Annotated Bibliography

Andrenucci, Mariano. "Magnetoplasmadynamic Thrusters." 2010. PDF file.

This article begins with a description of the benefit of the use of plasma rockets due to the
ability to independently alter the power input and mass flow rate, and that when the mass flow
rate was reduced exhaust velocities exceeding 100,000 meters per second was reached. Several
mathematical principles are introduced the first on how the plasma should be kept electrically
conductive, ionic and electric movement conservation equations. These principles are elaborated
on by a discussion of the Lorentz force and the Acceleration force of the ions. The first type of
Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster discussed is a self field thruster, which in its most basic form
has two metal electrodes in which has a high current driven between them. Its ideal operating
conditions and real operating conditions is discussed, and thruster losses are also accounted for.
The second thruster type, an applied field thruster has an external magnet which contains the
plasma. The article concludes with a history of MPD thrusters which begins in the 1960s and
includes information on some of the biggest research and development efforts done for the
thruster including Princeton University, Stuttgart University, and The Japanese Space Agency.
This source provided the greatest benefit in the explanation of some of the mathematical
principles of MPD thrusters and plasma rocketry, and was effective in communicating the
information. It could use improvements in organization of material by making more definite
references to terminology given and better identification of equations provided. There was most
information given about older types of Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters and some of the
fundamental concepts involved with the thrusters. A history of the thruster type was also
informative on learning how this thruster evolved to its current design.

Chernick, Cedric. "Compounds of Other Noble Gases Shapes of Molecules." The

Chemistry of The Noble Gases. N.p.: US Atomic Energy Commission, 1967.
32-38. Print.
This pair of chapters in the source begins by looking at the compounds that can be formed with
the other noble gases. Since the ionization potential of radon is the lowest of the noble gases, one
might think it would be the easiest to form compounds. However, because of its highly
radioactive nature, little work has been done, and it has been found that radon only reacts with
fluoride. Krypton can only form compounds with fluoride if an electric discharge has been
passed through it. All evidence has shown that Helium, neon, and argon are still totally inert. The
next chapter looks at the formations that the noble gas molecules will make in different states of
matter. In a solid state, the molecules can be condensed to form crystals, and their structure can
be determined using X-ray or neutron beams. These techniques have been used to determine the
structures of Xenon compounds. Information can also be found be studying how the materials
interact with light, by determining their characteristic frequencies, which amounts to the number

of molecules present in the structure. The subshells in molecules can be broken down into
orbitals which can be regarded as a representation of the probability of finding an electron in a
given place. When molecules are in the process of being formed, orbital electrons come into the
control of the nuclei in the molecule. Bonding of these molecules is therefore described as the
formation of molecular orbitals.
In this source, the compounds that the other noble gases will create are discussed, and how
their molecular shapes are found are also discussed. This is significant to the topic of electric
propulsion because the gases that have made compound may give better performance. Some
benefits of this source included its organization and well explained concepts that were presented.

Chernick, Cedric. "Compounds of Xenon." The Chemistry of The Noble Gases. N.p.:
US Atomic Energy Commission, 1967. 18-31. Print.
The first discovery of a chemical compound with a noble gas goes back to the Manhattan
project and the production of the first atomic bomb. In the University of British Columbia, a
compound of platinum, oxygen, and fluorine was made. It was discovered that this compound
could pull an electron away from xenon and they reacted to form a new compound. Later
compounds that were found to react with xenon all contain fluorine or are made from compounds
containing fluoride. For fluoride atoms to react with xenon, they must be heated, or subjected to
electric discharges. The discovery of xenon fluorides answered a question of scientists studying
reactor fuels. When lithium fluoride, beryllium fluoride, zirconium fluoride, and uranium
fluoride were sealed and exposed to neutron irradiation, there was always some xenon atoms
produced. Xenon fluorides are colorless crystalline materials, and avoiding contact with water is
necessary XeFe6 is the most reactive of the compounds. One of the first compounds where xenon
reacted with oxygen was xenon oxide tetrafluoride. When XeF4 is brought into contact with
water, XeO3, and care should be taken when handling them, due to their explosive properties.
In this source, some of the compounds that can be produced with xenon are analyzed. This
source is applicable to the topic of electric propulsion because xenon is a common propellant for
electric propulsion thrusters. This source is sorted into categories based on the type of molecule
that will be reacted with xenon, and how these compounds were formed. However, as this source
was made in the 1960s some of the information might be outdated.

Chernick, Cedric. "Early History." The Chemistry of The Noble Gases. N.p.: US
Atomic Energy Commission, 1967. 10-17. Print.

