iden areas where yOu Tele that loge suppor basa input (be peti). What type ot impact? 2 Ginen alteratines trou shown in Figue 235, which one would you set? Why? Figure 2.35. Fsetvones vers cst 25, Dene selfs dhroughness, Mow would you measure 26 Tdetity some of the more significant quanitative measures tha are directly elated wih test tnd soppor equipment lustre an appistion fr each actor ented. 12. How shoul the reliably ofthe test and support equipment cate to the reliability ofthe ‘prime mission oriented egupmest being supported? 2k How docs the length ofthe queue for items awaiting test influence spareiepsi past requtemens forte spstem? How des the on station test tine influence spaelepar part requitements?“The Measures of Logists Chap. 2 ality some quantstive measures that are dsetly associated! with (1 individual ; with (1) individ person. bel requirements fr the projected maintenanoe nd wipport ofa system, and 2) the oval ‘organization (as an entity) that iresponsible forthe ongoing suppor ofthat system, Brey \oserite how these individu persone! factors an organizational factors nterclote, $M. eotty some quantitative measures tat ae dry asocated with maintenance facies, Provie an ilstration of application foreach factor enified. Brity deserve fw fully {actors can affect organizational factors 31 Ideity some quantitative measures that a directly related ineiy related to tasportation ait applies to system maintenance and support, Provide a illustration of application for cach tor identified. Brief describe how transportation factors afet supply support lactone. 432 Identify and discuss some ofthe measures, aeeaciated with teenea! data and informa 48, Identity some ofthe new technologies that have recently been intadeed, and describe how ‘hey ca be applied to enhance logistics (elet few examples). ‘34 Deseride how the applications of EDIE can impact logistics (provide five examples), 7 CHAPTER 3 SYSTEM ENGINEERING PROCESS ‘The system engineering process is inherent within te overall system lifecycle, asia ‘rated in Figure 3.1. The initial emphasis is on a top-down, integrated, life-cycle approach fo system design and development, conveyed through the activities depicted inblocks 0.1 to 46, This includes problem definition and the identification of customer need, the conductance of feasibility analysis, the development of operational require rents and the maintenance and support concept, functional analysis, requirements allocation, and soon. Subsequently, there i the iterative process of assessment and sys tom volidtion, andthe incorporation of changes for prodt/provess inproveneat as rated in Figure 1.13. Although the process is more directed to the early stages of system design and development, maintaining cognizance of the activities in the latter phases of construction/production, operational use, and system maintenance and support is essential for understanding the consequences ofeatlier decisions and the esta>- lishment of benchmarks for the future. In other words, the feedhack loop is critical and an integral part ofthe system engineering process.” Referring to the figure, the phases and milestones as shown are not intended t0 convey a highly complex program with specified periods or levels of funding. The fig ure is intended to reflect an overall process that is applicable in system acquisition. Regardless ofthe type. size, and complexity ofthe sysem, there isa conceptual design requirement (to include requirements analysis), preliminary design requirement, ad so on. Everytime that there i @ new system requirement, one should evolve through top-down process, properly “tailored” tothe particular system being addressed. Retro Blanchard B.S an W. 1. Fatty, Sos Engineering an Anas, ed, Prentice Hall. Ie, Upper Sue River Ny 198; of Bad LS, Son Enpineing Management F Joka Wiley S01, lac, New Vor NY 198 9‘Sytem enowing greece ie ue Some Rca a pean or he clfcton hemes Request chap. 3 System Engineering Process 9 Inherent within the sjstem engineering process (defined by blocks 0.1. through (08 for te system, blocks 11 through 17 for the subsystem, et.) are the requirements ‘dealing with logistics and the design for supportability as illustrated through the rla- tionships identified in Figure L.7. One must commence with problem definition end a reeds analysis the conductance of feasibility analysis and the selection of technologies based on lfe- of Figure 2.53. Ihe dept and timing of lopsste sp port is dependent on system production and the delivery rate specified bythe program schedule (Figure 3) In supporto the program schedule and the basic need, itis necessary to develop ‘an equipment inventory profile as shown in Figure 39. This provides an indication af ‘the total quantity of prime equipments inthe user’s inventory during any given year in the life eycle. The front end of the profile represents the production rate, which of course may vary considerably, depending on the type