After discovery of the noble gases, an analysis of their chemical properties soon followed. It
was found that argon, krypton, and xenon will form hydrates, which meant that the gases were
associated with water molecules. However, the association was found to be a clathrate
compound, where the inert gas is trapped inside a crystalline cage of water molecules. Clathrate
compounds contain no chemical bonds, only a weak electrostatic interaction. The next section in
the chapter looks chemical bonds in order to better understand the inert gases. The theory that
each element has a fixed combining capacity is called the valence of an atom. The number of
protons that an atom has gives an atom its atomic number. Electrons form in shells around
molecules. However, the outermost ring of electrons will dictate the charge of the atom and the
maximum number of electrons is eight. Elements will naturally try to attain the maximum
amount of electrons, in their outer shell, and can adjust their structure to bond with other
elements by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons. An atom that has eight electrons in its outer
shell is considered to be the most stable and is considered to be in a closed shell or core
arrangement. Only that noble gases this arrangement of maximum stability.
In this source, the history of an analysis of their chemical properties and how other atoms are
able to bond is given. Some of the benefits are a detailed explanation of how other elements bond
whereas the noble gases do not, and how scientists where able to create fundamental chemistry
principles such as the valence theory. This source applies to choosing a fuel for electric
propulsion because it provides an analysis of how atoms bond and comparatively why the noble
gases do not.

Chernick, Cedric. "The Gases Themselves." The Chemistry of The Noble Gases.
N.p.: US Atomic Energy Commission, 1967. 1-9. Print.
The unreactive behavior of the gases helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon were
called the noble gases. Except for helium and argon, the noble gases are considered to be very
rare. In 1962 it was discovered that Xenon and Krypton were cable of forming compounds with
the most negatively charged substances. The first time an unreactive substance was found in the
atmosphere was in 1785, and it was discovered by Henry Cavendish. In 1894 William Ramsay
discovered that atmospheric nitrogen contained another, heavier gas which was found to be
argon. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are mainly derived from the atmosphere through
fractional distillation of air. Helium can be obtained by tapping natural gas wells and then
extracting the gas. Radon is obtained by the radioactive decay of radium, however, the amount
produced is very small and so the gas does not find much commercial use. It has a short half-life,
on the order of 3.8 days. When considering commercial uses, argon and helium are most
commonly used due to their lower costs and greater availability, and several gases may be mixed
when used in electronic applications. Helium provides use in lifting airships because it is
nonflammable.
This source provides some basic information about the history of the noble gases, how they are
produced and their quantity, and some of their uses. Some of the benefits of this source include
the organization, its ability to be easily understood, and concise writing of important points in

their history. Some of the present technical information may have been updated as this source is
getting to be somewhat old. This source applies to the electric propulsion topic because it
provides the information on the uses and the ease or difficulty it takes to produce the gases.

Choueiri, Edgar. "New Dawn For Electric Rockets." Scientific American (2009): n.
pag. Print.
In this source, various probes which have used electric propulsion systems including NASA's
Dawn Probe, the Japanese Hayabusa, and ESA's SMART-1. The benefits of electric propulsion,
including being able to have greater fuel efficiency that allows for more objects to be targeted,
and a greater specific impulse are provided. Next a section on electric propulsion history is given
including that the first operational electric rocket was made by the Glenn research center in 1964
which was when its first suborbital flight was made. An extensive analysis of chemical rockets
and their current flight performance is given. Chemical rockets are still the only option for
launch which can cost up to $10,000 per pound but for in space operation, all fuel is consumed
within minutes. Probes must waste time to receive gravitational boosts from planets and end up
running out of fuel so there is none left to slow into an orbit. A mathematical term known as the
rocket equation is given and explained to be the amount of velocity increase as a result of the
ejection of the exhaust, also expressed as Delta-V. Plasma rockets accelerate electrically charged
particles to high velocities by enveloping it with radiation from microwaves or electric fields.
Two successful concepts are the Ion drive and Hall thruster, where atoms are positively charged,
and the electric potential accelerate them out of the engine.
This article contains well organized information with a general overview of electric
propulsion systems including two of the concepts, a performance analysis on the chemical and
electric propulsion systems, some original ideas and mission targets. This article leads to a
furthering of research by providing enough technical data on electric propulsion systems to
interest a reader. However the wording on technical information on the rocket equation could use
improvement. In summary this article provides a start for technical research on electric
propulsion systems.
Dorf, Leonid. "Introduction to Space Plasma Propulsion." Plasma Physics Summer
School. 2 Aug. 2006. Lecture.
In this source, ionization techniques such as electrostatic and electromagnetic propulsion are
analyzed in addition to some other important information regarding its function and history. The
rocket equation, which relates to the ejection rate of the propellant compared to the mass of the
rocket. The major benefit of electric propulsion is the higher exhaust velocities that these engines
have, compared to chemical engines. The exhaust velocity that an engine has is set by a
missions time constraint. Three major types of electric propulsion are electrothermal propulsion,
which includes Resistojets and Arcjets, electrostatic propulsion, which includes Ion thrusters and
Colloidal thrusters, and electromagnetic propulsion which includes MPD thrusters, Hall

thrusters, and Pulsed Plasma Thrusters. In 1980 Resistojets became common options for attitude
control. In the next section some basic electric propulsion equations to find things including
Thrust, Specific Impulse, Ionization Efficiency, and Plume Divergence. Resistojets consume
about 750 watts of electricity and function at 80% efficiency. Current Ion Thrusters function at
50-200kW. The Child-Langmuir law limits the maximum ion current density that can be
extracted, and grid erosion limits the thruster lifetime due to ion bombardment. MPD thrusters
have a typical power level of 200MW- 1MW. In the VASIMR rocket plasma is heated to the
desired temperature through radio-frequency and ion cyclotron resonance.
In this presentation, the most helpful thing that could be found is the specific review of
formulas and operating behaviors of the most common thrusters. The information presented
could be easily understood by readers, and the source is organized by topic. However, several of
the formulas given are not explained and variable not provided, making it difficult to use them
without other sources.
Goebel, Dan M., and Ira Katz. "Basic Plasma Physics." Fundamentals Of Electric
Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. N.p.: California Institute of
Technology Jet Propulsion Lab, 2008. 37-91. Print.
This chapter begins by discussing the conditions and types of plasma that are present in
electric propulsion engines. Next it explains Maxwells equations, which account for the charges
and currents of the plasma in the environment of space. The particle motion and the physics of
the electrons and ions in the plasma, the Lorentz force equations discusses the velocity of the
particles in a magnetic field, the Larmor radius, which is the radius of the circular motion
experienced by a particle when it is in the presence of a magnetic field. In the next section,
information is provided regarding plasma acting as a fluid, which helps engineers model the
behavior of plasma in a particular thruster. There are three dominant forces acting on the plasma:
the reaction to electric and magnetic fields, a force of a pressure gradient, and the force due to
collisions with other particles. The plasma frequency is the rate that the plasma responds to a
change in potential, and pressure gradients and collisions diffuse the plasma from high to low
density regions. This section explains the calculation of plasma collision frequencies and forces
between the types of particles. The next section discusses the diffusion experienced by plasmas
including Ficks law, plasma decay and density, ion flux and the electric field. The final section
discusses the different types of sheathes that form at the edges of plasma and their specifics
including the conservation of energy.
In this source, equations and several concepts are provided in this section involving general
plasma physics not specific towards a single electric propulsion thruster. For any engineer or
scholarly researcher with the topic of electric propulsion, this chapter is essential to being able to
gain an understanding of the complex physics involved with plasma behavior. In this chapter one
thing that could have been improved upon would be the inclusion of a greater number of
pictures, charts, and graphs. The source has also provided links to other information that can
allow other research of plasma physics to occur.

Goebel, Dan M., and Ira Katz. "Hall Thrusters." Fundamentals Of Electric
Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. N.p.: California Institute of
Technology Jet Propulsion Lab, 2008. 325-92. Print.
This chapter begins with some brief facts on Hall thrusters including the parts of a Hal
thruster, its lifespan, and when they were first developed. The types of Hall thrusters, Hall Effect
thrusters, and stationary plasma thrusters and the differences between them are overviewed. Hall
thrusters are considered electrostatic devices, as the Ions are accelerated by an applied electric
field. The fundamentals of operating a Hall thruster is also overviewed, and equations that also
calculation and analysis of the behavior of the electrons are provided. In the next section, means
for calculating the Hall current has also been provided, and also the total thruster that can be
produced by a Hall Thruster. Next the behavior of the Ions, including their current and
backstreaming level can be calculated and analyzed. Performance and efficiency of a Hall
thruster can also be calculated based on the power input, thrust, and mass utilization efficiency.
The primary power loss mechanisms are next analyzed, and the top reason for energy loss is
electron and ion currents flowing through the radial magnetic field through the sheath to the
channel walls. In the next section, the physics of Hall Thrusters are analyzed. Hall Thruster
physics such as the mechanisms responsible for the electron transport across the magnetic field.
Models that analyze performance of Hall thrusters and electron movement are provided. A
section is given on prediction of the oscillations that can occur in Hall Thrusters. Lastly, the
expected life of Hall thrusters is analyzed.
This chapter; overviewing Hall thruster is important to my topic, as Hall thrusters are more
powerful than Ion Thrusters, and a choice second to Magnetoplasmadynamic,. There are key
factors, important to any engineer or researcher that are provided here, such as the explanation of
the Hall current, thruster performance, lifespan, and physics. The information here was presented
to a reader that built upon a basic overview, with the most important information presented first
and the more condition specific information presented later.
Goebel, Dan M., and Ira Katz. "Ion and Hall Thruster Plumes." Fundamentals Of
Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. N.p.: California Institute of
Technology Jet Propulsion Lab, 2008. 393-424. Print.
This chapter begins by discussing electric thruster plume composition, which includes ions,
un-ionized propellant, and sputtered thruster material. In order to prevent damage to spacecraft
surfaces, engineers must analyze the reaction between the thruster plume and the spacecraft. A
mathematic analysis and equations are provided on ion behavior which includes continuity,
momentum, density, and velocity. The neutral gas that is produced from a thruster is composed
of three things: gas from the thruster, gas from the neutralizer cathode, and the chamber density.
The density of the neutral gas produced by the thruster can be modeled by an annular gas flow.
Secondary ions are low energy ions, and are created due to collisions between the main ion beam
and neutral gas that is emitted by the thruster. Tracking the trajectories of the particles helps to