and complesity of equip- mentsoftware, the capacity of the production facility, and the cost of production, The total quantity of prime equipments produced is 149, which assumes (1) that 54 of the ‘equipments will be condemned during the 10-year full complement potiod dus to loes (or damage beyond economical repair, and (2) that production is accomplished on a ‘one-time basis (Lo avoid production startup and shutdown costs) In other words, assuming that production is continuous, 1491 equipments must be produced to cover attrition and yet maintain the operational requirements of 1420 systems through the 10-year period. After the 10-year period, the quantity of systems is reduced by attrition and/or phascout due to obsolescence until the inventory is completely depleted. ‘When predicting logistics requirements for system maintenance (e.. the inflow ‘of equipment items iustrated in Figure 2.33), one must initially determine the domand {or maintenance. Given the demand, itis necessary to develop the system maintenance concept as described in Section 3.4, The demand for system maintenance is derived through an analysis ofthe inventory profile, the location of equipment, system utiliza ‘ion, equipment reliability, and so on. ‘The profile in Figure 3.9 indicates the total number of equipments in the inventory at any given time (Le., 1420 per year for the 10-year requirement). Operational Se aco t Production dn Attrition and 130} 5 erent Monty 1a 5 oa = 600] Program Span ens) Figure 39. Equipment inventory poi10 System Engineering Process Chap. 3 deployment data wl indicat the specication of the equipment, and witization | tacos wl provide ntomation on he hour of stem operation Altbough ulation will actually vary from one operational site to the ext, the mission fequlremeate described previous are used for plasning purposes. "he intent eto determine te loa hous of system operation foreach year ia the inventory profile Figure 39). Considering each year ofthe 10-yeasfllcomplo tment prod oa an sel he total hou total hourijear~ (quanti of equipments) % (yearly hours of usage per equipment) (3.1) (20 communication facites) > (4 equipments) | % (24 hours per day) = (360) — 691,200 and ' (20 communication facilities) X (1 equipment) % (Ghours per day) x (360) = * 43,200 and (20 aitborne equipments) x (30 hours per month) % (LL utilization) (12) = 87.120 and (1100 vehicular equipments) x (65%) x (24 hours per day) X (360) = 6.177.600 and total hours/year ~ 6:999,120 ‘Thus, the total usage forall prime equipments each year ofthe 10-year period is 6,999,120 hours. Usage during the introduction and phase-out periods isdetermined by | the sime method except that the quantity of systems is reduced, Using the required reliability MTBF factor specified for each mission (ie., airborne, vehicular, and ‘ground), one can predict the average number of corrective maintenance actions expected asa result of system failure. For instance, total vehicular hours maintenance actions for vicar stems = 81'S eo | 617.600 ’ maintenance actions ~ ©2725 — s4sp)year For each centralized communication facility location where support is concen- trated (55 vehicles per area communication facility), the expected quantity of maintenance actions due to failure is Sec. 23 System Operational Requicements am By employing Poisson factors discussed earlier, one can predict the quantity of spareirepaie parts. Through an analysis ofeach maintenance action, one can determine MDI, Met MLHVOH, and associated logistic support resources. ‘Definition of the operational requirements forthe radio communication system (e&. distribution, utilization, effectiveness factors, etc.) provides the basis for deter- ‘mining the maintenance concept (refer to Section 34) and the identification of specitic ‘lability, maintainability, and logistiox quantitative fzctors. Those data, in turn, are ‘employed as inpat factors for system design and supporting analyses. As system devel- ‘opment progresses the communication system operational requirements are further ‘refined (onan iterative bass). The presentation ofan operational concept atthe inception of a program is mandatory forthe establishment of a basoline fr all subsequent program actions. lustration 3: Commercial Arline Requirement “Three commercial airline companies are proposing to serve a large metropolitan area B years henvs. Ax future growth is expected, addtional sirline companies may become involved at a later time. Tor planning purposes, the combined anticipated passenger ment follows the projection in Figure 3.10. The combined airline 1. Anticipated flight arrivals/departures: ‘Anipted Fgh per Day “Time Pena point | Point ® | Pointe | Poin amwiiioam |S « os | ts Tam 6pm | * » ‘s ‘opmrosimpm | o | 30 pa 060m a 0 5 ® Tet a OEE Span Tine (Vea) Figure 310 Projo patengsr handing equim1m System Engineering Process Chap. 3 ‘The flight arrivals are evenly spaced inthe time periods indicated. Is assumed that 100 passengers constite an average ght load, 2 The areraft operational availability is 95%, In other words, 956 of all lights must be fully operational when scheduled (discounting aborts due to weather). Allow- able factors for scheduled maintenance and passenger loading are: a [ sarah eve ‘Each cvongh ight — | 30 minutos Fe ee pera [SSE | SE |S Periodic and main base checkouts wil be accomplished elsewiere. 