calculate the charge exchange ion density which can help to determine the effect of secondary
ions. In the next section of this chapter, thruster plume interaction with spacecraft is analyzed.
Some of the immediate effects of thruster plumes are optical emissions, and the long term effects
include ion erosion or contamination. While most of the thruster plume is emitted in a relatively
straight manner, a small fraction is emitted at wide angles. It is this fraction of the plume that is
most likely to contact the spacecraft.
This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the interaction between an electric thruster plume
and a spacecraft, and the characteristics of a thruster plume. This source is beneficial because it
can be applied to all electric propulsion thrusters in general, rather than things specific to Ion and
Hall thrusters. This source is relevant to the topic of electric propulsion because calculation of an
electric engines thrust plume and interaction with the spacecraft is an important to finding how
an engines thrust is exerted and how to prevent damage to the spacecraft.
Goebel, Dan M., and Ira Katz. "Introduction ,Thruster Principles."
Fundamentals Of Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. N.p.:
California Institute of Technology Jet Propulsion Lab, 2008. 1-36. Print..
In the sections of this source that were used, a basic overview of electric propulsion and types
of thrusters are provided, in addition to the principles of thruster operation. A history of electric
propulsion is given and begins with providing key contributors to the field of electric propulsion
since its conception in the 1950s such as Robert Goddard. The first book analyzing E. P.
thrusters, Ion Propulsion for Space Flight research on E.P. systems was established in NASA in
the 1960s. The first use of E.P. was when Russia utilized Hall thrusters for orbital station
keeping. Next, major E.P. thruster types are discussed. Ion thrusters generate plasma by using
biased grids to extract and accelerate Ions. They consist of the plasma generator, the accelerator
girds, and the neutralizer cathodes. Hall thrusters utilize an electric field established
perpendicular to a magnetic field to accelerate the plasma, and consist of a cathode, a discharge
region, and a magnetic field. MPD thrusters use either current arcs or RF fields to ionize the
plasma then apply magnetic forces to accelerate it. In the thruster principles, important
mathematical equations that can be applied to most E.P. thrusters are provided. Some of the most
important principles are the rocket equation, the relationship between thrust, the ejected
propellant and its velocity, spacecraft mass after a certain amount of propellant is used to reach a
specific delta-V, the required propellant mass, the force of the ions, the thrust of the engine,
propellant mass flow rate, specific impulse, and exhaust velocity. This section is concluded by a
brief discussion of Ion movement and gas flow through the thruster.
This section in the source specializes in providing a background on key events and people
who founded the science of electric propulsion, essential principles to all thrusters, and some
principles specific to ion and hall thrusters. This section provides an excellent way to further
research by not only providing essential information for all thrusters, in addition to hall and ion
thrusters, but lists all of the resources used which then can be located. When listing mathematical
equations the variables used should be more clearly defined to make utilization of the formulas

easier. This section specializes in the technical and mathematical aspects of Electric Propulsion
systems.

Goebel, Dan M., and Ira Katz. "Ion Thruster Accelerator Grids." Fundamentals Of
Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. N.p.: California Institute of
Technology Jet Propulsion Lab, 2008. 189-242. Print.
The focus of this chapter is the accelerator grid, which uses several electrically biased grids to
accelerate the ions to create thrust. The grids must extract ions from the discharged plasma and
push them through the accelerator grid and then the decelerator. The factors that affect the grid
and the performance of the thruster are listed. Grid geometry, size, and material and their
designs' impact on the thruster are mentioned. Equations are provided that allow calculation of
the maximum amount of current that the grids can harness and extract then focus into a thrust
beam. Next, information is included on how to calculate the grid dimensions including size,
thickness, hole diameter. Several equations and computer codes can help to predict the
performance of an ion thruster grid, and examples of the graphs produced by these formulas are
also shown. As electrons are very mobile, a backstreaming of ions is produced by the plasma,
which can damage the thruster, so backstreaming needs to be as limited as possible. Erosion is
the biggest determiner of grid lifespan, but reducing erosion also decreases thrust levels the
thruster can produce.
The purpose of the chapter allows the calculation of Ion thruster grids, which are essential to
producing thrust. However, this chapter is very specific to only the needs of Ion thrusters not
Hall or MPD thrusters. This research can be applied to the topic of electric propulsion as Ion
Thrusters are a major type of electric propulsion. In this section, the equations given are specific,
but this section lacks good ways to access the computer software that is capable of calculating
the Ion grid, and more concise wording should be used.
Goebel, Dan M., and Ira Katz. "Ion Thruster Plasma Generators." Fundamentals Of
Electric Propulsion: Ion and Hall Thrusters. N.p.: California Institute of
Technology Jet Propulsion Lab, 2008. 91-188. Print.
In this chapter, the parts, geometry, types of Ion Thrusters, and energy balance, discharge, and
plasma confinement are analyzed. Ion thrusters consist of three parts: An ion accelerator, the
plasma generator, and the electron neutralizer. The importance of thruster shape is explained in
addition to the how the fuel flows through the thruster. Design of the magnetic field is the most
important part for having high efficiency in an Ion thruster. In an ideal thruster all of the ions
pass through the accelerator gird and are ionized and an equal number of electrons go to the
thruster wall to conserve charge, and the power in is equal to the power output. There are several
Ion thrusters with both direct contact and radio/microwave frequency ionization, with similar
principles, but different specifics associated with them. These include DC Discharge thrusters,
Kaufman thrusters, RF Thrusters, and Microwave Thrusters. There are several ways to model

the behavior of the ions and other particles are provided, in addition to the equations used in
these models. These models can identify factors within the thruster such as electron and ion
density and trajectories.
This chapter applies to the topic of electric propulsion by modeling the behavior of Ion
thruster characteristics, explaining the difference between an ideal Ion thruster and one under
realistic conditions. This section was organized in a relevance of information, which gave the
information that would be needed to understand the next section and built upon that. The
explanation of differences between the different types and of particle flow and the shape of ion
thrusters is helpful to anyone who wishes to have a topic specific to Ion Engines, and furthers
research by giving only the first round of calculations needed for an Ion Engine.
Illin, Andrew. Low Thrust Trajectory Using VASIMR. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.
This source provides an analysis of the VASIMR Magnetoplasmadynamic engine compared
to chemical engines, involving mission time, specific impulse, and thrust. These mission
trajectories were calculated using two NASA. Mission parameters of operation near earth
compared to interplanetary operation are analyzed, which includes power, time, mass, and
specific impulse. In Geostationary transfer orbits chemical burns take .6 days, but uses 3865 kg
more propellant, and can deliver a much greater payload mass. Missions to Near Earth Asteroids
would use 800 kW of electricity and takes 133 days. In a human mission to Mars 4 Megawatts of
electricity is the mission minimum and will take 15 months. A robotic mission to Jupiter will
take 24 months and will use 3 MW. A robotic mission to Interstellar space will take 32.6 years
and use 1-8 MW of electricity.
This source is applicable to the topic of electric propulsion because it compares top electric
propulsion technology to its chemical counterparts and discusses the benefits of each. Several
future missions are analyzed and trajectory charts provided. The good things about this source
included that it was easy to understand, provided visuals that were aiding to the missions
analyzed, and used the VASMIR as its example. The negative were its lack of technical
explanation of the VASMIR rocket, and does not provide information about how to calculate this
information.
Ilin, Andrew, et al. VASIMR Human Mission to Mars. N.p.: U of Maryland, 2011. Print.
In this source, the possibilities of the VASIMR Magnetoplasmadynamic engine are discussed,
including how different power supplies will affect the time it will take to send humans to Mars.
If the VASIMR engine was equipped with a 200 Megawatt power source, than a one way trip
can be accomplished in 39 Days, compared with the best chemical rockets, where a trip time
would take over two years.. An analysis of the trip time at 2, 12, 25, and 50 megawatts is
provided, where a 12 MW supply could lead to a one way trip of 3 months, and 50 MW could
lead to even shorter transit times. When considering the mass proportions of the spacecraft and
power levels, it is also good to know that the higher the power supply, the more propellant that is
needed. An engine that has variable specific impulse also has the advantages that time, mass, and