3. Allowable unscheduled maintenance in the arca shall be limited to the organiza tional level and will include the removal and replacement of line replaceable items, tite changes. and engine replacements as reqied ‘The specific mainte nance downtime (MDT) limits are Engine change 6 hours Tire change 1 hour Other items 1 hour 4. The metropolitan area must provide the necessary ground facilities to support the following types of airraft (fully loaded): B-727,B-137, 8-747, B-757, B-767, B71, 1nd L-1011 In addition, provisions must be made for cargo handling and storage, ‘The airline companies have identified a need to provide air transportation ser vice for a metropolitan arca. From the airline standpoint, the metropolitan area must provide the necessary logistics resources (facilites test and support equipment, ground handling equipmient, people movers, operating and meintenance personnel, et.) {0 support this service. This involves selecting a site for an air transportation facility, accomplishing the design and construction of the facility; providing local transportation to and from the airline terminal; acquiring the test and support equipment, space/repai parts, personnel, and data to support airline operation, and maintaining the total capability on a sustaining basis throughout the planning period, Because ofthe size ofthe program and the growth characteristics projeted in igure 3.10, a three-phased construction effort is planaed. The program schedule is presented in Figure 3.1, ‘The initial step is to select a location for the ar transportation facility. The selee- tion process considers available land, terrain, geology, wind effets, distance from the ‘metropolitan area, access via highway andior public transportation, noise and ecology requirements, and cost. Once a site has been established, the facility must include run ways, holding area, fight control equipment, airline terminal, contol tower, operations building, hangars, maintenance docks, fuel docks, cargo handling and storage capabil- Sec. 33 system Operational Requirements 13 Sytem Munaing a Dein (CZ Ys Option and Maitennic ( i se 3- Contraction ae 3-Opetion a) Progen Tine Yes gure 3.11, Program schedule ity utes, and all the required support directly associated with passenger needs and comfort. Construction is accomplished in three phases, consistent with passenger ha dling growth and the schedule in Figure 3.11 ‘The ultimate design configuration of the air transportation facility is based irecly on the operational requirements—anticipated aelne flight arsvals/departres, passenger loading, sireraft turnaround times, and maintenance and servicing require ‘ments, For instance, at a point 18 years hence (Figure 3.10, point), the anticipated average number of flights is 65 per day between the hours of 6:00 at. and 11:00 ast ‘The numberof through fights s 30 and the gate imo for each is 30 minutes (to accom plish servicing and passenger loading), and the aumber of turnarounds i 35 witha gate ‘une of hour each. The wual gate time required (considering no delays and assuming fone gate for each atcraft arrival/departure) is $0 hours during the 600 a. to 1L00 AM. time period; thus, atleast 10 gates are required in the passenger terminal to sat- isfy the Toad. This, in tra, influences the size of the pastenger waiting lobby and the ‘number of airline personnel agents required. Further, the servicing and ground han sling ofthe aircraft requires certain consumables (fuel, ol, iubricant),spare/repa parts, test and support equipment (towing vehicle, fuel truck, ete.) and technical data {operating and maintenance instructions) The possibility of unscheduled maintenance Sictates the aeed for trained maintenance personnel, sparelrepair parts, data, and a backup maintenance dock or hangat, ‘One can gon indefinitely ideafying requirements to eupport the haco need of ‘the metropolitan area and the commercial airline companies. It readily becomes obvie us that logistic support plays a major role, There are logistic requirements associated ‘with the aircraft ai transportation facility, and the transportation media between the air transportation facility andthe metropolitan area. The commercial sistne Mustra- tion prescnted herein merely ouches on a small segment of the problems, The problem should be addressed from a total systems approach considering the functions associ ated with all facets ofthe operation. This would better emphasize the magnitude ofthe logistics involved.

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