energy can be saved. Various studies have demonstrated the benefits of nuclear power over solar,
such as the fact that transit times can decrease by 10%, and that nuclear power systems have
smaller masses. In a 200 MW mission to mars, the mass budget is 600mT which includes 203mT
of propellant.
This source has a good, concise writings on information regarding the VASIMR engine and is
very relevant to my topic, as the VASIMR engine is an MPD engine that uses RF and Helicon
frequencies to ionize, which closely models the one that is planned to test the results of various
fuels in my experiment. The most beneficial part of this source included an analysis of the
different power levels and their effects on the mission, which includes, time, weight, mass, and
velocity. The organization of this source was that the main points were in the introduction and
then expand on in the rest of the report.
"Ion Propulsion: Exploring Space In The 21st Century." Illumin. USC Viterbi,
n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2015. <https://illumin.usc.edu/169/
ion-propulsion-exploring-space-in-the-21st-century/>.
This article focuses on Ion propulsion method, beginning the article with a comparison of
functions between ion and chemical propulsion. Ion propulsion research began in the 1950s. The
largest difference between the two is the amount of fuel required. Chemical rockets can use
several million kilograms, and use the fuel quickly with a large amount of thrust produced. The
greatest usage for Ion propulsion is deep space exploration, due to their ability to operate or long
impulses. NASAs Deep Space 1, launched in 1998 proved his technologys success. The next
paragraph provides a discussion on thrust generation of an Ion engine. Heat is applied to a
metallic plate where solid fuel is stored, which creates a flow of neutral gas that is released into
an electromagnetic chamber. Electrons are accelerated into the chamber where the neutral atoms
are. A difference in electrical potential pushes the Ions out of the engine. Excessive negative
charges are collected using a neutralizer. To conclude, Ion propulsion effectiveness is evaluated.
Ion propulsions have a high specific impulse which allows them to reach higher velocities
without requiring as much fuel. In a long mission where a low thrust is acceptable, electric
propulsion is the best source.
This article was most effective at communicating the process on how Ion engines are fuelled
by a specific section that explains the process in a numerical order and expanding key details.
The usage and success of NASAs Space 1 and evaluations of Ion propulsion are also important
to the reader by explaining how Ion propulsion engines are chosen and the successes of use. This
article could have been improved including more detailed images in it. In conclusion, this article
provides specific information on Ion Propulsion.

"Ion Propulsion." NASA. N.p., 21 May 2008. Web. 16 Sept. 2015.

<http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html>.

This source begins with detailed specifics on Ions themselves. Ions are simply charged
particle, and ionization is the method of turning articles into an ionized gas. The name Plasma
refers to any gas that is electrically neutral. Electron bombardment is the primary way to create
ions, and Electron Cyclone Resonance uses microwave radiation remove electrons from the
propellant. A discussion of the operation of Ion Thruster Operation is given. Inert gas is used as
the thrusters propellant. A Cathode generates electrons and then ionizes the inert gas. The
ionization process is most efficient when the amount of time electrons remain in the discharge
chamber. The Ions are accelerated by electrostatic forces. Ion thrusters are capable of propelling
a spacecraft up to 200,000 mph, and have a top force of .5 Newtons. There are five parts in an
Ion Propulsion system: Power Source, Power Processing Unit, Propellant Management System,
the Control Computer, and the thruster.
This source provides detailed information on the fundamental information of Ion propulsion,
which discusses how gas is ionized, thruster operation, and the parts of an Ion propulsion system.
The article leads to further research by discussing some of the operating specifics of an Ion
propulsion system and future and past development of ion thrusters. The article could have
included a more specific section on the thruster operation and likely, there has been more
development since this article was written in 2008.

Jahn, Robert. "Electric Propulsion." Encyclopedia of Physical Science and

Technology. N.p.: Academic Press, 2002. N. pag. Print.
This article begins by summing up the techniques that are used to accelerate plasmas to high
exhaust velocities. Electrothermal propulsion has its propellant electrically heated; electrostatic
propulsion has ions accelerated through an electric field, and electromagnetic propulsion is
where a plasma current is accelerated by a magnetic field. One similarity between all of these
methods is that they all have the goal to accelerate, channel, and expand the propellant flow. In
the next section, some of the advantages of electric propulsion are discussed. The primary
advantages are that the exhaust velocities produced are much more desirable, and that the
operational life is much longer compared to chemical counterparts. The major limits of
Resistojets are the temperature of the materials of the wall and the heater coils. In electrostatic
propulsion methods, the major limitations are their thrust densities will always be limited by
space charge distortions that will affect the energetic ions that are produced by the thruster.
Currently, the best propellants in use are cesium, mercury, argon, krypton, and xenon. The next
section in this source discusses electromagnetic propulsion, which creates a flow of propellant
and which uses an electromagnetic field to produce an electromagnetic force. There are many
ways that electromagnetic propulsion could be employed, including steady, pulsed, or alternating
current fields, propellant types that include liquids and solids, and direct contact or RF ionization
methods.
This source provides relevant information by the discussion of all of the types of common
electric propulsion engines and their usage. This source could have improved on organization

and presentation of material so the reader does not become confused. The most helpful
information here is that regarding the operating principles of electric thrusters.

Longmier, Benjamin, and Leonard Cassidy. "VX-200 MPD Thruster Performance

Exceeds 50% Efficiency." Propulsion and Power 27.4 (2011): n. pag. Print.
The greatest benefit of using electric propulsion is that it can reduce the amount of required
propellant. In the VASIMR rocket, ceramic structures are used to help dissipate thermal
radiation. It utilizes a helicon wave generator to first produce plasma, then energizes it further
using an ion cyclotron heating stage that use left hand polarized low mode waves generated from
the high field side. The VX-200 prototype, when operating at 200kW provides 61% thruster
efficiency. The prototype has its superconducting magnet; structure, rocket core, and engine kept
in a vacuum chamber. As the power input to the RF generator is increased, the ion velocity
increases. Coupled RF power is the power that is absorbed by the ICH or helicon coupler and is
put into the plasma column or lost by the RF coupler through radiation. The VASIMR engine
uses a low temperature supermagnet, which is cooled to 6K, and has a maximum power draw of
15kW. The vacuum chamber that the VX-200 prototype is tested in has a 150m3 volume, and
there are several sensors used, including an ion flux probe, a plasma momentum sensor, and an
optical spectrometer. The ionization cost of the VASIMR rocket, the ratio of coupled RF power
to the total ion current is from 15-35kW.
This source discusses the setup and power arrangements of the VASMIR MPD rocket, in
addition to some of the recent data collected on the engine. This source is well organized into
categories, and gives a good explanation of the VASIMR ionization and magnetic systems.
Detailed information is given on the testing location of the VASIMR, however, this source does
not have data well organized into charts or graphs, and also does not provide equations that were
used to calculate the VASIMRs systems.

"Magnetoplasmadynamic Thrusters." NASA. NASA's Glenn Research Center, n.d. Web.

21 Sept. 2015. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/
fs22grc_prt.htm.
Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters are considered a high candidate for deep space exploration
because of their ability to efficiently convert large amounts of power while maintaining high
exhaust velocities. Ions, charged particle can be positive when they lose one or more electrons
and positive if they gain electrons. Plasma is considered a neutral gas where the charges from the
ions balance out. It is considered to be the foundation of electric propulsion. A basic
magnetoplasmadynamic thruster has two electrodes, an anode and a cathode. The cathode in a
MPD thrusters emits electrons which. MPD thruster research was originally funded in the 1960s
and has steady improvement since then. Russia has operated MPD thrusters with exhaust
velocities up to 100 Thousand Meters per second. NASA is currently researching megawatt

class thrusters of both a pulsed and continuous type. Testing has revealed exhaust velocities of
100 Thousand meters/second, and NASA predicts that as more powerful electrical generators
become available in space, MPD thrusters will become the top choice for manned space travel.
This source contains information that provides an introduction to MPD thrusters which
includes their operation, past, and present research. The article provides the most important
information about MPD thrusters, and leads for the reader to want to further research. One
negative about this article is that is does not provide for any way to further the research, and the
first paragraph does not have the most organized introduction; it merely lists some top qualities
of MPD thrusters. This source is beneficial to the topic of electric propulsion mostly due to its
inclusion of recent research on the engines.

McQuarrie, Rock, and Gallogly. General Chemistry. Fourth ed. N.p.: University
Science Books, 2011. Print.
In this section, the specific and general properties of the noble gases are discussed. The six
noble gases are noteworthy for their lack of reactivity with other substances, and the principle
source from which the noble gases are obtained is the atmosphere. In this section, the properties
of the noble gases are also given, which includes atomic mass, ionization energy, and boiling
point. The noble gases were first discovered in 1893, and the noble gas helium is the second
most abundant element in the universe. The other noble gases: Neon, Argon, Krypton, and
Xenon. It should be noted that Xenon and Krypton do have some chemical reaction with the
most electronegative compounds, which includes fluorine and oxygen. Another noble gas, Radon
is naturally occurring and formed from the radioactive decay of Radium-226. Radon is
radioactive and is also a major health problem, because approximately 55% of natural
background radiation comes from radon. Lastly, the uses of the noble gases are reviewed.
This source provides a general overview of the six noble gases, which includes their purpose,
history, uses, a brief mentioning of some of their chemical applications, and their properties. This
source has several good aspects, which includes concise writing for an introduction to the topic,
good organization of the information provides, and also the fact that some technical information
is provided. However, more information regarding applications of the gases could have been
provided.

Parissenti, Koch, and Pavarin. Non Conventional Propellants for Electric

Propulsion Aplplications. N.p.: n.p., 2010. Print.

This source describes the expensive process required to when producing Xenon suitable for
propellant grade applications and explores some of the alternatives. Xenon was first used
because of its low ionization potential, second only to radon. Xenon is made through a process of
separating nitrogen and oxygen from air. The fact that Xenon has such a low concentration in the
atmosphere makes it so that a plant capable of processing 1000 tons per day of air will be able to
produce only 1.2 kg per day of Xenon. However, although krypton and argon powered engines
may require a longer mission time, at high powers and specific impulse, the efficiency of krypton
matches that of xenon and the thrust levels surpass that of xenon. It has been shown that krypton
has a better power to thrust efficiency even when operating at a lower mass flow rate. However
xenon has been proven to have better thrust levels when graphed as a function of the anode
voltage. In an experiment where a helicon thruster was used, many gases, including those that
may be reactive. When testing the system, cyropumps and oil diffusion pumps were used, and
had to be reconfigured for different gases which included temperature and pressure settings.
This source provides a good overview on the usage of Krypton gas in replacement to Xenon,
which is expensive to produce and rare. Several aspects of the use of Krypton gas are analyzed,
including anode current, anode voltage, power to thrust ratio, and thrust vs. anode voltage. Also
information about the effect on a helicon thruster is discussed. The research applies by providing
a detailed report on the behavior of one fuel type, but two drawbacks are that the report is poorly
organized, and focuses sole on Krypton.
"Plasma Lab Research." Plasamadynamics and Electric Propulsion Lab. University
of Michigan, n.d. Web. 16 Sept. 2015.
The research section of this begins with a description of the thrusters being designed and a
summary of each. Nested-Channel Hall Thrusters which intends to research the effects of
different thrust plumes and that a 200 kw thruster version could surpass the performance of The
VASIMR. High-Power Hall Thrusters which aims to increase efficiency and thrust levels.
Nanosatellite Thrusters which will be engines for small satellites, High-Speed Thruster
Plasmadynamics which intends to explore the variations in plasma discharge. Non-Intrusive
Time Resolved Plasma Diagnostics which will allow laser measurement of thruster conditions.
Nanoparticle Micropropulsion is an electrostatic form of propulsion that accelerates
nanoparticles. Other projects the University of Michigan is studying are Near Wall Hall Thruster
Physics, Optical Study of Hall Thruster Channel Wall Erosion, Environment Plasmas, Test Cell
Project, Gasdynamic Mirror Thruster, and Clustered Hall Thrusters.
This article assists a researcher in choosing a specific topic and also giving information on
specific topics that one can research in a project. A wide variety of topics on electric propulsion
are presented here which can give a broader knowledge on each thruster type, and helps to
further research. The article also provides information on the instruments used which is
beneficial in later stages of research.

Ross, Jerry, and Lyon King. "Ionization Efficiency In Electric Propulsion

Devices." Michigan Technological Univeristy: n. pag. Print.
This source intends to analyze the energy lost in a spacecraft electric propulsion system as a
result of the amount of propellant that is ionized. Engineers are aware of the loss, but unsure of
where the loss originates or the other inefficiencies that result due to lack of ionization. It is
necessary to balance the power consumption and ionization efficiency in order to avoid wasting
electricity that a spacecraft has. The ionization sources in an electric propulsion engine are the
electrons or RF waves produced by a cathode or RF generator. Direct contact methods are
discussed and analyzed in the next sections, including plasma electrons, where the only
beneficial collision is an electron-neutral collision. Any other type of collision creates
unnecessary heat waste that harms the thruster. The goal of this sources study is to identify the
maximum efficiency of ionization by plasma electrons. Recycled electrons, which ionize the fuel
at the anode potential, are also discussed. The required energy to gain propellant ionization is a
determining factor in a thrusters operation. The limits of power and the spacecraft will place the
limitations on ionization. Next, some factors that can be used to calculate ionization potential can
be looked at, which includes beam divergence and velocity distribution.
This source explores the factors that are involved with the process of ionizing the propellant for
a spacecraft electric propulsion system. This source is organized by providing the fundamental
information first, before introducing specifics and calculations into the source, and it applies to
the electric propulsion technique because the percentage of fuel left unionized, and therefore
unused is something that any designer will need to reduce. The things discussed in this article are
easily understandable to someone with basic knowledge of electric propulsion.